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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_(software)

Slack (software)

["1 History","1.1 Outages and security breaches","2 Features","3 Business model","4 Growth","5 Reception","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Messaging software application For the company that develops Slack, see Slack Technologies.For other uses, see Slack.Not to be confused with Slackware. SlackOriginal author(s)Stewart Butterfield, Eric Costello, Cal Henderson, and Serguei MourachovDeveloper(s)Slack Technologies (Salesforce)Initial releaseAugust 2013; 10 years ago (2013-08)Written inElectron (C++, JavaScript, TypeScript, React, Redux, etc.), Hack (backend)Operating systemMicrosoft Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, AndroidAvailable in12 languagesList of languagesChinese (Traditional), Chinese (Simplified), English (UK), English (US), French (France), German (Germany), Italian (Italy), Japanese (Japan), Korean (South Korea), Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (Latin America), Spanish (Spain)TypeCollaborative softwareLicenseProprietaryWebsiteslack.com Slack is a cloud-based team communication platform developed by Slack Technologies, which has been owned by Salesforce since 2020. Slack uses a freemium model. Slack's primary userbase is businesses, and has functionalities primarily for businesses. History Slack originated as an internal communication tool used within Stewart Butterfield's company, Tiny Speck, during their work on the development of Glitch, an online video game. These communication tools were initially built around the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) protocol and included scripts designed to automate and organize file exchanges among their development team. By October 2012, Stewart Butterfield realized that Glitch was not going to bring necessary profits. As a result, he decided to change the direction of his company and repurpose the communication tools they had developed into a new product. In 2012, Butterfield decided to name their upcoming product "Slack," which he said was derived from the phrase "Searchable Log of All Conversation and Knowledge," replacing the previous codename "linefeed". In August 2013, Slack was launched to the public and continued to maintain compatibility with IRC, reflecting its origin. Additionally, it was also compatible with XMPP messaging protocols. However, in May 2018, the company chose to close down these corresponding gateways due to limitations inherent to those protocols. On July 26, 2018, Slack acquired HipChat and Stride from Atlassian, with plans to shut down both services in February 2019 and migrate their users to Slack. In June 2019, Slack went public through a direct public offering to reach a market value of $19.5 billion. In July 2020, Slack acquired Rimeto, a startup specializing in employee directories and profiles, with plans to rename the service and operate it as a standalone app. Almost a year later, in June 2021, its functionality launched as an optional feature within Slack named "Slack Atlas". On December 1, 2020, Slack and Salesforce announced an agreement for Salesforce to acquire the company for approximately $27.7 billion, marking one of the most significant tech acquisitions at that time. The acquisition was completed on July 21, 2021. On December 5, 2022, Salesforce announced that Butterfield was leaving Slack and would be succeeded by Lidiane Jones, an executive vice president at Salesforce. On November 13, 2023, Salesforce executive Denise Dresser was appointed to replace Jones, who was in turn replacing Whitney Wolfe Herd as Bumble CEO. Outages and security breaches In March 2015, Slack announced it had been hacked for over four days in February 2015 and that some data associated with user accounts had been compromised, including email addresses, usernames, hashed passwords, phone numbers, and Skype IDs. In response to the attacks, Slack added two-factor authentication to its service. On January 4, 2021, Slack suffered a significant outage that lasted several hours. From 10 AM ET until 3 PM ET, users could not log in, send or receive messages, place or answer calls, or use Slack connections. After 3 PM, most of the core features became operational, except for push notifications, email, and third-party integrations including Google Calendar and Outlook Calendar. In 2022, Slack suffered widely reported outages on February 22, March 9 and July 26. On 31 December 2022, Slack announced that its private GitHub repositories had been compromised during the previous weeks, using stolen security tokens. Features Slack offers many IRC-style features, including persistent chat rooms known as channels, which are organized by topic, as well as private groups and direct messaging functionalities. All content, including files, conversations, and people, is searchable within Slack. Users can express their reactions in the form of emojis to any message. Message history on Slack is limited to messages from last 90 days on the free plan. Slack allows for communities, groups, or teams to join a "workspace" via a specific URL or invitation sent by a team admin or owner. A workspace can contain both public and private channels, with public channels being accessible to all members of the workspace. Both public and private channels can be converted interchangeably. Direct messages enable users to engage in private one-on-one or group conversations with up to nine participants. Group direct message can be converted into a private channel. Slack integrates with many third-party services and supports community-built integrations, including Google Drive, Trello, Dropbox, Box, Heroku, IBM Bluemix, Crashlytics, GitHub, Runscope, Zendesk, and Zapier. In July 2015, Slack launched an integration with Google Calendar. Later, in December of the same year, a searchable directory was introduced consisting of over 150 integrations that users can install. In addition to these integrations, Slack offers users the ability to incorporate and customize chatbots known as "Slackbots." These chatbots can be configured to send notifications, reminders, or provide tailored responses to specific phrases, among other functions. Furthermore, Slack provides an application programming interface that enables users to develop applications and automate various processes, including sending notifications based on input, generating alerts for specific conditions, creating internal support tickets, and more. In March 2018, Slack partnered with Workday, a financial and human capital management firm. This integration allows employees to access co-worker information, organizational charts, benefits, feedback, and time-off requests within Slack. In March 2022, Slack introduced a new voice conference feature known as "Huddles". Within a Huddle, users have the capability to mute or unmute themselves, share their screens, draw on a shared screen, and invite others to the call. In June 2022, Huddles received the additional functionality of video calls. Huddles are restricted to only two participants on free tiers, while paid plans offer the capacity for up to 50 participants. In March 2023, Salesforce announced the partnership with OpenAI to launch a ChatGPT integration for Slack and can be used for summarizing conversations, answering questions, or drafting replies. Slack provides mobile apps for iOS and Android in addition to their web browser client and desktop clients for MacOS, Windows, and Linux (beta). Slack is also available for the Apple Watch, allowing users to send direct messages, see mentions, and make simple replies. Business model Slack is a freemium product whose main paid features are the ability to search more than 90 days' archived messages and add unlimited apps and integrations. They also claim support for an unlimited number of users. When freeCodeCamp attempted to switch its community of over 8,000 users to Slack in 2015, however, they experienced many technical issues and were advised by Slack support to limit their channels to "no more than 1,000 users (ideally more like 500)." That specific limit no longer applied by January 2017. Growth In August 2013, 8,000 customers signed up for the service within 24 hours of its launch. In February 2015, the company reported that approximately 10,000 new daily active users had signed up each week, and had more than 135,000 paying customers spread across 60,000 teams. By April 2015, those numbers had grown to 200,000 paid subscribers and a total of 750,000 daily active users. Late in 2015, Slack passed more than a million daily active users. As of May 2018, Slack had over 8 million daily users, 3 million of whom had paid accounts. At the time of its S-1 filing for IPO, dated April 26, 2019, Slack reported more than 10 million daily active users from more than 600,000 organizations, located in more than 150 countries. In 2019, it was estimated that employees at large firms were sending over 200 Slack messages per week on average. From 2013 to 2019 the amount of time spent on work email had declined, which was attributed to the proliferation of Slack and its competitors Workplace (launched by Facebook in 2016), Microsoft Teams (launched 2017) and Google Hangouts Chat and Meet (launched in 2018). Reception In March 2015, the Financial Times wrote that Slack was the first business technology to have crossed from business into personal use since Microsoft Office and the BlackBerry. In 2017, New York magazine criticized the platform for being "another utility we both rely on and resent." In 2017, Slack was recognized as the best startup of the year at the Crunchies Awards, organized by TechCrunch. The digital rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has cautioned that "Slack stores and is able to read all of your communications, as well as identifying information for everyone in your workspace." They commended the company for following several best practices in standing up for users concerning government data requests, such as requiring a warrant for content stored on its server, and awarding it four out of five stars in its 2017 "Who has your back" report; the EFF also criticized Slack for "a broad set of exceptions" to its promise to notify users of such requests, and for other privacy shortcomings. Slack has been criticized by users for storing user data exclusively on cloud servers under Slack control. This is found to be a particular issue for users with large teams, who experienced issues with connectivity within the app, access to archived messages, and the number of users for a given "workspace." Slack has also been criticized for a retroactive 2018 change to its privacy policy, allowing access to all public and private chat messages by workspace administrators, without the need of consent from any parties using the app. According to the new policy, Slack workspace members are no longer notified when data is downloaded from their workspace. Slack has also been criticized when used in free and open source projects for the inability to search for messages and discussions. See also List of collaborative software References ^ Kumparak, Greg (February 5, 2015). "Slack's Co-Founders Take Home The Crunchie For Founder Of The Year". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. Retrieved June 25, 2017. ^ Zax, David (August 14, 2013). "Flickr Cofounders Launch Slack, An Email Killer". Archived from the original on October 31, 2019. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ "Desktop Application Engineer". Slack. 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Retrieved February 15, 2022. ^ Newton, Casey (December 15, 2015). "Slack launches an app store and an $80 million fund to invest in new integrations". TheVerge.com. Archived from the original on September 15, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ Newlands, Murray (September 11, 2017). "How to Make A 'Slackbot' for Free Without Coding". Entrepreneur. Retrieved September 14, 2022. ^ "Slack API". Slack. Archived from the original on December 28, 2018. Retrieved December 28, 2018. ^ Coop, Alex (March 26, 2018). "Workday and Slack announce partnership; Google, Microsoft and Facebook on the horizon". IT Business. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ News Desk, The HRT (May 27, 2018). "Industry Leaders Slack & Workday are Now Partners". Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ "Slack and Workday team up to bring HR tools into the Slack platform". ZDNET. Retrieved September 8, 2023. ^ Slack. 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Archived from the original on September 4, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ Reitman, Rainey (July 10, 2017). "Who Has Your Back? Government Data Requests 2017". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Archived from the original on September 15, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ Silverman, Jacob (December 2016). "Big Bother Is Watching". The Baffler. No. 33. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved December 11, 2018. ^ Finley, Klint (March 16, 2016). "Open sourcers race to build better versions of Slack". Wired. Archived from the original on March 9, 2017. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ Peterson, Becky (July 26, 2017). "Uber didn't like Silicon Valley's biggest chat apps - so it was forced to make its own". Business Insider. Archived from the original on September 5, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. ^ "We Tried Slack and Deeply Regretted it". June 21, 2015. Archived from the original on March 15, 2019. Retrieved February 10, 2019. ^ "Slacks new policy lets bosses read employees dms without consent". March 22, 2018. Archived from the original on May 15, 2020. Retrieved February 10, 2019. ^ "Slacks new policy lets bosses read employees dms without consent". March 22, 2018. Archived from the original on February 9, 2019. Retrieved February 10, 2019. ^ "Cutting Slack: When open source and team chat tools collide". VentureBeat. June 18, 2021. Retrieved January 17, 2023. ^ Wilkes, Gabriel (May 10, 2018). "Why tech groups can use Slack for free but open source projects and businesses of any size…". Medium. Retrieved January 17, 2023. External links Official website Ryssdal, Kai; Hollenhorst, Maria (July 22, 2019). "What Is Slack?". Marketplace. American Public Media. Retrieved August 10, 2019. Interview with Slack co-founder Stewart Butterfield.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) Slack as a Social Media Tool vteInstant messagingProtocols(comparison)Open DDP IMPP IRC Matrix MTProto Retroshare Signal Protocol SIP MSRP SIMPLE Tox XMPP Jingle WFP Zephyr Closed MSNP OSCAR TOC Skype Services Band BBM Enterprise Beeper BiP DingTalk Discord Element Google Chat Google Meet Google Messages GroupMe Guilded HipChat iGap iMessage Imo IRC Networks Jongla KakaoTalk Kik Lark Libon Line Marco Polo Mattermost Facebook Messenger The Palace Palringo Session Signal Skype Slack Snapchat Snow Tango Telegram QQ Textfree/Pinger Threema Tox Trillian Viber VK Messenger WeChat WhatsApp Wickr Windows Messenger service Zoom Zulip Clients(comparison)Single protocol Baidu Hi BBM Enterprise Briar Element FaceTime Gadu-Gadu GroupMe HCL Sametime IMVU Jami Jongla Linphone Facebook Messenger Palringo Retroshare Ricochet Session Signal Skype Telegram QQ Tox WeChat WhatsApp Wickr Wire Multi-protocol Adium Ayttm Beeper BitlBee Centericq eBuddy Jitsi Kopete Messages Miranda NG Nimbuzz Pidgin Finch QIP 2010 Skype for Business Telepathy Thunderbird Trillian XMPP (Jabber) ChatSecure Conversations Gajim Psi Spark Tkabber Xabber MSNP Microsoft Teams Skype Defunct List of defunct instant messaging platforms See also Backchannel Chat log Chatbot Circuit Comparison of user features of messaging platforms Contact list Emoticon File sharing FirstClass Flock Fuze Box Hall.com LAN messenger Presence information RingCentral Glip SMS language Status message U-Report Videotelephony Voice over IP Web chat Webcam Yammer vteTask management software and project management softwareActive Airtable Any.do Asana Basecamp ClickUp EProductivity Easy Redmine Evernote Google Tasks Habitica HeySpace Jira ManagePro Microsoft Planner Microsoft To Do Monday.com Notion Novell GroupWise OmniFocus Priority Matrix Remember the Milk Reminders Rework.com ShotGrid Slack TaskCracker TaskJuggler Taskwarrior Taskworld Teamwork Things Trello Workflowy YouTrack Discontinued IQTELL Springpad Wunderlist Nitro Category

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Slack's primary userbase is businesses, and has functionalities primarily for businesses.[7][8]","title":"Slack (software)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stewart Butterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Butterfield"},{"link_name":"Tiny Speck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiny_Speck"},{"link_name":"Glitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glitch_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tam-9"},{"link_name":"Internet Relay Chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Acronym-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koetsier-12"},{"link_name":"IRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRC"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"XMPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMPP"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"HipChat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HipChat"},{"link_name":"Stride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stride_(software)"},{"link_name":"Atlassian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlassian"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"direct public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Salesforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-salesforce-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Lidiane Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidiane_Jones"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Whitney Wolfe Herd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Wolfe_Herd"},{"link_name":"Bumble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumble"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Slack originated as an internal communication tool used within Stewart Butterfield's company, Tiny Speck, during their work on the development of Glitch, an online video game.[9] These communication tools were initially built around the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) protocol and included scripts designed to automate and organize file exchanges among their development team. By October 2012, Stewart Butterfield realized that Glitch was not going to bring necessary profits.[10] As a result, he decided to change the direction of his company and repurpose the communication tools they had developed into a new product.In 2012, Butterfield decided to name their upcoming product \"Slack,\" which he said was derived from the phrase \"Searchable Log of All Conversation and Knowledge,\" replacing the previous codename \"linefeed\".[11]In August 2013, Slack was launched to the public[12] and continued to maintain compatibility with IRC, reflecting its origin.[13] Additionally, it was also compatible with XMPP messaging protocols. However, in May 2018, the company chose to close down these corresponding gateways due to limitations inherent to those protocols.[14]On July 26, 2018, Slack acquired HipChat and Stride from Atlassian, with plans to shut down both services in February 2019 and migrate their users to Slack.[15][16]In June 2019, Slack went public through a direct public offering to reach a market value of $19.5 billion.[17]In July 2020, Slack acquired Rimeto, a startup specializing in employee directories and profiles, with plans to rename the service and operate it as a standalone app.[18][19] Almost a year later, in June 2021, its functionality launched as an optional feature within Slack named \"Slack Atlas\".[20]On December 1, 2020, Slack and Salesforce announced an agreement for Salesforce to acquire the company for approximately $27.7 billion, marking one of the most significant tech acquisitions at that time.[21][22] The acquisition was completed on July 21, 2021.[23]On December 5, 2022, Salesforce announced that Butterfield was leaving Slack and would be succeeded by Lidiane Jones, an executive vice president at Salesforce.[24] On November 13, 2023, Salesforce executive Denise Dresser was appointed to replace Jones, who was in turn replacing Whitney Wolfe Herd as Bumble CEO.[25][26]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hacked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"two-factor authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-factor_authentication"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Google Calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Calendar"},{"link_name":"Outlook Calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlook.com"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2023-01-05_BC-33"}],"sub_title":"Outages and security breaches","text":"In March 2015, Slack announced it had been hacked for over four days in February 2015 and that some data associated with user accounts had been compromised, including email addresses, usernames, hashed passwords, phone numbers, and Skype IDs. In response to the attacks, Slack added two-factor authentication to its service.[27]On January 4, 2021, Slack suffered a significant outage that lasted several hours. From 10 AM ET until 3 PM ET, users could not log in, send or receive messages, place or answer calls, or use Slack connections. After 3 PM, most of the core features became operational, except for push notifications, email, and third-party integrations including Google Calendar and Outlook Calendar.[28][29]In 2022, Slack suffered widely reported outages on February 22,[30] March 9[31] and July 26.[32] On 31 December 2022, Slack announced that its private GitHub repositories had been compromised during the previous weeks, using stolen security tokens.[33]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"emojis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-40"},{"link_name":"Google Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Drive"},{"link_name":"Trello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trello"},{"link_name":"Dropbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropbox"},{"link_name":"Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_(company)"},{"link_name":"Heroku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroku"},{"link_name":"IBM Bluemix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Cloud"},{"link_name":"Crashlytics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crashlytics"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"Runscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runscope"},{"link_name":"Zendesk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zendesk"},{"link_name":"Zapier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapier"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gannes-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Augustine-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"chatbots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatbot"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"application programming interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Workday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workday,_Inc."},{"link_name":"human capital management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_management"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"voice conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_call"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"share their screens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_sharing"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"OpenAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI"},{"link_name":"ChatGPT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatGPT"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Apple Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"text":"Slack offers many IRC-style features, including persistent chat rooms known as channels, which are organized by topic, as well as private groups and direct messaging functionalities.[34] All content, including files, conversations, and people, is searchable within Slack. Users can express their reactions in the form of emojis to any message.[35] Message history on Slack is limited to messages from last 90 days on the free plan.[36]Slack allows for communities, groups, or teams to join a \"workspace\" via a specific URL or invitation sent by a team admin or owner.[37] A workspace can contain both public and private channels, with public channels being accessible to all members of the workspace.[38] Both public and private channels can be converted interchangeably.[39]Direct messages enable users to engage in private one-on-one or group conversations with up to nine participants. Group direct message can be converted into a private channel.[40]Slack integrates with many third-party services and supports community-built integrations, including Google Drive, Trello, Dropbox, Box, Heroku, IBM Bluemix, Crashlytics, GitHub, Runscope, Zendesk, and Zapier.[41][42] In July 2015, Slack launched an integration with Google Calendar.[43] Later, in December of the same year, a searchable directory was introduced consisting of over 150 integrations that users can install.[44] In addition to these integrations, Slack offers users the ability to incorporate and customize chatbots known as \"Slackbots.\" These chatbots can be configured to send notifications, reminders, or provide tailored responses to specific phrases, among other functions.[45] Furthermore, Slack provides an application programming interface that enables users to develop applications and automate various processes, including sending notifications based on input, generating alerts for specific conditions, creating internal support tickets, and more.[46]In March 2018, Slack partnered with Workday, a financial and human capital management firm.[47][48] This integration allows employees to access co-worker information, organizational charts, benefits, feedback, and time-off requests within Slack.[49]In March 2022, Slack introduced a new voice conference feature known as \"Huddles\".[50] Within a Huddle, users have the capability to mute or unmute themselves, share their screens, draw on a shared screen, and invite others to the call.[51] In June 2022, Huddles received the additional functionality of video calls.[52] Huddles are restricted to only two participants on free tiers, while paid plans offer the capacity for up to 50 participants.In March 2023, Salesforce announced the partnership with OpenAI to launch a ChatGPT integration for Slack and can be used for summarizing conversations, answering questions, or drafting replies.[53]Slack provides mobile apps for iOS and Android in addition to their web browser client and desktop clients for MacOS, Windows,[54] and Linux (beta).[55] Slack is also available for the Apple Watch, allowing users to send direct messages, see mentions, and make simple replies.[56]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"freemium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemium"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"freeCodeCamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeCodeCamp"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"text":"Slack is a freemium product whose main paid features are the ability to search more than 90 days' archived messages and add unlimited apps and integrations.[57] They also claim support for an unlimited number of users. When freeCodeCamp attempted to switch its community of over 8,000 users to Slack in 2015, however, they experienced many technical issues and were advised by Slack support to limit their channels to \"no more than 1,000 users (ideally more like 500).\"[58][59] That specific limit no longer applied by January 2017.[60]","title":"Business model"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koetsier-12"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fingas-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slack_(software)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"S-1 filing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_S-1"},{"link_name":"IPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-69"},{"link_name":"Workplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_(software)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Teams"},{"link_name":"Google Hangouts Chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Chat"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-69"}],"text":"In August 2013, 8,000 customers signed up for the service within 24 hours of its launch.[12][61] In February 2015, the company reported that approximately 10,000 new daily active users had signed up each week, and had more than 135,000 paying customers spread across 60,000 teams.[62][63] By April 2015, those numbers had grown to 200,000 paid subscribers and a total of 750,000 daily active users.[64] Late in 2015, Slack passed more than a million daily active users.[65][66] As of May 2018[update], Slack had over 8 million daily users, 3 million of whom had paid accounts.[67] At the time of its S-1 filing for IPO, dated April 26, 2019, Slack reported more than 10 million daily active users from more than 600,000 organizations, located in more than 150 countries.[68]In 2019, it was estimated that employees at large firms were sending over 200 Slack messages per week on average.[69] From 2013 to 2019 the amount of time spent on work email had declined, which was attributed to the proliferation of Slack and its competitors Workplace (launched by Facebook in 2016), Microsoft Teams (launched 2017) and Google Hangouts Chat and Meet (launched in 2018).[69]","title":"Growth"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Office"},{"link_name":"BlackBerry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackBerry"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-70"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Crunchies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crunchies"},{"link_name":"TechCrunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-73"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slack-alternatives-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uber-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"text":"In March 2015, the Financial Times wrote that Slack was the first business technology to have crossed from business into personal use since Microsoft Office and the BlackBerry.[70] In 2017, New York magazine criticized the platform for being \"another utility we both rely on and resent.\"[71]In 2017, Slack was recognized as the best startup of the year at the Crunchies Awards, organized by TechCrunch.[72]The digital rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has cautioned that \"Slack stores and is able to read all of your communications, as well as identifying information for everyone in your workspace.\"[73] They commended the company for following several best practices in standing up for users concerning government data requests, such as requiring a warrant for content stored on its server, and awarding it four out of five stars in its 2017 \"Who has your back\" report;[74] the EFF also criticized Slack for \"a broad set of exceptions\" to its promise to notify users of such requests, and for other privacy shortcomings.[73]Slack has been criticized by users[75] for storing user data exclusively on cloud servers under Slack control.[76][77] This is found to be a particular issue for users with large teams, who experienced issues with connectivity within the app, access to archived messages, and the number of users for a given \"workspace.\"[78]Slack has also been criticized for a retroactive 2018 change to its privacy policy, allowing access to all public and private chat messages by workspace administrators, without the need of consent from any parties using the app.[79] According to the new policy, Slack workspace members are no longer notified when data is downloaded from their workspace.[80]Slack has also been criticized when used in free and open source projects for the inability to search for messages and discussions.[81][82]","title":"Reception"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of collaborative software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_collaborative_software"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-governance

Self-governance

["1 Background","2 Means of self-governance","3 See also","4 References","4.1 Works cited","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

Mode of governance This article is about the mode of governance. For similar concepts of regulation, see Self-regulation (disambiguation). "Self-Government" redirects here. For the Faraoese political party, see Self-Government (Faroe Islands). Part of a series onGovernance Models Algorithmic Bad Collaborative Electronic Good Multistakeholder Open-source Private By level Local Global By field Climate Clinical Corporate Cultural Data Earth system Ecclesiastical Environmental Higher education Information Network Ocean Political party Project Security sector Self Simulation Service-oriented architecture Soil Technology Transnational Website Measures World Governance Index Sustainable Governance Indicators Bertelsmann Transformation Index Related topics Chief governance officer Governance, risk managementand compliance Environmental, social, andcorporate governance Market governance mechanism vte Greenland, an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark, has been self-governed since 2009. Pictured: Nuuk, Greenland. Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty, or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority. It may refer to personal conduct or to any form of institution, such as family units, social groups, affinity groups, legal bodies, industry bodies, religions, and political entities of various degree. Self-governance is closely related to various philosophical and socio-political concepts such as autonomy, independence, self-control, self-discipline, and sovereignty. In the context of nation states, self-governance is called national sovereignty which is an important concept in international law. In the context of administrative division, a self-governing territory is called an autonomous region. Self-governance is also associated with political contexts in which a population or demographic becomes independent from colonial rule, absolute government, absolute monarchy, or any government that they perceive does not adequately represent them. It is therefore a fundamental tenet of many democracies, republics and nationalist governments. Mohandas Gandhi's term "swaraj" is a branch of this self-rule ideology. Henry David Thoreau was a major proponent of self-rule in lieu of immoral governments. Background This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2020) This principle has been explored in philosophy for centuries, with figures in ancient Greek philosophy such as Plato positing that self-mastery is necessary for true freedom. Plato believed that individuals or groups cannot achieve freedom unless they govern their own pleasures and desires, and instead will be in a state of enslavement. He states that self-mastery is the ability to be one's own master, it means being able to control one's own impulses and desires, rather than being controlled by them. Accordingly, this principle is not only a fundamental moral freedom but also as a necessary condition of political freedom and by extension the freedom and autonomy of any political structure. John Locke further developed this idea, arguing that genuine freedom requires cognitive self-discipline and self-government. He believed that man's capacity for self-governance is the source of all freedom. He believed that freedom is not a possession but an action, that is, it is not something that you have but something you do. Locke proposes that rationality is the key to true agency and autonomy, and that political governance is enabled by the governing of one's own judgement. His political philosophy was a prominent influence on Immanuel Kant, and was later taken up in part by the Founding Fathers of the United States. The nature of self-governance, that freedom relies upon self-regulation, has further been explored by contemporary academics Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, William E. Connolly, and others. Self-governance is not just a philosophical concept but also a practical one. It can be seen in various forms such as self-regulation, self-control, self-management and self-leadership. It is an important concept in the fields of management, leadership, and governance, and is seen as a key to achieving personal and organizational goals. Self-governance can also be seen in the context of community and society, where it refers to the ability of individuals to take responsibility for their own actions and the actions of their community. Additionally, self-governance is also closely related to the concept of self-determination. Self-determination refers to the idea that individuals and groups have the right to govern themselves, to make decisions about their own lives and to determine their own future and political status without outside interference. This concept is closely linked to the idea of self-governance because it emphasizes the importance of individuals and groups being able to take control of their own lives and to make decisions about their own future. It is also closely linked to the idea of autonomy, which refers to the ability of individuals and groups to make decisions for themselves, without external influence or control. Means of self-governance The means of self-governance usually comprises some or all of the following: A code of conduct that outlines acceptable behavior within the unit or group. This may include a legal or ethical code (e.g. the Hippocratic Oath of doctors, or established codes of professional ethics). A means of ensuring external authority does not become involved unless and until certain criteria are satisfied. A means of facilitating the intended functions of the unit or group. A means of registering and resolving grievances (e.g. medical malpractice, union procedures, and for achieving closure regarding them). A means of disciplinary procedure within the unit or group, ranging from fines and censure up to and including penalty of death. A means of suppressing parties, factions, tendencies, or other sub-groups that seek to secede from the unit or group. See also Society portalPolitics portal Anarchism Autonomy Consent of the governed Secession Self-determination Self-governing colony Self-management Self-ownership Sociocracy Swaraj References ^ Greenland in Figures 2012. ^ Rasmussen 2011, pp. x–xi. ^ Sørensen & Triantafillou 2009, pp. 1–3. ^ a b Esmark & Triantafillou 2009, pp. 29–30. ^ Sørensen & Triantafillou 2009, p. 2. ^ Sørensen & Torfing 2009, p. 43. ^ Rasmussen 2011, p. x. ^ Ghai & Woodman 2013, pp. 3–6. ^ Berlin 1997, pp. 228–229. ^ Rasmussen 2011. ^ a b Young 2018. ^ Laks 2007. ^ Casson 2011, pp. 159–160. ^ Casson 2011, pp. 160–161, 167. ^ Rasmussen 2011, p. xiii. ^ "Legal Aspects of Self-Determination". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination. Archived from the original on 2023-11-28. Retrieved 2023-12-26. ^ Esmark & Triantafillou 2009, p. 31. ^ Esmark & Triantafillou 2009, p. 32. Works cited "Greenland in Figures 2012" (PDF). Greenland in Figures. stat.gl. ISBN 978-87-986787-6-2. ISSN 1602-5709. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2013. Sørensen, Eva; Triantafillou, Peter (2009). "The Politics of Self-Governance: An Introduction". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0. Esmark, Anders; Triantafillou, Peter (2009). "A Macro Level Perspective on Governance of the Self and Others". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0. Sørensen, Eva; Torfing, Jacob (2009). "The Politics of Self-Governance in Meso Level Theories". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0. Ghai, Yash; Woodman, Sophia (2013). Practicing Self-Government: A Comparative Study of Autonomous Regions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01858-7. Young, Carl (2018). "Plato's Concept of Liberty in the Laws". History of Political Thought. 39 (3). Imprint Academic. ISSN 0143-781X. Laks, André (2007). "Freedom Liberty and Liberality in Plato's Laws". Social Philosophy and Policy. 24 (2): 130–152. doi:10.1017/S0265052507070197. S2CID 144268937. Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2020-01-01. Berlin, Isaiah (1997). Hardy, Henry; Hausheer, Rodger (eds.). The Proper Study of Mankind. Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0374527174. Casson, Douglas John (2011). "Freedom, Happiness, and the Reasonable Self". Liberating Judgment: Fanatics, Skeptics, and John Locke's Politics of Probability. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691144740. Rasmussen, Claire Elaine (2011). The Autonomous Animal: Self-governance and the Modern Subject. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816669561. Further reading Bird, Colin (2000). "The Possibility of Self-Government". The American Political Science Review. 94 (3). American Political Science Association: 563–577. doi:10.2307/2585831. JSTOR 2585831. S2CID 147278871. Archived from the original on 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2019-12-30. Weller; Wolff, Stefan (2005). Autonomy, Self-governance and Conflict Resolution: Innovative approaches to institutional design in divided societies. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33986-3. External links Media related to Self-governance at Wikimedia Commons vteAutonomous types of first-tier subdivision administrationFederalism Asymmetric federalism Confederation Cooperative federalism Corporative federalism Dual federalism Ethnic federalism Federacy Federal monarchy Federal republic Federated state Federation Fiscal federalism Symmetric federalism List of federal countries Unitary state Devolution Regional state Unions Composite monarchy Dual monarchy Dynastic union Empire Colonial empire Multinational state Personal union Political union Real union Superstate Supranational union Continental union Subordinacy Associated state Client state Colony Dependent territory Direct rule Dominion Indirect rule Mandate Protectorate Puppet state Satellite state Trusteeship Tributary state Vassal state Development Annexation Cession Detachment Irredentism Military occupation Partition Secession Separatism Territorial dispute See also Autonomy Autonomous area Decentralization Hegemony Home rule Stateless nation Subsidiarity Suzerainty Tribal sovereignty Authority control databases: National Germany

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For similar concepts of regulation, see Self-regulation (disambiguation).\"Self-Government\" redirects here. For the Faraoese political party, see Self-Government (Faroe Islands).Greenland, an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark, has been self-governed since 2009.[1] Pictured: Nuuk, Greenland.Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty, or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority.[2][3][4] It may refer to personal conduct or to any form of institution, such as family units, social groups, affinity groups, legal bodies, industry bodies, religions, and political entities of various degree.[4][5][6] Self-governance is closely related to various philosophical and socio-political concepts such as autonomy, independence, self-control, self-discipline, and sovereignty.[7]In the context of nation states, self-governance is called national sovereignty which is an important concept in international law. In the context of administrative division, a self-governing territory is called an autonomous region.[8] Self-governance is also associated with political contexts in which a population or demographic becomes independent from colonial rule, absolute government, absolute monarchy, or any government that they perceive does not adequately represent them.[9] It is therefore a fundamental tenet of many democracies, republics and nationalist governments.[10] Mohandas Gandhi's term \"swaraj\" is a branch of this self-rule ideology. Henry David Thoreau was a major proponent of self-rule in lieu of immoral governments.","title":"Self-governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ancient Greek philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"self-mastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/self-mastery#English"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2018-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaks2007-12"},{"link_name":"political freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_freedom"},{"link_name":"political structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_structure"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2018-11"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson2011159%E2%80%93160-13"},{"link_name":"rationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality"},{"link_name":"agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"judgement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgement"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson2011160%E2%80%93161,_167-14"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"Founding Fathers of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Gilles Deleuze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze"},{"link_name":"Michel Foucault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"},{"link_name":"Judith Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Butler"},{"link_name":"William E. Connolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E._Connolly"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussen2011xiii-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"This principle has been explored in philosophy for centuries, with figures in ancient Greek philosophy such as Plato positing that self-mastery is necessary for true freedom. Plato believed that individuals or groups cannot achieve freedom unless they govern their own pleasures and desires, and instead will be in a state of enslavement.[11][12] He states that self-mastery is the ability to be one's own master, it means being able to control one's own impulses and desires, rather than being controlled by them. Accordingly, this principle is not only a fundamental moral freedom but also as a necessary condition of political freedom and by extension the freedom and autonomy of any political structure.[11]John Locke further developed this idea, arguing that genuine freedom requires cognitive self-discipline and self-government. He believed that man's capacity for self-governance is the source of all freedom. He believed that freedom is not a possession but an action, that is, it is not something that you have but something you do.[13] Locke proposes that rationality is the key to true agency and autonomy, and that political governance is enabled by the governing of one's own judgement.[14] His political philosophy was a prominent influence on Immanuel Kant, and was later taken up in part by the Founding Fathers of the United States.The nature of self-governance, that freedom relies upon self-regulation, has further been explored by contemporary academics Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, William E. Connolly, and others.[15]Self-governance is not just a philosophical concept but also a practical one. It can be seen in various forms such as self-regulation, self-control, self-management and self-leadership. It is an important concept in the fields of management, leadership, and governance, and is seen as a key to achieving personal and organizational goals. Self-governance can also be seen in the context of community and society, where it refers to the ability of individuals to take responsibility for their own actions and the actions of their community.Additionally, self-governance is also closely related to the concept of self-determination. Self-determination refers to the idea that individuals and groups have the right to govern themselves, to make decisions about their own lives and to determine their own future and political status without outside interference.[16] This concept is closely linked to the idea of self-governance because it emphasizes the importance of individuals and groups being able to take control of their own lives and to make decisions about their own future. It is also closely linked to the idea of autonomy, which refers to the ability of individuals and groups to make decisions for themselves, without external influence or control.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"code of conduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_conduct"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsmarkTriantafillou200931-17"},{"link_name":"legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_code"},{"link_name":"ethical code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_code"},{"link_name":"Hippocratic Oath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath"},{"link_name":"doctors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician"},{"link_name":"professional ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_ethics"},{"link_name":"grievances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grievance"},{"link_name":"medical malpractice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_malpractice"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"disciplinary procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disciplinary_procedure"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsmarkTriantafillou200932-18"},{"link_name":"fines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_(penalty)"},{"link_name":"censure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censure"},{"link_name":"secede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secede"}],"text":"The means of self-governance usually comprises some or all of the following:A code of conduct that outlines acceptable behavior within the unit or group.[17] This may include a legal or ethical code (e.g. the Hippocratic Oath of doctors, or established codes of professional ethics).\nA means of ensuring external authority does not become involved unless and until certain criteria are satisfied.\nA means of facilitating the intended functions of the unit or group.\nA means of registering and resolving grievances (e.g. medical malpractice, union procedures, and for achieving closure regarding them).[citation needed]\nA means of disciplinary procedure within the unit or group,[18] ranging from fines and censure up to and including penalty of death.\nA means of suppressing parties, factions, tendencies, or other sub-groups that seek to secede from the unit or group.","title":"Means of self-governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Possibility of Self-Government\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/1312067"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2585831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2585831"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2585831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2585831"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"147278871","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147278871"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20220504233305/https://www.academia.edu/1312067"},{"link_name":"Autonomy, Self-governance and Conflict Resolution: Innovative approaches to institutional design in divided societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.routledge.com/Autonomy-Self-Governance-and-Conflict-Resolution-Innovative-approaches/Weller-Wolff/p/book/9780415479592first1=Marc"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-33986-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33986-3"}],"text":"Bird, Colin (2000). \"The Possibility of Self-Government\". The American Political Science Review. 94 (3). American Political Science Association: 563–577. doi:10.2307/2585831. JSTOR 2585831. S2CID 147278871. Archived from the original on 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2019-12-30.\nWeller; Wolff, Stefan (2005). Autonomy, Self-governance and Conflict Resolution: Innovative approaches to institutional design in divided societies. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33986-3.","title":"Further reading"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Legal Aspects of Self-Determination\". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination. Archived from the original on 2023-11-28. Retrieved 2023-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/511","url_text":"\"Legal Aspects of Self-Determination\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231128102524/https://pesd.princeton.edu/node/511","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Greenland in Figures 2012\" (PDF). Greenland in Figures. stat.gl. ISBN 978-87-986787-6-2. ISSN 1602-5709. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stat.gl/publ/en/GF/2012/content/Greenland%20in%20Figures%202012.pdf","url_text":"\"Greenland in Figures 2012\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-986787-6-2","url_text":"978-87-986787-6-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1602-5709","url_text":"1602-5709"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121113160436/http://www.stat.gl/publ/en/GF/2012/content/Greenland%20in%20Figures%202012.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sørensen, Eva; Triantafillou, Peter (2009). \"The Politics of Self-Governance: An Introduction\". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7164-0","url_text":"978-0-7546-7164-0"}]},{"reference":"Esmark, Anders; Triantafillou, Peter (2009). \"A Macro Level Perspective on Governance of the Self and Others\". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7164-0","url_text":"978-0-7546-7164-0"}]},{"reference":"Sørensen, Eva; Torfing, Jacob (2009). \"The Politics of Self-Governance in Meso Level Theories\". The Politics of Self-Governance. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7164-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7164-0","url_text":"978-0-7546-7164-0"}]},{"reference":"Ghai, Yash; Woodman, Sophia (2013). Practicing Self-Government: A Comparative Study of Autonomous Regions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01858-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01858-7","url_text":"978-1-107-01858-7"}]},{"reference":"Young, Carl (2018). \"Plato's Concept of Liberty in the Laws\". History of Political Thought. 39 (3). Imprint Academic. ISSN 0143-781X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0143-781X","url_text":"0143-781X"}]},{"reference":"Laks, André (2007). \"Freedom Liberty and Liberality in Plato's Laws\". Social Philosophy and Policy. 24 (2): 130–152. doi:10.1017/S0265052507070197. S2CID 144268937. Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2020-01-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/36305468","url_text":"\"Freedom Liberty and Liberality in Plato's Laws\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0265052507070197","url_text":"10.1017/S0265052507070197"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144268937","url_text":"144268937"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220422060227/https://www.academia.edu/36305468","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berlin, Isaiah (1997). Hardy, Henry; Hausheer, Rodger (eds.). The Proper Study of Mankind. Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0374527174.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0374527174","url_text":"978-0374527174"}]},{"reference":"Casson, Douglas John (2011). \"Freedom, Happiness, and the Reasonable Self\". Liberating Judgment: Fanatics, Skeptics, and John Locke's Politics of Probability. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691144740.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691144740","url_text":"978-0691144740"}]},{"reference":"Rasmussen, Claire Elaine (2011). The Autonomous Animal: Self-governance and the Modern Subject. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816669561.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816669561","url_text":"978-0816669561"}]},{"reference":"Bird, Colin (2000). \"The Possibility of Self-Government\". The American Political Science Review. 94 (3). American Political Science Association: 563–577. doi:10.2307/2585831. JSTOR 2585831. S2CID 147278871. Archived from the original on 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2019-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/1312067","url_text":"\"The Possibility of Self-Government\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2585831","url_text":"10.2307/2585831"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2585831","url_text":"2585831"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147278871","url_text":"147278871"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220504233305/https://www.academia.edu/1312067","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Weller; Wolff, Stefan (2005). Autonomy, Self-governance and Conflict Resolution: Innovative approaches to institutional design in divided societies. Routledge. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac_Pro

iMac Pro

["1 Background","2 Design","3 Release","4 Reception","5 Technical specifications","6 References","7 Timeline of iMac models","8 External links"]

All-in-one desktop computer designed and built by Apple Inc. Not to be confused with Mac Pro or iMac. iMac ProDeveloperApple Inc.Product familyiMacMacintoshTypeAll-in-oneWorkstationRelease dateDecember 14, 2017DiscontinuedMarch 5, 2021Operating systemmacOSCPUIntel Xeon WSuccessorMac Studio The iMac Pro is an all-in-one personal computer and workstation sold by Apple Inc. from 2017 to 2021. It was one of four desktop computers in the Macintosh lineup, sitting above the consumer range Mac Mini and iMac, and serving as an all-in-one alternative to the Mac Pro. After the cylindrical Mac Pro redesign went years without any update, Apple hosted a roundtable in 2017 promising a redesign and commitment to professional Mac computers; the iMac Pro was introduced in the interim before the revised Mac Pro shipped in 2019. The iMac Pro was positively received by critics. After receiving only minor updates, the machine was discontinued in March 2021. Background In 2013, Apple replaced its tower Mac Pro workstation with a radically-redesigned cylindrical model. The 2013 Mac Pro languished for years without any updates, and Apple later said that its small design and focus on dual graphics-processing unit had been a mistake. In April 2017, Apple convened a roundtable of journalists and executives to restate their commitment to professional Macs. As part of the announcement, Apple said a new monitor and Mac Pro were being developed but would not arrive that year. In June, Apple announced the iMac Pro to fill the gap. Design The iMac Pro uses the same chassis as the 27-inch iMac it was sold alongside, but comes in a darker "space gray" finish, with a color-matched Magic Keyboard, Magic Mouse and Magic Trackpad. The iMac Pro also has more connectivity options than the iMac, with four Thunderbolt 3 ports, four USB-A ports, a headphone jack, Ethernet port, and SDXC card slot. The iMac Pro uses Xeon-W processors and includes a larger cooling system. The iMac Pro was the first Mac equipped with Apple's T2 chip, a custom Apple co-processor. The T2 handles security, encryption and some video encoding and decoding. The processor, memory, and storage are not soldered and can be removed. Unlike the 27-inch iMac, the iMac Pro does not have a memory access hatch; memory upgrades require disassembling the display. The solid-state drive is user-replaceable, but requires disassembly of the iMac Pro and an Apple Configurator restore after the new storage modules are installed. The iMac Pro's stand is user-replaceable with a licensed OEM VESA mount kit sold by Apple. The mount uses zinc screws that may be prone to breaking. Release The iMac Pro was announced at WWDC on June 5, 2017, and was released in December 2017. Apple billed it as "the most powerful Mac ever made". The configurations included an 8-, 10-, 14-, or 18-core Intel Xeon processor, 5K display, AMD Vega graphics, ECC memory, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet. The iMac Pro received minor updates after release. Configuration options for 256 GB of memory and a Vega 64X GPU were added on March 19, 2019. Apple discontinued the 8-core model on August 4, 2020, making the 10-core model the base model. The iMac Pro was discontinued on March 5, 2021; Apple continued to sell the computer while supplies lasted. It was delisted from Apple's website and online store on March 19, 2021. An indirect successor, the Mac Studio, was released on March 18, 2022, alongside the Apple Studio Display. Reception The iMac Pro was positively received. Jason Snell, writing for Macworld, said that the machine was clearly not for average customers, but filled a niche for users like himself who had drifted from using pro desktops to iMacs, but still wanted more power than Apple's consumer line could offer. Wired considered the iMac Pro a statement from Apple that it was renewing its commitment to pro Macs. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2023) Technical specifications Model iMac Pro Released December 14, 2017 Discontinued August 4, 2020 March 19, 2021 Model iMacPro1,1 Model ID A1862 (EMC 3144) Order number MQ2Y2LL MHLV3LL Display 27″, 5120 × 2880, 60 Hertz refresh rateGlossy glass-covered widescreen 16:9, LED backlighting and IPS technology with P3 color gamut500 nits brightness1.07 billion colors Processor 8-core 3.2 GHz Intel Xeon W (2140B) processor up to 4.3 GHz Turbo Boost on the LGA2066 socketConfigurable to 14-core 2.5 GHz Intel Xeon W (2170B) processor up to 4.3 GHz Turbo Boost 10-core 3.0 GHz Intel Xeon W (2150B) processor up to 4.3 GHz Turbo Boost on the LGA2066 socketConfigurable to 18-core 2.3 GHz Intel Xeon W (2191B) processor up to 4.3 GHz Turbo Boost Security chip Apple T2 Memory 32 GB of 2666 MHz DDR4 ECC SDRAMFormally configurable to 64 GB, 128 GB or 256 GBExpandable to 512 GB with third party modules. Graphics AMD Radeon Pro Vega 56 with 8 GB HBM2 video memoryConfigurable to: Vega 64 or 64X and 16 GB memory Storage 1 TB SSDConfigurable to 2 TB or 4 TB Camera FaceTime HD camera (1080p, 2 MP) Networking Internal Wi-Fi 5 (802.11a/b/g/n/ac)10 Gigabit EthernetBluetooth 5.0 Peripherals 4× USB-A 3.04× Thunderbolt 3 (USB-C 3.1 gen 2)Supports two 5120 × 2880 or four 4096 × 2304 displaysSDXC Card slot with support for UHS-II Audio Headphone/digital audio outputBuilt-in stereo speakers Weight 21.5 lb (9.75 kg) Original OS macOS High Sierra 10.13.2 Latest OS macOS Sonoma 14.5 References ^ a b "Apple's Mac Studio Is the iMac Pro Reboot You've Been Waiting For". PCMAG. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved July 6, 2022. ^ "Apple admits the Mac Pro was a mess". April 4, 2017. Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021. ^ "The good news and bad news of Apple's Mac Pro announcement". Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021. ^ "Apple Introducing New Mac Pro, Pro iMacs and External Display over Coming Years". April 4, 2017. Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021. ^ a b Snell, Jason (January 18, 2018). "iMac Pro review: Mac Pro power in the shape of an iMac". Macworld. Retrieved January 12, 2023. ^ "iMac Pro Teardown". iFixit. January 2, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2023. ^ "iMac Pro packs new T2 chip for extra security | Cult of Mac". Cult of Mac. December 14, 2017. Archived from the original on December 18, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017. ^ "iMac Pro debuts custom Apple T2 chip to handle secure boot, password encryption, more". appleinsider.com. Archived from the original on December 15, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017. ^ "Apple details iMac Pro's T2 chip, which handles secure boot, system management, ISP, more". AppleInsider. Archived from the original on December 17, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017. ^ Cranz, Alex (January 3, 2018). "Wait, The iMac Pro Might Actually Be User-Upgradeable". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on November 29, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2019. ^ "iMac Pro Teardown". iFixIt. January 2, 2018. Archived from the original on January 3, 2018. Retrieved June 19, 2019. ^ Rossignol, Joe (January 3, 2018). "Apple Authorized Service Providers Can Upgrade an iMac Pro's RAM Starting Later This Month". MacRumors. Archived from the original on March 2, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2019. ^ "Mac Pro 2019: Interchangeable Parts, T2 Security & Custom Configuration". MacFinder. December 20, 2019. Archived from the original on August 2, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2020. ^ Wuerthele, Mike (May 30, 2018). "Flaws in Apple's iMac Pro VESA mount fueling new episode of repair anxiety ". AppleInsider. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2019. ^ Haselton, Todd (June 5, 2017). "Apple unveils 'the most powerful Mac we have ever made'". CNBC. Archived from the original on July 10, 2017. Retrieved July 21, 2017. ^ "iMac Pro Available to Order December 14, Starting at $4,999". Archived from the original on December 12, 2017. Retrieved December 12, 2017. ^ "Apple Bumps iMac Pro to 10-Core Processor on Base Configuration". MacRumors. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved August 4, 2020. ^ Mayo, Benjamin (March 6, 2021). "Apple discontinues iMac Pro, Apple Store says buy 'while supplies last'". 9to5Mac. Archived from the original on March 6, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021. ^ Slivka, Eric (March 5, 2021). "iMac Pro No Longer Custom Configurable, Available 'While Supplies Last'". MacRumors. Archived from the original on March 6, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021. ^ Clover, Juli. "iMac Pro Officially Discontinued, Removed From Apple's Site and No Longer Available for Purchase". MacRumors. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved March 19, 2021. ^ Chant, Tim De (March 18, 2022). "Mac Studio is far better for the climate than the iMac Pro—even with the display". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 12, 2022. Retrieved July 12, 2022. ^ Vincent, Brittany. "Apple Officially Discontinues the iMac Pro". PCMag. Archived from the original on March 6, 2021. Retrieved March 7, 2021. ^ Moyer, Edward. "Apple's iMac Pro to be discontinued". CNET. Archived from the original on March 7, 2021. Retrieved March 7, 2021. ^ Pierce, David. "The New iMac Pro is Apple's Most Bonkers Supercomputer Ever". Wired. ^ "iMac Pro—Technical Specifications". Apple Support. Apple Inc. December 9, 2020. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved July 24, 2017. ^ a b c d Shilov, Anton (December 13, 2017). "Apple Starts iMac Pro Sales Dec. 14". Anandtech. Archived from the original on December 14, 2017. Retrieved December 13, 2017. Timeline of iMac models Timeline of iMac and eMac models (sorted by screen sizes) vte See also: List of Mac models External links iMac Pro – official site at Apple, archived at the Wayback Machine on March 10, 2021 vteApple hardware since 1998 Hardware lists Macs iPhones iPads MacDesktops eMac iMac G3 G4 G5 Intel-based Apple silicon iMac Pro Mac Mini Mac Pro Mac Studio Power Mac G3 G4 G4 Cube G5 Xserve Laptops iBook MacBook (2006–2012) 12-inch MacBook (2015–2019) MacBook Air Intel-based Apple silicon MacBook Pro Intel-based Apple silicon PowerBook G3 G4 iPhone iPhone 2G 3G 3GS 4 4s 5 5c 5s 6, 6 Plus 6s, 6S Plus 7, 7 Plus 8, 8 Plus X XS, XS Max XR 11 11 Pro, Pro Max 12, 12 Mini 12 Pro, Pro Max 13, 13 Mini 13 Pro, Pro Max 14, 14 Plus 14 Pro, Pro Max 15, 15 Plus 15 Pro, Pro Max iPhone SE 1st 2nd 3rd iPad 1st 2 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th iPad Mini 1st 2 3 4 5th 6th iPad Air 1st 2 3rd 4th 5th 6th iPad Pro 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th iPod Classic Mini iPod+HP Shuffle Nano Touch 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Other consumer electronics Apple TV Apple Vision Pro Apple Watch Ultra Displays Studio (1998–2004) Cinema Thunderbolt Pro Display XDR Studio (2022) Accessories AirPort Express Extreme Time Capsule AirPower (canceled) AirTag Headphones AirPods Pro Max iPad Pencil iPod Click wheel Nike+iPod Socks iSight Keyboards Wireless Magic Mice and trackpads USB Mighty Magic Magic Trackpad Polishing Cloth Remote Siri Remote Speakers iPod Hi-Fi SoundSticks HomePod Mini SuperDrive USB Modem Xserve RAID Silicon A series A4 A5 A5X A6 A6X A7 A8 A8X A9 A9X A10 A10X A11 A12 A12X/A12Z A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 H series H1 H2 M series M1 M2 M3 M4 R series R1 S series S1 S1P S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 T series T1 T2 U series U1 W series W1 W2 W3 See also template: Apple hardware before 1998 vteApple hardwareApple II family Apple I Apple II series II II Plus IIe IIe Card Processor Direct Slot IIc IIc Plus IIGS Apple III Apple Lisa Macintosh XL MacDesktops Compact 128K 512K 512Ke Plus SE SE/30 Classic Classic II Color Classic II family II IIx IIcx IIci IIfx IIsi IIvi IIvx LC family LC LC II LC III LC 475 LC 500 series LC 630 5200 LC Macintosh TV Quadra 610 650 660AV 605 630 700 900 950 800 840AV Performa Centris Power Macintosh 4400 and 7220 5000 series 5200 LC and 5300 LC 5260 5400 5500 6000 series 6100 6200 and 6300 6400 6500 7000 series 7100 7200 and 8200 7300 7500 7600 8000 series 8100 8500 8600 9000 series 9500 9600 G3 G4 G4 Cube G5 20th Anniversary iMac G3 G4 G5 Intel Pro Apple silicon eMac Mac Pro Mac Mini Mac Studio Laptops Macintosh Portable PowerBook 100 series 100 140 170 160 180 150 190 Duo 210 230 500 series 5300 1400 3400c 2400c G3 G4 iBook MacBook 2006–2012 2015–2019 MacBook Air Intel Apple silicon MacBook Pro Intel Apple silicon Servers Workgroup Server 9150 Network Server Xserve DevicesiPhone 1st 3G 3GS 4 4S 5 5C 5S 6 / 6 Plus 6S / 6S Plus 7 / 7 Plus 8 / 8 Plus X XR XS / XS Max 11 11 Pro / 11 Pro Max 12 / 12 Mini 12 Pro / 12 Pro Max 13 / 13 Mini 13 Pro / 13 Pro Max 14 / 14 Plus 14 Pro / 14 Pro Max 15 / 15 Plus 15 Pro / 15 Pro Max iPhone SE 1st 2nd 3rd iPad 1st 2 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th iPad Air 1st 2 3rd 4th 5th 6th iPad Mini 1st 2 3 4 5th 6th iPad Pro 9.7 / 12.9 (1st) 10.5 / 12.9 (2nd) 11 (1st) / 12.9 (3rd) 11 (2nd) / 12.9 (4th) 11 (3rd) / 12.9 (5th) 11 (4th) / 12.9 (6th) 11 (5th) / 13 iPod Classic Mini Nano Shuffle Touch 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Unreleased AirPower Interactive Television Box Mac NC W.A.L.T. Apple TV Apple Watch Ultra Beddit Newton MessagePad eMate 300 Paladin Pippin Bandai PowerCD QuickTake Vision Pro AccessoriesAudio AirPods Pro Max Beats Pill Headphones Speakers iPod Hi-Fi SoundSticks HomePod Mini Displays Monitor III Monitor II AppleColor Composite IIe AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Color AudioVision 14 Multiple Scan 14 ColorSync 750 Studio Display Studio (1998–2004) Studio (2022) Cinema Thunderbolt Pro Display XDR Drives Disk II Macintosh ProFile Hard Disk 20 Hard Disk 20SC AppleCD PowerCD Tape Drive 40SC SuperDrive Xserve RAID Input Desktop Bus iPad accessories Pencil iSight Keyboards Extended Adjustable Wireless Magic Mice and trackpads USB Mighty Magic Magic Trackpad Remote Siri Remote Scanner OneScanner iPod Click wheel Nike+iPod Networking AirPort Express Extreme Time Capsule Apple II serial cards USB Modem LocalTalk Communication Slot GeoPort Printers Silentype Dot Matrix Printer Letter Quality Printer ImageWriter LaserWriter 410 Color Plotter Color LaserWriter StyleWriter Security AirTag Silicon A series A4 A5 A5X A6 A6X A7 A8 A8X A9 A9X A10 A10X A11 A12 A12X/A12Z A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 H series H1 H2 M series M1 M2 M3 M4 R series R1 S series S1 S1P S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 T series T1 T2 U series U1 W series W1 W2 W3 Hardware lists Macs iPhones iPads Timeline of Apple Inc. products vteApple Inc. History Outline Timeline of products Environment Marketing Supply chain Trade unions ProductsHardwareMac iMac Pro MacBook Air Pro Mini Studio Pro iPod Classic Mini Nano Shuffle Touch iPhone Hardware History iPhone models iPad Mini Air Pro Accessories AirPods Pro Max Other Apple SIM AirTag Beats Pill HomePod Mini Silicon TV Vision Pro Watch SoftwareOperatingsystems iOS / iPadOS iPhones iPads iOS history iPadOS history Apps macOS History Server tvOS watchOS bridgeOS Darwin Classic Mac OS visionOS CarPlay Classroom HomeKit Core Foundation Developer Tools FileMaker Final Cut Pro X Compressor Motion Logic Pro MainStage iLife GarageBand iMovie iPhoto iTunes iWork Keynote Numbers Pages Mail QuickTime Safari Shazam Siri Swift Xcode ServicesFinancial Card Pay Wallet Media Arcade Books Music 1 Beats Music Up Next Festival iTunes Radio App News Newsstand Podcasts TV + originals MLS Season Pass Communication FaceTime Walkie-Talkie iMessage iChat App Game Center Retail anddigital sales App Store macOS iTunes Store Connect Store Fifth Avenue Support AppleCare+ AASP Certifications Genius Bar ProCare One to One Other ID Sign in with Apple One Developer iAd TestFlight WWDC iCloud MobileMe Find My Fitness Photos Maps Look Around CompaniesSubsidiaries Anobit Apple IMC Apple Studios Beats Beddit Braeburn Capital Claris Acquisitions Completed Anobit AuthenTec Beats Beddit BIS Records Cue EditGrid Emagic FingerWorks Intrinsity InVisage Technologies The Keyboard Company Lala Metaio NeXT Nothing Real P.A. Semi Power Computing PrimeSense Shazam Entertainment Limited Siri Texture Topsy Potential Disney Partnerships AIM alliance Kaleida Labs Taligent Akamai Arm DiDi Digital Ocean iFund Imagination Rockstar Consortium Related Advertising "1984" "Think different" "Get a Mac" iPod Product Red Ecosystem Events Criticism Right to repair Tax Headquarters Campus Park University Design IDg Typography Book History Codenames Community AppleMasters Litigation Antitrust Non-recruiting agreements Price-fixing ebooks FBI encryption dispute Epic Games iOS app approvals Unions #AppleToo Depictions of Steve Jobs Linux Asahi Linux iPodLinux Car project PeopleExecutivesCurrent Tim Cook (CEO) Jeff Williams (COO) Luca Maestri (CFO) Katherine Adams (General Counsel) Eddy Cue Craig Federighi Isabel Ge Mahe John Giannandrea Lisa Jackson Greg Joswiak Sabih Khan Deirdre O'Brien Dan Riccio Phil Schiller Johny Srouji John Ternus Former Michael Scott (CEO) Mike Markkula (CEO) John Sculley (CEO) Michael Spindler (CEO) Gil Amelio (CEO) Steve Jobs (CEO) Jony Ive (CDO) Angela Ahrendts Fred D. Anderson John Browett Guerrino De Luca Paul Deneve Al Eisenstat Tony Fadell Scott Forstall Ellen Hancock Nancy R. Heinen Ron Johnson David Nagel Peter Oppenheimer Mark Papermaster Jon Rubinstein Bertrand Serlet Bruce Sewell Sina Tamaddon Avie Tevanian Steve Wozniak Board ofdirectorsCurrent Arthur D. Levinson (Chairman) Tim Cook (CEO) James A. Bell Alex Gorsky Al Gore Andrea Jung Ronald D. Sugar Susan L. Wagner Former Mike Markkula (Chairman) John Sculley (Chairman) Steve Jobs (Chairman) Gil Amelio Fred D. Anderson Bill Campbell Mickey Drexler Al Eisenstat Larry Ellison Robert A. Iger Delano Lewis Arthur Rock Eric Schmidt Michael Scott Michael Spindler Edgar S. Woolard Jr. Jerry York Founders Steve Jobs Steve Wozniak Ronald Wayne Italics indicate discontinued products, services, or defunct companies. Category

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mac Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Pro"},{"link_name":"iMac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac"},{"link_name":"all-in-one","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-in-one_computer"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workstation"},{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh"},{"link_name":"Mac Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Mini"},{"link_name":"iMac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac_(Intel-based)"},{"link_name":"Mac Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Pro"},{"link_name":"Mac Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Pro#Cylinder_(2013)"}],"text":"All-in-one desktop computer designed and built by Apple Inc.Not to be confused with Mac Pro or iMac.The iMac Pro is an all-in-one personal computer and workstation sold by Apple Inc. from 2017 to 2021. It was one of four desktop computers in the Macintosh lineup, sitting above the consumer range Mac Mini and iMac, and serving as an all-in-one alternative to the Mac Pro.After the cylindrical Mac Pro redesign went years without any update, Apple hosted a roundtable in 2017 promising a redesign and commitment to professional Mac computers; the iMac Pro was introduced in the interim before the revised Mac Pro shipped in 2019. The iMac Pro was positively received by critics. After receiving only minor updates, the machine was discontinued in March 2021.","title":"iMac Pro"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In 2013, Apple replaced its tower Mac Pro workstation with a radically-redesigned cylindrical model. The 2013 Mac Pro languished for years without any updates, and Apple later said that its small design and focus on dual graphics-processing unit had been a mistake. In April 2017, Apple convened a roundtable of journalists and executives to restate their commitment to professional Macs. As part of the announcement, Apple said a new monitor and Mac Pro were being developed but would not arrive that year. In June, Apple announced the iMac Pro to fill the gap.[2][3][4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"27-inch iMac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac_(Intel-based)"},{"link_name":"Magic Keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Keyboard_(Mac)"},{"link_name":"Magic Mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Mouse_2"},{"link_name":"Magic Trackpad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Trackpad_2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-macworld_2018-01-18-5"},{"link_name":"Xeon-W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylake_(microarchitecture)#Workstation_processors"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Apple's T2 chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_silicon#Apple_T2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"solid-state drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"Apple Configurator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Configurator"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"VESA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_Display_Mounting_Interface"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The iMac Pro uses the same chassis as the 27-inch iMac it was sold alongside, but comes in a darker \"space gray\" finish, with a color-matched Magic Keyboard, Magic Mouse and Magic Trackpad.[5] The iMac Pro also has more connectivity options than the iMac, with four Thunderbolt 3 ports, four USB-A ports, a headphone jack, Ethernet port, and SDXC card slot. The iMac Pro uses Xeon-W processors and includes a larger cooling system.[6] The iMac Pro was the first Mac equipped with Apple's T2 chip, a custom Apple co-processor. The T2 handles security, encryption and some video encoding and decoding.[7][8][9]The processor, memory, and storage are not soldered and can be removed.[10] Unlike the 27-inch iMac, the iMac Pro does not have a memory access hatch; memory upgrades require disassembling the display.[11][12] The solid-state drive is user-replaceable, but requires disassembly of the iMac Pro and an Apple Configurator restore after the new storage modules are installed.[13] The iMac Pro's stand is user-replaceable with a licensed OEM VESA mount kit sold by Apple. The mount uses zinc screws that may be prone to breaking.[14]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WWDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWDC"},{"link_name":"Mac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNBC-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"Xeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon"},{"link_name":"processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"5K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5K_resolution"},{"link_name":"AMD Vega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Vega"},{"link_name":"ECC memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECC_memory"},{"link_name":"10 Gigabit Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mac Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Studio"},{"link_name":"Apple Studio Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Studio_Display"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcmag-1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"The iMac Pro was announced at WWDC on June 5, 2017, and was released in December 2017. Apple billed it as \"the most powerful Mac ever made\".[15][16] The configurations included an 8-, 10-, 14-, or 18-core Intel Xeon processor, 5K display, AMD Vega graphics, ECC memory, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.The iMac Pro received minor updates after release. Configuration options for 256 GB of memory and a Vega 64X GPU were added on March 19, 2019. Apple discontinued the 8-core model on August 4, 2020, making the 10-core model the base model.[17] The iMac Pro was discontinued on March 5, 2021; Apple continued to sell the computer while supplies lasted.[18][19] It was delisted from Apple's website and online store on March 19, 2021.[20] An indirect successor, the Mac Studio, was released on March 18, 2022, alongside the Apple Studio Display.[1][21][22][23]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jason Snell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Snell_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Macworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macworld"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-macworld_2018-01-18-5"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired_2017-06-05-24"}],"text":"The iMac Pro was positively received. Jason Snell, writing for Macworld, said that the machine was clearly not for average customers, but filled a niche for users like himself who had drifted from using pro desktops to iMacs, but still wanted more power than Apple's consumer line could offer.[5] Wired considered the iMac Pro a statement from Apple that it was renewing its commitment to pro Macs.[24]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Technical specifications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Timeline of iMac models"}]

[]

[{"reference":"\"Apple's Mac Studio Is the iMac Pro Reboot You've Been Waiting For\". PCMAG. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved July 6, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/opinions/apples-mac-studio-is-the-imac-pro-reboot-youve-been-waiting-for","url_text":"\"Apple's Mac Studio Is the iMac Pro Reboot You've Been Waiting For\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220706071343/https://www.pcmag.com/opinions/apples-mac-studio-is-the-imac-pro-reboot-youve-been-waiting-for","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Apple admits the Mac Pro was a mess\". April 4, 2017. Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/4/15175994/apple-mac-pro-failure-admission","url_text":"\"Apple admits the Mac Pro was a mess\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211007151550/https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/4/15175994/apple-mac-pro-failure-admission","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The good news and bad news of Apple's Mac Pro announcement\". Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.macworld.com/article/229852/the-good-news-and-bad-news-of-apples-mac-pro-announcement.html","url_text":"\"The good news and bad news of Apple's Mac Pro announcement\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211007151548/https://www.macworld.com/article/229852/the-good-news-and-bad-news-of-apples-mac-pro-announcement.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Apple Introducing New Mac Pro, Pro iMacs and External Display over Coming Years\". April 4, 2017. 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Wired.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2017/06/imac-pro/","url_text":"\"The New iMac Pro is Apple's Most Bonkers Supercomputer Ever\""}]},{"reference":"\"iMac Pro—Technical Specifications\". Apple Support. Apple Inc. December 9, 2020. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved July 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://support.apple.com/kb/SP771","url_text":"\"iMac Pro—Technical Specifications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.","url_text":"Apple Inc."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220927140015/https://support.apple.com/kb/SP771?locale=en_US","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Shilov, Anton (December 13, 2017). \"Apple Starts iMac Pro Sales Dec. 14\". Anandtech. Archived from the original on December 14, 2017. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI_Status_Code

SCSI Status Code

["1 00h Good","2 02h Check Condition","3 04h Condition Met","4 08h Busy","5 10h Intermediate (obsolete)","6 14h Intermediate - Condition Met (obsolete)","7 18h Reservation Conflict","8 22h Command Terminated (obsolete)","9 28h Task Set Full","10 30h ACA Active","11 40h Task Aborted","12 External links"]

A SCSI Status Code is used to determine the success or failure of a SCSI command. At the end of any command, the target returns a Status Code byte which should be one of the following: 00h Good This status code indicates that the device has completed the task successfully. 02h Check Condition When the target returns a Check Condition in response to a command it is indicating that it has entered a contingent allegiance condition. This means that an error occurred when it attempted to execute a SCSI command. The initiator usually then issues a SCSI Request Sense command in order to obtain a Key Code Qualifier (KCQ) from the target. 04h Condition Met This status code is returned on successful completion of a Pre-fetch Command. 08h Busy The target returns Busy if it cannot complete a command at that time, for example if it is in the contingent allegiance condition. 10h Intermediate (obsolete) The target returns Intermediate when it successfully completes a linked command (except the last command). This status code is obsolete starting with SAM-4. 14h Intermediate - Condition Met (obsolete) As the name suggests, this status code is simply a combination of 10h Intermediate and 04h Condition Met. This status code is obsolete starting with SAM-4. 18h Reservation Conflict The target returns this status code if an initiator attempts to access a LUN that has been previously reserved by another initiator using the Reserve or Reserve Unit command. 22h Command Terminated (obsolete) The target returns this status if the target has to terminate the current I/O process because it received a Terminate I/O Process message. This status code is obsolete starting with SAM-2. 28h Task Set Full Similar to 08h Busy status, this status code is returned when the logical unit lacks the resources to accept a received task from an I_T nexus. This status code implies that the logical unit already has at least one task from that I_T nexus, where the 08h Busy status code implies that the logical unit currently has no tasks from that I_T nexus. 30h ACA Active The target returns this status code if an auto-contingent allegiance condition has occurred. 40h Task Aborted The target returns this status code when a task is aborted by another I_T nexus and the TAS bit in the Control mode page is set to one. External links "SCSI Commands References Manual" (PDF). Seagate. Retrieved 2010-12-13. SCSI Architecture Model (SAM) clause 5.3.1 Status-Code Übersicht

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queue_(data_structure)

Queue (abstract data type)

["1 Queue implementation","1.1 Queues and programming languages","1.2 Example","2 Purely functional implementation","2.1 Amortized queue","2.2 Real-time queue","3 See also","4 References","4.1 General references","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

Abstract data type This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) QueueRepresentation of a FIFO (first in, first out) queueTime complexity in big O notationOperation Average Worst caseSearch O(n) O(n)Insert O(1) O(1)Delete O(1) O(1)Space complexitySpace O(n) O(n) In computer science, a queue is a collection of entities that are maintained in a sequence and can be modified by the addition of entities at one end of the sequence and the removal of entities from the other end of the sequence. By convention, the end of the sequence at which elements are added is called the back, tail, or rear of the queue, and the end at which elements are removed is called the head or front of the queue, analogously to the words used when people line up to wait for goods or services. The operation of adding an element to the rear of the queue is known as enqueue, and the operation of removing an element from the front is known as dequeue. Other operations may also be allowed, often including a peek or front operation that returns the value of the next element to be dequeued without dequeuing it. The operations of a queue make it a first-in-first-out (FIFO) data structure. In a FIFO data structure, the first element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed. This is equivalent to the requirement that once a new element is added, all elements that were added before have to be removed before the new element can be removed. A queue is an example of a linear data structure, or more abstractly a sequential collection. Queues are common in computer programs, where they are implemented as data structures coupled with access routines, as an abstract data structure or in object-oriented languages as classes. Common implementations are circular buffers and linked lists. Queues provide services in computer science, transport, and operations research where various entities such as data, objects, persons, or events are stored and held to be processed later. In these contexts, the queue performs the function of a buffer. Another usage of queues is in the implementation of breadth-first search. Queue implementation Theoretically, one characteristic of a queue is that it does not have a specific capacity. Regardless of how many elements are already contained, a new element can always be added. It can also be empty, at which point removing an element will be impossible until a new element has been added again. Fixed-length arrays are limited in capacity, but it is not true that items need to be copied towards the head of the queue. The simple trick of turning the array into a closed circle and letting the head and tail drift around endlessly in that circle makes it unnecessary to ever move items stored in the array. If n is the size of the array, then computing indices modulo n will turn the array into a circle. This is still the conceptually simplest way to construct a queue in a high-level language, but it does admittedly slow things down a little, because the array indices must be compared to zero and the array size, which is comparable to the time taken to check whether an array index is out of bounds, which some languages do, but this will certainly be the method of choice for a quick and dirty implementation, or for any high-level language that does not have pointer syntax. The array size must be declared ahead of time, but some implementations simply double the declared array size when overflow occurs. Most modern languages with objects or pointers can implement or come with libraries for dynamic lists. Such data structures may have not specified a fixed capacity limit besides memory constraints. Queue overflow results from trying to add an element onto a full queue and queue underflow happens when trying to remove an element from an empty queue. A bounded queue is a queue limited to a fixed number of items. There are several efficient implementations of FIFO queues. An efficient implementation is one that can perform the operations—en-queuing and de-queuing—in O(1) time. Linked list A doubly linked list has O(1) insertion and deletion at both ends, so it is a natural choice for queues. A regular singly linked list only has efficient insertion and deletion at one end. However, a small modification—keeping a pointer to the last node in addition to the first one—will enable it to implement an efficient queue. A deque implemented using a modified dynamic array Queues and programming languages Queues may be implemented as a separate data type, or maybe considered a special case of a double-ended queue (deque) and not implemented separately. For example, Perl and Ruby allow pushing and popping an array from both ends, so one can use push and shift functions to enqueue and dequeue a list (or, in reverse, one can use unshift and pop), although in some cases these operations are not efficient. C++'s Standard Template Library provides a "queue" templated class which is restricted to only push/pop operations. Since J2SE5.0, Java's library contains a Queue interface that specifies queue operations; implementing classes include LinkedList and (since J2SE 1.6) ArrayDeque. PHP has an SplQueue class and third party libraries like beanstalk'd and Gearman. Example A simple queue implemented in JavaScript: class Queue { constructor() { this.items = ; } enqueue(element) { this.items.push(element); } dequeue() { return this.items.shift(); } } Purely functional implementation Queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure. There are two implementations. The first one only achieves O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} per operation on average. That is, the amortized time is O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} , but individual operations can take O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} where n is the number of elements in the queue. The second implementation is called a real-time queue and it allows the queue to be persistent with operations in O(1) worst-case time. It is a more complex implementation and requires lazy lists with memoization. Amortized queue This queue's data is stored in two singly-linked lists named f {\displaystyle f} and r {\displaystyle r} . The list f {\displaystyle f} holds the front part of the queue. The list r {\displaystyle r} holds the remaining elements (a.k.a., the rear of the queue) in reverse order. It is easy to insert into the front of the queue by adding a node at the head of f {\displaystyle f} . And, if r {\displaystyle r} is not empty, it is easy to remove from the end of the queue by removing the node at the head of r {\displaystyle r} . When r {\displaystyle r} is empty, the list f {\displaystyle f} is reversed and assigned to r {\displaystyle r} and then the head of r {\displaystyle r} is removed. The insert ("enqueue") always takes O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} time. The removal ("dequeue") takes O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} when the list r {\displaystyle r} is not empty. When r {\displaystyle r} is empty, the reverse takes O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of elements in f {\displaystyle f} . But, we can say it is O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} amortized time, because every element in f {\displaystyle f} had to be inserted and we can assign a constant cost for each element in the reverse to when it was inserted. Real-time queue The real-time queue achieves O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} time for all operations, without amortization. This discussion will be technical, so recall that, for l {\displaystyle l} a list, | l | {\displaystyle |l|} denotes its length, that NIL represents an empty list and CONS ⁡ ( h , t ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {CONS} (h,t)} represents the list whose head is h and whose tail is t. The data structure used to implement our queues consists of three singly-linked lists ( f , r , s ) {\displaystyle (f,r,s)} where f is the front of the queue and r is the rear of the queue in reverse order. The invariant of the structure is that s is the rear of f without its | r | {\displaystyle |r|} first elements, that is | s | = | f | − | r | {\displaystyle |s|=|f|-|r|} . The tail of the queue ( CONS ⁡ ( x , f ) , r , s ) {\displaystyle (\operatorname {CONS} (x,f),r,s)} is then almost ( f , r , s ) {\displaystyle (f,r,s)} and inserting an element x to ( f , r , s ) {\displaystyle (f,r,s)} is almost ( f , CONS ⁡ ( x , r ) , s ) {\displaystyle (f,\operatorname {CONS} (x,r),s)} . It is said almost, because in both of those results, | s | = | f | − | r | + 1 {\displaystyle |s|=|f|-|r|+1} . An auxiliary function a u x {\displaystyle aux} must then be called for the invariant to be satisfied. Two cases must be considered, depending on whether s {\displaystyle s} is the empty list, in which case | r | = | f | + 1 {\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1} , or not. The formal definition is aux ⁡ ( f , r , Cons ⁡ ( _ , s ) ) = ( f , r , s ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {aux} (f,r,\operatorname {Cons} (\_,s))=(f,r,s)} and aux ⁡ ( f , r , NIL ) = ( f ′ , NIL , f ′ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {aux} (f,r,{\text{NIL}})=(f',{\text{NIL}},f')} where f ′ {\displaystyle f'} is f followed by r reversed. Let us call reverse ⁡ ( f , r ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {reverse} (f,r)} the function which returns f followed by r reversed. Let us furthermore assume that | r | = | f | + 1 {\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1} , since it is the case when this function is called. More precisely, we define a lazy function rotate ⁡ ( f , r , a ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {rotate} (f,r,a)} which takes as input three lists such that | r | = | f | + 1 {\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1} , and return the concatenation of f, of r reversed and of a. Then reverse ⁡ ( f , r ) = rotate ⁡ ( f , r , NIL ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {reverse} (f,r)=\operatorname {rotate} (f,r,{\text{NIL}})} . The inductive definition of rotate is rotate ⁡ ( NIL , Cons ⁡ ( y , NIL ) , a ) = Cons ⁡ ( y , a ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {rotate} ({\text{NIL}},\operatorname {Cons} (y,{\text{NIL}}),a)=\operatorname {Cons} (y,a)} and rotate ⁡ ( CONS ⁡ ( x , f ) , CONS ⁡ ( y , r ) , a ) = Cons ⁡ ( x , rotate ⁡ ( f , r , CONS ⁡ ( y , a ) ) ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {rotate} (\operatorname {CONS} (x,f),\operatorname {CONS} (y,r),a)=\operatorname {Cons} (x,\operatorname {rotate} (f,r,\operatorname {CONS} (y,a)))} . Its running time is O ( r ) {\displaystyle O(r)} , but, since lazy evaluation is used, the computation is delayed until the results are forced by the computation. The list s in the data structure has two purposes. This list serves as a counter for | f | − | r | {\displaystyle |f|-|r|} , indeed, | f | = | r | {\displaystyle |f|=|r|} if and only if s is the empty list. This counter allows us to ensure that the rear is never longer than the front list. Furthermore, using s, which is a tail of f, forces the computation of a part of the (lazy) list f during each tail and insert operation. Therefore, when | f | = | r | {\displaystyle |f|=|r|} , the list f is totally forced. If it was not the case, the internal representation of f could be some append of append of... of append, and forcing would not be a constant time operation anymore. See also Computer programming portal Priority queue Queuing theory Stack (abstract data type) – the "opposite" of a queue: LIFO (Last In First Out) References ^ "Queue (Java Platform SE 7)". Docs.oracle.com. 2014-03-26. Retrieved 2014-05-22. ^ "Array (Ruby 3.1)". 2021-12-25. Retrieved 2022-05-11. ^ Okasaki, Chris. "Purely Functional Data Structures" (PDF). ^ Hood, Robert; Melville, Robert (November 1981). "Real-time queue operations in pure Lisp". Information Processing Letters. 13 (2): 50–54. doi:10.1016/0020-0190(81)90030-2. hdl:1813/6273. General references  This article incorporates public domain material from Paul E. Black. "Bounded queue". Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. NIST. Further reading Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.2.1: Stacks, Queues, and Dequeues, pp. 238–243. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 10.1: Stacks and queues, pp. 200–204. William Ford, William Topp. Data Structures with C++ and STL, Second Edition. Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN 0-13-085850-1. Chapter 8: Queues and Priority Queues, pp. 386–390. Adam Drozdek. Data Structures and Algorithms in C++, Third Edition. Thomson Course Technology, 2005. ISBN 0-534-49182-0. Chapter 4: Stacks and Queues, pp. 137–169. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Queue data structure. STL Quick Reference VBScript implementation of stack, queue, deque, and Red-Black Tree vteData structuresTypes Collection Container Abstract Associative array Multimap Retrieval Data Structure List Stack Queue Double-ended queue Priority queue Double-ended priority queue Set Multiset Disjoint-set Arrays Bit array Circular buffer Dynamic array Hash table Hashed array tree Sparse matrix Linked Association list Linked list Skip list Unrolled linked list XOR linked list Trees B-tree Binary search tree AA tree AVL tree Red–black tree Self-balancing tree Splay tree Heap Binary heap Binomial heap Fibonacci heap R-tree R* tree R+ tree Hilbert R-tree Trie Hash tree Graphs Binary decision diagram Directed acyclic graph Directed acyclic word graph List of data structures

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By convention, the end of the sequence at which elements are added is called the back, tail, or rear of the queue, and the end at which elements are removed is called the head or front of the queue, analogously to the words used when people line up to wait for goods or services.The operation of adding an element to the rear of the queue is known as enqueue, and the operation of removing an element from the front is known as dequeue. Other operations may also be allowed, often including a peek or front operation that returns the value of the next element to be dequeued without dequeuing it.The operations of a queue make it a first-in-first-out (FIFO) data structure. In a FIFO data structure, the first element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed. This is equivalent to the requirement that once a new element is added, all elements that were added before have to be removed before the new element can be removed. A queue is an example of a linear data structure, or more abstractly a sequential collection.\nQueues are common in computer programs, where they are implemented as data structures coupled with access routines, as an abstract data structure or in object-oriented languages as classes. Common implementations are circular buffers and linked lists.Queues provide services in computer science, transport, and operations research where various entities such as data, objects, persons, or events are stored and held to be processed later. In these contexts, the queue performs the function of a buffer.\nAnother usage of queues is in the implementation of breadth-first search.","title":"Queue (abstract data type)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array"},{"link_name":"high-level language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language"},{"link_name":"pointers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"data structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"O(1) time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation"},{"link_name":"Linked list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list"},{"link_name":"doubly linked list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly_linked_list"},{"link_name":"deque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-ended_queue"}],"text":"Theoretically, one characteristic of a queue is that it does not have a specific capacity. Regardless of how many elements are already contained, a new element can always be added. It can also be empty, at which point removing an element will be impossible until a new element has been added again.Fixed-length arrays are limited in capacity, but it is not true that items need to be copied towards the head of the queue. The simple trick of turning the array into a closed circle and letting the head and tail drift around endlessly in that circle makes it unnecessary to ever move items stored in the array. If n is the size of the array, then computing indices modulo n will turn the array into a circle. This is still the conceptually simplest way to construct a queue in a high-level language, but it does admittedly slow things down a little, because the array indices must be compared to zero and the array size, which is comparable to the time taken to check whether an array index is out of bounds, which some languages do, but this will certainly be the method of choice for a quick and dirty implementation, or for any high-level language that does not have pointer syntax. The array size must be declared ahead of time, but some implementations simply double the declared array size when overflow occurs. Most modern languages with objects or pointers can implement or come with libraries for dynamic lists. Such data structures may have not specified a fixed capacity limit besides memory constraints. Queue overflow results from trying to add an element onto a full queue and queue underflow happens when trying to remove an element from an empty queue.A bounded queue is a queue limited to a fixed number of items.[1]There are several efficient implementations of FIFO queues. An efficient implementation is one that can perform the operations—en-queuing and de-queuing—in O(1) time.Linked list\nA doubly linked list has O(1) insertion and deletion at both ends, so it is a natural choice for queues.\nA regular singly linked list only has efficient insertion and deletion at one end. However, a small modification—keeping a pointer to the last node in addition to the first one—will enable it to implement an efficient queue.\nA deque implemented using a modified dynamic array","title":"Queue implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"double-ended queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-ended_queue"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Standard Template Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Template_Library"},{"link_name":"Queue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/util/Queue.html"},{"link_name":"LinkedList","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/util/LinkedList.html"},{"link_name":"ArrayDeque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/19/docs/api/java.base/java/util/ArrayDeque.html"},{"link_name":"SplQueue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.php.net/manual/en/class.splqueue.php"},{"link_name":"beanstalk'd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beanstalk%27d&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gearman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gearman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UML_queue_class.svg"}],"sub_title":"Queues and programming languages","text":"Queues may be implemented as a separate data type, or maybe considered a special case of a double-ended queue (deque) and not implemented separately. For example, Perl and Ruby allow pushing and popping an array from both ends, so one can use push and shift functions to enqueue and dequeue a list (or, in reverse, one can use unshift and pop),[2] although in some cases these operations are not efficient.C++'s Standard Template Library provides a \"queue\" templated class which is restricted to only push/pop operations. Since J2SE5.0, Java's library contains a Queue interface that specifies queue operations; implementing classes include LinkedList and (since J2SE 1.6) ArrayDeque. PHP has an SplQueue class and third party libraries like beanstalk'd and Gearman.","title":"Queue implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"}],"sub_title":"Example","text":"A simple queue implemented in JavaScript:class Queue {\n constructor() {\n this.items = [];\n }\n\n enqueue(element) {\n this.items.push(element);\n }\n\n dequeue() {\n return this.items.shift();\n }\n}","title":"Queue implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"purely functional data structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purely_functional_data_structure"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"amortized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortized_analysis"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"persistent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_data_structure"},{"link_name":"lazy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation"},{"link_name":"memoization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization"}],"text":"Queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure.[3] There are two implementations. The first one only achieves \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n per operation on average. That is, the amortized time is \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n, but individual operations can take \n \n \n \n O\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n \n where n is the number of elements in the queue. The second implementation is called a real-time queue[4] and it allows the queue to be persistent with operations in O(1) worst-case time. It is a more complex implementation and requires lazy lists with memoization.","title":"Purely functional implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"singly-linked lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list#Singly_linked_list"},{"link_name":"amortized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortized_analysis"}],"sub_title":"Amortized queue","text":"This queue's data is stored in two singly-linked lists named \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n and \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. The list \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n holds the front part of the queue. The list \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n holds the remaining elements (a.k.a., the rear of the queue) in reverse order. It is easy to insert into the front of the queue by adding a node at the head of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n. And, if \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is not empty, it is easy to remove from the end of the queue by removing the node at the head of \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. When \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is empty, the list \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is reversed and assigned to \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n and then the head of \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is removed.The insert (\"enqueue\") always takes \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n time. The removal (\"dequeue\") takes \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n when the list \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is not empty. When \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is empty, the reverse takes \n \n \n \n O\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n \n where \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n is the number of elements in \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n. But, we can say it is \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n amortized time, because every element in \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n had to be inserted and we can assign a constant cost for each element in the reverse to when it was inserted.","title":"Purely functional implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"singly-linked lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list#Singly_linked_list"}],"sub_title":"Real-time queue","text":"The real-time queue achieves \n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n time for all operations, without amortization. This discussion will be technical, so recall that, for \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n {\\displaystyle l}\n \n a list, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n l\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |l|}\n \n denotes its length, that NIL represents an empty list and \n \n \n \n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n h\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {CONS} (h,t)}\n \n represents the list whose head is h and whose tail is t.The data structure used to implement our queues consists of three singly-linked lists \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,r,s)}\n \n where f is the front of the queue and r is the rear of the queue in reverse order. The invariant of the structure is that s is the rear of f without its \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |r|}\n \n first elements, that is \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n s\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n −\n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |s|=|f|-|r|}\n \n. The tail of the queue \n \n \n \n (\n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ,\n f\n )\n ,\n r\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\operatorname {CONS} (x,f),r,s)}\n \n is then almost \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,r,s)}\n \n and\ninserting an element x to \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,r,s)}\n \n is almost \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ,\n r\n )\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,\\operatorname {CONS} (x,r),s)}\n \n. It is said almost, because in both of those results, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n s\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n −\n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |s|=|f|-|r|+1}\n \n. An auxiliary function \n \n \n \n a\n u\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle aux}\n \n must then be called for the invariant to be satisfied. Two cases must be considered, depending on whether \n \n \n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s}\n \n is the empty list, in which case \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1}\n \n, or not. The formal definition is \n \n \n \n aux\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n Cons\n ⁡\n (\n _\n ,\n s\n )\n )\n =\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n s\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {aux} (f,r,\\operatorname {Cons} (\\_,s))=(f,r,s)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n aux\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n \n NIL\n \n )\n =\n (\n \n f\n ′\n \n ,\n \n NIL\n \n ,\n \n f\n ′\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {aux} (f,r,{\\text{NIL}})=(f',{\\text{NIL}},f')}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n f\n ′\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f'}\n \n is f followed by r reversed.Let us call \n \n \n \n reverse\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {reverse} (f,r)}\n \n the function which returns f followed by r reversed. Let us furthermore assume that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1}\n \n, since it is the case when this function is called. More precisely, we define a lazy function \n \n \n \n rotate\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n a\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rotate} (f,r,a)}\n \n which takes as input three lists such that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |r|=|f|+1}\n \n, and return the concatenation of f, of r reversed and of a. Then \n \n \n \n reverse\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n )\n =\n rotate\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n \n NIL\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {reverse} (f,r)=\\operatorname {rotate} (f,r,{\\text{NIL}})}\n \n.\nThe inductive definition of rotate is \n \n \n \n rotate\n ⁡\n (\n \n NIL\n \n ,\n Cons\n ⁡\n (\n y\n ,\n \n NIL\n \n )\n ,\n a\n )\n =\n Cons\n ⁡\n (\n y\n ,\n a\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rotate} ({\\text{NIL}},\\operatorname {Cons} (y,{\\text{NIL}}),a)=\\operatorname {Cons} (y,a)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n rotate\n ⁡\n (\n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ,\n f\n )\n ,\n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n y\n ,\n r\n )\n ,\n a\n )\n =\n Cons\n ⁡\n (\n x\n ,\n rotate\n ⁡\n (\n f\n ,\n r\n ,\n CONS\n ⁡\n (\n y\n ,\n a\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rotate} (\\operatorname {CONS} (x,f),\\operatorname {CONS} (y,r),a)=\\operatorname {Cons} (x,\\operatorname {rotate} (f,r,\\operatorname {CONS} (y,a)))}\n \n. Its running time is \n \n \n \n O\n (\n r\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(r)}\n \n, but, since lazy evaluation is used, the computation is delayed until the results are forced by the computation.The list s in the data structure has two purposes. This list serves as a counter for \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n −\n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |f|-|r|}\n \n, indeed, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |f|=|r|}\n \n if and only if s is the empty list. This counter allows us to ensure that the rear is never longer than the front list. Furthermore, using s, which is a tail of f, forces the computation of a part of the (lazy) list f during each tail and insert operation. Therefore, when \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n r\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |f|=|r|}\n \n, the list f is totally forced. If it was not the case, the internal representation of f could be some append of append of... of append, and forcing would not be a constant time operation anymore.","title":"Purely functional implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Donald Knuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth"},{"link_name":"The Art of Computer Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Computer_Programming"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-89683-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-89683-4"},{"link_name":"Thomas H. Cormen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen"},{"link_name":"Charles E. Leiserson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson"},{"link_name":"Ronald L. Rivest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_L._Rivest"},{"link_name":"Clifford Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Algorithms"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-03293-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03293-7"},{"link_name":"William Topp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Topp&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-085850-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-085850-1"},{"link_name":"Adam Drozdek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adam_Drozdek&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-534-49182-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-49182-0"}],"text":"Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.2.1: Stacks, Queues, and Dequeues, pp. 238–243.\nThomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 10.1: Stacks and queues, pp. 200–204.\nWilliam Ford, William Topp. Data Structures with C++ and STL, Second Edition. Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN 0-13-085850-1. Chapter 8: Queues and Priority Queues, pp. 386–390.\nAdam Drozdek. Data Structures and Algorithms in C++, Third Edition. Thomson Course Technology, 2005. ISBN 0-534-49182-0. Chapter 4: Stacks and Queues, pp. 137–169.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafetyNET_p

SafetyNET p

["1 Origin","2 Application","3 Technology","3.1 RTFN","3.2 RTFL","3.3 Technical details","4 Organisation","5 Literature","6 References"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "SafetyNET p" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) SafetyNET p is a standard for Ethernet-based fieldbus communication in automation technology. SafetyNET p is suitable as a drive bus due to its real-time behaviour, with cycle times of up to 62.5 μs. In accordance with the standard requirements from EN 61508 and EN 61511, it can be used in safety circuits up to and including Category 3, SIL 3. Origin SafetyNET p is a registered trademark of Pilz GmbH & Co. KG and was presented in public for the first time in 2006. Its objective was to enable fieldbus communication on Ethernet in real-time and to simultaneously provide data communication in terms of machinery safety. SafetyNET p combines safety and automation: it is both a safety and an automation fieldbus and as such is the successor to SafetyBUS p. The SafetyNET p technology is managed through the umbrella organisation Safety Network International e.V. Application In addition to its use as an Ethernet-based fieldbus, a key component in the application of SafetyNET p is the communication of data with a safety-related content. SafetyNET p can be used anywhere that communicated data has to be consistent in terms of time and content, in order to safeguard against danger. This danger may concern hazards to life and limb, but may also involve the protection of economic assets. A second application area is the communication of data in real-time. With bus cycle times of up to 62,5 μs, SafetyNET p can even be used in extremely time-critical areas. Typical application areas are: Factory automation (e. g. car production, presses) Transport technology (e. g. cable cars, fairground rides) Drive technology (e. g. sensor/actuator control loop in drives or industrial robots) In general, all automation and process engineering applications are possible. Technology SafetyNET p is based on Ethernet. There are two different but compatible versions of SafetyNET p. RTFN RTFN (Real time frame network) uses conventional Ethernet IP frames for communication. The mechanisms for security and real-time are located on OSI levels 3 and above. A producer-consumer model is used as the communication principle. A central process controller (PLC) is not required. This enables concepts such as modular engineering, for example. SafetyNET p RTFN is fully compatible with all IP-based Ethernet protocols and can be combined on the same medium. Conventional switches, routers and wireless access points can also be used. A system cycle time of around 1 ms can be achieved, depending on potential competing services. If higher performance is required, SafetyNET p RTFL can be used. RTFL RTFL (Real time frame line) uses Ethernet MAC frames for communication. A producer-consumer model is also used at logical level on RTFL. In order to achieve the required performance, communication takes place in optimised Ethernet MAC frames. The first subscriber in the logical line sends an Ethernet MAC frame to its logical neighbour, which completes its part of the frame and then passes the frame along the logical line to its nearest neighbour. This way all subscribers fill in the frame in succession. The last subscriber in the line sends the completed frame back to the first subscriber using the same channel (via all the subscribers). In the process, individual subscribers can remove the data they need as the frame passes through. System cycle times in the area of 62.5 μs can be achieved. SafetyNET p subscribers can pack miscellaneous IP-based traffic within an RTFL frame as part of real-time communication. Technical details The SafetyNet p frame data, as determined by the technology, is as follows: Compatible with Ethernet IP protocols Networks can be designed in a linear, star or tree topology Networks with variable subscribers can be used thanks to the continuous topology scan The maximum distance between two subscribers corresponds to that of conventional Ethernet (this is 100 m when copper cables are used) With RTFN, the number of bus subscribers is limited only by the IP address space With RTFL you can have 512 bus subscribers per segment Guaranteed system cycle times of up to 62.5 μs can be achieved Suitable for applications in accordance with SIL 3 of IEC 61508 SafetyNET p is assigned port number 40000 on IANA’s "List of assigned port numbers". Organisation The user organisation Safety Bus p Club International e.V. combines manufacturers and users of SafetyBUS p and has been in existence since 1999. In 2006 the organisation was renamed Safety Network International e.V. In addition to the international organisation there are also two other regional organisations: Japan was established in 2000, while the United States was established in 2001. Literature Winfried Gräf: Maschinensicherheit. Hüthig GmbH & Co. KG, Heidelberg 2004, ISBN 3-7785-2941-2 Arbeitspapier der BIA: Prüfgrundsätzen für sichere Bussysteme. EU Maschinenrichtlinie: 98/37/EG Safety Network International: SafetyNET p Systembeschreibung Version 2.0 References ^ Zurawski, Richard, ed. (2015). Industrial communication technology handbook. Industrial information technology series (2nd ed.). Boca Raton London New York: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-4822-0732-3.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"fieldbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldbus"},{"link_name":"automation technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation"},{"link_name":"real-time behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_system"},{"link_name":"EN 61508","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61508"},{"link_name":"SIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_Integrity_Level"}],"text":"SafetyNET p is a standard for Ethernet-based fieldbus communication in automation technology. SafetyNET p is suitable as a drive bus due to its real-time behaviour, with cycle times of up to 62.5 μs. In accordance with the standard requirements from EN 61508 and EN 61511, it can be used in safety circuits up to and including Category 3, SIL 3.","title":"SafetyNET p"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pilz GmbH & Co. KG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilz_(company)"},{"link_name":"fieldbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldbus"},{"link_name":"machinery safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety"},{"link_name":"SafetyBUS p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafetyBUS_p"},{"link_name":"Safety Network International e.V.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_Network_International_e.V."}],"text":"SafetyNET p is a registered trademark of Pilz GmbH & Co. KG and was presented in public for the first time in 2006. Its objective was to enable fieldbus communication on Ethernet in real-time and to simultaneously provide data communication in terms of machinery safety. SafetyNET p combines safety and automation: it is both a safety and an automation fieldbus and as such is the successor to SafetyBUS p.The SafetyNET p technology is managed through the umbrella organisation Safety Network International e.V.","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Factory automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_automation"},{"link_name":"Drive technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drive_technology&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"In addition to its use as an Ethernet-based fieldbus, a key component in the application of SafetyNET p is the communication of data with a safety-related content. SafetyNET p can be used anywhere that communicated data has to be consistent in terms of time and content, in order to safeguard against danger. This danger may concern hazards to life and limb, but may also involve the protection of economic assets.A second application area is the communication of data in real-time. With bus cycle times of up to 62,5 μs,[1] SafetyNET p can even be used in extremely time-critical areas.Typical application areas are:Factory automation (e. g. car production, presses)\nTransport technology (e. g. cable cars, fairground rides)\nDrive technology (e. g. sensor/actuator control loop in drives or industrial robots)In general, all automation and process engineering applications are possible.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"SafetyNET p is based on Ethernet. There are two different but compatible versions of SafetyNET p.","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"},{"link_name":"OSI levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model"},{"link_name":"central process controller (PLC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"},{"link_name":"modular engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modular_engineering&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless"}],"sub_title":"RTFN","text":"RTFN (Real time frame network) uses conventional Ethernet IP frames for communication. The mechanisms for security and real-time are located on OSI levels 3 and above. A producer-consumer model is used as the communication principle. A central process controller (PLC) is not required. This enables concepts such as modular engineering, for example.SafetyNET p RTFN is fully compatible with all IP-based Ethernet protocols and can be combined on the same medium. Conventional switches, routers and wireless access points can also be used.A system cycle time of around 1 ms can be achieved, depending on potential competing services. If higher performance is required, SafetyNET p RTFL can be used.","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethernet MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"}],"sub_title":"RTFL","text":"RTFL (Real time frame line) uses Ethernet MAC frames for communication. A producer-consumer model is also used at logical level on RTFL. In order to achieve the required performance, communication takes place in optimised Ethernet MAC frames. The first subscriber in the logical line sends an Ethernet MAC frame to its logical neighbour, which completes its part of the frame and then passes the frame along the logical line to its nearest neighbour. This way all subscribers fill in the frame in succession. The last subscriber in the line sends the completed frame back to the first subscriber using the same channel (via all the subscribers). In the process, individual subscribers can remove the data they need as the frame passes through.System cycle times in the area of 62.5 μs can be achieved. SafetyNET p subscribers can pack miscellaneous IP-based traffic within an RTFL frame as part of real-time communication.","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IANA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority"},{"link_name":"port numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_numbers"}],"sub_title":"Technical details","text":"The SafetyNet p frame data, as determined by the technology, is as follows:Compatible with Ethernet IP protocols\nNetworks can be designed in a linear, star or tree topology\nNetworks with variable subscribers can be used thanks to the continuous topology scan\nThe maximum distance between two subscribers corresponds to that of conventional Ethernet (this is 100 m when copper cables are used)\nWith RTFN, the number of bus subscribers is limited only by the IP address space\nWith RTFL you can have 512 bus subscribers per segment\nGuaranteed system cycle times of up to 62.5 μs can be achieved\nSuitable for applications in accordance with SIL 3 of IEC 61508SafetyNET p is assigned port number 40000 on IANA’s \"List of assigned port numbers\".","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Safety Network International e.V.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_Network_International_e.V."}],"text":"The user organisation Safety Bus p Club International e.V. combines manufacturers and users of SafetyBUS p and has been in existence since 1999. In 2006 the organisation was renamed Safety Network International e.V. In addition to the international organisation there are also two other regional organisations: Japan was established in 2000, while the United States was established in 2001.","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7785-2941-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7785-2941-2"}],"text":"Winfried Gräf: Maschinensicherheit. Hüthig GmbH & Co. KG, Heidelberg 2004, ISBN 3-7785-2941-2\nArbeitspapier der BIA: Prüfgrundsätzen für sichere Bussysteme.\nEU Maschinenrichtlinie: 98/37/EG\nSafety Network International: SafetyNET p Systembeschreibung Version 2.0","title":"Literature"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Zurawski, Richard, ed. (2015). Industrial communication technology handbook. Industrial information technology series (2nd ed.). Boca Raton London New York: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-4822-0732-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-0732-3","url_text":"978-1-4822-0732-3"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchville_Test_Area

Churchville Test Area

["1 See also","2 Notes and references","3 External links"]

Coordinates: 39°35′46″N 76°15′11″W / 39.596°N 76.253°W / 39.596; -76.253The Churchville Test Area is a United States Army facility of the Aberdeen Proving Ground, located northeast of Bel Air, Maryland (in Harford County, Maryland, U.S.). The Churchville Test Area (39°35′46″N 76°15′11″W / 39.596°N 76.253°W / 39.596; -76.253) is a hilly set of cross-country road test tracks providing a variety of steep natural grades and tight turns designed to stress engines, drivetrains and suspension systems for Army vehicles, such as the M1 Abrams tanks, M2 Bradley fighting vehicle and the Humvee. The Test Area consists of 11 miles (18 km) of interconnected roads and test courses located on 250 acres (1.0 km2), with both 3-and-4-mile (4.8 and 6.4 km) closed loop courses, mud, dust and gravel surfaces, and grades ranging from 7% to 29%. On March 21, 2007, the Army celebrated the designation of a 163.5-acre (0.662 km2) buffer-zone alongside the Churchville Test Area, in conjunction with the Harford County Government, the Harford Land Trust, and the Hopkins family. Part of the US Army's Compatible Use Buffer program, under the Pentagon's environmental protection initiative, this land-use purchase was $1.4M (US). See also US Army Ordnance Museum Aberdeen, Maryland Notes and references ^ "Army protects farmland buffer". Associated Press. 2007-03-21. Archived from the original on 2012-07-17. Retrieved 2007-03-24. External links Aberdeen Test Center APG Official site APG History vteUnited States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)Subordinate Commands Army University Cadet Command Center for Army Lessons Learned Center for Initial Military Training Center of Military History Combined Arms Center Combined Arms Support Command Recruiting Command Centers of Excellence (CoE) Aviation Cyber Fires Intelligence Maneuver Maneuver Support Medical Mission Command NCO Leadership Space and Missile Defense Special Operations Sustainment Colleges and schools Adjutant General School Air Assault School Air Defense Artillery School Airborne School Armor School Army Logistics University Army Management Staff College Aviation School Basic Combat Training CBRN School Sniper School Command and General Staff College Defense Language Institute Engineer School Field Artillery School Financial Management School Force Management School Infantry School Institute for Religious Leadership Jumpmaster School Military Police School Mountain Warfare School Officer Candidate School Pathfinder School Prime Power School Quartermaster School Ranger School Recruiting and Retention College Sapper Leader Course Sergeants Major Academy Soldier Support Institute War College Warrant Officer Candidate School Warrant Officer Career College Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation Installations Aberdeen Proving Ground Carlisle Barracks Fort Belvoir Fort Moore Fort Eustis Fort Eisenhower Fort Huachuca Fort Jackson Fort Knox Fort Leavenworth Fort Gregg-Adams Fort Leonard Wood Fort Novosel Fort Sill Presidio of Monterey Redstone Arsenal vteUnited States ArmyLeadership Secretary of the Army Under Secretary of the Army Chief of Staff Vice Chief of Staff 4-star generals 3-star generals 1798–1959 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2019 2020–present Army Staff Senior Warrant Officer Sergeant Major of the Army House Armed Services Committee (House Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces) Senate Committee on Armed Services (Senate Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces) Componentsandcommands Regular Army Army Reserve Army National Guard Active Units Reorganization plan of United States Army Commands Forces Futures Materiel Training and Doctrine Service components Central Europe–Africa Pacific North South Special Operations Surface Deployment and Distribution Space and Missile Defense Cyber Command Direct reportingunits Second Army Medical Intelligence and Security Criminal Investigation Division Corps of Engineers Military District of Washington Test and Evaluation Military Academy Reserve Acquisition Support Center Installation Management War College Field armies First Third Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Branches Acquisition Corps Adjutant General's Corps Air Defense Artillery Branch Armor Branch Aviation Branch Army Band Chaplain Corps Chemical Corps Civil Affairs Corps Corps of Engineers Cyber Branch Dental Corps Field Artillery Branch Finance Corps Infantry Branch Inspector General's Corps Judge Advocate General's Corps Logistics Branch Medical Corps Medical Service Corps Medical Specialist Corps Military Intelligence Corps Military Police Corps Nurse Corps Ordnance Corps Psychological operations Quartermaster Corps Signal Corps Special Forces Transportation Corps Veterinary Corps Installations United States and overseas Germany Japan Kuwait South Korea Training Basic Training BOLC ROTC (ECP) OCS WOBC WOCS Military Academy (West Point) MOS Uniforms andinsignia Awards and decorations Badges Branch Officer Warrant Enlisted World War I World War II Uniforms Equipment Individual weapons Crew-served weapons Vehicles Premierensembles Army Field Band Army Band Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps West Point Band History and traditions History Continental Army Union Army National Army Army of the United States Center of Military History Institute of Heraldry America's Army Army Art Program Flag National Museum West Point Museum Rangers U.S. Army Regimental System Soldier's Creed "The Army Goes Rolling Along" Division nicknames Draft Service numbers Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra Historical Buffalo Soldiers Army Air Forces Army Service Forces Women's Army Corps Rough Riders U.S. Cavalry United States Colored Troops United States Army Hospital Corps U.S. Sanitary Commission Category

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[]

[{"title":"US Army Ordnance Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Ordnance_Museum"},{"title":"Aberdeen, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen,_Maryland"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_gain-to-noise_temperature

AMC-18

["1 Transponder details","2 References","3 External links"]

AMC-18NamesGE-18Mission typeCommunicationsOperatorSES Americom (2006–2009)SES World Skies (2009–2011)SES (2011–present)COSPAR ID2006-054B SATCAT no.29644WebsiteSESMission duration15 years (planned)17 years, 6 months, 7 days (elapsed) Spacecraft propertiesSpacecraftGE-18Spacecraft typeLockheed Martin A2100BusLM-A2100AManufacturerLockheed MartinLaunch mass2,081 kg (4,588 lb) Start of missionLaunch date8 December 2006, 22:08 UTCRocketAriane 5ECA (VA174)Launch siteCentre Spatial Guyanais, ELA-3ContractorArianespaceEntered serviceFebruary 2007 Orbital parametersReference systemGeocentric orbitRegimeGeostationary orbitLongitude83° West TranspondersBand24 C-bandBandwidth36 MHzCoverage areaCanada, United States, Mexico, Caribbean SES constellation← AMC-16AMC-21 →  AMC-18 is a geostationary Lockheed Martin A2100A communications satellite owned by SES Americom. It was launched on 8 December 2006 from Centre Spatial Guyanais aboard an Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle and is situated at 83° West longitude, providing coverage of North America with twenty-four C-band transponders of 12–18 watts each. Future users in May 2007 include The CW Television Network, NASA TV and Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, among other services. AMC-18 is used by thousands of terrestrial radio stations for network feeds using ground equipment from Starguide, X-Digital Systems, Wegener and International Datacasting. Major tenants are Cumulus Media Networks Satellite Services (which includes Citadel Media, Westwood One Networks, Talk Radio Network, WOR Radio Network and others), Skyview Networks (which includes ABC News, ABC Radio, California News Network, Arizona News Network, numerous Professional and Collegian Sports networks, and others), Orbital Media Networks (which includes United Stations Radio Networks, John Tesh, and others), Premiere Radio Networks, Dial Global, Westwood One, Learfield Communications, The Free Beer and Hot Wings Show, etc. The spacecraft can deliver and receive signals from 50 states of United States, the Caribbean and Mexico and has been designated as the third HD-PRIME satellite. Originally built as a ground spare to the AMC-10 and AMC-11 satellite program, AMC-18 is optimized for digital television distribution from the center of the U.S. orbital arc. The satellite has an expected lifetime of at least 15 years. Transponder details C-band payload: 24 × 36 MHz Amp type SSPA, 20 watts Amp Redundancy: 16 for 12 Receiver redundancy: 4 for 2 Coverage: Canada, United States, Mexico, Caribbean References Spaceflight portal ^ "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 1 April 2021. ^ "AMC-18 2006-054B 29644". N2YO.com. Retrieved 1 April 2021. ^ "AMC-18". SES. Retrieved 5 April 2021. External links AMC-18 information at LyngSat AMC-18 footprint(s) at SatBeams SES vteSatellites operated by SESSES fleet Active: SES-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 (EchoStar 105) 12 14 15 16 (GovSat-1) 17 AMC fleet Active: AMC-4 6 8 10 11 15 16 18 21 Backups: AMC-7 Retired: AMC-1 2 3 5 9 Failed launch: AMC-14 NSS fleet Active: NSS-6 7 9 10 11 12 806 Retired: NSS-5 513 703 K Failed launch: NSS-8 Astra fleet Active: Astra 1KR 1L 1M 1N 2E 2F 2G 3B 4A 5B Backups: Astra 1D 1F 1G 1H 2A 2B 2C 2D 3A Retired: Astra 1A 1B 1C 1E 5A Sirius 3 Failed launch: Astra 1K Orbital positions: 5.0°E 19.2°E 23.5°E 28.2°E 31.5°E Subsidiary: SES Astra Third parties Active: Ciel-2 MonacoSAT QuetzSat 1 Yahsat 1A vte← 2005Orbital launches in 20062007 →January New Horizons Daichi February EchoStar X MTSAT-2 Akari, CUTE-1.7 + APD Arabsat-4A March Spainsat, Hot Bird 7A ST-5 FalconSAT-2 Soyuz TMA-8 April JCSAT-5A COSMIC Astra 1KR Progress M-56 EROS-B Yaogan 1 CALIPSO, CloudSat May Kosmos 2420 GOES 13 / EWS-G1 Satmex 6, Thaicom 5 June Resurs-DK No.1 KazSat-1 Galaxy 16 USA-187, USA-188, USA-189 Progress M-57 Kosmos 2421 USA-184 July STS-121 (MPLM) INSAT-4C Genesis I Kosmos 2422 BelKA, Baumanets, PicPot, SACRED, ION, Rincon 1, ICECube-1, KUTESat Pathfinder, SEEDS, nCube, HAUSAT-1, MEROPE, CP-2, AeroCube-1, CP-1, Mea Huaka'i, ICECube-2 Arirang-2 August Hot Bird 8 JCSAT-3A, Syracuse 3B Koreasat 5 September Shijian 8 STS-115 (ITS P3/4) IGS-3A Chinasat-22A Kosmos 2423 Soyuz TMA-9 Hinode, HIT-SAT, SSSAT USA-190 October DirecTV-9S, Optus D1, LDREX MetOp-A Progress M-58 Shijian 6C, Shijian 6D STEREO Sinosat-2 XM-4 November USA-191 Badr-4 USA-192 December Fengyun 2-05 WildBlue 1, AMC-18 STS-116 (ITS P5, SpaceHab LSM, ANDE-MAA, ANDE-FACL, RAFT1, MARScom, MEPSI-2) MEASAT-3 USA-193 TacSat-2, GeneSat Kiku 8 SAR-Lupe 1 Meridian 1 Kosmos 2424, Kosmos 2425, Kosmos 2426 CoRoT Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ).Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). This article about one or more communications satellites is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrypti

Thrypti

["1 Geography","1.1 West side","1.2 North side","2 See also","3 Notes","4 Citations","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°4′48″N 25°52′32″E / 35.08000°N 25.87556°E / 35.08000; 25.87556A mountain range of eastern Crete in Greece ThryptiThe west wall of Thrypti seen from the valley further west. This is the "wall" of the Sitia Mountains reported by archaeological authors of the early 20th century approaching from Heraklion. The mouth of Ha Gorge is in the center.Highest pointPeakAfentis StavromenosElevation1,476 m (4,843 ft)Prominence1,354 m (4,442 ft)Isolation26.2 km (16.3 mi) WCoordinates35°4′48″N 25°52′32″E / 35.08000°N 25.87556°E / 35.08000; 25.87556DimensionsLength20 km (12 mi) SW-NEWidth9 km (5.6 mi) NW-SENamingNative nameΘρυπτή (Greek)GeographyTerrain map of Crete. For a close-up of eastern Crete, expand image. LocationTrends NE from Ierapetra toward Sitia up to the Bebonas river valley.CountryHellenic RepublicRegion (periphereia)CreteRegional unit (periphereiakis enotetas)Lasithi Not to be confused with the local community of the municipal unit of Ierapetra. Thrypti (Greek: Θρυπτή) is a mountain range in Lasithi in eastern Crete, Greece. It trends to the northeast from Ierapetra in the southwest in the direction of Sitia. However, it only goes half-way in that direction. The rest of the distance is completed by the distinct Ornon mountains, separated from the Thrypti by the Bebonas river valley, and the lower Western Siteia Foothills covering the space between the Ornon range and Sitia itself. The highest peak of Thrypti is Afentis, which is 1,476 m amsl. The three ranges constitute the West Sitia Mountains. Geography The Thrypti mountains are virtually 100% under the municipality of Ierapetra in Lasithi regional unit. The NE border of Ierapetra is so irregular that some small pockets of Thrypti might inadvertently be in neighboring Siteia municipality. Certainly the Sitia Mountains include ranges from both municipalities. The Thripti mountains run diagonally SW from the southern coast at the city of Ierapetra (where they are not much in evidence) to the border of Sitia at Mirabello Bay, which is another reason why they alone are not the Sitia mountains. They are not even in Sitia. The Bebonas valley cannot serve as a border near the coast, as it only descends from its origin in the pre-existing mountains. The distance from Ierapetra to that valley is about 20 km (12 mi), which can be taken as an approximate length of the mountains. The maximum width perpendicular to a representative length is up to about 9 km (5.6 mi), but of course the width varies from a few km near Ierapetra. The mountains are a massif, seen from outside the massif as a wall of mountains. On top the massif are the montane slopes and plateaus of low enough inclination to support pastures, some agriculture or dendriculture, and villages. It is too dry at those altitudes for much greenery; a bare rocky slope is the norm. The canyons, or gorges, are cut deeply into the edges of the massif by runoff from above, a process facilitated by the softness and solubility of limestone. Caves and deep cuts abound. West side Vainia Tower One method of defining the borders of the Thripti massif is to follow the wall around its periphery. The terrain offers a good starting point in Vainia, a settlement of Ierapetra to its NE. The village is noted for Vainia Tower (35°01′33″N 25°46′49″E / 35.02574°N 25.78031°E / 35.02574; 25.78031), built by the Venetians 4.55 km (2.83 mi) from the city center at an elevation of 160 m (520 ft). This landmark comes the closest of any to being the SW corner of the massif. It looks over flat farmland divided into plots all the way to the city. Above it looms Skouros peak, 440 m (1,440 ft), and above that (35°03′58″N 25°50′28″E / 35.065999°N 25.841072°E / 35.065999; 25.841072} Katalymata peak, 802 m (2,631 ft). Mastoras waterfall, which plunges 210 m (690 ft), losing most of its water to vapor. Heading north on Route 20 (ΕΠ 20) at the foot of the massif one arrives at Plakoura, where Route 20A branches to the east toward Ha Gorge; otherwise, Route 20 does not approach it. The gorge is at the bottom of a valley flanked by Koufota, 880 m (2,890 ft), to the south and Papoura, 990 m (3,250 ft), to the north. Through the bottom of the gorge is only a hiking trail, considered dangerous, but 20A bypasses it, climbing in hairpin turns across the upper slopes of Koufota, to arrive at Thrypti plateau at the 722 m (2,369 ft) contour line, where the original Thrypti village is located (35°05′28″N 25°51′48″E / 35.09119°N 25.86335°E / 35.09119; 25.86335) under the high point of the range, Afentis, which reaches to 1,476 m (4,843 ft) to the south. Springs in Thrypti feed a stream that plunges into the chasm at Mastoras waterfall. Havgas (or Havga, or Avgo) Gorge near Melisses. Route 20 meanwhile merges into the coastal Route 90, which heading NE arrives at Kavousi, a city at the mouth of a larger valley dividing west Papouras from Kapsos, max elevation 997 m (3,271 ft), to the north. The valley, called Havgas Gorge, is caused by the Kavousi river, which drains westward from the slopes of Spathi, 1,177 m (3,862 ft) near Melisses, exits the massif at Kavousi, turns northward, and reaches Mirabello Bay at Tholos. Waters come from many tributaries within the gorge, which is extensive, including Mesona Gorge, which conducts water from the slopes of Afentis northward to intersect Havgas Gorge. As one might suspect, the terrain of Havgas permits a single winding road, characterized by numerous hairpin turns, to pass through it on the slopes above the river, going over the pass at its source to Bebonas. The pass is east of Melisses. It goes between Spathi and Kleros, elevation 1,331 m (4,367 ft), and serves as a source for the Bebonas River. It flows eastward, defining the border between Thripti and the Ornon Mountains. North side One might expect that all the peaks north of the Kabousi-Bebonas line would be the Ornon range, but this is not the case. Kapsas, which is about 4.77 km (2.96 mi) long SW-NE and 1.91 km (1.19 mi) wide transversely, is counted as Thrypti by some sources. Geographically, it forms the NW corner of the massif. Other sources count it as part of the Ornon range. The answer to the mystery is geopolitical. Route 90A encloses the north of Kapsos forming a big bend from Kavousi on the west to Lastros on the east, located near the source of a S-N draining valley with Kapsos on its left and Tsigouni Gorge on its right. The border between Demos Ierapetras and Demos Siteias, however, proceeding N-S from the bay, cutting 90A, runs along the west side of the Kapsos ridge; i.e., it divides the mountain. South of Lastos it veers east to cut Spathi similarly on its upper north flank and also cuts the mountains on the north flank of the Bebonas Valley. This border is the traditional line of demarcation for the two ranges; i.e., half of Kapsos is Thrypti, and the other half Ornon, etc. See also Ha Gorge Mesona Gorge Milona Gorge Orino Gorge Notes ^ This intermittent river runs W-E dividing the mountains and then bends abruptly south to empty into the Sea of Libya. ^ The source lists three peaks named Afentis, "Lord," two with a different qualifier. The "Lord" in this case derives from the name of an Orthodox Christian building of worship on the peak. This peak has one also, bearing a distinctive cross. It is often called Afentis Stavromenos, "Lord of the cross," named after the founder of the religion, parallel to Afentis Christos used elsewhere. Sometimes just Stavromenos is used instead of just Afentis. ^ Some of the maps invent a "Mount Ornon" and a "Mount Thrypti" from which the ranges were supposedly named. They don't exist and have no real coordinates. The custom perpetuates the convention practised by the ancient geographers of using oros ("mountain"), a singular, to denote a collective, the range. Citations ^ a b "Afentis". PeakVisor. Retrieved 28 July 2022. ^ In addition to Google Maps accessed through the stated coordinates, its distance measurement feature, and its street view feature, this description relies for its numbers and locations on "Detailed map of Ierapetra Thripti East Crete". cyclingcreta.gr. Retrieved 4 July 2022., and PeakVisor©, except where noted otherwise. ^ "Tower of Vaïnia". Kastrologos: Castles of Greece. Retrieved 4 July 2022. ^ "Havga Gorge – Kavousi". Crete destinator. Retrieved 8 July 2022. ^ For example, "Oros Thryptis kai Gyro Periochi 4.1:"Other Site Characteristics" (GR4320005)". Natura 2000. European Environment Agency. July 2020. ^ For example, Alexandros Roniotis (2022). "Orno Range". CretanBeaches: Mountains in Crete. External links Media related to Thripti at Wikimedia Commons

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ierapetra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierapetra"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"mountain range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_range"},{"link_name":"Lasithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasithi"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Ierapetra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierapetra"},{"link_name":"Sitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitia"},{"link_name":"Ornon mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornon_Mountains,_Crete"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Western Siteia Foothills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Siteia_Foothills"},{"link_name":"amsl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oreiv-1"},{"link_name":"[ii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Sitia Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitia_Mountains"}],"text":"A mountain range of eastern Crete in GreeceNot to be confused with the local community of the municipal unit of Ierapetra.Thrypti (Greek: Θρυπτή) is a mountain range in Lasithi in eastern Crete, Greece. It trends to the northeast from Ierapetra in the southwest in the direction of Sitia. However, it only goes half-way in that direction. The rest of the distance is completed by the distinct Ornon mountains, separated from the Thrypti by the Bebonas river valley,[i] and the lower Western Siteia Foothills covering the space between the Ornon range and Sitia itself. The highest peak of Thrypti is Afentis, which is 1,476 m amsl.[1][ii] The three ranges constitute the West Sitia Mountains.","title":"Thrypti"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ierapetra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierapetra"},{"link_name":"Lasithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasithi"},{"link_name":"Siteia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siteia"},{"link_name":"Ierapetra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierapetra"},{"link_name":"Mirabello Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirabello_Bay"},{"link_name":"massif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massif"}],"text":"The Thrypti mountains are virtually 100% under the municipality of Ierapetra in Lasithi regional unit. The NE border of Ierapetra is so irregular that some small pockets of Thrypti might inadvertently be in neighboring Siteia municipality. Certainly the Sitia Mountains include ranges from both municipalities.The Thripti mountains run diagonally SW from the southern coast at the city of Ierapetra (where they are not much in evidence) to the border of Sitia at Mirabello Bay, which is another reason why they alone are not the Sitia mountains. They are not even in Sitia. The Bebonas valley cannot serve as a border near the coast, as it only descends from its origin in the pre-existing mountains. The distance from Ierapetra to that valley is about 20 km (12 mi), which can be taken as an approximate length of the mountains. The maximum width perpendicular to a representative length is up to about 9 km (5.6 mi), but of course the width varies from a few km near Ierapetra.The mountains are a massif, seen from outside the massif as a wall of mountains. On top the massif are the montane slopes and plateaus of low enough inclination to support pastures, some agriculture or dendriculture, and villages. It is too dry at those altitudes for much greenery; a bare rocky slope is the norm. The canyons, or gorges, are cut deeply into the edges of the massif by runoff from above, a process facilitated by the softness and solubility of limestone. Caves and deep cuts abound.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tower_Village_Vainia.JPG"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"35°01′33″N 25°46′49″E / 35.02574°N 25.78031°E / 35.02574; 25.78031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thrypti&params=35.02574_N_25.78031_E_"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"35°03′58″N 25°50′28″E / 35.065999°N 25.841072°E / 35.065999; 25.841072","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thrypti&params=35.065999_N_25.841072_E_"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%B9_%CE%A7%CE%B1_-_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1_1305.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ha Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha_Gorge"},{"link_name":"35°05′28″N 25°51′48″E / 35.09119°N 25.86335°E / 35.09119; 25.86335","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thrypti&params=35.09119_N_25.86335_E_"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melisses-Kavousi_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Kavousi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavousi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Mirabello Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirabello_Bay"},{"link_name":"Mesona Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesona_Gorge"}],"sub_title":"West side","text":"Vainia TowerOne method of defining the borders of the Thripti massif is to follow the wall around its periphery.[2] The terrain offers a good starting point in Vainia, a settlement of Ierapetra to its NE. The village is noted for Vainia Tower (35°01′33″N 25°46′49″E / 35.02574°N 25.78031°E / 35.02574; 25.78031), built by the Venetians 4.55 km (2.83 mi) from the city center at an elevation of 160 m (520 ft).[3] This landmark comes the closest of any to being the SW corner of the massif. It looks over flat farmland divided into plots all the way to the city. Above it looms Skouros peak, 440 m (1,440 ft), and above that (35°03′58″N 25°50′28″E / 35.065999°N 25.841072°E / 35.065999; 25.841072} Katalymata peak, 802 m (2,631 ft).Mastoras waterfall, which plunges 210 m (690 ft), losing most of its water to vapor.Heading north on Route 20 (ΕΠ 20) at the foot of the massif one arrives at Plakoura, where Route 20A branches to the east toward Ha Gorge; otherwise, Route 20 does not approach it. The gorge is at the bottom of a valley flanked by Koufota, 880 m (2,890 ft), to the south and Papoura, 990 m (3,250 ft), to the north. Through the bottom of the gorge is only a hiking trail, considered dangerous, but 20A bypasses it, climbing in hairpin turns across the upper slopes of Koufota, to arrive at Thrypti plateau at the 722 m (2,369 ft) contour line, where the original Thrypti village is located (35°05′28″N 25°51′48″E / 35.09119°N 25.86335°E / 35.09119; 25.86335) under the high point of the range, Afentis, which reaches to 1,476 m (4,843 ft) to the south. Springs in Thrypti feed a stream that plunges into the chasm at Mastoras waterfall.Havgas (or Havga, or Avgo) Gorge near Melisses.Route 20 meanwhile merges into the coastal Route 90, which heading NE arrives at Kavousi, a city at the mouth of a larger valley dividing west Papouras from Kapsos, max elevation 997 m (3,271 ft), to the north. The valley, called Havgas Gorge,[4] is caused by the Kavousi river, which drains westward from the slopes of Spathi, 1,177 m (3,862 ft) near Melisses, exits the massif at Kavousi, turns northward, and reaches Mirabello Bay at Tholos. Waters come from many tributaries within the gorge, which is extensive, including Mesona Gorge, which conducts water from the slopes of Afentis northward to intersect Havgas Gorge. As one might suspect, the terrain of Havgas permits a single winding road, characterized by numerous hairpin turns, to pass through it on the slopes above the river, going over the pass at its source to Bebonas. The pass is east of Melisses. It goes between Spathi and Kleros, elevation 1,331 m (4,367 ft), and serves as a source for the Bebonas River. It flows eastward, defining the border between Thripti and the Ornon Mountains.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[iii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"North side","text":"One might expect that all the peaks north of the Kabousi-Bebonas line would be the Ornon range, but this is not the case. Kapsas, which is about 4.77 km (2.96 mi) long SW-NE and 1.91 km (1.19 mi) wide transversely, is counted as Thrypti by some sources.[5] Geographically, it forms the NW corner of the massif. Other sources count it as part of the Ornon range.[6] The answer to the mystery is geopolitical.Route 90A encloses the north of Kapsos forming a big bend from Kavousi on the west to Lastros on the east, located near the source of a S-N draining valley with Kapsos on its left and Tsigouni Gorge on its right. The border between Demos Ierapetras and Demos Siteias, however, proceeding N-S from the bay, cutting 90A, runs along the west side of the Kapsos ridge; i.e., it divides the mountain. South of Lastos it veers east to cut Spathi similarly on its upper north flank and also cuts the mountains on the north flank of the Bebonas Valley. This border is the traditional line of demarcation for the two ranges; i.e., half of Kapsos is Thrypti, and the other half Ornon, etc.[iii]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"}],"text":"^ This intermittent river runs W-E dividing the mountains and then bends abruptly south to empty into the Sea of Libya.\n\n^ The source lists three peaks named Afentis, \"Lord,\" two with a different qualifier. The \"Lord\" in this case derives from the name of an Orthodox Christian building of worship on the peak. This peak has one also, bearing a distinctive cross. It is often called Afentis Stavromenos, \"Lord of the cross,\" named after the founder of the religion, parallel to Afentis Christos used elsewhere. Sometimes just Stavromenos is used instead of just Afentis.\n\n^ Some of the maps invent a \"Mount Ornon\" and a \"Mount Thrypti\" from which the ranges were supposedly named. They don't exist and have no real coordinates. The custom perpetuates the convention practised by the ancient geographers of using oros (\"mountain\"), a singular, to denote a collective, the range.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-oreiv_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-oreiv_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Afentis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//peakvisor.com/peak/afentis.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Detailed map of Ierapetra Thripti East Crete\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cyclingcreta.gr/map-of-ierapetra-thripti-crete/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Tower of Vaïnia\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.kastra.eu/castleen.php?kastro=vainia"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Havga Gorge – Kavousi\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.destinationcrete.gr/nature/gorges/havga-gorge-kavousi/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Oros Thryptis kai Gyro Periochi 4.1:\"Other Site Characteristics\" (GR4320005)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//natura2000.eea.europa.eu/Natura2000/SDF.aspx?site=GR4320005"},{"link_name":"Natura 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000"},{"link_name":"European Environment Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Environment_Agency"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Orno Range\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cretanbeaches.com/en/mountains-and-ranges-of-crete/orno-range"}],"text":"^ a b \"Afentis\". PeakVisor. Retrieved 28 July 2022.\n\n^ In addition to Google Maps accessed through the stated coordinates, its distance measurement feature, and its street view feature, this description relies for its numbers and locations on \"Detailed map of Ierapetra Thripti East Crete\". cyclingcreta.gr. Retrieved 4 July 2022., and PeakVisor©, except where noted otherwise.\n\n^ \"Tower of Vaïnia\". Kastrologos: Castles of Greece. Retrieved 4 July 2022.\n\n^ \"Havga Gorge – Kavousi\". Crete destinator. Retrieved 8 July 2022.\n\n^ For example, \"Oros Thryptis kai Gyro Periochi 4.1:\"Other Site Characteristics\" (GR4320005)\". Natura 2000. European Environment Agency. July 2020.\n\n\n^ For example, Alexandros Roniotis (2022). \"Orno Range\". CretanBeaches: Mountains in Crete.","title":"Citations"}]

[{"image_text":"Vainia Tower","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Tower_Village_Vainia.JPG/200px-Tower_Village_Vainia.JPG"},{"image_text":"Mastoras waterfall, which plunges 210 m (690 ft), losing most of its water to vapor.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%B9_%CE%A7%CE%B1_-_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1_1305.jpg/200px-%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%B9_%CE%A7%CE%B1_-_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1_1305.jpg"},{"image_text":"Havgas (or Havga, or Avgo) Gorge near Melisses.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Melisses-Kavousi_2.JPG/200px-Melisses-Kavousi_2.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Ha Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha_Gorge"},{"title":"Mesona Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesona_Gorge"},{"title":"Milona Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milona_Gorge"},{"title":"Orino Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orino_Gorge"}]

[{"reference":"\"Afentis\". PeakVisor. Retrieved 28 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://peakvisor.com/peak/afentis.html","url_text":"\"Afentis\""}]},{"reference":"\"Detailed map of Ierapetra Thripti East Crete\". cyclingcreta.gr. Retrieved 4 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://cyclingcreta.gr/map-of-ierapetra-thripti-crete/","url_text":"\"Detailed map of Ierapetra Thripti East Crete\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tower of Vaïnia\". Kastrologos: Castles of Greece. Retrieved 4 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kastra.eu/castleen.php?kastro=vainia","url_text":"\"Tower of Vaïnia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Havga Gorge – Kavousi\". Crete destinator. Retrieved 8 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.destinationcrete.gr/nature/gorges/havga-gorge-kavousi/","url_text":"\"Havga Gorge – Kavousi\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oros Thryptis kai Gyro Periochi 4.1:\"Other Site Characteristics\" (GR4320005)\". Natura 2000. European Environment Agency. July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/Natura2000/SDF.aspx?site=GR4320005","url_text":"\"Oros Thryptis kai Gyro Periochi 4.1:\"Other Site Characteristics\" (GR4320005)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000","url_text":"Natura 2000"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Environment_Agency","url_text":"European Environment Agency"}]},{"reference":"Alexandros Roniotis (2022). \"Orno Range\". CretanBeaches: Mountains in Crete.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cretanbeaches.com/en/mountains-and-ranges-of-crete/orno-range","url_text":"\"Orno Range\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function

Ackermann function

["1 History","2 Definition","2.1 Definition: as m-ary function","2.2 Definition: as iterated 1-ary function","3 Computation","3.1 TRS, based on 2-ary function","3.2 TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function","3.3 TRS, based on hyperoperators","3.4 Huge numbers","4 Table of values","5 Properties","5.1 General remarks","5.2 Not primitive recursive","6 Use in computational complexity","7 Inverse","8 Use as benchmark","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 Bibliography","13 External links"]

Quickly-growing function This article is about the mathematical function. For other uses, see Ackermann (disambiguation). In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, A ⁡ ( 4 , 2 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (4,2)} results in 2 65536 − 3 {\displaystyle 2^{65536}-3} , an integer of 19,729 decimal digits. History In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply "recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function φ {\displaystyle \varphi } (from Greek, the letter phi). Ackermann's three-argument function, φ ( m , n , p ) {\displaystyle \varphi (m,n,p)} , is defined such that for p = 0 , 1 , 2 {\displaystyle p=0,1,2} , it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as φ ( m , n , 0 ) = m + n φ ( m , n , 1 ) = m × n φ ( m , n , 2 ) = m n {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varphi (m,n,0)&=m+n\\\varphi (m,n,1)&=m\times n\\\varphi (m,n,2)&=m^{n}\end{aligned}}} and for p > 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations: φ ( m , n , 3 ) = m [ 4 ] ( n + 1 ) φ ( m , n , p ) ⪆ m [ p + 1 ] ( n + 1 ) for  p > 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varphi (m,n,3)&=m(n+1)\\\varphi (m,n,p)&\gtrapprox m(n+1)&&{\text{for }}p>3\end{aligned}}} (Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose—such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.) In On the Infinite, David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers. Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors. The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e.g. G ( m , a , b ) = a [ m ] b {\displaystyle G(m,a,b)=ab} , is a version of the Ackermann function as well. In 1963 R.C. Buck based an intuitive two-variable variant F {\displaystyle \operatorname {F} } on the hyperoperation sequence: F ⁡ ( m , n ) = 2 [ m ] n . {\displaystyle \operatorname {F} (m,n)=2n.} Compared to most other versions, Buck's function has no unessential offsets: F ⁡ ( 0 , n ) = 2 [ 0 ] n = n + 1 F ⁡ ( 1 , n ) = 2 [ 1 ] n = 2 + n F ⁡ ( 2 , n ) = 2 [ 2 ] n = 2 × n F ⁡ ( 3 , n ) = 2 [ 3 ] n = 2 n F ⁡ ( 4 , n ) = 2 [ 4 ] n = 2 2 2 . . . 2 ⋮ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {F} (0,n)&=2n=n+1\\\operatorname {F} (1,n)&=2n=2+n\\\operatorname {F} (2,n)&=2n=2\times n\\\operatorname {F} (3,n)&=2n=2^{n}\\\operatorname {F} (4,n)&=2n=2^{2^{2^{{}^{.^{.^{{}_{.}2}}}}}}\\&\quad \vdots \end{aligned}}} Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated. Definition Definition: as m-ary function Ackermann's original three-argument function φ ( m , n , p ) {\displaystyle \varphi (m,n,p)} is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers m , n , {\displaystyle m,n,} and p {\displaystyle p} : φ ( m , n , 0 ) = m + n φ ( m , 0 , 1 ) = 0 φ ( m , 0 , 2 ) = 1 φ ( m , 0 , p ) = m for  p > 2 φ ( m , n , p ) = φ ( m , φ ( m , n − 1 , p ) , p − 1 ) for  n , p > 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varphi (m,n,0)&=m+n\\\varphi (m,0,1)&=0\\\varphi (m,0,2)&=1\\\varphi (m,0,p)&=m&&{\text{for }}p>2\\\varphi (m,n,p)&=\varphi (m,\varphi (m,n-1,p),p-1)&&{\text{for }}n,p>0\end{aligned}}} Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called "the" Ackermann function by most authors) is defined for nonnegative integers m {\displaystyle m} and n {\displaystyle n} as follows: A ⁡ ( 0 , n ) = n + 1 A ⁡ ( m + 1 , 0 ) = A ⁡ ( m , 1 ) A ⁡ ( m + 1 , n + 1 ) = A ⁡ ( m , A ( m + 1 , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}\operatorname {A} (0,n)&=&n+1\\\operatorname {A} (m+1,0)&=&\operatorname {A} (m,1)\\\operatorname {A} (m+1,n+1)&=&\operatorname {A} (m,A(m+1,n))\end{array}}} The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence: A ( m , n ) = { n + 1 m = 0 2 [ m ] ( n + 3 ) − 3 m > 0 {\displaystyle A(m,n)={\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\2(n+3)-3&m>0\\\end{cases}}} or, written in Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices ≥ − 2 {\displaystyle \geq -2} ): = { n + 1 m = 0 2 ↑ m − 2 ( n + 3 ) − 3 m > 0 {\displaystyle ={\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\2\uparrow ^{m-2}(n+3)-3&m>0\\\end{cases}}} or, equivalently, in terms of Buck's function F: = { n + 1 m = 0 F ( m , n + 3 ) − 3 m > 0 {\displaystyle ={\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\F(m,n+3)-3&m>0\\\end{cases}}} Definition: as iterated 1-ary function Define f n {\displaystyle f^{n}} as the n-th iterate of f {\displaystyle f} : f 0 ( x ) = x f n + 1 ( x ) = f ( f n ( x ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rll}f^{0}(x)&=&x\\f^{n+1}(x)&=&f(f^{n}(x))\end{array}}} Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation, so f ( f n ( x ) ) = f n ( f ( x ) ) {\displaystyle f(f^{n}(x))=f^{n}(f(x))} . Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions, one can set A m ⁡ ( n ) = A ⁡ ( m , n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} _{m}(n)=\operatorname {A} (m,n)} . The function then becomes a sequence A 0 , A 1 , A 2 , . . . {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} _{0},\operatorname {A} _{1},\operatorname {A} _{2},...} of unary functions, defined from iteration: A 0 ⁡ ( n ) = n + 1 A m + 1 ⁡ ( n ) = A m n + 1 ⁡ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}\operatorname {A} _{0}(n)&=&n+1\\\operatorname {A} _{m+1}(n)&=&\operatorname {A} _{m}^{n+1}(1)\\\end{array}}} Computation The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system (TRS). TRS, based on 2-ary function The definition of the 2-ary Ackermann function leads to the obvious reduction rules (r1) A ( 0 , n ) → S ( n ) (r2) A ( S ( m ) , 0 ) → A ( m , S ( 0 ) ) (r3) A ( S ( m ) , S ( n ) ) → A ( m , A ( S ( m ) , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(r1)}}&A(0,n)&\rightarrow &S(n)\\{\text{(r2)}}&A(S(m),0)&\rightarrow &A(m,S(0))\\{\text{(r3)}}&A(S(m),S(n))&\rightarrow &A(m,A(S(m),n))\end{array}}} Example Compute A ( 1 , 2 ) → ∗ 4 {\displaystyle A(1,2)\rightarrow _{*}4} The reduction sequence is Leftmost-outermost (one-step) strategy:             Leftmost-innermost (one-step) strategy: A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) _ {\displaystyle {\underline {A(S(0),S(S(0)))}}} A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) _ {\displaystyle {\underline {A(S(0),S(S(0)))}}}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( 0 ) ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}{\underline {A(0,A(S(0),S(0))}})}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( 0 ) ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(0,{\underline {A(S(0),S(0))}})}      → r 1 S ( A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( 0 ) ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}S({\underline {A(S(0),S(0))}})}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( S ( 0 ) , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(S(0),0)}}))}      → r 3 S ( A ( 0 , A ( S 0 , 0 ) ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}S({\underline {A(0,A(S0,0))}})}      → r 2 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , S ( 0 ) ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r2}A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(0,S(0))}}))}      → r 1 S ( S ( A ( S ( 0 ) , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}S(S({\underline {A(S(0),0)}}))}      → r 1 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}A(0,{\underline {A(0,S(S(0)))}})}      → r 2 S ( S ( A ( 0 , S ( 0 ) ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r2}S(S({\underline {A(0,S(0))}}))}      → r 1 A ( 0 , S ( S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) ) _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}{\underline {A(0,S(S(S(0))))}}}      → r 1 S ( S ( S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}S(S(S(S(0))))}      → r 1 S ( S ( S ( S ( 0 ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}S(S(S(S(0))))} To compute A ⁡ ( m , n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (m,n)} one can use a stack, which initially contains the elements ⟨ m , n ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle m,n\rangle } . Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rules (r1) 0 , n → ( n + 1 ) (r2) ( m + 1 ) , 0 → m , 1 (r3) ( m + 1 ) , ( n + 1 ) → m , ( m + 1 ) , n {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\text{(r1)}}&0&,&n&\rightarrow &(n+1)\\{\text{(r2)}}&(m+1)&,&0&\rightarrow &m&,&1\\{\text{(r3)}}&(m+1)&,&(n+1)&\rightarrow &m&,&(m+1)&,&n\end{array}}} Schematically, starting from ⟨ m , n ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle m,n\rangle } : WHILE stackLength <> 1 { POP 2 elements; PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, applying the rules r1, r2, r3 } The pseudocode is published in Grossman & Zeitman (1988). For example, on input ⟨ 2 , 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 2,1\rangle } , the stack configurations     reflect the reduction 2 , 1 _ {\displaystyle {\underline {2,1}}} A ( 2 , 1 ) _ {\displaystyle {\underline {A(2,1)}}}      → 1 , 2 , 0 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 1,{\underline {2,0}}}      → r 1 A ( 1 , A ( 2 , 0 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}A(1,{\underline {A(2,0)}})}      → 1 , 1 , 1 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 1,{\underline {1,1}}}      → r 2 A ( 1 , A ( 1 , 1 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r2}A(1,{\underline {A(1,1)}})}      → 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 1,0,{\underline {1,0}}}      → r 3 A ( 1 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(1,A(0,{\underline {A(1,0)}}))}      → 1 , 0 , 0 , 1 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 1,0,{\underline {0,1}}}      → r 2 A ( 1 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 1 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r2}A(1,A(0,{\underline {A(0,1)}}))}      → 1 , 0 , 2 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 1,{\underline {0,2}}}      → r 1 A ( 1 , A ( 0 , 2 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}A(1,{\underline {A(0,2)}})}      → 1 , 3 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow {\underline {1,3}}}      → r 1 A ( 1 , 3 ) _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}{\underline {A(1,3)}}}      → 0 , 1 , 2 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,{\underline {1,2}}}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 2 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(0,{\underline {A(1,2)}})}      → 0 , 0 , 1 , 1 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,0,{\underline {1,1}}}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 1 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(1,1)}}))}      → 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,0,0,{\underline {1,0}}}      → r 3 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r3}A(0,A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(1,0)}})))}      → 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,0,0,{\underline {0,1}}}      → r 2 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 1 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r2}A(0,A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(0,1)}})))}      → 0 , 0 , 0 , 2 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,0,{\underline {0,2}}}      → r 1 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}A(0,A(0,{\underline {A(0,2)}}))}      → 0 , 0 , 3 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow 0,{\underline {0,3}}}      → r 1 A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 3 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}A(0,{\underline {A(0,3)}})}      → 0 , 4 _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow {\underline {0,4}}}      → r 1 A ( 0 , 4 ) _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}{\underline {A(0,4)}}}      → 5 {\displaystyle \rightarrow 5}      → r 1 5 {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r1}5} Remarks The leftmost-innermost strategy is implemented in 225 computer languages on Rosetta Code. For all m , n {\displaystyle m,n} the computation of A ( m , n ) {\displaystyle A(m,n)} takes no more than ( A ( m , n ) + 1 ) m {\displaystyle (A(m,n)+1)^{m}} steps. Grossman & Zeitman (1988) pointed out that in the computation of A ⁡ ( m , n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (m,n)} the maximum length of the stack is A ⁡ ( m , n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (m,n)} , as long as m > 0 {\displaystyle m>0} . Their own algorithm, inherently iterative, computes A ⁡ ( m , n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (m,n)} within O ( m A ⁡ ( m , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(m\operatorname {A} (m,n))} time and within O ( m ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(m)} space. TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function The definition of the iterated 1-ary Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rules (r4) A ( S ( 0 ) , 0 , n ) → S ( n ) (r5) A ( S ( 0 ) , S ( m ) , n ) → A ( S ( n ) , m , S ( 0 ) ) (r6) A ( S ( S ( x ) ) , m , n ) → A ( S ( 0 ) , m , A ( S ( x ) , m , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(r4)}}&A(S(0),0,n)&\rightarrow &S(n)\\{\text{(r5)}}&A(S(0),S(m),n)&\rightarrow &A(S(n),m,S(0))\\{\text{(r6)}}&A(S(S(x)),m,n)&\rightarrow &A(S(0),m,A(S(x),m,n))\end{array}}} As function composition is associative, instead of rule r6 one can define (r7) A ( S ( S ( x ) ) , m , n ) → A ( S ( x ) , m , A ( S ( 0 ) , m , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(r7)}}&A(S(S(x)),m,n)&\rightarrow &A(S(x),m,A(S(0),m,n))\end{array}}} Like in the previous section the computation of A m 1 ⁡ ( n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} _{m}^{1}(n)} can be implemented with a stack. Initially the stack contains the three elements ⟨ 1 , m , n ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 1,m,n\rangle } . Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rules (r4) 1 , 0 , n → ( n + 1 ) (r5) 1 , ( m + 1 ) , n → ( n + 1 ) , m , 1 (r6) ( x + 2 ) , m , n → 1 , m , ( x + 1 ) , m , n {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\text{(r4)}}&1&,0&,n&\rightarrow &(n+1)\\{\text{(r5)}}&1&,(m+1)&,n&\rightarrow &(n+1)&,m&,1\\{\text{(r6)}}&(x+2)&,m&,n&\rightarrow &1&,m&,(x+1)&,m&,n\\\end{array}}} Schematically, starting from ⟨ 1 , m , n ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 1,m,n\rangle } : WHILE stackLength <> 1 { POP 3 elements; PUSH 1 or 3 or 5 elements, applying the rules r4, r5, r6; } Example On input ⟨ 1 , 2 , 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 1,2,1\rangle } the successive stack configurations are 1 , 2 , 1 _ → r 5 2 , 1 , 1 _ → r 6 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 _ → r 5 1 , 1 , 2 , 0 , 1 _ → r 6 1 , 1 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 _ → r 4 1 , 1 , 1 , 0 , 2 _ → r 4 1 , 1 , 3 _ → r 5 4 , 0 , 1 _ → r 6 1 , 0 , 3 , 0 , 1 _ → r 6 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 2 , 0 , 1 _ → r 6 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 _ → r 4 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 2 _ → r 4 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 3 _ → r 4 1 , 0 , 4 _ → r 4 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\underline {1,2,1}}\rightarrow _{r5}{\underline {2,1,1}}\rightarrow _{r6}1,1,{\underline {1,1,1}}\rightarrow _{r5}1,1,{\underline {2,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r6}1,1,1,0,{\underline {1,0,1}}\\&\rightarrow _{r4}1,1,{\underline {1,0,2}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {1,1,3}}\rightarrow _{r5}{\underline {4,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,{\underline {3,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,1,0,{\underline {2,0,1}}\\&\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,1,0,1,0,{\underline {1,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r4}1,0,1,0,{\underline {1,0,2}}\rightarrow _{r4}1,0,{\underline {1,0,3}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {1,0,4}}\rightarrow _{r4}5\end{aligned}}} The corresponding equalities are A 2 ( 1 ) = A 1 2 ( 1 ) = A 1 ( A 1 ( 1 ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 2 ( 1 ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 ( A 0 ( 1 ) ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 ( 2 ) ) = A 1 ( 3 ) = A 0 4 ( 1 ) = A 0 ( A 0 3 ( 1 ) ) = A 0 ( A 0 ( A 0 2 ( 1 ) ) ) = A 0 ( A 0 ( A 0 ( A 0 ( 1 ) ) ) ) = A 0 ( A 0 ( A 0 ( 2 ) ) ) = A 0 ( A 0 ( 3 ) ) = A 0 ( 4 ) = 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&A_{2}(1)=A_{1}^{2}(1)=A_{1}(A_{1}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}^{2}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1)))\\&=A_{1}(A_{0}(2))=A_{1}(3)=A_{0}^{4}(1)=A_{0}(A_{0}^{3}(1))=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}^{2}(1)))\\&=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1))))=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(2)))=A_{0}(A_{0}(3))=A_{0}(4)=5\end{aligned}}} When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the replacements in the stack will follow (r7) ( x + 2 ) , m , n → ( x + 1 ) , m , 1 , m , n {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\text{(r7)}}&(x+2)&,m&,n&\rightarrow &(x+1)&,m&,1&,m&,n\end{array}}} The successive stack configurations will then be 1 , 2 , 1 _ → r 5 2 , 1 , 1 _ → r 7 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 _ → r 5 1 , 1 , 2 , 0 , 1 _ → r 7 1 , 1 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 _ → r 4 1 , 1 , 1 , 0 , 2 _ → r 4 1 , 1 , 3 _ → r 5 4 , 0 , 1 _ → r 7 3 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 _ → r 4 3 , 0 , 2 _ → r 7 2 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 2 _ → r 4 2 , 0 , 3 _ → r 7 1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 3 _ → r 4 1 , 0 , 4 _ → r 4 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\underline {1,2,1}}\rightarrow _{r5}{\underline {2,1,1}}\rightarrow _{r7}1,1,{\underline {1,1,1}}\rightarrow _{r5}1,1,{\underline {2,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r7}1,1,1,0,{\underline {1,0,1}}\\&\rightarrow _{r4}1,1,{\underline {1,0,2}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {1,1,3}}\rightarrow _{r5}{\underline {4,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r7}3,0,{\underline {1,0,1}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {3,0,2}}\\&\rightarrow _{r7}2,0,{\underline {1,0,2}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {2,0,3}}\rightarrow _{r7}1,0,{\underline {1,0,3}}\rightarrow _{r4}{\underline {1,0,4}}\rightarrow _{r4}5\end{aligned}}} The corresponding equalities are A 2 ( 1 ) = A 1 2 ( 1 ) = A 1 ( A 1 ( 1 ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 2 ( 1 ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 ( A 0 ( 1 ) ) ) = A 1 ( A 0 ( 2 ) ) = A 1 ( 3 ) = A 0 4 ( 1 ) = A 0 3 ( A 0 ( 1 ) ) = A 0 3 ( 2 ) = A 0 2 ( A 0 ( 2 ) ) = A 0 2 ( 3 ) = A 0 ( A 0 ( 3 ) ) = A 0 ( 4 ) = 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&A_{2}(1)=A_{1}^{2}(1)=A_{1}(A_{1}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}^{2}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1)))\\&=A_{1}(A_{0}(2))=A_{1}(3)=A_{0}^{4}(1)=A_{0}^{3}(A_{0}(1))=A_{0}^{3}(2)\\&=A_{0}^{2}(A_{0}(2))=A_{0}^{2}(3)=A_{0}(A_{0}(3))=A_{0}(4)=5\end{aligned}}} Remarks On any given input the TRSs presented so far converge in the same number of steps. They also use the same reduction rules (in this comparison the rules r1, r2, r3 are considered "the same as" the rules r4, r5, r6/r7 respectively). For example, the reduction of A ( 2 , 1 ) {\displaystyle A(2,1)} converges in 14 steps: 6 × r1, 3 × r2, 5 × r3. The reduction of A 2 ( 1 ) {\displaystyle A_{2}(1)} converges in the same 14 steps: 6 × r4, 3 × r5, 5 × r6/r7. The TRSs differ in the order in which the reduction rules are applied. When A i ( n ) {\displaystyle A_{i}(n)} is computed following the rules {r4, r5, r6}, the maximum length of the stack stays below 2 × A ( i , n ) {\displaystyle 2\times A(i,n)} . When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the maximum length of the stack is only 2 ( i + 2 ) {\displaystyle 2(i+2)} . The length of the stack reflects the recursion depth. As the reduction according to the rules {r4, r5, r7} involves a smaller maximum depth of recursion, this computation is more efficient in that respect. TRS, based on hyperoperators As Sundblad (1971) — or Porto & Matos (1980) — showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence: A ( m , n ) = { n + 1 m = 0 2 [ m ] ( n + 3 ) − 3 m > 0 {\displaystyle A(m,n)={\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\2(n+3)-3&m>0\\\end{cases}}} or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck's function = { n + 1 m = 0 F ( m , n + 3 ) − 3 m > 0 {\displaystyle ={\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\F(m,n+3)-3&m>0\\\end{cases}}} Buck's function F ⁡ ( m , n ) = 2 [ m ] n {\displaystyle \operatorname {F} (m,n)=2n} , a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules: (b1) F ( S ( 0 ) , 0 , n ) → S ( n ) (b2) F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( 0 ) , 0 ) → S ( S ( 0 ) ) (b3) F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( S ( 0 ) ) , 0 ) → 0 (b4) F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( S ( S ( m ) ) ) , 0 ) → S ( 0 ) (b5) F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( m ) , S ( n ) ) → F ( S ( n ) , m , F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( m ) , 0 ) ) (b6) F ( S ( S ( x ) ) , m , n ) → F ( S ( 0 ) , m , F ( S ( x ) , m , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(b1)}}&F(S(0),0,n)&\rightarrow &S(n)\\{\text{(b2)}}&F(S(0),S(0),0)&\rightarrow &S(S(0))\\{\text{(b3)}}&F(S(0),S(S(0)),0)&\rightarrow &0\\{\text{(b4)}}&F(S(0),S(S(S(m))),0)&\rightarrow &S(0)\\{\text{(b5)}}&F(S(0),S(m),S(n))&\rightarrow &F(S(n),m,F(S(0),S(m),0))\\{\text{(b6)}}&F(S(S(x)),m,n)&\rightarrow &F(S(0),m,F(S(x),m,n))\end{array}}} Instead of rule b6 one can define the rule (b7) F ( S ( S ( x ) ) , m , n ) → F ( S ( x ) , m , F ( S ( 0 ) , m , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(b7)}}&F(S(S(x)),m,n)&\rightarrow &F(S(x),m,F(S(0),m,n))\end{array}}} To compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rules (r8) A ( 0 , n ) → S ( n ) (r9) A ( S ( m ) , n ) → P ( F ( S ( 0 ) , S ( m ) , S ( S ( S ( n ) ) ) ) ) (r10) P ( S ( S ( S ( m ) ) ) ) → m {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}{\text{(r8)}}&A(0,n)&\rightarrow &S(n)\\{\text{(r9)}}&A(S(m),n)&\rightarrow &P(F(S(0),S(m),S(S(S(n)))))\\{\text{(r10)}}&P(S(S(S(m))))&\rightarrow &m\\\end{array}}} These rules take care of the base case A(0,n), the alignment (n+3) and the fudge (-3). Example Compute A ( 2 , 1 ) → ∗ 5 {\displaystyle A(2,1)\rightarrow _{*}5} using reduction rule b7 {\displaystyle {\text{b7}}} :     using reduction rule b6 {\displaystyle {\text{b6}}} : A ( 2 , 1 ) _ {\displaystyle {\underline {A(2,1)}}} A ( 2 , 1 ) _ {\displaystyle {\underline {A(2,1)}}}      → r 9 P ( F ( 1 , 2 , 4 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r9}P({\underline {F(1,2,4)}})}      → r 9 P ( F ( 1 , 2 , 4 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r9}P({\underline {F(1,2,4)}})}      → b 5 P ( F ( 4 , 1 , F ( 1 , 2 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(4,1,{\underline {F(1,2,0)}}))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 4 , 1 , F ( 1 , 2 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(4,1,{\underline {F(1,2,0)}}))}      → b 3 P ( F ( 4 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b3}P({\underline {F(4,1,0)}})}      → b 3 P ( F ( 4 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b3}P({\underline {F(4,1,0)}})}      → b 7 P ( F ( 3 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(3,1,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 3 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(3,1,0)}}))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 3 , 1 , 2 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P({\underline {F(3,1,2)}})}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 2 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,{\underline {F(2,1,0)}})))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(2,1,{\underline {F(1,1,2)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}}))))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(2,1,F(2,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}})))}                 → b 2 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,1,2)}})))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P(F(2,1,{\underline {F(2,0,2)}}))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(2,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}}))))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(2,1,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}})))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,{\underline {F(2,0,2)}})))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(2,1,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}}))))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 2 , 1 , 4 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(2,1,4)}})}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}})))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 4 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,1,4)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 1 , 4 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,1,4)}}))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 4 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(1,1,F(4,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}})))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 4 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(1,1,F(4,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}})))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 4 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(4,0,2)}}))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 4 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(4,0,2)}}))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 3 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(1,1,F(3,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}})))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 3 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,{\underline {F(3,0,2)}})))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 3 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(3,0,3)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 2 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(2,0,2)}}))))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(1,1,F(2,0,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}})))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}})))))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 2 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(2,0,4)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}}))))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,4)}})))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,4)}})))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , 5 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,0,5)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , F ( 1 , 0 , 5 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,1,{\underline {F(1,0,5)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , 6 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(1,1,6)}})}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 1 , 6 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(1,1,6)}})}      → b 5 P ( F ( 6 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(6,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}}))}      → b 5 P ( F ( 6 , 0 , F ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b5}P(F(6,0,{\underline {F(1,1,0)}}))}      → b 2 P ( F ( 6 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P({\underline {F(6,0,2)}})}      → b 2 P ( F ( 6 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b2}P({\underline {F(6,0,2)}})}      → b 7 P ( F ( 5 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(5,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 5 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,0,{\underline {F(5,0,2)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 5 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(5,0,3)}})}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 4 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(4,0,2)}})))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 4 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(4,0,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 3 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(3,0,2)}}))))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 4 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(4,0,4)}})}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 2 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(2,0,2)}})))))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 3 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(3,0,{\underline {F(1,0,4)}}))}      → b 6 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 2 ) _ ) ) ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b6}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,2)}}))))))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 3 , 0 , 5 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(3,0,5)}})}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 3 ) _ ) ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,3)}})))))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 2 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 5 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(2,0,{\underline {F(1,0,5)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 4 ) _ ) ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,4)}}))))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 2 , 0 , 6 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(2,0,6)}})}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 5 ) _ ) ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,0,F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,5)}})))}      → b 7 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 6 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b7}P(F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,6)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , F ( 1 , 0 , 6 ) _ ) ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P(F(1,0,{\underline {F(1,0,6)}}))}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , 7 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(1,0,7)}})}      → b 1 P ( F ( 1 , 0 , 7 ) _ ) {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}P({\underline {F(1,0,7)}})}      → b 1 P ( 8 ) _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}{\underline {P(8)}}}      → b 1 P ( 8 ) _ {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{b1}{\underline {P(8)}}}      → r 10 5 {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r10}5}      → r 10 5 {\displaystyle \rightarrow _{r10}5} The matching equalities are when the TRS with the reduction rule b6 {\displaystyle {\text{b6}}} is applied: A ( 2 , 1 ) + 3 = F ( 2 , 4 ) = ⋯ = F 6 ( 0 , 2 ) = F ( 0 , F 5 ( 0 , 2 ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F 4 ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F 3 ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F 2 ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 3 ) ) ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 4 ) ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 5 ) ) ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 6 ) ) = F ( 0 , 7 ) = 8 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&A(2,1)+3=F(2,4)=\dots =F^{6}(0,2)=F(0,F^{5}(0,2))=F(0,F(0,F^{4}(0,2)))\\&=F(0,F(0,F(0,F^{3}(0,2))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F^{2}(0,2)))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,2))))))\\&=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,3)))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,4))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,5)))=F(0,F(0,6))=F(0,7)=8\end{aligned}}} when the TRS with the reduction rule b7 {\displaystyle {\text{b7}}} is applied: A ( 2 , 1 ) + 3 = F ( 2 , 4 ) = ⋯ = F 6 ( 0 , 2 ) = F 5 ( 0 , F ( 0 , 2 ) ) = F 5 ( 0 , 3 ) = F 4 ( 0 , F ( 0 , 3 ) ) = F 4 ( 0 , 4 ) = F 3 ( 0 , F ( 0 , 4 ) ) = F 3 ( 0 , 5 ) = F 2 ( 0 , F ( 0 , 5 ) ) = F 2 ( 0 , 6 ) = F ( 0 , F ( 0 , 6 ) ) = F ( 0 , 7 ) = 8 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&A(2,1)+3=F(2,4)=\dots =F^{6}(0,2)=F^{5}(0,F(0,2))=F^{5}(0,3)=F^{4}(0,F(0,3))=F^{4}(0,4)\\&=F^{3}(0,F(0,4))=F^{3}(0,5)=F^{2}(0,F(0,5))=F^{2}(0,6)=F(0,F(0,6))=F(0,7)=8\end{aligned}}} Remarks The computation of A i ⁡ ( n ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} _{i}(n)} according to the rules {b1 - b5, b6, r8 - r10} is deeply recursive. The maximum depth of nested F {\displaystyle F} s is A ( i , n ) + 1 {\displaystyle A(i,n)+1} . The culprit is the order in which iteration is executed: F n + 1 ( x ) = F ( F n ( x ) ) {\displaystyle F^{n+1}(x)=F(F^{n}(x))} . The first F {\displaystyle F} disappears only after the whole sequence is unfolded. The computation according to the rules {b1 - b5, b7, r8 - r10} is more efficient in that respect. The iteration F n + 1 ( x ) = F n ( F ( x ) ) {\displaystyle F^{n+1}(x)=F^{n}(F(x))} simulates the repeated loop over a block of code. The nesting is limited to ( i + 1 ) {\displaystyle (i+1)} , one recursion level per iterated function. Meyer & Ritchie (1967) showed this correspondence. These considerations concern the recursion depth only. Either way of iterating leads to the same number of reduction steps, involving the same rules (when the rules b6 and b7 are considered "the same"). The reduction of A ( 2 , 1 ) {\displaystyle A(2,1)} for instance converges in 35 steps: 12 × b1, 4 × b2, 1 × b3, 4 × b5, 12 × b6/b7, 1 × r9, 1 × r10. The modus iterandi only affects the order in which the reduction rules are applied. A real gain of execution time can only be achieved by not recalculating subresults over and over again. Memoization is an optimization technique where the results of function calls are cached and returned when the same inputs occur again. See for instance Ward (1993). Grossman & Zeitman (1988) published a cunning algorithm which computes A ( i , n ) {\displaystyle A(i,n)} within O ( i A ( i , n ) ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(iA(i,n))} time and within O ( i ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(i)} space. Huge numbers To demonstrate how the computation of A ( 4 , 3 ) {\displaystyle A(4,3)} results in many steps and in a large number: A ( 4 , 3 ) → A ( 3 , A ( 4 , 2 ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 4 , 1 ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 4 , 0 ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , 1 ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 3 , 0 ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 2 , 1 ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , A ( 2 , 0 ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , A ( 1 , 1 ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 0 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 1 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , A ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 1 , 3 ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 2 ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 1 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 1 , 0 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 1 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 2 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , A ( 0 , 3 ) ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , A ( 0 , 4 ) ) ) ) ) → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 2 , 5 ) ) ) ) ⋮ → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , A ( 3 , 13 ) ) ) ⋮ → A ( 3 , A ( 3 , 65533 ) ) ⋮ → A ( 3 , 2 65536 − 3 ) ⋮ → 2 2 65536 − 3. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A(4,3)&\rightarrow A(3,A(4,2))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(4,1)))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(4,0))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(3,1))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(3,0)))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(2,1)))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(2,0))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(1,1))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(1,0)))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(0,1)))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,2))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,3)))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(1,2))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(1,1)))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(1,0))))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(0,1))))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,2)))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,3))))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,4)))))\\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,5))))\\&\qquad \vdots \\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,13)))\\&\qquad \vdots \\&\rightarrow A(3,A(3,65533))\\&\qquad \vdots \\&\rightarrow A(3,2^{65536}-3)\\&\qquad \vdots \\&\rightarrow 2^{2^{65536}}-3.\\\end{aligned}}} Table of values Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed "1" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table: Values of A(m, n) nm 0 1 2 3 4 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 n + 1 {\displaystyle n+1} 1 2 3 4 5 6 n + 2 = 2 + ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle n+2=2+(n+3)-3} 2 3 5 7 9 11 2 n + 3 = 2 ⋅ ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle 2n+3=2\cdot (n+3)-3} 3 5 13 29 61 125 2 ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle 2^{(n+3)}-3} 4 13 65533 265536 − 3 2 2 65536 − 3 {\displaystyle {2^{2^{65536}}}-3} 2 2 2 65536 − 3 {\displaystyle {2^{2^{2^{65536}}}}-3} 2 2 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⏟ n + 3 − 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}\underbrace {{2^{2}}^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{{\cdot }^{2}}}}} _{n+3}-3\end{matrix}}} = 2 2 2 − 3 {\displaystyle ={2^{2^{2}}}-3} = 2 ↑↑ 3 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow 3-3} = 2 2 2 2 − 3 {\displaystyle ={2^{2^{2^{2}}}}-3} = 2 ↑↑ 4 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow 4-3} = 2 2 2 2 2 − 3 {\displaystyle ={2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}-3} = 2 ↑↑ 5 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow 5-3} = 2 2 2 2 2 2 − 3 {\displaystyle ={2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}-3} = 2 ↑↑ 6 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow 6-3} = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 − 3 {\displaystyle ={2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}}-3} = 2 ↑↑ 7 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow 7-3} = 2 ↑↑ ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow (n+3)-3} 5 65533 = 2 ↑↑ ( 2 ↑↑ 2 ) − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow (2\uparrow \uparrow 2)-3} = 2 ↑↑↑ 3 − 3 {\displaystyle =2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3-3} 2 ↑↑↑ 4 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 4-3} 2 ↑↑↑ 5 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 5-3} 2 ↑↑↑ 6 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 6-3} 2 ↑↑↑ 7 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 7-3} 2 ↑↑↑ ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow (n+3)-3} 6 2 ↑↑↑↑ 3 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3-3} 2 ↑↑↑↑ 4 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 4-3} 2 ↑↑↑↑ 5 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 5-3} 2 ↑↑↑↑ 6 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 6-3} 2 ↑↑↑↑ 7 − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 7-3} 2 ↑↑↑↑ ( n + 3 ) − 3 {\displaystyle 2\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow (n+3)-3} m ( 2 → 3 → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to 3\to (m-2))-3} ( 2 → 4 → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to 4\to (m-2))-3} ( 2 → 5 → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to 5\to (m-2))-3} ( 2 → 6 → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to 6\to (m-2))-3} ( 2 → 7 → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to 7\to (m-2))-3} ( 2 → ( n + 3 ) → ( m − 2 ) ) − 3 {\displaystyle (2\to (n+3)\to (m-2))-3} The numbers here which are only expressed with recursive exponentiation or Knuth arrows are very large and would take up too much space to notate in plain decimal digits. Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively. This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly: Values of A(m, n) nm 0 1 2 3 4 n 0 0+1 1+1 2+1 3+1 4+1 n + 1 1 A(0, 1) A(0, A(1, 0))= A(0, 2) A(0, A(1, 1))= A(0, 3) A(0, A(1, 2))= A(0, 4) A(0, A(1, 3))= A(0, 5) A(0, A(1, n−1)) 2 A(1, 1) A(1, A(2, 0))= A(1, 3) A(1, A(2, 1))= A(1, 5) A(1, A(2, 2))= A(1, 7) A(1, A(2, 3))= A(1, 9) A(1, A(2, n−1)) 3 A(2, 1) A(2, A(3, 0))= A(2, 5) A(2, A(3, 1))= A(2, 13) A(2, A(3, 2))= A(2, 29) A(2, A(3, 3))= A(2, 61) A(2, A(3, n−1)) 4 A(3, 1) A(3, A(4, 0))= A(3, 13) A(3, A(4, 1))= A(3, 65533) A(3, A(4, 2)) A(3, A(4, 3)) A(3, A(4, n−1)) 5 A(4, 1) A(4, A(5, 0)) A(4, A(5, 1)) A(4, A(5, 2)) A(4, A(5, 3)) A(4, A(5, n−1)) 6 A(5, 1) A(5, A(6, 0)) A(5, A(6, 1)) A(5, A(6, 2)) A(5, A(6, 3)) A(5, A(6, n−1)) Properties General remarks It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of A ( m , n ) {\displaystyle A(m,n)} always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either m {\displaystyle m} decreases, or m {\displaystyle m} remains the same and n {\displaystyle n} decreases. Each time that n {\displaystyle n} reaches zero, m {\displaystyle m} decreases, so m {\displaystyle m} eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair ( m , n ) {\displaystyle (m,n)} decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when m {\displaystyle m} decreases there is no upper bound on how much n {\displaystyle n} can increase — and it will often increase greatly. For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For m ≥ 4 {\displaystyle m\geq 4} , however, it grows much more quickly; even A ( 4 , 2 ) {\displaystyle A(4,2)} is about 2.00353×1019728, and the decimal expansion of A ( 4 , 3 ) {\displaystyle A(4,3)} is very large by any typical measure, about 2.12004×106.03123×1019727. An interesting aspect is that the only arithmetic operation it ever uses is addition of 1. Its fast growing power is based solely on nested recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see above. A single-argument version f ( n ) = A ( n , n ) {\displaystyle f(n)=A(n,n)} that increases both m {\displaystyle m} and n {\displaystyle n} at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that f ( n ) {\displaystyle f(n)} is roughly comparable to f ω ( n ) {\displaystyle f_{\omega }(n)} in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that f {\displaystyle f} which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. Not primitive recursive The Ackermann function grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore is not itself primitive recursive. The sketch of the proof is this: a primitive recursive function defined using up to k recursions must grow slower than f k + 1 ( n ) {\displaystyle f_{k+1}(n)} , the (k+1)-th function in the fast-growing hierarchy, but the Ackermann function grows at least as fast as f ω ( n ) {\displaystyle f_{\omega }(n)} . Specifically, one shows that for every primitive recursive function f ( x 1 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})} there exists a non-negative integer t {\displaystyle t} such that for all non-negative integers x 1 , … , x n {\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}} , f ( x 1 , … , x n ) < A ( t , max i x i ) . {\displaystyle f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})<A(t,\max _{i}x_{i}).} Once this is established, it follows that A {\displaystyle A} itself is not primitive recursive, since otherwise putting x 1 = x 2 = t {\displaystyle x_{1}=x_{2}=t} would lead to the contradiction A ( t , t ) < A ( t , t ) . {\displaystyle A(t,t)<A(t,t).} The proof proceeds as follows: define the class A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}} of all functions that grow slower than the Ackermann function A = { f | ∃ t   ∀ x 1 ⋯ ∀ x n :   f ( x 1 , … , x n ) < A ( t , max i x i ) } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}=\left\{f\,{\bigg |}\,\exists t\ \forall x_{1}\cdots \forall x_{n}:\ f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})<A(t,\max _{i}x_{i})\right\}} and show that A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}} contains all primitive recursive functions. The latter is achieved by showing that A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}} contains the constant functions, the successor function, the projection functions and that it is closed under the operations of function composition and primitive recursion. Use in computational complexity The Ackermann function appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as vector addition systems and Petri net reachability, thus showing they are computationally infeasible for large instances. The inverse of the Ackerman function appears in some time complexity results. Inverse Since the function  f(n) = A(n, n) considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f−1, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f−1 is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since A(4, 4) is on the order of 2 2 2 2 16 {\displaystyle 2^{2^{2^{2^{16}}}}} . This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms. A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where ⌊ x ⌋ {\displaystyle \lfloor x\rfloor } is the floor function: α ( m , n ) = min { i ≥ 1 : A ( i , ⌊ m / n ⌋ ) ≥ log 2 ⁡ n } . {\displaystyle \alpha (m,n)=\min\{i\geq 1:A(i,\lfloor m/n\rfloor )\geq \log _{2}n\}.} This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of α(m, n) exist; for example, log2 n is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling. Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row. The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive. Use as benchmark The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad. Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982. See also Computability theory Double recursion Fast-growing hierarchy Goodstein function Primitive recursive function Recursion (computer science) Notes ^ with parameter order reversed ^ 'curried' ^ In each step the underlined redex is rewritten. ^ a b here: leftmost-innermost strategy! ^ a b c d For better readabilityS(0) is notated as 1,S(S(0)) is notated as 2,S(S(S(0))) is notated as 3,etc... ^ The maximum depth of recursion refers to the number of levels of activation of a procedure which exist during the deepest call of the procedure. Cornelius & Kirby (1975) ^ LOOP n+1 TIMES DO F References ^ Monin & Hinchey 2003, p. 61. ^ a b Ackermann 1928. ^ "Decimal expansion of A(4,2)". kosara.net. August 27, 2000. Archived from the original on January 20, 2010. ^ Calude, Marcus & Tevy 1979. ^ Hilbert 1926, p. 185. ^ van Heijenoort 1977. ^ Péter 1935. ^ Robinson 1948. ^ Ritchie 1965, p. 1028. ^ a b c Buck 1963. ^ Meeussen & Zantema 1992, p. 6. ^ Munafo 1999a. ^ Ritchie 1965. ^ a b Sundblad 1971. ^ Porto & Matos 1980. ^ Grossman & Zeitman 1988. ^ Paulson 2021. ^ Cohen 1987, p. 56, Proposition 3.16 (see in proof). ^ Brubaker 2023. ^ Czerwiński & Orlikowski 2022. ^ Leroux 2022. ^ Pettie 2002. ^ Matos 2014. ^ Vaida 1970. ^ Wichmann 1976. ^ Wichmann 1977. ^ Wichmann 1982. Bibliography Ackermann, Wilhelm (1928). "Zum Hilbertschen Aufbau der reellen Zahlen". Mathematische Annalen. 99: 118–133. doi:10.1007/BF01459088. S2CID 123431274. Buck, R.C. (1963). "Mathematical Induction and Recursive Definitions". American Mathematical Monthly. 70 (2): 128–135. doi:10.2307/2312881. JSTOR 2312881. Calude, Cristian; Marcus, Solomon; Tevy, Ionel (November 1979). 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ACM '67: Proceedings of the 1967 22nd national conference. pp. 465–469. doi:10.1145/800196.806014. Monin, Jean-Francois; Hinchey, M. G. (2003). Understanding Formal Methods. Springer. p. 61. ISBN 9781852332471. Munafo, Robert (1999a). "Versions of Ackermann's Function". Large Numbers at MROB. Retrieved 2021-11-06. Munafo, Robert (1999b). "Inventing New Operators and Functions". Large Numbers at MROB. Retrieved 2021-11-06. Paulson, Lawrence C. (2021). "Ackermann's Function in Iterative Form: A Proof Assistant Experiment". Retrieved 2021-10-19. Péter, Rózsa (1935). "Konstruktion nichtrekursiver Funktionen". Mathematische Annalen. 111: 42–60. doi:10.1007/BF01472200. S2CID 121107217. Pettie, S. (2002). "An inverse-Ackermann style lower bound for the online minimum spanning tree verification problem". The 43rd Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 2002. Proceedings. pp. 155–163. doi:10.1109/SFCS.2002.1181892. ISBN 0-7695-1822-2. S2CID 8636108. Porto, António; Matos, Armando B. (1 September 1980). "Ackermann and the superpowers" (PDF). ACM SIGACT News. 12 (3): Original version 1980, published in “ACM SIGACT News”, Modified in October 20, 2012, Modified in January 23, 2016 (working paper). doi:10.1145/1008861.1008872. S2CID 29780652. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Ritchie, Robert Wells (November 1965). "Classes of recursive functions based on Ackermann's function". Pacific Journal of Mathematics. 15 (3): 1027–1044. doi:10.2140/pjm.1965.15.1027. Robinson, Raphael Mitchel (1948). "Recursion and Double Recursion". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 54 (10): 987–93. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1948-09121-2. Sundblad, Yngve (March 1971). "The Ackermann function. A theoretical, computational, and formula manipulative study". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 11 (1): 107–119. doi:10.1007/BF01935330. S2CID 123416408. Vaida, Dragoș (1970). "Compiler Validation for an Algol-like Language". Bulletin Mathématique de la Société des Sciences Mathématiques de la République Socialiste de Roumanie. Nouvelle série. 14 (62) (4): 487–502. JSTOR 43679758. Ward, Martin P. (16 July 1993). Iterative Procedures for Computing Ackerman's Function. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.35.9907. Wichmann, Brian A. (March 1976). "Ackermann's function: A study in the efficiency of calling procedures". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 16: 103–110. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.4125. doi:10.1007/BF01940783. S2CID 16993343. Wichmann, Brian A. (July 1977). "How to call procedures, or second thoughts on Ackermann's function". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 16 (3): 103–110. doi:10.1002/spe.4380070303. S2CID 206507320. Wichmann, Brian A. (July 1982). "Latest results from the procedure calling test, Ackermann's function" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. External links "Ackermann function". Encyclopedia of Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 . Weisstein, Eric W. "Ackermann function". MathWorld.  This article incorporates public domain material from Paul E. Black. "Ackermann's function". Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. NIST. An animated Ackermann function calculator Aaronson, Scott (1999). "Who Can Name the Bigger Number?". Ackermann functions. Includes a table of some values. Brubaker, Ben (2023-12-04). "An Easy-Sounding Problem Yields Numbers Too Big for Our Universe". Munafo, Robert. "Large Numbers". describes several variations on the definition of A. Nivasch, Gabriel (October 2021). "Inverse Ackermann without pain". Archived from the original on 2007-08-21. Retrieved 18 June 2023. Seidel, Raimund. "Understanding the inverse Ackermann function" (PDF). The Ackermann function written in different programming languages, (on Rosetta Code) Smith, Harry J. "Ackermann's Function". Archived from the original on 2009-10-26.) Some study and programming. vteHyperoperationsPrimary Successor (0) Addition (1) Multiplication (2) Exponentiation (3) Tetration (4) Pentation (5) Hexation (6) Inverse for left argument Predecessor (0) Subtraction (1) Division (2) Root extraction (3) Super-root (4) Inverse for right argument Predecessor (0) Subtraction (1) Division (2) Logarithm (3) Super-logarithm (4) Related articles Ackermann function Conway chained arrow notation Grzegorczyk hierarchy Knuth's up-arrow notation Steinhaus–Moser notation vteLarge numbersExamples innumerical order Thousand Ten thousand Hundred thousand Million Ten million Hundred million Billion Trillion Quadrillion Quintillion Sextillion Septillion Octillion Nonillion Decillion Eddington number Googol Shannon number Googolplex Skewes's number Moser's number Graham's number TREE(3) SSCG(3) BH(3) Rayo's number Infinity ExpressionmethodsNotations Scientific notation Knuth's up-arrow notation Conway chained arrow notation Steinhaus–Moser notation Operators Hyperoperation Tetration Pentation Ackermann function Grzegorczyk hierarchy Fast-growing hierarchy Related articles(alphabetical order) Busy beaver Extended real number line Indefinite and fictitious numbers Infinitesimal Largest known prime number List of numbers Long and short scales Number systems Number names Orders of magnitude Power of two Power of three Power of 10 Sagan Unit Names History

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ackermann (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"computability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Ackermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ackermann"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoninHinchey200361-1"},{"link_name":"total","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_function"},{"link_name":"computable function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function"},{"link_name":"primitive recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_function"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckermann1928-2"},{"link_name":"Rózsa Péter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3zsa_P%C3%A9ter"},{"link_name":"Raphael Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Robinson"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"This article is about the mathematical function. For other uses, see Ackermann (disambiguation).In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest[1] and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive.After Ackermann's publication[2] of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today \"the Ackermann function\" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n 4\n ,\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} (4,2)}\n \n results in \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n 65536\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{65536}-3}\n \n, an integer of 19,729 decimal digits.[3]","title":"Ackermann function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gabriel Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Ackermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ackermann"},{"link_name":"David Hilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaludeMarcusTevy1979-4"},{"link_name":"total","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_function"},{"link_name":"computable functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function"},{"link_name":"primitive recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_function"},{"link_name":"Sudan function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_function"},{"link_name":"phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi"},{"link_name":"addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"hyperoperations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"Goodstein's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuben_Goodstein"},{"link_name":"hyperoperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilbert1926185-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckermann1928-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Heijenoort1977-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%A9ter1935-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1948-8"},{"link_name":"hyperoperation sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERitchie19651028-9"},{"link_name":"R.C. Buck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Creighton_Buck"},{"link_name":"[n 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop3-10"},{"link_name":"hyperoperation sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck1963-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeeussenZantema19926-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunafo1999a-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERitchie1965-14"}],"text":"In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited[4] with discovering total computable functions (termed simply \"recursive\" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function \n \n \n \n φ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi }\n \n (from Greek, the letter phi). Ackermann's three-argument function, \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (m,n,p)}\n \n, is defined such that for \n \n \n \n p\n =\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p=0,1,2}\n \n, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation asφ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n \n =\n m\n +\n n\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n =\n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n 2\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n m\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\varphi (m,n,0)&=m+n\\\\\\varphi (m,n,1)&=m\\times n\\\\\\varphi (m,n,2)&=m^{n}\\end{aligned}}}and for p > 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations:φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n 3\n )\n \n \n \n =\n m\n [\n 4\n ]\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n p\n )\n \n \n \n ⪆\n m\n [\n p\n +\n 1\n ]\n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n for \n \n p\n >\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\varphi (m,n,3)&=m[4](n+1)\\\\\\varphi (m,n,p)&\\gtrapprox m[p+1](n+1)&&{\\text{for }}p>3\\end{aligned}}}(Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose—such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.)In On the Infinite,[5] David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers.[2][6]Rózsa Péter[7] and Raphael Robinson[8] later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors.The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e.g. \n \n \n \n G\n (\n m\n ,\n a\n ,\n b\n )\n =\n a\n [\n m\n ]\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G(m,a,b)=a[m]b}\n \n, is a version of the Ackermann function as well.[9]In 1963 R.C. Buck based an intuitive two-variable [n 1] variant \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {F} }\n \n on the hyperoperation sequence:[10][11]F\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n 2\n [\n m\n ]\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {F} (m,n)=2[m]n.}Compared to most other versions, Buck's function has no unessential offsets:F\n ⁡\n (\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n [\n 0\n ]\n n\n =\n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n F\n ⁡\n (\n 1\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n [\n 1\n ]\n n\n =\n 2\n +\n n\n \n \n \n \n F\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n [\n 2\n ]\n n\n =\n 2\n ×\n n\n \n \n \n \n F\n ⁡\n (\n 3\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n [\n 3\n ]\n n\n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n ⁡\n (\n 4\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 2\n [\n 4\n ]\n n\n =\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n\n \n \n .\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\operatorname {F} (0,n)&=2[0]n=n+1\\\\\\operatorname {F} (1,n)&=2[1]n=2+n\\\\\\operatorname {F} (2,n)&=2[2]n=2\\times n\\\\\\operatorname {F} (3,n)&=2[3]n=2^{n}\\\\\\operatorname {F} (4,n)&=2[4]n=2^{2^{2^{{}^{.^{.^{{}_{.}2}}}}}}\\\\&\\quad \\vdots \\end{aligned}}}Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated.[12][13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"recursively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion"},{"link_name":"hyperoperation sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundblad1971-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPortoMatos1980-16"},{"link_name":"Knuth's up-arrow notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%27s_up-arrow_notation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck1963-11"}],"sub_title":"Definition: as m-ary function","text":"Ackermann's original three-argument function \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (m,n,p)}\n \n is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers \n \n \n \n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m,n,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n:φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n \n =\n m\n +\n n\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n \n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n 0\n ,\n p\n )\n \n \n \n =\n m\n \n \n \n \n for \n \n p\n >\n 2\n \n \n \n \n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n ,\n p\n )\n \n \n \n =\n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n φ\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n −\n 1\n ,\n p\n )\n ,\n p\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n for \n \n n\n ,\n p\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\varphi (m,n,0)&=m+n\\\\\\varphi (m,0,1)&=0\\\\\\varphi (m,0,2)&=1\\\\\\varphi (m,0,p)&=m&&{\\text{for }}p>2\\\\\\varphi (m,n,p)&=\\varphi (m,\\varphi (m,n-1,p),p-1)&&{\\text{for }}n,p>0\\end{aligned}}}Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called \"the\" Ackermann function by most authors) is defined for nonnegative integers \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n and \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n as follows:A\n ⁡\n (\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n ,\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n A\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lcl}\\operatorname {A} (0,n)&=&n+1\\\\\\operatorname {A} (m+1,0)&=&\\operatorname {A} (m,1)\\\\\\operatorname {A} (m+1,n+1)&=&\\operatorname {A} (m,A(m+1,n))\\end{array}}}The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence:[14][15]A\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n m\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n 2\n [\n m\n ]\n (\n n\n +\n 3\n )\n −\n 3\n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(m,n)={\\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\\\2[m](n+3)-3&m>0\\\\\\end{cases}}}or, written in Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices \n \n \n \n ≥\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geq -2}\n \n):\n\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n m\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n ↑\n \n m\n −\n 2\n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 3\n )\n −\n 3\n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ={\\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\\\2\\uparrow ^{m-2}(n+3)-3&m>0\\\\\\end{cases}}}\n \n\nor, equivalently, in terms of Buck's function F:[10]\n\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n m\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n F\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n +\n 3\n )\n −\n 3\n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ={\\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\\\F(m,n+3)-3&m>0\\\\\\end{cases}}}","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iteration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterated_function"},{"link_name":"Function composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"associative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative"},{"link_name":"[n 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop4-17"},{"link_name":"iteration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterated_function"}],"sub_title":"Definition: as iterated 1-ary function","text":"Define \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f^{n}}\n \n as the n-th iterate of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n:f\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n f\n (\n \n f\n \n n\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{rll}f^{0}(x)&=&x\\\\f^{n+1}(x)&=&f(f^{n}(x))\\end{array}}}Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation, so \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n f\n \n n\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n )\n =\n \n f\n \n n\n \n \n (\n f\n (\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(f^{n}(x))=f^{n}(f(x))}\n \n.Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions, one can set \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n m\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n )\n =\n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} _{m}(n)=\\operatorname {A} (m,n)}\n \n.The function then becomes a sequence \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} _{0},\\operatorname {A} _{1},\\operatorname {A} _{2},...}\n \n of unary[n 2] functions, defined from iteration:A\n \n 0\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n m\n +\n 1\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n A\n \n m\n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lcl}\\operatorname {A} _{0}(n)&=&n+1\\\\\\operatorname {A} _{m+1}(n)&=&\\operatorname {A} _{m}^{n+1}(1)\\\\\\end{array}}}","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"term rewriting system (TRS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewriting#Term_rewriting_systems"}],"text":"The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system (TRS).","title":"Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossmanZeitman1988-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulson2021-19"},{"link_name":"[n 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop5-20"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(abstract_data_type)"},{"link_name":"[n 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop2-21"},{"link_name":"pseudocode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocode"},{"link_name":"Grossman & Zeitman (1988)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGrossmanZeitman1988"},{"link_name":"Rosetta Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Code"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen198756Proposition_3.16_(see_in_proof)-23"},{"link_name":"Grossman & Zeitman (1988)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGrossmanZeitman1988"}],"sub_title":"TRS, based on 2-ary function","text":"The definition of the 2-ary Ackermann function leads to the obvious reduction rules [16][17](r1)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r2)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n A\n (\n m\n ,\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r3)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n A\n (\n m\n ,\n A\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(r1)}}&A(0,n)&\\rightarrow &S(n)\\\\{\\text{(r2)}}&A(S(m),0)&\\rightarrow &A(m,S(0))\\\\{\\text{(r3)}}&A(S(m),S(n))&\\rightarrow &A(m,A(S(m),n))\\end{array}}}ExampleCompute \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 2\n )\n \n →\n \n ∗\n \n \n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(1,2)\\rightarrow _{*}4}The reduction sequence is [n 3]To compute \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} (m,n)}\n \n one can use a stack, which initially contains the elements \n \n \n \n ⟨\n m\n ,\n n\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle m,n\\rangle }\n \n.Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rules[n 4](r1)\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r2)\n \n \n \n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n 0\n \n \n →\n \n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n (r3)\n \n \n \n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\\text{(r1)}}&0&,&n&\\rightarrow &(n+1)\\\\{\\text{(r2)}}&(m+1)&,&0&\\rightarrow &m&,&1\\\\{\\text{(r3)}}&(m+1)&,&(n+1)&\\rightarrow &m&,&(m+1)&,&n\\end{array}}}Schematically, starting from \n \n \n \n ⟨\n m\n ,\n n\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle m,n\\rangle }\n \n:WHILE stackLength <> 1\n{\n POP 2 elements;\n PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, applying the rules r1, r2, r3\n}The pseudocode is published in Grossman & Zeitman (1988).For example, on input \n \n \n \n ⟨\n 2\n ,\n 1\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle 2,1\\rangle }\n \n,RemarksThe leftmost-innermost strategy is implemented in 225 computer languages on Rosetta Code.\nFor all \n \n \n \n m\n ,\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m,n}\n \n the computation of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(m,n)}\n \n takes no more than \n \n \n \n (\n A\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n +\n 1\n \n )\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (A(m,n)+1)^{m}}\n \n steps.[18]\nGrossman & Zeitman (1988) pointed out that in the computation of \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} (m,n)}\n \n the maximum length of the stack is \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} (m,n)}\n \n, as long as \n \n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m>0}\n \n.Their own algorithm, inherently iterative, computes \n \n \n \n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} (m,n)}\n \n within \n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n (\n m\n A\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {O}}(m\\operatorname {A} (m,n))}\n \n time and within \n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n (\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {O}}(m)}\n \n space.","title":"Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[n 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop2-21"},{"link_name":"[n 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop6-24"}],"sub_title":"TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function","text":"The definition of the iterated 1-ary Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rules(r4)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r5)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n n\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r6)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n A\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(r4)}}&A(S(0),0,n)&\\rightarrow &S(n)\\\\{\\text{(r5)}}&A(S(0),S(m),n)&\\rightarrow &A(S(n),m,S(0))\\\\{\\text{(r6)}}&A(S(S(x)),m,n)&\\rightarrow &A(S(0),m,A(S(x),m,n))\\end{array}}}As function composition is associative, instead of rule r6 one can define(r7)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n A\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(r7)}}&A(S(S(x)),m,n)&\\rightarrow &A(S(x),m,A(S(0),m,n))\\end{array}}}Like in the previous section the computation of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n m\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} _{m}^{1}(n)}\n \n can be implemented with a stack.Initially the stack contains the three elements \n \n \n \n ⟨\n 1\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle 1,m,n\\rangle }\n \n.Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rules[n 4](r4)\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n 0\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r5)\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n (\n n\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n (r6)\n \n \n \n (\n x\n +\n 2\n )\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n (\n x\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\\text{(r4)}}&1&,0&,n&\\rightarrow &(n+1)\\\\{\\text{(r5)}}&1&,(m+1)&,n&\\rightarrow &(n+1)&,m&,1\\\\{\\text{(r6)}}&(x+2)&,m&,n&\\rightarrow &1&,m&,(x+1)&,m&,n\\\\\\end{array}}}Schematically, starting from \n \n \n \n ⟨\n 1\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle 1,m,n\\rangle }\n \n:WHILE stackLength <> 1\n{\n POP 3 elements;\n PUSH 1 or 3 or 5 elements, applying the rules r4, r5, r6;\n}ExampleOn input \n \n \n \n ⟨\n 1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 1\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle 1,2,1\\rangle }\n \n the successive stack configurations are1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 6\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 6\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 3\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n 4\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 6\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 3\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 6\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 6\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 3\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 4\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&{\\underline {1,2,1}}\\rightarrow _{r5}{\\underline {2,1,1}}\\rightarrow _{r6}1,1,{\\underline {1,1,1}}\\rightarrow _{r5}1,1,{\\underline {2,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r6}1,1,1,0,{\\underline {1,0,1}}\\\\&\\rightarrow _{r4}1,1,{\\underline {1,0,2}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {1,1,3}}\\rightarrow _{r5}{\\underline {4,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,{\\underline {3,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,1,0,{\\underline {2,0,1}}\\\\&\\rightarrow _{r6}1,0,1,0,1,0,{\\underline {1,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r4}1,0,1,0,{\\underline {1,0,2}}\\rightarrow _{r4}1,0,{\\underline {1,0,3}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {1,0,4}}\\rightarrow _{r4}5\\end{aligned}}}The corresponding equalities areA\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 2\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 3\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 4\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 3\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 4\n )\n =\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&A_{2}(1)=A_{1}^{2}(1)=A_{1}(A_{1}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}^{2}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1)))\\\\&=A_{1}(A_{0}(2))=A_{1}(3)=A_{0}^{4}(1)=A_{0}(A_{0}^{3}(1))=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}^{2}(1)))\\\\&=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1))))=A_{0}(A_{0}(A_{0}(2)))=A_{0}(A_{0}(3))=A_{0}(4)=5\\end{aligned}}}When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the replacements in the stack will follow(r7)\n \n \n \n (\n x\n +\n 2\n )\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n (\n x\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n 1\n \n \n ,\n m\n \n \n ,\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lllllllll}{\\text{(r7)}}&(x+2)&,m&,n&\\rightarrow &(x+1)&,m&,1&,m&,n\\end{array}}}The successive stack configurations will then be1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 7\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 7\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 3\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n 4\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 7\n \n \n 3\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n \n _\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 7\n \n \n 2\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 2\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 3\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 7\n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 3\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 4\n \n _\n \n \n \n →\n \n r\n 4\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&{\\underline {1,2,1}}\\rightarrow _{r5}{\\underline {2,1,1}}\\rightarrow _{r7}1,1,{\\underline {1,1,1}}\\rightarrow _{r5}1,1,{\\underline {2,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r7}1,1,1,0,{\\underline {1,0,1}}\\\\&\\rightarrow _{r4}1,1,{\\underline {1,0,2}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {1,1,3}}\\rightarrow _{r5}{\\underline {4,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r7}3,0,{\\underline {1,0,1}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {3,0,2}}\\\\&\\rightarrow _{r7}2,0,{\\underline {1,0,2}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {2,0,3}}\\rightarrow _{r7}1,0,{\\underline {1,0,3}}\\rightarrow _{r4}{\\underline {1,0,4}}\\rightarrow _{r4}5\\end{aligned}}}The corresponding equalities areA\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 2\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n 3\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 4\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n (\n 2\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 2\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 3\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 3\n )\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n 4\n )\n =\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&A_{2}(1)=A_{1}^{2}(1)=A_{1}(A_{1}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}^{2}(1))=A_{1}(A_{0}(A_{0}(1)))\\\\&=A_{1}(A_{0}(2))=A_{1}(3)=A_{0}^{4}(1)=A_{0}^{3}(A_{0}(1))=A_{0}^{3}(2)\\\\&=A_{0}^{2}(A_{0}(2))=A_{0}^{2}(3)=A_{0}(A_{0}(3))=A_{0}(4)=5\\end{aligned}}}RemarksOn any given input the TRSs presented so far converge in the same number of steps. They also use the same reduction rules (in this comparison the rules r1, r2, r3 are considered \"the same as\" the rules r4, r5, r6/r7 respectively). For example, the reduction of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(2,1)}\n \n converges in 14 steps: 6 × r1, 3 × r2, 5 × r3. The reduction of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{2}(1)}\n \n converges in the same 14 steps: 6 × r4, 3 × r5, 5 × r6/r7. The TRSs differ in the order in which the reduction rules are applied.\nWhen \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{i}(n)}\n \n is computed following the rules {r4, r5, r6}, the maximum length of the stack stays below \n \n \n \n 2\n ×\n A\n (\n i\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\times A(i,n)}\n \n. When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the maximum length of the stack is only \n \n \n \n 2\n (\n i\n +\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2(i+2)}\n \n. The length of the stack reflects the recursion depth. As the reduction according to the rules {r4, r5, r7} involves a smaller maximum depth of recursion,[n 6] this computation is more efficient in that respect.","title":"Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sundblad (1971)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSundblad1971"},{"link_name":"Porto & Matos (1980)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFPortoMatos1980"},{"link_name":"hyperoperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuck1963-11"},{"link_name":"[n 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop7-25"},{"link_name":"Meyer & Ritchie (1967)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMeyerRitchie1967"},{"link_name":"Memoization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization"},{"link_name":"Ward (1993)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWard1993"},{"link_name":"Grossman & Zeitman (1988)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGrossmanZeitman1988"}],"sub_title":"TRS, based on hyperoperators","text":"As Sundblad (1971) — or Porto & Matos (1980) — showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence:A\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n m\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n 2\n [\n m\n ]\n (\n n\n +\n 3\n )\n −\n 3\n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(m,n)={\\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\\\2[m](n+3)-3&m>0\\\\\\end{cases}}}or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck's function=\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n m\n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n F\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n +\n 3\n )\n −\n 3\n \n \n m\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ={\\begin{cases}n+1&m=0\\\\F(m,n+3)-3&m>0\\\\\\end{cases}}}Buck's function \n \n \n \n F\n ⁡\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n 2\n [\n m\n ]\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {F} (m,n)=2[m]n}\n \n,[10] a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules:(b1)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (b2)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (b3)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n )\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n (b4)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n )\n )\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n 0\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (b5)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n n\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (b6)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n F\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(b1)}}&F(S(0),0,n)&\\rightarrow &S(n)\\\\{\\text{(b2)}}&F(S(0),S(0),0)&\\rightarrow &S(S(0))\\\\{\\text{(b3)}}&F(S(0),S(S(0)),0)&\\rightarrow &0\\\\{\\text{(b4)}}&F(S(0),S(S(S(m))),0)&\\rightarrow &S(0)\\\\{\\text{(b5)}}&F(S(0),S(m),S(n))&\\rightarrow &F(S(n),m,F(S(0),S(m),0))\\\\{\\text{(b6)}}&F(S(S(x)),m,n)&\\rightarrow &F(S(0),m,F(S(x),m,n))\\end{array}}}Instead of rule b6 one can define the rule(b7)\n \n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n F\n (\n S\n (\n x\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(b7)}}&F(S(S(x)),m,n)&\\rightarrow &F(S(x),m,F(S(0),m,n))\\end{array}}}To compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rules(r8)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n S\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r9)\n \n \n \n A\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n P\n (\n F\n (\n S\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n m\n )\n ,\n S\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n n\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n (r10)\n \n \n \n P\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n S\n (\n m\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n →\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{array}{lll}{\\text{(r8)}}&A(0,n)&\\rightarrow &S(n)\\\\{\\text{(r9)}}&A(S(m),n)&\\rightarrow &P(F(S(0),S(m),S(S(S(n)))))\\\\{\\text{(r10)}}&P(S(S(S(m))))&\\rightarrow &m\\\\\\end{array}}}These rules take care of the base case A(0,n), the alignment (n+3) and the fudge (-3).ExampleCompute \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n →\n \n ∗\n \n \n 5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(2,1)\\rightarrow _{*}5}The matching equalities arewhen the TRS with the reduction rule \n \n \n \n \n b6\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{b6}}}\n \n is applied:A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n +\n 3\n =\n F\n (\n 2\n ,\n 4\n )\n =\n ⋯\n =\n \n F\n \n 6\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n F\n \n 5\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n F\n \n 4\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n F\n \n 3\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n F\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 3\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 4\n )\n )\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 5\n )\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 6\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 7\n )\n =\n 8\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&A(2,1)+3=F(2,4)=\\dots =F^{6}(0,2)=F(0,F^{5}(0,2))=F(0,F(0,F^{4}(0,2)))\\\\&=F(0,F(0,F(0,F^{3}(0,2))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F^{2}(0,2)))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,2))))))\\\\&=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,3)))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,4))))=F(0,F(0,F(0,5)))=F(0,F(0,6))=F(0,7)=8\\end{aligned}}}when the TRS with the reduction rule \n \n \n \n \n b7\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{b7}}}\n \n is applied:A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n +\n 3\n =\n F\n (\n 2\n ,\n 4\n )\n =\n ⋯\n =\n \n F\n \n 6\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 5\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 5\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 3\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 4\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 3\n )\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 4\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 4\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n F\n \n 3\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 4\n )\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 3\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 5\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 5\n )\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 6\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 6\n )\n )\n =\n F\n (\n 0\n ,\n 7\n )\n =\n 8\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&A(2,1)+3=F(2,4)=\\dots =F^{6}(0,2)=F^{5}(0,F(0,2))=F^{5}(0,3)=F^{4}(0,F(0,3))=F^{4}(0,4)\\\\&=F^{3}(0,F(0,4))=F^{3}(0,5)=F^{2}(0,F(0,5))=F^{2}(0,6)=F(0,F(0,6))=F(0,7)=8\\end{aligned}}}RemarksThe computation of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {A} _{i}(n)}\n \n according to the rules {b1 - b5, b6, r8 - r10} is deeply recursive. The maximum depth of nested \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \ns is \n \n \n \n A\n (\n i\n ,\n n\n )\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(i,n)+1}\n \n. The culprit is the order in which iteration is executed: \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n F\n (\n \n F\n \n n\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F^{n+1}(x)=F(F^{n}(x))}\n \n. The first \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n disappears only after the whole sequence is unfolded.\nThe computation according to the rules {b1 - b5, b7, r8 - r10} is more efficient in that respect. The iteration \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n F\n \n n\n \n \n (\n F\n (\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F^{n+1}(x)=F^{n}(F(x))}\n \n simulates the repeated loop over a block of code.[n 7] The nesting is limited to \n \n \n \n (\n i\n +\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (i+1)}\n \n, one recursion level per iterated function. Meyer & Ritchie (1967) showed this correspondence.\nThese considerations concern the recursion depth only. Either way of iterating leads to the same number of reduction steps, involving the same rules (when the rules b6 and b7 are considered \"the same\"). The reduction of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(2,1)}\n \n for instance converges in 35 steps: 12 × b1, 4 × b2, 1 × b3, 4 × b5, 12 × b6/b7, 1 × r9, 1 × r10. The modus iterandi only affects the order in which the reduction rules are applied.\nA real gain of execution time can only be achieved by not recalculating subresults over and over again. Memoization is an optimization technique where the results of function calls are cached and returned when the same inputs occur again. See for instance Ward (1993). Grossman & Zeitman (1988) published a cunning algorithm which computes \n \n \n \n A\n (\n i\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(i,n)}\n \n within \n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n (\n i\n A\n (\n i\n ,\n n\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {O}}(iA(i,n))}\n \n time and within \n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n (\n i\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {O}}(i)}\n \n space.","title":"Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[n 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letop1-22"}],"sub_title":"Huge numbers","text":"To demonstrate how the computation of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 3\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(4,3)}\n \n results in many steps and in a large number:[n 5]A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 3\n )\n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 3\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 1\n ,\n 0\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 1\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 2\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 3\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n A\n (\n 0\n ,\n 4\n )\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 2\n ,\n 5\n )\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n 13\n )\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n 65533\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n A\n (\n 3\n ,\n \n 2\n \n 65536\n \n \n −\n 3\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n 65536\n \n \n \n \n −\n 3.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}A(4,3)&\\rightarrow A(3,A(4,2))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(4,1)))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(4,0))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(3,1))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(3,0)))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(2,1)))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(2,0))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(1,1))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(1,0)))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,A(0,1)))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,A(0,2))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(1,3)))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(1,2))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(1,1)))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(1,0))))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,A(0,1))))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,A(0,2)))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,A(0,3))))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,A(0,4)))))\\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,A(2,5))))\\\\&\\qquad \\vdots \\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,A(3,13)))\\\\&\\qquad \\vdots \\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,A(3,65533))\\\\&\\qquad \\vdots \\\\&\\rightarrow A(3,2^{65536}-3)\\\\&\\qquad \\vdots \\\\&\\rightarrow 2^{2^{65536}}-3.\\\\\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knuth arrows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%27s_up-arrow_notation"},{"link_name":"Graham's number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%27s_number"}],"text":"Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed \"1\" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table:The numbers here which are only expressed with recursive exponentiation or Knuth arrows are very large and would take up too much space to notate in plain decimal digits.Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively.This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly:","title":"Table of values"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lexicographic order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicographic_order"},{"link_name":"well-ordering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-order"},{"link_name":"exponentially","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth"},{"link_name":"exponential function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function"},{"link_name":"superfactorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfactorial"},{"link_name":"fast-growing hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-growing_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"computable function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function"}],"sub_title":"General remarks","text":"It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(m,n)}\n \n always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n decreases, or \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n remains the same and \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n decreases. Each time that \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n reaches zero, \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n decreases, so \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair \n \n \n \n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (m,n)}\n \n decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n decreases there is no upper bound on how much \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n can increase — and it will often increase greatly.\nFor small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For \n \n \n \n m\n ≥\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\geq 4}\n \n, however, it grows much more quickly; even \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 2\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(4,2)}\n \n is about 2.00353×1019728, and the decimal expansion of \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 4\n ,\n 3\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(4,3)}\n \n is very large by any typical measure, about 2.12004×106.03123×1019727.\nAn interesting aspect is that the only arithmetic operation it ever uses is addition of 1. Its fast growing power is based solely on nested recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see above.\nA single-argument version \n \n \n \n f\n (\n n\n )\n =\n A\n (\n n\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(n)=A(n,n)}\n \n that increases both \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n and \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(n)}\n \n is roughly comparable to \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n ω\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\omega }(n)}\n \n in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"primitive recursive function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_function"}],"sub_title":"Not primitive recursive","text":"The Ackermann function grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore is not itself primitive recursive. The sketch of the proof is this: a primitive recursive function defined using up to k recursions must grow slower than \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k+1}(n)}\n \n, the (k+1)-th function in the fast-growing hierarchy, but the Ackermann function grows at least as fast as \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n ω\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\omega }(n)}\n \n.Specifically, one shows that for every primitive recursive function \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{n})}\n \n there exists a non-negative integer \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n such that for all non-negative integers \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{n}}\n \n,f\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n <\n A\n (\n t\n ,\n \n max\n \n i\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{n})<A(t,\\max _{i}x_{i}).}Once this is established, it follows that \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n itself is not primitive recursive, since otherwise putting \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}=x_{2}=t}\n \n would lead to the contradiction \n \n \n \n A\n (\n t\n ,\n t\n )\n <\n A\n (\n t\n ,\n t\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(t,t)<A(t,t).}The proof proceeds as follows: define the class \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n \n of all functions that grow slower than the Ackermann functionA\n \n \n =\n \n {\n \n f\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n ∃\n t\n  \n ∀\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋯\n ∀\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n :\n  \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n <\n A\n (\n t\n ,\n \n max\n \n i\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n }\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}=\\left\\{f\\,{\\bigg |}\\,\\exists t\\ \\forall x_{1}\\cdots \\forall x_{n}:\\ f(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{n})<A(t,\\max _{i}x_{i})\\right\\}}and show that \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n \n contains all primitive recursive functions. The latter is achieved by showing that \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n \n contains the constant functions, the successor function, the projection functions and that it is closed under the operations of function composition and primitive recursion.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubaker2023-26"},{"link_name":"vector addition systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_addition_system"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECzerwi%C5%84skiOrlikowski2022-27"},{"link_name":"Petri net reachability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reachability_problem#Petri_nets"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroux2022-28"},{"link_name":"inverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Inverse"}],"text":"The Ackermann function appears in the time complexity of some algorithms,[19] such as vector addition systems[20] and Petri net reachability,[21] thus showing they are computationally infeasible for large instances. The inverse of the Ackerman function appears in some time complexity results.","title":"Use in computational complexity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inverse function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function"},{"link_name":"disjoint-set data structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint-set_data_structure"},{"link_name":"Chazelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Chazelle"},{"link_name":"minimum spanning trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_spanning_tree"},{"link_name":"floor function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_function"},{"link_name":"ceiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceiling_function"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettie2002-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatos2014-30"}],"text":"Since the function  f(n) = A(n, n) considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f−1, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f−1 is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since A(4, 4) is on the order of \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n 16\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{2^{2^{2^{16}}}}}\n \n.This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms.A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where \n \n \n \n ⌊\n x\n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor x\\rfloor }\n \n is the floor function:α\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n =\n min\n {\n i\n ≥\n 1\n :\n A\n (\n i\n ,\n ⌊\n m\n \n /\n \n n\n ⌋\n )\n ≥\n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n n\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha (m,n)=\\min\\{i\\geq 1:A(i,\\lfloor m/n\\rfloor )\\geq \\log _{2}n\\}.}This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of α(m, n) exist; for example, log2 n is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling.Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row. [22]The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive.[23]","title":"Inverse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaida1970-31"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundblad1971-15"},{"link_name":"Whetstone benchmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whetstone_(benchmark)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWichmann1976-32"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWichmann1977-33"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWichmann1982-34"}],"text":"The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida[24] and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad.[14]Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.[25][26][27]","title":"Use as benchmark"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop3_10-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop4_17-0"},{"link_name":"curried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop5_20-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop2_21-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop2_21-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop1_22-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop1_22-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop1_22-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop1_22-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop6_24-0"},{"link_name":"Cornelius & Kirby (1975)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCorneliusKirby1975"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-letop7_25-0"}],"text":"^ with parameter order reversed\n\n^ 'curried'\n\n^ In each step the underlined redex is rewritten.\n\n^ a b here: leftmost-innermost strategy!\n\n^ a b c d For better readabilityS(0) is notated as 1,S(S(0)) is notated as 2,S(S(S(0))) is notated as 3,etc...\n\n^ The maximum depth of recursion refers to the number of levels of activation of a procedure which exist during the deepest call of the procedure. Cornelius & Kirby (1975)\n\n^ LOOP n+1 TIMES DO F","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ackermann, Wilhelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ackermann"},{"link_name":"\"Zum Hilbertschen Aufbau der reellen Zahlen\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/en/dms/loader/img/?PPN=PPN235181684_0099&DMDID=DMDLOG_0009"},{"link_name":"Mathematische Annalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematische_Annalen"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01459088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01459088"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"123431274","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123431274"},{"link_name":"Buck, R.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Creighton_Buck"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Monthly"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2312881","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2312881"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2312881","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2312881"},{"link_name":"Calude, Cristian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristian_S._Calude"},{"link_name":"Marcus, Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Marcus"},{"link_name":"\"The first example of a recursive function which is not primitive recursive\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990024-7"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0315-0860(79)90024-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990024-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780745800349","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745800349"},{"link_name":"BIT Numerical Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIT_Numerical_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01932687","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01932687"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"120532578","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120532578"},{"link_name":"Reachability in Vector Addition Systems is Ackermann-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9719806"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2104.13866","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/2104.13866"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00120","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FFOCS52979.2021.00120"},{"link_name":"Theoretical Computer Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_Computer_Science"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0304-3975(88)90046-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-3975%2888%2990046-1"},{"link_name":"Hilbert, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert"},{"link_name":"Mathematische Annalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematische_Annalen"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01206605","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01206605"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"121888793","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121888793"},{"link_name":"The Reachability Problem for Petri Nets is Not Primitive Recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9719763"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2104.12695","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/2104.12695"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00121","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FFOCS52979.2021.00121"},{"link_name":"\"The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/PRinv.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/PRinv.pdf"},{"link_name":"Derivation lengths in term rewriting from interpretations in the naturals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//research.tue.nl/files/4245011/398270.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0924-3275","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0924-3275"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://research.tue.nl/files/4245011/398270.pdf"},{"link_name":"Meyer, Albert R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_R._Meyer"},{"link_name":"Ritchie, Dennis MacAlistair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/800196.806014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F800196.806014"},{"link_name":"Understanding Formal Methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rUudIPZD-B0C&pg=PA61"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781852332471","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781852332471"},{"link_name":"\"Versions of Ackermann's Function\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mrob.com/pub/math/ln-2deep.html#ack"},{"link_name":"\"Inventing New Operators and Functions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mrob.com/pub/math/largenum-3.html"},{"link_name":"\"Ackermann's Function in Iterative Form: A Proof Assistant Experiment\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/351063906"},{"link_name":"Péter, Rózsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3zsa_P%C3%A9ter"},{"link_name":"Mathematische 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Mathematische Annalen. 99: 118–133. doi:10.1007/BF01459088. S2CID 123431274.\nBuck, R.C. (1963). \"Mathematical Induction and Recursive Definitions\". American Mathematical Monthly. 70 (2): 128–135. doi:10.2307/2312881. JSTOR 2312881.\nCalude, Cristian; Marcus, Solomon; Tevy, Ionel (November 1979). \"The first example of a recursive function which is not primitive recursive\". Historia Math. 6 (4): 380–84. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(79)90024-7.\nCohen, Daniel E. (January 1987). Computability and logic. Halsted Press. ISBN 9780745800349.\nCornelius, B.J.; Kirby, G.H. (1975). \"Depth of recursion and the ackermann function\". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 15 (2): 144–150. doi:10.1007/BF01932687. S2CID 120532578.\nCzerwiński, Wojciech; Orlikowski, Łukasz (7 February 2022). Reachability in Vector Addition Systems is Ackermann-complete. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 62nd Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. arXiv:2104.13866. doi:10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00120.\nGrossman, Jerrold W.; Zeitman, R.Suzanne (May 1988). \"An inherently iterative computation of ackermann's function\". Theoretical Computer Science. 57 (2–3): 327–330. doi:10.1016/0304-3975(88)90046-1.\nvan Heijenoort, Jean (1977) [reprinted with corrections, first published in 1967]. From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. Harvard University Press.\nHilbert, David (1926). \"Über das Unendliche\". Mathematische Annalen. 95: 161–190. doi:10.1007/BF01206605. S2CID 121888793.\nLeroux, Jérôme (7 February 2022). The Reachability Problem for Petri Nets is Not Primitive Recursive. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 62nd Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. arXiv:2104.12695. doi:10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00121.\nMatos, Armando B (May 7, 2014). \"The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.\nMeeussen, V.C.S.; Zantema, H. (1992). Derivation lengths in term rewriting from interpretations in the naturals (PDF) (Report). Universiteit Utrecht. UU-CS, Department of Computer Science. ISSN 0924-3275. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.\nMeyer, Albert R.; Ritchie, Dennis MacAlistair (1967). \"The complexity of loop programs\". Proceedings of the 1967 22nd national conference. ACM '67: Proceedings of the 1967 22nd national conference. pp. 465–469. doi:10.1145/800196.806014.\nMonin, Jean-Francois; Hinchey, M. G. (2003). Understanding Formal Methods. Springer. p. 61. ISBN 9781852332471.\nMunafo, Robert (1999a). \"Versions of Ackermann's Function\". Large Numbers at MROB. Retrieved 2021-11-06.\nMunafo, Robert (1999b). \"Inventing New Operators and Functions\". Large Numbers at MROB. Retrieved 2021-11-06.\nPaulson, Lawrence C. (2021). \"Ackermann's Function in Iterative Form: A Proof Assistant Experiment\". Retrieved 2021-10-19.\nPéter, Rózsa (1935). \"Konstruktion nichtrekursiver Funktionen\". Mathematische Annalen. 111: 42–60. doi:10.1007/BF01472200. S2CID 121107217.\nPettie, S. (2002). \"An inverse-Ackermann style lower bound for the online minimum spanning tree verification problem\". The 43rd Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 2002. Proceedings. pp. 155–163. doi:10.1109/SFCS.2002.1181892. ISBN 0-7695-1822-2. S2CID 8636108.\nPorto, António; Matos, Armando B. (1 September 1980). \"Ackermann and the superpowers\" (PDF). ACM SIGACT News. 12 (3): Original version 1980, published in “ACM SIGACT News”, Modified in October 20, 2012, Modified in January 23, 2016 (working paper). doi:10.1145/1008861.1008872. S2CID 29780652. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.\nRitchie, Robert Wells (November 1965). \"Classes of recursive functions based on Ackermann's function\". Pacific Journal of Mathematics. 15 (3): 1027–1044. doi:10.2140/pjm.1965.15.1027.\nRobinson, Raphael Mitchel (1948). \"Recursion and Double Recursion\". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 54 (10): 987–93. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1948-09121-2.\nSundblad, Yngve (March 1971). \"The Ackermann function. A theoretical, computational, and formula manipulative study\". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 11 (1): 107–119. doi:10.1007/BF01935330. S2CID 123416408.\nVaida, Dragoș (1970). \"Compiler Validation for an Algol-like Language\". Bulletin Mathématique de la Société des Sciences Mathématiques de la République Socialiste de Roumanie. Nouvelle série. 14 (62) (4): 487–502. JSTOR 43679758.\nWard, Martin P. (16 July 1993). Iterative Procedures for Computing Ackerman's Function. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.35.9907.\nWichmann, Brian A. (March 1976). \"Ackermann's function: A study in the efficiency of calling procedures\". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 16: 103–110. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.4125. doi:10.1007/BF01940783. S2CID 16993343.\nWichmann, Brian A. (July 1977). \"How to call procedures, or second thoughts on Ackermann's function\". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 16 (3): 103–110. doi:10.1002/spe.4380070303. S2CID 206507320.\nWichmann, Brian A. (July 1982). \"Latest results from the procedure calling test, Ackermann's function\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[]

[{"title":"Computability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory"},{"title":"Double recursion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_recursion"},{"title":"Fast-growing hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-growing_hierarchy"},{"title":"Goodstein function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodstein_function"},{"title":"Primitive recursive function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_function"},{"title":"Recursion (computer science)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)"}]

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S2CID 123416408.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01935330","url_text":"10.1007/BF01935330"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123416408","url_text":"123416408"}]},{"reference":"Vaida, Dragoș (1970). \"Compiler Validation for an Algol-like Language\". Bulletin Mathématique de la Société des Sciences Mathématiques de la République Socialiste de Roumanie. Nouvelle série. 14 (62) (4): 487–502. JSTOR 43679758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43679758","url_text":"43679758"}]},{"reference":"Ward, Martin P. (16 July 1993). Iterative Procedures for Computing Ackerman's Function. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.35.9907.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.35.9907","url_text":"10.1.1.35.9907"}]},{"reference":"Wichmann, Brian A. (March 1976). \"Ackermann's function: A study in the efficiency of calling procedures\". BIT Numerical Mathematics. 16: 103–110. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.108.4125. doi:10.1007/BF01940783. 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S2CID 206507320.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fspe.4380070303","url_text":"10.1002/spe.4380070303"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206507320","url_text":"206507320"}]},{"reference":"Wichmann, Brian A. (July 1982). \"Latest results from the procedure calling test, Ackermann's function\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/Imp_Benchmarks/acklt.pdf","url_text":"\"Latest results from the procedure calling test, Ackermann's function\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/Imp_Benchmarks/acklt.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ackermann function\". Encyclopedia of Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 [1994].","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Ackermann_function","url_text":"\"Ackermann function\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Mathematics","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"EMS Press"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Ackermann function\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/AckermannFunction.html","url_text":"\"Ackermann function\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Paul E. Black. \"Ackermann's function\". Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. NIST.","urls":[{"url":"https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/ackermann.html","url_text":"\"Ackermann's function\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Algorithms_and_Data_Structures","url_text":"Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST","url_text":"NIST"}]},{"reference":"Aaronson, Scott (1999). \"Who Can Name the Bigger Number?\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Aaronson","url_text":"Aaronson, Scott"},{"url":"http://www.scottaaronson.com/writings/bignumbers.html","url_text":"\"Who Can Name the Bigger Number?\""}]},{"reference":"Brubaker, Ben (2023-12-04). \"An Easy-Sounding Problem Yields Numbers Too Big for Our Universe\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/an-easy-sounding-problem-yields-numbers-too-big-for-our-universe-20231204/","url_text":"\"An Easy-Sounding Problem Yields Numbers Too Big for Our Universe\""}]},{"reference":"Munafo, Robert. \"Large Numbers\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mrob.com/pub/math/largenum.html","url_text":"\"Large Numbers\""}]},{"reference":"Nivasch, Gabriel (October 2021). \"Inverse Ackermann without pain\". Archived from the original on 2007-08-21. Retrieved 18 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gabrielnivasch.org/fun/inverse-ackermann","url_text":"\"Inverse Ackermann without pain\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070821224819/http://yucs.org/~gnivasch/alpha/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Seidel, Raimund. \"Understanding the inverse Ackermann function\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://cgi.di.uoa.gr/~ewcg06/invited/Seidel.pdf","url_text":"\"Understanding the inverse Ackermann function\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Harry J. \"Ackermann's Function\". Archived from the original on 2009-10-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091026171012/http://www.geocities.com/hjsmithh/Ackerman/index.html","url_text":"\"Ackermann's Function\""},{"url":"http://www.geocities.com/hjsmithh/Ackerman/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Ports_World

DP World

["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 2006: US Port security","1.3 2007–2010: NASDAQ Dubai listing","1.4 2010–2022: COVID-19 and corporate rebrand","1.5 2022: UK mass redundancy","1.6 2023: Cyberattack in Australia","2 Location of DP World's operations","3 Corporate affairs","3.1 Supply chain security","3.2 Counter-piracy","3.3 Berbera operations","3.4 DP World Dakar","3.5 Russo-Ukrainian War","4 Sport sponsorship","5 References","6 External links"]

Coordinates: 24°59′N 55°05′E / 24.983°N 55.083°E / 24.983; 55.083Emirati multinational logistics company DP Worldموانئ دبي العالميةCompany typePublicIndustryLogisticsFounded2005; 19 years ago (2005)HeadquartersDubai, United Arab EmiratesKey peopleSultan Ahmed bin Sulayem(Group Chairman & CEO)Yuvraj Narayan(Deputy CEO & Group CFO)ProductsLogistics services, port services, marine services, freezonesRevenue US$10.7 billion (2021) (2021)Net income91.7 TEU million (gross)Number of employees101,440Websitewww.dpworld.com DP World is an Emirati multinational logistics company based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It specialises in cargo logistics, port terminal operations, maritime services and free trade zones. Formed in 2005 by the merger of Dubai Ports Authority and Dubai Ports International, DP World handles 70 million containers that are brought in by around 70,000 vessels annually. This equates to roughly 10% of global container traffic accounted for by their 82 marine and inland terminals present in over 40 countries. Until 2016, DP World was primarily a global port operator, and since then, it has acquired other companies up and down the value chain. History Early history Dubai Ports International (DPI) was founded in 1999. Its first project was at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, collaborating with a local partner on the South Container Terminal (SCT). DPI then began operations at the ports of Djibouti in 2000, Vizag, India in 2002 and Constanța, Romania in 2003. In January 2005, DPI acquired CSX World Terminals (CSX WT). It was later, in September 2005 that Dubai Ports International officially merged with the Dubai Ports Authority to form DP World. The rapid expansion through acquisition continued in March 2006 when DP World purchased the fourth largest ports operator in the world, P&O for £3.9 billion. 2006: US Port security Main article: Dubai Ports World controversy The ownership of various US ports by DP World (which had been acquired as part of the P&O deal) was seen as controversial by many in the United States even though it was supported by the US president George W. Bush; the US ports were sold shortly afterwards. P&O operated major US port facilities in New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and Miami. Before the deal was secured, the arrangement was reviewed by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States headed by the US Treasury Department and including the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security. It was given the green light, but soon after, both Democratic and Republican members of Congress expressed concern over the potential negative impact the deal would have on port security. On 22 February 2006, President George W. Bush threatened to veto any legislation passed by Congress to block the deal, which would be the first time in his presidency he would exercise the privilege. In a statement to reporters, Bush claimed, "It would send a terrible signal to friends and allies not to let this transaction go through." On 23 February 2006, DP World volunteered to postpone its takeover of significant operations at the seaports and on 9 March 2006, is said that it would transfer its operations of American ports to a "US entity". The United States House of Representatives held a vote on 16 March 2006 on legislation that would have blocked the DP World deal, with 348 members voting for blocking the deal, and 71 voting against. DP World later sold P&O's American operations to American International Group's asset management division, Global Investment Group for an undisclosed sum. In August 2006, DP World signed an agreement with the Port Qasim Authority, to invest in a new container terminal at Port Muhammad Qasim near Karachi and announced that it was in discussions with the Pakistani Government about the development of a container terminal at Gwadar in Balochistan. DP World had been favourite to win the Gwadar concession, but withdrew from the bidding. Gwadar Port was subsequently awarded to PSA (Port of Singapore Authority) and opened in March 2007. 2007–2010: NASDAQ Dubai listing In June 2007 the company raised $3.25 billion in Islamic and conventional bond sales to refinance existing debt and fund expansion and issued 3.818 billion shares, representing 20% of the company on the NASDAQ Dubai stock exchange in November 2007 in what was the Middle East's largest initial public offering (IPO) which raised 4.96 billion dollars. By 2008 the company was handing 46.8 million TEU worldwide, up 8% on 2007, with expansion and development projects in India, China, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Capacity was expected to rise to around 95 million TEU over the next ten years. In December 2009 Moody's downgraded DP World's financial status to junk after the Dubai 2009 debt standstill. 2010–2022: COVID-19 and corporate rebrand DP World's English logo from 2016 until 2021 In the second quarter of 2010 DP World gave the go-ahead for construction of the £1.5 billion London Gateway port. Work started in February 2010 with the port due to open in the fourth quarter of 2013. By April 2011, Moody's upgraded DP World's financial status to 'investment grade'. Since December 2010, DP World has undertaken a series of asset disposals, exiting markets where it does not have a significant presence and seeking to redeploy funds in fast-growing markets. On 20 February 2019, DP World announced it had repurchased P&O Ferries from Dubai World in a £322m deal. In June 2019 DP World signed agreements with the Russian Direct Investment Fund, ROSATOM, and Norilsk Nickel aiming to develop the Northern Sea Route. In March 2021, the company said that, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it had witnessed a drop of its profits by 29% comparing to 2019. In May 2021, Abdulla Bin Damithan was appointed as CEO and managing director of UAE business. In October 2021, coinciding with the launch of Expo 2020, DP World unveiled its new corporate identity. DP World is an official premier partner of Expo 2020. 2022: UK mass redundancy Main article: P&O sacking of 800 staff On 17 March 2022, P&O Ferries sacked its entire British work force and abruptly suspended its operations, cancelling all sailings and offloading passengers and cargo. Eight hundred UK staff were told in a video call that their employment was "terminated with immediate effect due to redundancy", and that their work would in future be undertaken by staff contracted to a third-party supplier. A spokesman for the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers said that there had been no consultation with the staff or trade unions. Staff on some ferries refused to leave their vessels. Some replacement staff, unaware of the circumstances or location of their deployment, declined to work, and a recruitment agency who supplied replacement staff said that they were unaware of the plans. The method of the expulsion, overseen by ex-military security guards, has been criticised by government and business leaders, and Mark Russell, a non-executive director of DP World, resigned afterwards in disagreement. P&O Ferries had recently seen losses during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as deficits in its pension fund. Industry sources have also cited its high overheads and competition from Irish Ferries as contributory factors. Verity Slater, expert in maritime employment law at Stephens Scown, commented that P&O may not have to follow UK employment laws, since some of its ships are not registered in Britain. 2023: Cyberattack in Australia In November 2023, a cyberattack on DP World paralysed imports and exports in Australia for several days. DP World accounts for about 40% of Australia's imports and exports, leading to a 30,000-container backlog; additionally, data was stolen. Location of DP World's operations Qingdao Qianwan Container TerminalQingdao New Qianwan Container TerminalQingdao Qianwan United Container TerminalQingdao Qianwan United Advance Container TerminalTianjin Orient Container TerminalYantai International Container TerminalDP World Hong KongTerminal Petikemas SurabayaATI BatangasPort of Manila – South Harbor (MNS)Pusan Newport CompanyLaem Chabang International Terminal (LCIT)Saigon Premier Container Terminal (SPCT)DP World ChennaiDP World CochinDP World KulpiMundra International Container Terminal MICTDP World Nhava ShevaVisakha Container TerminalDP World KarachiTerminales Rio de la PlataEmpresa Brasileira de Terminais Portuários (EMBRAPORT)DP World Vancouver – Stevedoring DivisionDP World Vancouver – Container DivisionDP World NanaimoDP World Saint JohnDP World CaucedoDP World CallaoDP World ParamariboDP World ParamariboDP World BrisbaneDP World FremantleDP World MelbourneDP World SydneyDP World DjazairDP World Djen DjenPort Autonome International de Djibouti PAIDDoraleh Container Terminal (DCT)Maputo Intermodal Container Deport (MICD)DP World Cargo Services MozambiqueDP World MaputoDP World Dakar – Terminal à ConteneurDP World Cargo Services – Cape TownDP World Cargo Services – DurbanDP World Cargo Services – Port ElizabethDP World Cargo Services – Richards BayDP World Dakar – Port du FuturAntwerp GatewayDP World Antwerp – DelwaideBeverdonk Container TerminalEUROFOSFOS 2xLTerminal de FranceQuai des AmériquesQuai de l'EuropeDP World GermersheimRotterdam World GatewayDP World ConstanțaDP World Novi SadDP World TarragonaDP World YarimcaDP World London GatewayDP World SouthamptonDP World SokhnaDP World Sokhna (new development)DP World JeddahDP World BerberaDP World Prince Rupert IncAl Hamriya PortPort RashidDP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 1DP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 2DP World Jebel Ali Terminal 3DP World FujairahDP World Limassolclass=notpageimage| DP World's portfolio – as of 1 March 2019 Container terminals Non-container terminals New developments and major expansions DP World has a portfolio of 78 operating marine and inland terminals supported by over 50 related businesses in 40 countries across six continents. The table below lists current terminals and new developments managed by DP World. Port City Country Type DP World Hong Kong Hong Kong  Hong Kong Container Terminal Terminal Petikemas Surabaya Surabaya  Indonesia Container Terminal ATI Batangas Batangas  Philippines Container Terminal Port of Manila – South Harbor (MNS) Manila  Philippines Container Terminal Pusan Newport Company Pusan  South Korea Container Terminal Laem Chabang International Terminal (LCIT) Laem Chabang  Thailand Container Terminal Saigon Premier Container Terminal (SPCT) Ho Chi Minh City  Vietnam Container Terminal DP World Chennai Chennai  India Container Terminal DP World Cochin Kochi  India Container Terminal DP World Kulpi Kulpi  India New Development and Major Expansion Mundra International Container Terminal MICT Mundra  India Container Terminal DP World Nhava Sheva Nhava Sheva  India Container Terminal Visakha Container Terminal Visakhapatnam  India Container Terminal Qingdao Qianwan Container Terminal Qingdao  China Container Terminal Qingdao New Qianwan Container Terminal Qingdao  China Container Terminal Qingdao Qianwan United Container Terminal Qingdao  China New Development and Major Expansion Qingdao Qianwan United Advance Container Terminal Qingdao  China New Development and Major Expansion Tianjin Orient Container Terminal Tianjin  China Container Terminal Yantai International Container Terminal Yantai  China Container Terminal DP World Karachi Karachi  Pakistan Container Terminal Terminales Rio de la Plata Buenos Aires  Argentina Container Terminal Empresa Brasileira de Terminais Portuários (EMBRAPORT) Santos  Brazil New Development and Major Expansion DP World Vancouver – Stevedoring Division Vancouver  Canada Non-Container Terminal DP World Vancouver – Container Division Vancouver  Canada Container Terminal DP World Nanaimo Nanaimo  Canada Container Terminal DP World Saint John Saint John  Canada New Development and Major Expansion DP World Caucedo Caucedo  Dominican Republic Container Terminal DP World Callao Callao  Peru Container Terminal DP World Paramaribo Paramaribo  Suriname Non-Container Terminal DP World Paramaribo Paramaribo  Suriname Container Terminal DP World Brisbane Brisbane  Australia Container Terminal DP World Fremantle Fremantle  Australia Container Terminal DP World Melbourne Melbourne  Australia Container Terminal DP World Sydney Sydney  Australia Container Terminal DP World Djazair Algiers  Algeria Container Terminal DP World Djen Djen Jijel  Algeria Container Terminal Port Autonome International de Djibouti PAID Djibouti  Djibouti Container Terminal Doraleh Container Terminal (DCT) Doraleh  Djibouti Container Terminal Maputo Intermodal Container Deport (MICD) Maputo  Mozambique Non-Container Terminal DP World Cargo Services Mozambique Maputo  Mozambique Non-Container Terminal DP World Maputo Maputo  Mozambique Container Terminal DP World Dakar – Terminal à Conteneur Dakar  Senegal Container Terminal DP World Cargo Services – Cape Town Cape Town  South Africa Non-Container Terminal DP World Cargo Services – Durban Durban  South Africa Non-Container Terminal DP World Cargo Services – Port Elizabeth Port Elizabeth  South Africa Non-Container Terminal DP World Cargo Services – Richards Bay Richards Bay  South Africa Non-Container Terminal DP World Dakar – Port du Futur Dakar  Senegal New Development and Major Expansion Antwerp Gateway Antwerp  Belgium Container Terminal DP World Antwerp – Delwaide Antwerp  Belgium Container Terminal Beverdonk Container Terminal Antwerp  Belgium Container Terminal EUROFOS Fos  France Container Terminal FOS 2xL Fos  France New Development and Major Expansion Terminal de France Le Havre  France Container Terminal Quai des Amériques Le Havre  France Container Terminal Quai de l'Europe Le Havre  France Container Terminal DP World Germersheim Germersheim  Germany Container Terminal Rotterdam World Gateway Rotterdam  Netherlands New Development and Major Expansion DP World Constanța Constanța  Romania Container Terminal DP World Novi Sad Novi Sad  Serbia New Development and Major Expansion DP World Tarragona Tarragona  Spain Container Terminal DP World Yarimca Yarimca  Turkey New Development and Major Expansion DP World London Gateway Stanford-le-Hope  United Kingdom New Development and Major Expansion DP World Southampton Southampton  United Kingdom Container Terminal DP World Sokhna Sokhna  Egypt Container Terminal DP World Sokhna (new development) Sokhna  Egypt New Development and Major Expansion DP World Jeddah Jeddah  Saudi Arabia Container Terminal DP World Berbera Berbera  Somalia New Development and Major Expansion DP World Prince Rupert Inc Prince Rupert  Canada New Development and Major Expansion Al Hamriya Port Dubai  United Arab Emirates Non-Container Terminal Port Rashid Dubai  United Arab Emirates Container Terminal DP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 1 Dubai  United Arab Emirates Container Terminal DP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 2 Dubai  United Arab Emirates New Development and Major Expansion DP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 3 Dubai  United Arab Emirates New Development and Major Expansion DP World Fujairah Fujairah  United Arab Emirates Container Terminal DP World Limassol Limassol  Cyprus Container Terminal Corporate affairs Supply chain security DP World has been certified as a partner in the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C‑TPAT) initiative by US Customs and Border Protection – to date, the only international port operator to have achieved this recognition. This certification is primarily based on DP World's commitment to the independently audited international ISO 28000 security standards. DP World was the first global maritime terminal operator to achieve ISO 28000 supply chain security certification and is rolling out the standard to all its terminals. Counter-piracy In June 2012, DP World convened the second high-level, public-private counterpiracy conference, in Dubai. The Washington Post reported "Diplomats and business leaders...are pushing for stronger partnerships between the public and private sectors in combating piracy off the coast of Somalia". The April 2011 conference was the first time companies rather than governments had contributed financial support to the UN counter-piracy trust fund. The inaugural conference was attended by more than 65 governments and representatives of international organisations, including the United Nations and more than 120 leaders from maritime industry related companies. Berbera operations New DP World Berbera Container Terminal Port. In 2016 a US$442 million agreement was reached between DP World and the government of Somaliland. The deal involves enhancing and operating the regional trade and logistics hub at the Port of Berbera. The project, which will be phased in, will also involve the setting up of a free zone. On 1 March 2018, Ethiopia became a major shareholder following an agreement with DP World and the Somaliland Port Authority. DP World holds a 51% stake in the project, Somaliland 30% and Ethiopia the remaining 19%. As part of the agreement, the government of Ethiopia will invest in infrastructure to develop the Berbera Corridor as a trade gateway for the inland country, which is one of the fastest-growing countries in the world. There are also plans to construct an additional berth at the Port of Berbera, in line with the Berbera master plan which DP World has started implementing, while adding new equipment to further improve the efficiencies and productivity of the port. The agreement comes as part of a larger government-to-government memorandum of understanding between the Government of the United Arab Emirates and the Government of Somaliland to further strengthen their strategic ties. Somalia's attempts to obstruct and block the deal were frustrated and failed to stop the project from commencing. DP World Dakar On 3 January 2022, construction began on the US$1.13 billion deep-water port at Ndayane, around 50 km (31 miles) south of the Senegalese capital Dakar, when President Macky Sall laid the foundation stone. DP World Dakar is a joint venture between DP World and the Port Authority of Dakar. The first phase of the project will include 840 metres of quay and a 5 kilometres marine channel designed to handle 366-metre vessels. The second phase will add 410 metres of container quay and further dredging to handle 400-metre vessels. Russo-Ukrainian War Further information: Boycott of Russia and Belarus and International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine Because of company's continued business with Russia amid Russian invasion of Ukraine, DP World is listed among International Sponsors of War by Ukrainian National Agency on Corruption Prevention. Sport sponsorship DP World sponsored the European Tour's season ending DP World Tour Championship, Dubai, played at Jumeirah Golf Estates. DP World also supported the Hong Kong Open and the BMW PGA Championship at Wentworth Club. In November 2021, DP World invested US$400 million in the European Tour to become the tour's new title sponsor, with the tour being renamed as the DP World Tour. In the 2020 Formula One Season, DP World and Renault F1 Team have signed an agreement making DP World the Global Logistics Partner and title sponsor for Renault, renaming the team as Renault DP World F1 Team. In the 2020 season of the Indian Premier League, DP World is the Global Logistics Partner for the Royal Challengers Bangalore team. DP World sponsored the yacht Maiden on her world tour 2021–24. Dubai Turf is also sponsored by DP World in 2022. DP World was also the title sponsor for 2022 Asia Cup. DP World has signed a deal to become the title sponsor of the ILT20 for five years. DP World announced a partnership agreement with McLaren in February 2023. DP World will also become the lead partner of McLaren APEX, McLaren’s off-track business-to-business event programme, promoting influential collaborations across McLaren’s expansive partner network and beyond. References ^ a b "Key Figures". DP World. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023. ^ "DP World celebrates its latest milestone with its 100,000th employee". DP World. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023. ^ a b c "About DP World – History". Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-27. ^ International, CSX Corporation; Dubai Ports. "Dubai Ports International Completes Acquisition Of CSX World Terminals". www.prnewswire.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "Dubai merger sees world's largest port operation". 29 September 2005. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "Bush threatens veto in ports row". BBC News. 22 February 2006. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2010. ^ Sale of P&O Ports North America ^ "H.R. 4939 (109th): Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the ... – House Vote #65 – Mar 16, 2006". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ King Jr., N.; Hitt, G. (11 December 2006). "Dubai Ports World Sells U.S. Assets". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2017. ^ "DP World to invest on new terminal in Pakistan" (PDF). Retrieved 21 March 2012. ^ "PSA wins Gwadar". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2012. ^ "Pakistan launches strategic port". 20 March 2007. Archived from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017 – via news.bbc.co.uk. ^ "DP World raises $3.25b from two bond issues". Gulf News. 25 June 2007. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2009. ^ "Investor Centre". DP World. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 2009-12-08. ^ Moya, Elena (8 December 2009). "Six Dubai companies downgraded to junk status". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2009. ^ Editorial, Reuters (4 January 2010). "DP World to go ahead with London Gateway". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017. {{cite news}}: |first= has generic name (help) ^ "Dubai's port firm seeking stock listing in London". seattletimes.com. Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "London Gateway port, Essex". Local Transport Today. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2010. ^ "Moody's upgrades DP World to Baa3; outlook stable". 11 April 2011. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "UPDATE 2-DP World sells Hong Kong assets for $742 mln". Reuters. 7 March 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "P&O Ferries sold back to DP World". NI Ferries. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019. ^ "Russian vessel successes transmit through NSR". 30 September 2019. ^ "Dubai port operator DP World sees 2020 profits drop 29% amid virus". Arab News. 18 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021. ^ "DP World appoints new CEO in UAE". Arab News. 22 May 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021. ^ "How do we make the world flow? With fast, sustainable movement of products through a single platform of trade. This is what drives the purpose of our new brand identity. Welcome to our future". Official Twitter page for DP World. 1 October 2021. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 October 2021. ^ Martin, Josh (17 March 2022). "P&O cancels services and tells ships to stay in port". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022. ^ "P&O: Agency seafarers quit after hearing about sacked staff". BBC News. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2022. ^ "P&O recruitment agency says it knew nothing about sackings". BBC News. 20 March 2022. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2022. ^ Armitage, Jim; Arlidge, John; Hellen, Nicholas; Al-Othman, Hannah (19 March 2022). "Bungs, handcuffs and foreign job ads: inside story of the P&O sackings". The Times. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2022. ^ "Australia Cyberattack Leaves 30,000 Containers Stuck at Ports". Bloomberg.com. 12 November 2023. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023. ^ AAP (12 November 2023). "DP World cyber hack: 40% of Australia's international freight affected". SmartCompany. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023. ^ DP World Confirms Data Breach In Cyber-Attack That Delayed Australian Ports | 10 News First, 13 November 2023, archived from the original on 13 November 2023, retrieved 13 November 2023 ^ "DP World's Q1 shipping container volumes fall in UAE, flat globally". www.zawya.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2019. ^ "Our Locations – 40 Countries in 6 Continents – DP World". www.dpworld.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2019. ^ "DP World joins partnership against terrorism. – Free Online Library". www.thefreelibrary.com. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "2nd UAE Counter-Piracy Conference Renews Commitment To Public Private Partnership" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "- The Washington Post". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ Bloomberg Businessweek | Diplomats, businessmen urge tougher piracy fight | 19 April 2011 Archived 12 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Latest Statements – United Nations Secretary-General". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "Somaliland and DP World celebrate 30-year concession for $442 million Port of Berbera (Somaliland) – Asoko Insight". Asoko Insight. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2017. ^ "Somalia project opens up Africa for DP World". thenational.ae. 30 May 2016. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2016. ^ "Ethiopia acquires 19% stake in DP World Berbera Port" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018. ^ "Dubai's DP World Agrees to Manage Port in Somaliland for 30 Years". Wall Street Journal. 30 May 2016. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2016. ^ "DP World Should Rethink Port Deals in Somalia-Foreign Minister". The New York Times. Reuters. 20 April 2018. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2018. ^ Ba, Diadie (4 January 2022). "Construction begins at DP World's $1.1 bln port in Senegal". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2022. ^ "DP World". NACP. Archived from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2023. ^ europeantour.com. "DP World enters three-year Race to Dubai agreement – European Tour". www.europeantour.com. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2017. ^ "A new era in global golf': European Tour to be renamed DP World Tour In 2022 DP world sponsored in Asia cricket cup and became title holder". The Guardian. 9 November 2021. Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2022. ^ Glendinning, Matthew (11 November 2021). "DP World to invest more than $400m in European Tour over next decade". Sport Business. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022. ^ "DP WORLD TO BECOME RENAULT F1 TEAM GLOBAL LOGISTICS PARTNER AND TITLE PARTNER..." en.media.groupe.renault.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2020. ^ "Royal Challengers Bangalore ropes in DP World as Global Logistics Partner". The Sports News. 13 September 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2020. ^ "Maiden and her new all-female crew set sail on their new three-year world tour". Yachts and Yachting. 15 January 2022. Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2022. ^ "ILT20 inks five-year title sponsorship deal with DP World". SportsMint Media. 16 December 2022. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2023. ^ "McLaren Racing - McLaren Racing announces DP World as an Official Partner of McLaren Formula 1 Team". www.mclaren.com. 8 February 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. External links DP World – Global BBC story on takeover of P&O SourceWatch article on DP World vteDubai WorldSubsidiaries Dubai Drydocks Dubai Maritime City Dubai Ports World Economic Zones World Istithmar World Leisurecorp P&O Ferries P&O Ports Tamweel People Mohammed Sharaf Sultan Ahmed bin Sulayem Related DP World Tour DP World Tour Championship Dubai Championship vteP&OParent company DP World Divisions andsubsidiariesCurrent P&O Ferries P&O Maritime Services P&O Ports Former Bovis Construction Bovis Homes Group DMS Maritime (50%) Pandoro P&O Bank P&O Containers P&O Cruises P&O Cruises Australia P&O European Ferries P&O Irish Sea P&O Nedlloyd P&O North Sea Ferries P&O Ports P&O Portsmouth P&O Princess Cruises P&O Scottish Ferries P&O Stena Line Acquisitions British India Steam Navigation Company Coast Lines European Ferries General Steam Navigation Company New Zealand Shipping Company Orient Steam Navigation Company Overseas Containers Strick Line Union Steamship Company of New Zealand Category Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National United States 24°59′N 55°05′E / 24.983°N 55.083°E / 24.983; 55.083

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"containers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_Container"},{"link_name":"value chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_chain"}],"text":"Emirati multinational logistics companyDP World is an Emirati multinational logistics company based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It specialises in cargo logistics, port terminal operations, maritime services and free trade zones. Formed in 2005 by the merger of Dubai Ports Authority and Dubai Ports International, DP World handles 70 million containers that are brought in by around 70,000 vessels annually. This equates to roughly 10% of global container traffic accounted for by their 82 marine and inland terminals present in over 40 countries. Until 2016, DP World was primarily a global port operator, and since then, it has acquired other companies up and down the value chain.","title":"DP World"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPWHistory-3"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Djibouti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti"},{"link_name":"Vizag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizag"},{"link_name":"Constanța","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPWHistory-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSX-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merger-5"},{"link_name":"P&O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%26O_(company)"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"Dubai Ports International (DPI) was founded in 1999.[3] Its first project was at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, collaborating with a local partner on the South Container Terminal (SCT). DPI then began operations at the ports of Djibouti in 2000, Vizag, India in 2002 and Constanța, Romania in 2003.[3] In January 2005, DPI acquired CSX World Terminals (CSX WT).[4] It was later, in September 2005 that Dubai Ports International officially merged with the Dubai Ports Authority to form DP World.[5] The rapid expansion through acquisition continued in March 2006 when DP World purchased the fourth largest ports operator in the world, P&O for £3.9 billion.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"controversial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#2006:_US_Port_security_controversy"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami"},{"link_name":"Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Foreign_Investment_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"US Treasury Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Treasury_Department"},{"link_name":"State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"Homeland Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"Democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Republican_party"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"veto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veto"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"US entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_entity"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"American International Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_International_Group"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_20061211_dpw_aig-9"},{"link_name":"Port Qasim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Qasim"},{"link_name":"Karachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi"},{"link_name":"Gwadar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwadar"},{"link_name":"Balochistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DP_World_News_Releases-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Cargo_News-11"},{"link_name":"Gwadar Port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwadar_Port"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"2006: US Port security","text":"The ownership of various US ports by DP World (which had been acquired as part of the P&O deal) was seen as controversial by many in the United States even though it was supported by the US president George W. Bush; the US ports were sold shortly afterwards.P&O operated major US port facilities in New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and Miami. Before the deal was secured, the arrangement was reviewed by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States headed by the US Treasury Department and including the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security. It was given the green light, but soon after, both Democratic and Republican members of Congress expressed concern over the potential negative impact the deal would have on port security.On 22 February 2006, President George W. Bush threatened to veto any legislation passed by Congress to block the deal, which would be the first time in his presidency he would exercise the privilege. In a statement to reporters, Bush claimed, \"It would send a terrible signal to friends and allies not to let this transaction go through.\"[6] On 23 February 2006, DP World volunteered to postpone its takeover of significant operations at the seaports and on 9 March 2006, is said that it would transfer its operations of American ports to a \"US entity\".[7]The United States House of Representatives held a vote on 16 March 2006 on legislation that would have blocked the DP World deal, with 348 members voting for blocking the deal, and 71 voting against.[8] DP World later sold P&O's American operations to American International Group's asset management division, Global Investment Group for an undisclosed sum.[9]In August 2006, DP World signed an agreement with the Port Qasim Authority, to invest in a new container terminal at Port Muhammad Qasim near Karachi and announced that it was in discussions with the Pakistani Government about the development of a container terminal at Gwadar in Balochistan.[10] DP World had been favourite to win the Gwadar concession, but withdrew from the bidding.[11] Gwadar Port was subsequently awarded to PSA (Port of Singapore Authority) and opened in March 2007.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ_Dubai"},{"link_name":"stock exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_exchange"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"TEU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPWHistory-3"},{"link_name":"Moody's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody%27s"},{"link_name":"junk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-yield_debt"},{"link_name":"Dubai 2009 debt standstill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_World"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"2007–2010: NASDAQ Dubai listing","text":"In June 2007 the company raised $3.25 billion in Islamic and conventional bond sales to refinance existing debt and fund expansion[13] and issued 3.818 billion shares, representing 20% of the company on the NASDAQ Dubai stock exchange in November 2007 in what was the Middle East's largest initial public offering (IPO) which raised 4.96 billion dollars.[14]By 2008 the company was handing 46.8 million TEU worldwide, up 8% on 2007, with expansion and development projects in India, China, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Capacity was expected to rise to around 95 million TEU over the next ten years.[3]In December 2009 Moody's downgraded DP World's financial status to junk after the Dubai 2009 debt standstill.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DP_World_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"London Gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Gateway"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Moody's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody%27s"},{"link_name":"'investment grade'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_grade#Investment_grade"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NIF-21"},{"link_name":"Russian Direct Investment Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Direct_Investment_Fund"},{"link_name":"ROSATOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROSATOM"},{"link_name":"Norilsk Nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norilsk_Nickel"},{"link_name":"Northern Sea Route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-s4s-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Expo 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_2020"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPW_cites_new_corporate_branding-25"}],"sub_title":"2010–2022: COVID-19 and corporate rebrand","text":"DP World's English logo from 2016 until 2021In the second quarter of 2010 DP World gave the go-ahead for construction of the £1.5 billion London Gateway port.[16][17] Work started in February 2010[18] with the port due to open in the fourth quarter of 2013. By April 2011, Moody's upgraded DP World's financial status to 'investment grade'.[19] Since December 2010, DP World has undertaken a series of asset disposals, exiting markets where it does not have a significant presence and seeking to redeploy funds in fast-growing markets.[20]On 20 February 2019, DP World announced it had repurchased P&O Ferries from Dubai World in a £322m deal.[21]In June 2019 DP World signed agreements with the Russian Direct Investment Fund, ROSATOM, and Norilsk Nickel aiming to develop the Northern Sea Route.[22]In March 2021, the company said that, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it had witnessed a drop of its profits by 29% comparing to 2019.[23]In May 2021, Abdulla Bin Damithan was appointed as CEO and managing director of UAE business.[24]In October 2021, coinciding with the launch of Expo 2020, DP World unveiled its new corporate identity.[25] DP World is an official premier partner of Expo 2020.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Union_of_Rail,_Maritime_and_Transport_Workers"},{"link_name":"trade unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Irish Ferries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Ferries"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"2022: UK mass redundancy","text":"On 17 March 2022, P&O Ferries sacked its entire British work force and abruptly suspended its operations, cancelling all sailings and offloading passengers and cargo. Eight hundred UK staff were told in a video call that their employment was \"terminated with immediate effect due to redundancy\", and that their work would in future be undertaken by staff contracted to a third-party supplier. A spokesman for the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers said that there had been no consultation with the staff or trade unions.[26] Staff on some ferries refused to leave their vessels. Some replacement staff, unaware of the circumstances or location of their deployment, declined to work,[27] and a recruitment agency who supplied replacement staff said that they were unaware of the plans.[28]The method of the expulsion, overseen by ex-military security guards, has been criticised by government and business leaders, and Mark Russell, a non-executive director of DP World, resigned afterwards in disagreement. P&O Ferries had recently seen losses during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as deficits in its pension fund. Industry sources have also cited its high overheads and competition from Irish Ferries as contributory factors. Verity Slater, expert in maritime employment law at Stephens Scown, commented that P&O may not have to follow UK employment laws, since some of its ships are not registered in Britain.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"2023: Cyberattack in Australia","text":"In November 2023, a cyberattack on DP World paralysed imports and exports in Australia for several days. DP World accounts for about 40% of Australia's imports and exports, leading to a 30,000-container backlog; additionally, data was stolen.[30][31][32]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Qingdao Qianwan Container TerminalQingdao New Qianwan Container TerminalQingdao Qianwan United Container TerminalQingdao Qianwan United Advance Container TerminalTianjin Orient Container TerminalYantai International Container TerminalDP World Hong KongTerminal Petikemas SurabayaATI BatangasPort of Manila – South Harbor (MNS)Pusan Newport CompanyLaem Chabang International Terminal (LCIT)Saigon Premier Container Terminal (SPCT)DP World ChennaiDP World CochinDP World KulpiMundra International Container Terminal MICTDP World Nhava ShevaVisakha Container TerminalDP World KarachiTerminales Rio de la PlataEmpresa Brasileira de Terminais Portuários (EMBRAPORT)DP World Vancouver – Stevedoring DivisionDP World Vancouver – Container DivisionDP World NanaimoDP World Saint JohnDP World CaucedoDP World CallaoDP World ParamariboDP World ParamariboDP World BrisbaneDP World FremantleDP World MelbourneDP World SydneyDP World DjazairDP World Djen DjenPort Autonome International de Djibouti PAIDDoraleh Container Terminal (DCT)Maputo Intermodal Container Deport (MICD)DP World Cargo Services MozambiqueDP World MaputoDP World Dakar – Terminal à ConteneurDP World Cargo Services – Cape TownDP World Cargo Services – DurbanDP World Cargo Services – Port ElizabethDP World Cargo Services – Richards BayDP World Dakar – Port du FuturAntwerp GatewayDP World Antwerp – DelwaideBeverdonk Container TerminalEUROFOSFOS 2xLTerminal de FranceQuai des AmériquesQuai de l'EuropeDP World GermersheimRotterdam World GatewayDP World ConstanțaDP World Novi SadDP World TarragonaDP World YarimcaDP World London GatewayDP World SouthamptonDP World SokhnaDP World Sokhna (new development)DP World JeddahDP World BerberaDP World Prince Rupert IncAl Hamriya PortPort RashidDP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 1DP World Jebel Ali – Terminal 2DP World Jebel Ali Terminal 3DP World FujairahDP World Limassolclass=notpageimage| DP World's portfolio – as of 1 March 2019\n Container terminals\n Non-container terminals\n\n New developments and major expansionsDP World has a portfolio of 78 operating marine and inland terminals supported by over 50 related businesses in 40 countries across six continents.[33]The table below lists current[when?] terminals and new developments managed by DP World.[34]","title":"Location of DP World's operations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs-Trade_Partnership_Against_Terrorism"},{"link_name":"US Customs and Border Protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Customs_and_Border_Protection"},{"link_name":"ISO 28000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/PAS_28000"},{"link_name":"supply chain security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain_security"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C-TPATfreelib-35"}],"sub_title":"Supply chain security","text":"DP World has been certified as a partner in the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C‑TPAT) initiative by US Customs and Border Protection – to date, the only international port operator to have achieved this recognition. This certification is primarily based on DP World's commitment to the independently audited international ISO 28000 security standards. DP World was the first global maritime terminal operator to achieve ISO 28000 supply chain security certification and is rolling out the standard to all its terminals.[35]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"piracy off the coast of Somalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Counter-piracy","text":"In June 2012, DP World convened the second high-level, public-private counterpiracy conference, in Dubai.[36] The Washington Post reported \"Diplomats and business leaders...are pushing for stronger partnerships between the public and private sectors in combating piracy off the coast of Somalia\".[37]The April 2011 conference was the first time companies rather than governments had contributed financial support to the UN counter-piracy trust fund.[38] The inaugural conference was attended by more than 65 governments and representatives of international organisations, including the United Nations[39] and more than 120 leaders from maritime industry related companies.","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_DP_World_Berbera_Container_Terminal_Port.jpg"},{"link_name":"DP World Berbera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DP_World_Berbera_New_Port"},{"link_name":"Somaliland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliland"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Port of Berbera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Berbera"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abaltiisbp-41"},{"link_name":"free zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_economic_zone"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"memorandum of understanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding"},{"link_name":"United Arab Emirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Somaliland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliland"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Somalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Berbera operations","text":"New DP World Berbera Container Terminal Port.In 2016 a US$442 million agreement was reached between DP World and the government of Somaliland.[40] The deal involves enhancing and operating the regional trade and logistics hub at the Port of Berbera.[41] The project, which will be phased in, will also involve the setting up of a free zone.On 1 March 2018, Ethiopia became a major shareholder following an agreement with DP World and the Somaliland Port Authority. DP World holds a 51% stake in the project, Somaliland 30% and Ethiopia the remaining 19%. As part of the agreement, the government of Ethiopia will invest in infrastructure to develop the Berbera Corridor as a trade gateway for the inland country, which is one of the fastest-growing countries in the world. There are also plans to construct an additional berth at the Port of Berbera, in line with the Berbera master plan which DP World has started implementing, while adding new equipment to further improve the efficiencies and productivity of the port.[42]The agreement comes as part of a larger government-to-government memorandum of understanding between the Government of the United Arab Emirates and the Government of Somaliland to further strengthen their strategic ties.[43] Somalia's attempts to obstruct and block the deal were frustrated and failed to stop the project from commencing.[44]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ndayane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ndayane&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dakar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakar"},{"link_name":"President Macky Sall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macky_Sall"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"DP World Dakar","text":"On 3 January 2022, construction began on the US$1.13 billion deep-water port at Ndayane, around 50 km (31 miles) south of the Senegalese capital Dakar, when President Macky Sall laid the foundation stone. DP World Dakar is a joint venture between DP World and the Port Authority of Dakar. The first phase of the project will include 840 metres of quay and a 5 kilometres marine channel designed to handle 366-metre vessels. The second phase will add 410 metres of container quay and further dredging to handle 400-metre vessels.[45]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boycott of Russia and Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boycott_of_Russia_and_Belarus"},{"link_name":"International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"International Sponsors of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Sponsors_of_War"},{"link_name":"National Agency on Corruption Prevention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Agency_on_Corruption_Prevention"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Russo-Ukrainian War","text":"Further information: Boycott of Russia and Belarus and International sanctions during the Russian invasion of UkraineBecause of company's continued business with Russia amid Russian invasion of Ukraine, DP World is listed among International Sponsors of War by Ukrainian National Agency on Corruption Prevention.[46]","title":"Corporate affairs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Tour"},{"link_name":"DP World Tour Championship, Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DP_World_Tour_Championship,_Dubai"},{"link_name":"Jumeirah Golf Estates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumeirah_Golf_Estates"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PGA-47"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"BMW PGA Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_PGA_Championship"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"2020 Formula One Season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Formula_One_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"Renault F1 Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_in_Formula_One"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"2020 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Indian_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"Indian Premier League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"Royal Challengers Bangalore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Challengers_Bangalore"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Maiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_(yacht)"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Dubai Turf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Turf"},{"link_name":"2022 Asia Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Asia_Cup"},{"link_name":"title sponsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_sponsor"},{"link_name":"ILT20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_League_T20"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"McLaren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLaren"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"text":"DP World sponsored the European Tour's season ending DP World Tour Championship, Dubai, played at Jumeirah Golf Estates.[47] DP World also supported the Hong Kong Open and the BMW PGA Championship at Wentworth Club. In November 2021, DP World invested US$400 million in the European Tour to become the tour's new title sponsor, with the tour being renamed as the DP World Tour.[48][49]In the 2020 Formula One Season, DP World and Renault F1 Team have signed an agreement making DP World the Global Logistics Partner and title sponsor for Renault, renaming the team as Renault DP World F1 Team.[50]In the 2020 season of the Indian Premier League, DP World is the Global Logistics Partner for the Royal Challengers Bangalore team.[51]DP World sponsored the yacht Maiden on her world tour 2021–24.[52]Dubai Turf is also sponsored by DP World in 2022.DP World was also the title sponsor for 2022 Asia Cup.DP World has signed a deal to become the title sponsor of the ILT20 for five years.[53]DP World announced a partnership agreement with McLaren in February 2023. DP World will also become the lead partner of McLaren APEX, McLaren’s off-track business-to-business event programme, promoting influential collaborations across McLaren’s expansive partner network and beyond.[54]","title":"Sport sponsorship"}]

[{"image_text":"DP World's English logo from 2016 until 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/DP_World_logo.svg/220px-DP_World_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"New DP World Berbera Container Terminal Port.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/New_DP_World_Berbera_Container_Terminal_Port.jpg/220px-New_DP_World_Berbera_Container_Terminal_Port.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"Key Figures\". DP World. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dpworld.com/investor-relations/financials-presentation/key-figures","url_text":"\"Key Figures\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230401202457/https://www.dpworld.com/investor-relations/financials-presentation/key-figures","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"DP World celebrates its latest milestone with its 100,000th employee\". DP World. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dpworld.com/news/releases/dp-world-celebrates-100000th-employee/","url_text":"\"DP World celebrates its latest milestone with its 100,000th employee\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230125124420/https://www.dpworld.com/news/releases/dp-world-celebrates-100000th-employee/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"About DP World – History\". Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. 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Welcome to our future\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240329122846/https://twitter.com/DP_World/status/1443817972095717378","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Josh (17 March 2022). \"P&O cancels services and tells ships to stay in port\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-60779001","url_text":"\"P&O cancels services and tells ships to stay in port\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220608125417/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-60779001","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"P&O: Agency seafarers quit after hearing about sacked staff\". BBC News. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_Grand_Challenge

2016 Cyber Grand Challenge

["1 Background","2 Technology","2.1 Challenge binaries","2.2 Player systems","3 CGC Qualification Event (CQE)","4 CGC Final Event (CFE)","4.1 Final results","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC)DateAugust 4, 2016Time9:00 am to 8:00 pmDurationEleven hoursVenueParis Hotel & Conference CenterLocationLas Vegas, Nevada The 2016 Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) was a challenge created by The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in order to develop automatic defense systems that can discover, prove, and correct software flaws in real-time. The event placed machine versus machine (no human intervention) in what was called the "world's first automated network defense tournament." The final event was held on August 4, 2016 at the Paris Hotel & Conference Center in Las Vegas, Nevada within the 24th DEF CON hacker convention. It resembled in structure the long-standing "capture the flag" (CTF) security competitions, and the winning system indeed competed against humans in the "classic" DEF CON CTF held in the following days. The Cyber Grand Challenge featured, however, a more standardized scoring and vulnerability-proving system: all exploits and patched binaries were submitted and evaluated by the referee infrastructure In addition to the CGC, DARPA has also conducted prize competitions in other areas of technology. Background Races develop between criminals attempting to abuse vulnerabilities and analysts who assess, remediate, check, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done. Experts adhere to a process that involves complicated reasoning followed by manual creation of each security signature and software patch, a technical process that requires months and dollars. This has resulted in various software insecurities favoring attackers. Devices such as smart televisions, wearable technologies, and high-end home appliances that are connected to the internet aren't always produced with security in mind and moreover utility systems, power grids, and traffic lights could be more susceptible to attacks, says the DARPA. To help overcome these challenges, DARPA launched in 2014 the Cyber Grand Challenge: a two-year competition seeking to create automatic defensive systems capable of reasoning about flaws, formulating patches and deploying them on a network in real time. The competition was split into two main events: an open qualification event to be held in 2015 and a final event in 2016 where only the top seven teams from the qualifiers could participate. The winner of the final event would be awarded $2 million and the opportunity to play against humans in the 24th DEF CON capture the flag competition. Technology Challenge binaries Challenge Binaries ran on the full 32-bit Intel x86 architecture, albeit with a simplified ABI. Reducing external interaction to its base components (e.g., system calls for well-defined I/O, dynamic memory allocation, and a single source of randomness) simplified both modeling and securely running the binaries in isolation to observe their behavior. Internal complexity was however unrestricted, with challenges going as far as implementing a particle physics simulator, chess, programming/scripting languages, parsing of huge amounts of markup data, vector graphics, just-in-time compilation, VMs, etc. The challenge authors were themselves scored based on how well they distinguished the players' relative performance, encouraging challenges to exercise specific weaknesses of automatic reasoning (e.g., state explosion) while remaining solvable by well-constructed systems. Player systems Each playing system -- a fully-automated "Cyber Reasoning System" (CRS) -- had to demonstrate ability in several areas of computer security: Automatic vulnerability finding on previously-unknown binaries. Automatic patching of binaries without sacrificing performance. Automatic exploit generation within the framework's limitations. Implementing a security strategy: balancing resource-assignment among the available servers (a variation of the multi-armed bandit problem), responding to competitors (e.g., analyzing their patches, reacting to exploitation), evaluating own action's effect on the final score, ... Teams described their approach in various venues. Additionally, the third-place finisher (Shellphish) released their entire system's source code. Due to the complexity of the task, players had to combine multiple techniques and do so in a fully-unattended and time-efficient fashion. For instance, the highest attack score was reached by discovering vulnerabilities via a combination of guided fuzzing and symbolic execution -- i.e., an AFL-based fuzzer combined with the angr binary analysis framework, leveraging a QEMU-based emulation and execution-tracing system. CGC Qualification Event (CQE) The CGC Qualification Event (CQE) was held on June 3, 2015 and lasted for 24 hours. CQE had two tracks: a funded-track for seven teams selected by DARPA based on their proposals (with an award up to $750,000 per team) and an open-track where any self-funded team could participate. Over 100 teams registered internationally and 28 reached the Qualification Event. During the event, teams were given 131 different programs and were challenged with finding vulnerabilities as well as fixing them automatically while maintaining performance and functionality. Collectively, all teams managed to identify vulnerabilities in 99 out of the 131 provided programs. After collecting all submissions from competitors, DARPA ranked all teams based on their patching and vulnerability-finding ability. The top seven teams and finalists in alphabetical order were: CodeJitsu, a team of researchers from the University of California at Berkeley, Cyberhaven, and Syracuse (funded track). CSDS, a team of researchers from the University of Idaho (open track). Deep Red, a team of specialized engineers from Raytheon (open track). disekt, a computer security team that participates in various Capture the Flag security competitions hosted by other teams, universities and organizations (open track). ForAllSecure, a security startup composed of researchers and security experts (funded track). Shellphish, a hacking team from the University of California, Santa Barbara (open track). TECHx, a team of software analysis experts from GrammaTech, Inc. and the University of Virginia (funded track). Upon qualification, each one of the above seven teams received $750,000 in funding to prepare for the final event. CGC Final Event (CFE) The CGC Final Event (CFE) was held on August 4, 2016 and lasted for 11 hours. During the final event, finalists saw their machines face against each other in a fully automatic capture-the-flag competition. Each of the seven qualifying teams competed for the top three positions that would share almost $4 million in prize money. Final results The winning systems of the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) Final Event were: "Mayhem" - developed by ForAllSecure, of Pittsburgh, Pa. - $2 million "Xandra" - developed by team TECHx consisting of GrammaTech Inc., Ithaca, N.Y., and UVa, Charlottesville, Va. - $1 million "Mechanical Phish" - developed by Shellphish, UC Santa Barbara, Ca. - $750,000 The other competing systems were: Rubeus - developed by Raytheon, Deep Red of Arlington, Va. Galactica - developed by CodeJitsu of Berkeley, Ca., Syracuse, N.Y., and Lausanne, Switzerland Jima - developed by CSDS of Moscow, Id. Crspy - system developed by disekt of Athens, Ga. See also DARPA Prize Competitions References ^ a b c "Cyber Grand Challenge Event Information for Finalists" (PDF). Cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ a b c "The Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) seeks to automate cyber defense process". Cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ a b c d e Walker, Michael. "a race ensues between miscreants intending to exploit the vulnerability and analysts who must assess, remediate, test, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done". darpa.mil. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ a b c d Uyeno, Greg (5 July 2016). "Smart Televisions, wearable technologies, utility systems, power grids, and more inclined to cyber attacks". Live Science. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ "CRS Team Interface API". GitHub. -- as opposed to classic CTF games, in which players directly attack each others and freely change their own VMs ^ Chang, Kenneth (2014-06-02). "Automating Cybersecurity". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-09-06. ^ Tangent, The Dark. "DEF CON® 24 Hacking Conference". defcon.org. Retrieved 2016-09-06. ^ "CGC ABI". GitHub. ^ "CROMU_00002". GitHub. ^ "CROMU_00005". GitHub. ^ "KPRCA_00038". GitHub. ^ "KPRCA_00028". GitHub. ^ "CROMU_00015". GitHub. ^ "CROMU_00018". GitHub. ^ "KPRCA_00002". GitHub. ^ "KPRCA_00014". GitHub. ^ Dedicated special issue of the IEEE Security & Privacy journal: "Hacking Without Humans". IEEE Security & Privacy. 16 (2). IEEE Computer Society. March 2018. ISSN 1558-4046. ^ a b Publications on individual components, such as Shellphish's Stephens N, Grosen J, Salls C, Dutcher A, Wang R, Corbetta J, Shoshitaishvili Y, Kruegel C, Vigna G (2016). Driller: Augmenting Fuzzing Through Selective Symbolic Execution (PDF). Network & Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS). Vol. 16. ^ "Mechanical Phish". GitHub. ^ "Cyber Grand Challenge". Archived from the original on 2016-09-11. ^ "The DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge: A Competitor's Perspective". ^ "Legitimate Business Syndicate: What is the Cyber Grand Challenge?". blog.legitbs.net. Retrieved 2016-09-06. ^ "DARPA | Cyber Grand Challenge". www.cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-01. Retrieved 2016-09-06. ^ a b "Mayhem comes in first place at CGC". August 7, 2016. Retrieved August 13, 2016. External links DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge (Archived) Cyber Grand Challenge Samples DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge Competitor Portal (Archived) DARPAtv official videos, including the final and its analysis vteDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)Offices Adaptive Execution Biological Technologies Defense Sciences Information Innovation Microsystems Technology Strategic Technology Tactical Technology Directors Johnson Betts Ruina Sproull Herzfeld Rechtin Lukasik Heilmeier Fossum Cooper Duncan Colladay Fields Reis Denman Lynn Fernandez Tether Dugan Prabhakar Walker Coleman Tompkins History ARPANET The Mother of All Demos Project AGILE Shakey the robot Aspen Movie Map Network Challenge Grand Challenge Annual budget US$2.8 billion    Employees 240    Website www.darpa.mil

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dealing_with_Disadvantages-3"},{"link_name":"real-time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cyber_Grand_Challenge-4"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas, Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas,_Nevada"},{"link_name":"DEF CON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEF_CON"},{"link_name":"capture the flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_the_flag"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"prize competitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions"}],"text":"The 2016 Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) was a challenge created by The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in order to develop automatic defense[3] systems that can discover, prove, and correct software flaws in real-time.The event placed machine versus machine (no human intervention) in what was called the \"world's first automated network defense tournament.\"[4]The final event was held on August 4, 2016 at the Paris Hotel & Conference Center in Las Vegas, Nevada within the 24th DEF CON hacker convention.It resembled in structure the long-standing \"capture the flag\" (CTF) security competitions, and the winning system indeed competed against humans in the \"classic\" DEF CON CTF held in the following days.\nThe Cyber Grand Challenge featured, however, a more standardized scoring and vulnerability-proving system: all exploits and patched binaries were submitted and evaluated by the referee infrastructure[5]In addition to the CGC, DARPA has also conducted prize competitions in other areas of technology.","title":"2016 Cyber Grand Challenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dealing_with_Disadvantages-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dealing_with_Disadvantages-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Event_Background-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dealing_with_Disadvantages-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cyber_Grand_Challenge-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"DEF CON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEF_CON"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Races develop between criminals attempting to abuse vulnerabilities and analysts who assess, remediate, check, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done.[3] Experts adhere to a process that involves complicated reasoning followed by manual creation of each security signature and software patch, a technical process that requires months and dollars.[3] This has resulted in various software insecurities favoring attackers.[2][3] Devices such as smart televisions, wearable technologies, and high-end home appliances that are connected to the internet aren't always produced with security in mind and moreover utility systems, power grids, and traffic lights could be more susceptible to attacks, says the DARPA.[4]To help overcome these challenges, DARPA launched in 2014 [6] the Cyber Grand Challenge: a two-year competition seeking to create automatic defensive systems capable of reasoning about flaws, formulating patches and deploying them on a network in real time. The competition was split into two main events: an open qualification event to be held in 2015 and a final event in 2016 where only the top seven teams from the qualifiers could participate. The winner of the final event would be awarded $2 million and the opportunity to play against humans in the 24th DEF CON capture the flag competition.[7]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_x86"},{"link_name":"ABI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Binary_Interface"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"just-in-time compilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"VMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Machine"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Challenge binaries","text":"Challenge Binaries ran on the full 32-bit Intel x86 architecture, albeit with a simplified ABI.[8]Reducing external interaction to its base components (e.g., system calls for well-defined I/O, dynamic memory allocation, and a single source of randomness) simplified both modeling and securely running the binaries in isolation to observe their behavior.Internal complexity was however unrestricted, with challenges going as far as implementing\na particle physics simulator,[9]\nchess,[10]\nprogramming/scripting languages,[11][12]\nparsing of huge amounts of markup data,[13]\nvector graphics,[14]\njust-in-time compilation,[15]\nVMs,[16] etc.The challenge authors were themselves scored based on how well they distinguished the players' relative performance, encouraging challenges to exercise specific weaknesses of automatic reasoning (e.g., state explosion) while remaining solvable by well-constructed systems.","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vulnerability finding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)"},{"link_name":"patching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_(computing)"},{"link_name":"exploit generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"multi-armed bandit problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-armed_bandit_problem"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-driller-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"fuzzing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzing"},{"link_name":"symbolic execution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_execution"},{"link_name":"AFL-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_fuzzy_lop_(fuzzer)"},{"link_name":"angr binary analysis framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//angr.io"},{"link_name":"QEMU-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QEMU"},{"link_name":"emulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-driller-18"}],"sub_title":"Player systems","text":"Each playing system -- a fully-automated \"Cyber Reasoning System\" (CRS) -- had to demonstrate ability in several areas of computer security:Automatic vulnerability finding on previously-unknown binaries.\nAutomatic patching of binaries without sacrificing performance.\nAutomatic exploit generation within the framework's limitations.\nImplementing a security strategy: balancing resource-assignment among the available servers (a variation of the multi-armed bandit problem), responding to competitors (e.g., analyzing their patches, reacting to exploitation), evaluating own action's effect on the final score, ...Teams described their approach in various venues.[17]\n[18]\nAdditionally, the third-place finisher (Shellphish) released their entire system's source code.[19]Due to the complexity of the task, players had to combine multiple techniques and do so in a fully-unattended and time-efficient fashion.\nFor instance, the highest attack score was reached by discovering vulnerabilities via a combination of guided fuzzing and symbolic execution -- i.e., an AFL-based fuzzer combined with the angr binary analysis framework, leveraging a QEMU-based emulation and execution-tracing system.[18]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"GrammaTech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GrammaTech"}],"text":"The CGC Qualification Event (CQE) was held on June 3, 2015 and lasted for 24 hours.[20] CQE had two tracks: a funded-track for seven teams selected by DARPA based on their proposals (with an award up to $750,000 per team) and an open-track where any self-funded team could participate. Over 100 teams registered internationally and 28 reached the Qualification Event.[21] During the event, teams were given 131 different programs and were challenged with finding vulnerabilities as well as fixing them automatically while maintaining performance and functionality. Collectively, all teams managed to identify vulnerabilities in 99 out of the 131 provided programs.[22] After collecting all submissions from competitors, DARPA ranked all teams based on their patching and vulnerability-finding ability.The top seven teams and finalists in alphabetical order were:[23]CodeJitsu, a team of researchers from the University of California at Berkeley, Cyberhaven, and Syracuse (funded track).\nCSDS, a team of researchers from the University of Idaho (open track).\nDeep Red, a team of specialized engineers from Raytheon (open track).\ndisekt, a computer security team that participates in various Capture the Flag security competitions hosted by other teams, universities and organizations (open track).\nForAllSecure, a security startup composed of researchers and security experts (funded track).\nShellphish, a hacking team from the University of California, Santa Barbara (open track).\nTECHx, a team of software analysis experts from GrammaTech, Inc. and the University of Virginia (funded track).Upon qualification, each one of the above seven teams received $750,000 in funding to prepare for the final event.","title":"CGC Qualification Event (CQE)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dealing_with_Disadvantages-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cyber_Grand_Challenge-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cyber_Grand_Challenge-4"}],"text":"The CGC Final Event (CFE) was held on August 4, 2016 and lasted for 11 hours.[3] During the final event, finalists saw their machines face against each other in a fully automatic capture-the-flag competition.[4] Each of the seven qualifying teams competed for the top three positions that would share almost $4 million in prize money.[4]","title":"CGC Final Event (CFE)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2016_results-24"},{"link_name":"Shellphish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellphish"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2016_results-24"}],"sub_title":"Final results","text":"The winning systems of the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) Final Event were:\"Mayhem\"[24] - developed by ForAllSecure, of Pittsburgh, Pa. - $2 million\n\"Xandra\" - developed by team TECHx consisting of GrammaTech Inc., Ithaca, N.Y., and UVa, Charlottesville, Va. - $1 million\n\"Mechanical Phish\" - developed by Shellphish, UC Santa Barbara, Ca. - $750,000The other competing systems were:Rubeus[24] - developed by Raytheon, Deep Red of Arlington, Va.\nGalactica - developed by CodeJitsu of Berkeley, Ca., Syracuse, N.Y., and Lausanne, Switzerland\nJima - developed by CSDS of Moscow, Id.\nCrspy - system developed by disekt of Athens, Ga.","title":"CGC Final Event (CFE)"}]

[]

[{"title":"DARPA Prize Competitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions"}]

[{"reference":"\"Cyber Grand Challenge Event Information for Finalists\" (PDF). Cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170428091104/http://archive.darpa.mil/CyberGrandChallenge_CompetitorSite/Files/Finalist_Event_Information.pdf","url_text":"\"Cyber Grand Challenge Event Information for Finalists\""},{"url":"https://archive.darpa.mil/CyberGrandChallenge_CompetitorSite/Files/Finalist_Event_Information.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) seeks to automate cyber defense process\". Cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160801053005/https://www.cybergrandchallenge.com/","url_text":"\"The Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC) seeks to automate cyber defense process\""},{"url":"https://www.cybergrandchallenge.com/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Walker, Michael. \"a race ensues between miscreants intending to exploit the vulnerability and analysts who must assess, remediate, test, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done\". darpa.mil. Retrieved 17 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.darpa.mil/program/cyber-grand-challenge","url_text":"\"a race ensues between miscreants intending to exploit the vulnerability and analysts who must assess, remediate, test, and deploy a patch before significant damage can be done\""}]},{"reference":"Uyeno, Greg (5 July 2016). \"Smart Televisions, wearable technologies, utility systems, power grids, and more inclined to cyber attacks\". Live Science. Retrieved 17 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.livescience.com/55293-darpa-cyber-grand-challenge.html","url_text":"\"Smart Televisions, wearable technologies, utility systems, power grids, and more inclined to cyber attacks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Science","url_text":"Live Science"}]},{"reference":"\"CRS Team Interface API\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/cgc-release-documentation/blob/master/ti-api-spec.txt","url_text":"\"CRS Team Interface API\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"Chang, Kenneth (2014-06-02). \"Automating Cybersecurity\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/03/science/automating-cybersecurity.html","url_text":"\"Automating Cybersecurity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"Tangent, The Dark. \"DEF CON® 24 Hacking Conference\". defcon.org. Retrieved 2016-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://defcon.org/html/defcon-24/dc-24-index.html","url_text":"\"DEF CON® 24 Hacking Conference\""}]},{"reference":"\"CGC ABI\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/libcgc/blob/master/cgcabi.md","url_text":"\"CGC ABI\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"CROMU_00002\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/CROMU_00002","url_text":"\"CROMU_00002\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"CROMU_00005\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/CROMU_00005","url_text":"\"CROMU_00005\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"KPRCA_00038\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/KPRCA_00038","url_text":"\"KPRCA_00038\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"KPRCA_00028\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/KPRCA_00028","url_text":"\"KPRCA_00028\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"CROMU_00015\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/CROMU_00015","url_text":"\"CROMU_00015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"CROMU_00018\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/CROMU_00018","url_text":"\"CROMU_00018\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"KPRCA_00002\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/KPRCA_00002","url_text":"\"KPRCA_00002\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"KPRCA_00014\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/CyberGrandChallenge/samples/tree/master/cqe-challenges/KPRCA_00014","url_text":"\"KPRCA_00014\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"Hacking Without Humans\". IEEE Security & Privacy. 16 (2). IEEE Computer Society. March 2018. ISSN 1558-4046.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computer.org/csdl/magazine/sp/2018/02","url_text":"\"Hacking Without Humans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1558-4046","url_text":"1558-4046"}]},{"reference":"Stephens N, Grosen J, Salls C, Dutcher A, Wang R, Corbetta J, Shoshitaishvili Y, Kruegel C, Vigna G (2016). Driller: Augmenting Fuzzing Through Selective Symbolic Execution (PDF). Network & Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS). Vol. 16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ndss-symposium.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/driller-augmenting-fuzzing-through-selective-symbolic-execution.pdf","url_text":"Driller: Augmenting Fuzzing Through Selective Symbolic Execution"}]},{"reference":"\"Mechanical Phish\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/mechaphish","url_text":"\"Mechanical Phish\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"Cyber Grand Challenge\". Archived from the original on 2016-09-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160911114946/https://cgc.darpa.mil/","url_text":"\"Cyber Grand Challenge\""},{"url":"https://cgc.darpa.mil/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge: A Competitor's Perspective\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286490027","url_text":"\"The DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge: A Competitor's Perspective\""}]},{"reference":"\"Legitimate Business Syndicate: What is the Cyber Grand Challenge?\". blog.legitbs.net. Retrieved 2016-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.legitbs.net/2016/05/what-is-cyber-grand-challenge.html","url_text":"\"Legitimate Business Syndicate: What is the Cyber Grand Challenge?\""}]},{"reference":"\"DARPA | Cyber Grand Challenge\". www.cybergrandchallenge.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-01. Retrieved 2016-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160801053015/https://www.cybergrandchallenge.com/finalists","url_text":"\"DARPA | Cyber Grand Challenge\""},{"url":"https://www.cybergrandchallenge.com/finalists","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mayhem comes in first place at CGC\". August 7, 2016. Retrieved August 13, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2016-08-05a","url_text":"\"Mayhem comes in first place at CGC\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_i705

Palm i705

["1 See also","2 External links"]

Palm OS personal digital assistant Palm i705Palm i705 in a docking cradle, with its stylus shown on the right-hand sideManufacturerPalm, Inc.TypeBar PDARelease dateJanuary 2002Operating systemPalm OS 4.1CPUMotorola MC68VZ328 33 MHzMemory4 MB ROMStorage8 MB Flash RAM, SD card/MultiMediaCard slotDisplay3" 160x160 px backlit monochrome STN, 16-grayscale LCD touchscreenSoundMono loudspeakerInputTouchscreenCameraNoneConnectivityPalm.net service via Mobitex, IrDA, RS-232, USB 1.1PowerLithium-ion rechargeable batteriesDimensions77.5 mm x 118 mm x 15.5 mmMass168 g (5.9 oz)RelatedPalm VII, Palm VIIx The Palm i705 was an upgrade from the last series of Palm PDAs to use the now discontinued Palm.net service via Mobitex to access the World Wide Web from Palm devices. It featured 8MB of onboard memory and an SD/MMC slot for additional storage or SDIO cards. It used the Motorola Dragonball VZ 33 MHz processor and ran Palm OS 4.1, it was noted as being the first Palm.net capable device without a flip out antenna and with an internal rechargeable battery, although it was the third and final of the three models manufactured by Palm that were capable of utilizing this network. See also Palm.net Palm (PDA) Palm OS PalmSource, Inc. Palm, Inc. Graffiti (Palm OS) External links Palm i705 Handheld Debuts: Only Secure, Integrated Wireless, Email Solution With Web Access, Palm Press Release, January 28, 2002 vteList of Palm devicesBefore Palm, Inc.Tandy Zoomer Pilot 1000 5000 PalmPilot Personal Professional Palm III IIIx IIIe IIIxe IIIc V VII Visor Visor Deluxe Prism Platinum Edge Neo Pro Treo 90 180 270/300 600 As Palm, Inc.Foleo Foleo* LifeDrive LifeDrive Palm IIIxe IIIc V Vx VIIx m100 m105 m125 m130 m500 m505 m515 i705 T|X Z22 Treo 650 680 700p 700w 700wx 750 750v 755p 800w Pro Centro P850 Tungsten T T2 T3 W C E T5 E2 Zire 21 31 71 72 WebOS Pre Pre 2 Pixi As HP Palm HP Veer HP Pre 3 HP TouchPad ^* – never released This mobile computing related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack-based_memory_allocation

Stack-based memory allocation

["1 Advantages and disadvantages","2 System interface","2.1 Auto VLAs","3 See also","4 References"]

Form of computer memory allocation For other uses, see Stack (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Stack-based memory allocation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A typical stack, storing local data and call information for nested procedure calls (not necessarily nested procedures). This stack grows downward from its origin. The stack pointer points to the current topmost datum on the stack. A push operation decrements the pointer and copies the data to the stack; a pop operation copies data from the stack and then increments the pointer. Each procedure called in the program stores procedure return information (in yellow) and local data (in other colors) by pushing them onto the stack. Stacks in computing architectures are regions of memory where data is added or removed in a last-in-first-out (LIFO) manner. In most modern computer systems, each thread has a reserved region of memory referred to as its stack. When a function executes, it may add some of its local state data to the top of the stack; when the function exits it is responsible for removing that data from the stack. At a minimum, a thread's stack is used to store the location of a return address provided by the caller in order to allow return statements to return to the correct location. The stack is often used to store variables of fixed length local to the currently active functions. Programmers may further choose to explicitly use the stack to store local data of variable length. If a region of memory lies on the thread's stack, that memory is said to have been allocated on the stack, i.e. stack-based memory allocation (SBMA). This is contrasted with a heap-based memory allocation (HBMA). The SBMA is often closely coupled with a function call stack. Advantages and disadvantages Because the data is added and removed in a last-in-first-out manner, stack-based memory allocation is very simple and typically much faster than heap-based memory allocation (also known as dynamic memory allocation) e.g. C's malloc. Another feature is that memory on the stack is automatically, and very efficiently, reclaimed when the function exits, which can be convenient for the programmer if the data is no longer required. (The same applies to longjmp if it moved to a point before the call to alloca happened.) If, however, the data needs to be kept in some form, then it must be copied from the stack to the heap before the function exits. Therefore, stack based allocation is suitable for temporary data or data which is no longer required after the current function exits. A thread's assigned stack size can be as small as only a few bytes on some small CPUs. Allocating more memory on the stack than is available can result in a crash due to stack overflow. This is also why functions that use alloca are usually prevented from being inlined: should such a function be inlined into a loop, the caller would suffer from an unanticipated growth in stack usage, making an overflow much more likely. Stack-based allocation can also cause minor performance problems: it leads to variable-size stack frames, so that both stack and frame pointers need to be managed (with fixed-size stack frames, the stack pointer is redundant due to multiplying the stack frame pointer by the size of each frame). This is usually much less costly than calling malloc and free anyway. In particular, if the current function contains both calls to alloca and blocks containing variable-length local data then a conflict occurs between alloca's attempts to increase the current stack frame until the current function exits versus the compiler's need to place local variables of variable length in the same location in the stack frame. This conflict is typically resolved by creating a separate chain of heap storage for each call to alloca. The chain records the stack depth at which each allocation occurs, subsequent calls to alloca in any function trim this chain down to the current stack depth to eventually (but not immediately) free any storage on this chain. A call to alloca with an argument of zero can also be used to trigger the freeing of memory without allocating any more such memory. As a consequence of this conflict between alloca and local variable storage, using alloca might be no more efficient than using malloc. System interface Many Unix-like systems as well as Microsoft Windows implement a function called alloca for dynamically allocating stack memory in a way similar to the heap-based malloc. A compiler typically translates it to inlined instructions manipulating the stack pointer, similar to how variable-length arrays are handled. Although there is no need to explicitly free the memory, there is a risk of undefined behavior due to stack overflow. The function was present on Unix systems as early as 32/V (1978), but is not part of Standard C or any POSIX standard. A safer version of alloca called _malloca, which allocates on the heap if the allocation size is too large, and reports stack overflow errors, exists on Microsoft Windows. It requires the use of _freea. gnulib provides an equivalent interface, albeit instead of throwing an SEH exception on overflow, it delegates to malloc when an overlarge size is detected. A similar feature can be emulated using manual accounting and size-checking, such as in the uses of alloca_account in glibc. Some processor families, such as the x86, have special instructions for manipulating the stack of the currently executing thread. Other processor families, including RISC-V, PowerPC and MIPS, do not have explicit stack support, but instead rely on convention and delegate stack management to the operating system's application binary interface (ABI). Auto VLAs In addition, since the C version C99 (optional since C11), it is possible to create an array on the stack within a function, automatically, known as an auto VLA (variable-length array). void f(int arrayLength) { int b; // auto VLA - this array's length is set at // the time of the function invocation / stack generation. for (int i = 0; i < arrayLength; i++) b = 1; // at the end of this function, b is within the stack frame, and will // disappear when the function exits, so no explicit call to free() is required. } See also Automatic variable Static variable Call stack Dynamic memory allocation Stack buffer overflow Stack machine Stack overflow References ^ "Advantages of Alloca". The GNU C Library. ^ "Inline". Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). ^ "Alloca.c source code - Codebrowser". ^ alloca(3) – Linux Programmer's Manual – Library Functions ^ "Why is the use of alloca() not considered good practice?". stackoverflow.com. Retrieved 2016-01-05. ^ "_malloca". Microsoft CRT Documentation. ^ "gnulib/malloca.h". GitHub. Retrieved 24 November 2019. ^ "glibc/include/alloca.h". Beren Minor's Mirrors. 23 November 2019. ^ "ISO C 99 Definition" (PDF). Retrieved 2022-04-10.

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This stack grows downward from its origin. The stack pointer points to the current topmost datum on the stack. A push operation decrements the pointer and copies the data to the stack; a pop operation copies data from the stack and then increments the pointer. Each procedure called in the program stores procedure return information (in yellow) and local data (in other colors) by pushing them onto the stack.Stacks in computing architectures are regions of memory where data is added or removed in a last-in-first-out (LIFO) manner.In most modern computer systems, each thread has a reserved region of memory referred to as its stack. When a function executes, it may add some of its local state data to the top of the stack; when the function exits it is responsible for removing that data from the stack. At a minimum, a thread's stack is used to store the location of a return address provided by the caller in order to allow return statements to return to the correct location.The stack is often used to store variables of fixed length local to the currently active functions. Programmers may further choose to explicitly use the stack to store local data of variable length. If a region of memory lies on the thread's stack, that memory is said to have been allocated on the stack, i.e. stack-based memory allocation (SBMA). This is contrasted with a heap-based memory allocation (HBMA). The SBMA is often closely coupled with a function call stack.","title":"Stack-based memory allocation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dynamic memory allocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_memory_allocation"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"longjmp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setjmp.h"},{"link_name":"crash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_(computing)"},{"link_name":"stack overflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_overflow"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"stack and frame pointers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack#STACK-POINTER"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Because the data is added and removed in a last-in-first-out manner, stack-based memory allocation is very simple and typically much faster than heap-based memory allocation (also known as dynamic memory allocation) e.g. C's malloc.Another feature is that memory on the stack is automatically, and very efficiently, reclaimed when the function exits, which can be convenient for the programmer if the data is no longer required.[1] (The same applies to longjmp if it moved to a point before the call to alloca happened.) If, however, the data needs to be kept in some form, then it must be copied from the stack to the heap before the function exits. Therefore, stack based allocation is suitable for temporary data or data which is no longer required after the current function exits.A thread's assigned stack size can be as small as only a few bytes on some small CPUs. Allocating more memory on the stack than is available can result in a crash due to stack overflow. This is also why functions that use alloca are usually prevented from being inlined:[2] should such a function be inlined into a loop, the caller would suffer from an unanticipated growth in stack usage, making an overflow much more likely.Stack-based allocation can also cause minor performance problems: it leads to variable-size stack frames, so that both stack and frame pointers need to be managed (with fixed-size stack frames, the stack pointer is redundant due to multiplying the stack frame pointer by the size of each frame). This is usually much less costly than calling malloc and free anyway. In particular, if the current function contains both calls to alloca and blocks containing variable-length local data then a conflict occurs between alloca's attempts to increase the current stack frame until the current function exits versus the compiler's need to place local variables of variable length in the same location in the stack frame. This conflict is typically resolved by creating a separate chain of heap storage for each call to alloca.[3] The chain records the stack depth at which each allocation occurs, subsequent calls to alloca in any function trim this chain down to the current stack depth to eventually (but not immediately) free any storage on this chain. A call to alloca with an argument of zero can also be used to trigger the freeing of memory without allocating any more such memory. As a consequence of this conflict between alloca and local variable storage, using alloca might be no more efficient than using malloc.","title":"Advantages and disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"malloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malloc"},{"link_name":"variable-length arrays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-length_array"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"32/V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX/32V"},{"link_name":"Standard C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_C"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"gnulib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnulib"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"RISC-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"application binary interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface"}],"text":"Many Unix-like systems as well as Microsoft Windows implement a function called alloca for dynamically allocating stack memory in a way similar to the heap-based malloc. A compiler typically translates it to inlined instructions manipulating the stack pointer, similar to how variable-length arrays are handled.[4] Although there is no need to explicitly free the memory, there is a risk of undefined behavior due to stack overflow.[5] The function was present on Unix systems as early as 32/V (1978), but is not part of Standard C or any POSIX standard.A safer version of alloca called _malloca, which allocates on the heap if the allocation size is too large, and reports stack overflow errors, exists on Microsoft Windows. It requires the use of _freea.[6] gnulib provides an equivalent interface, albeit instead of throwing an SEH exception on overflow, it delegates to malloc when an overlarge size is detected.[7] A similar feature can be emulated using manual accounting and size-checking, such as in the uses of alloca_account in glibc.[8]Some processor families, such as the x86, have special instructions for manipulating the stack of the currently executing thread. Other processor families, including RISC-V, PowerPC and MIPS, do not have explicit stack support, but instead rely on convention and delegate stack management to the operating system's application binary interface (ABI).","title":"System interface"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"variable-length array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-length_array"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C99-9"}],"sub_title":"Auto VLAs","text":"In addition, since the C version C99 (optional since C11), it is possible to create an array on the stack within a function, automatically, known as an auto VLA (variable-length array).[9]void f(int arrayLength)\n{\n int b[arrayLength]; // auto VLA - this array's length is set at \n // the time of the function invocation / stack generation.\n for (int i = 0; i < arrayLength; i++)\n b[i] = 1;\n // at the end of this function, b[] is within the stack frame, and will \n // disappear when the function exits, so no explicit call to free() is required.\n}","title":"System interface"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-secure

Fail-safe

["1 Examples","1.1 Mechanical or physical","1.2 Electrical or electronic","1.3 Procedural safety","2 Other terminology","2.1 Fail safe and fail secure","2.2 Fail active operational","2.3 Failsafe point","3 See also","4 References"]

Design feature or practice For other uses, see Fail-safe (disambiguation). In engineering, a fail-safe is a design feature or practice that, in the event of a failure of the design feature, inherently responds in a way that will cause minimal or no harm to other equipment, to the environment or to people. Unlike inherent safety to a particular hazard, a system being "fail-safe" does not mean that failure is naturally inconsequential, but rather that the system's design prevents or mitigates unsafe consequences of the system's failure. If and when a "fail-safe" system fails, it remains at least as safe as it was before the failure. Since many types of failure are possible, failure mode and effects analysis is used to examine failure situations and recommend safety design and procedures. Some systems can never be made fail-safe, as continuous availability is needed. Redundancy, fault tolerance, or contingency plans are used for these situations (e.g. multiple independently controlled and fuel-fed engines). Examples Mechanical or physical Globe control valve with pneumatic diaphragm actuator. Such a valve can be designed to fail to safety using spring pressure if the actuating air is lost. Examples include: Roller-shutter fire doors that are activated by building alarm systems or local smoke detectors must close automatically when signaled regardless of power. In case of power outage the coiling fire door does not need to close, but must be capable of automatic closing when given a signal from the building alarm systems or smoke detectors. A temperature-sensitive fusible link may be employed to hold the fire doors open against gravity or a closing spring. In case of fire, the link melts and releases the doors, and they close. Some airport baggage carts require that the person hold down a given cart's handbrake switch at all times; if the handbrake switch is released, the brake will activate, and assuming that all other portions of the braking system are working properly, the cart will stop. The handbrake-holding requirement thus both operates according to the principles of "fail-safety" and contributes to (but does not necessarily ensure) the fail-security of the system. This is an example of a dead man's switch. Lawnmowers and snow blowers have a hand-closed lever that must be held down at all times. If it is released, it stops the blade's or rotor's rotation. This also functions as a dead man's switch. Air brakes on railway trains and air brakes on trucks. The brakes are held in the "off" position by air pressure created in the brake system. Should a brake line split, or a carriage become uncoupled, the air pressure will be lost and the brakes applied, by springs in the case of trucks, or by a local air reservoir in trains. It is impossible to drive a truck with a serious leak in the air brake system. (Trucks may also employ wig wags to indicate low air pressure.) Motorized gates – In case of power outage the gate can be pushed open by hand with no crank or key required. However, as this would allow virtually anyone to go through the gate, a fail-secure design is used: In a power outage, the gate can only be opened by a hand crank that is usually kept in a safe area or under lock and key. When such a gate provides vehicle access to homes, a fail-safe design is used, where the door opens to allow fire department access. Safety valves – Various devices that operate with fluids use fuses or safety valves as fail-safe mechanisms. Railway semaphore signals. "Stop" or "caution" is a horizontal arm, "Clear to Proceed" is 45 degrees upwards, so failure of the actuating cable releases the signal arm to safety under gravity. A railway semaphore signal is specially designed so that, should the cable controlling the signal break, the arm returns to the "danger" position, preventing any trains passing the inoperative signal. Isolation valves, and control valves, that are used for example in systems containing hazardous substances, can be designed to close upon loss of power, for example by spring force. This is known as fail-closed upon loss of power. An elevator has brakes that are held off brake pads by the tension of the elevator cable. If the cable breaks, tension is lost and the brakes latch on the rails in the shaft, so that the elevator cabin does not fall. Vehicle air conditioning – Defrost controls require vacuum for diverter damper operation for all functions except defrost. If vacuum fails, defrost is still available. Electrical or electronic Examples include: Many devices are protected from short circuit by fuses, circuit breakers, or current limiting circuits. The electrical interruption under overload conditions will prevent damage or destruction of wiring or circuit devices due to overheating. Avionics using redundant systems to perform the same computation using three different systems. Different results indicate a fault in the system. Drive-by-wire and fly-by-wire controls such as an Accelerator Position Sensor typically have two potentiometers which read in opposite directions, such that moving the control will result in one reading becoming higher, and the other generally equally lower. Mismatches between the two readings indicates a fault in the system, and the ECU can often deduce which of the two readings is faulty. Traffic light controllers use a Conflict Monitor Unit to detect faults or conflicting signals and switch an intersection to an all flashing error signal, rather than displaying potentially dangerous conflicting signals, e.g. showing green in all directions. The automatic protection of programs and/or processing systems when a computer hardware or software failure is detected in a computer system. A classic example is a watchdog timer. See Fail-safe (computer). A control operation or function that prevents improper system functioning or catastrophic degradation in the event of circuit malfunction or operator error; for example, the failsafe track circuit used to control railway block signals. The fact that a flashing amber is more permissive than a solid amber on many railway lines is a sign of a failsafe, as the relay, if not working, will revert to a more restrictive setting. The iron pellet ballast on the Bathyscaphe is dropped to allow the submarine to ascend. The ballast is held in place by electromagnets. If electrical power fails, the ballast is released, and the submarine then ascends to safety. Many nuclear reactor designs have neutron-absorbing control rods suspended by electromagnets. If the power fails, they drop under gravity into the core and shut down the chain reaction in seconds by absorbing the neutrons needed for fission to continue. In industrial automation, alarm circuits are usually "normally closed". This ensures that in case of a wire break the alarm will be triggered. If the circuit were normally open, a wire failure would go undetected, while blocking actual alarm signals. Analog sensors and modulating actuators can usually be installed and wired such that the circuit failure results in an out-of-bound reading – see current loop. For example, a potentiometer indicating pedal position might only travel from 20% to 80% of its full range, such that a cable break or short results in a 0% or 100% reading. In control systems, critically important signals can be carried by a complementary pair of wires (<signal> and <not_signal>). Only states where the two signals are opposite (one is high, the other low) are valid. If both are high or both are low the control system knows that something is wrong with the sensor or connecting wiring. Simple failure modes (dead sensor, cut or unplugged wires) are thereby detected. An example would be a control system reading both the normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC) poles of a SPDT selector switch against common, and checking them for coherency before reacting to the input. In HVAC control systems, actuators that control dampers and valves may be fail-safe, for example, to prevent coils from freezing or rooms from overheating. Older pneumatic actuators were inherently fail-safe because if the air pressure against the internal diaphragm failed, the built-in spring would push the actuator to its home position – of course the home position needed to be the "safe" position. Newer electrical and electronic actuators need additional components (springs or capacitors) to automatically drive the actuator to home position upon loss of electrical power. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs). To make a PLC fail-safe the system does not require energization to stop the drives associated. For example, usually, an emergency stop is a normally closed contact. In the event of a power failure this would remove the power directly from the coil and also the PLC input. Hence, a fail-safe system. If a voltage regulator fails, it can destroy connected equipment. A crowbar (circuit) prevents damage by short-circuiting the power supply as soon as it detects overvoltage. Procedural safety An aircraft lights its afterburners to maintain full power during an arrested landing aboard an aircraft carrier. If the arrested landing fails, the aircraft can safely take off again. As well as physical devices and systems fail-safe procedures can be created so that if a procedure is not carried out or carried out incorrectly no dangerous action results. For example: Spacecraft trajectory - During early Apollo program missions to the Moon, the spacecraft was put on a free return trajectory — if the engines had failed at lunar orbit insertion, the craft would have safely coasted back to Earth. The pilot of an aircraft landing on an aircraft carrier increases the throttle to full power at touchdown. If the arresting wires fail to capture the aircraft, it is able to take off again; this is an example of fail-safe practice. In railway signalling signals which are not in active use for a train are required to be kept in the 'danger' position. The default position of every controlled absolute signal is therefore "danger", and therefore a positive action — setting signals to "clear" — is required before a train may pass. This practice also ensures that, in case of a fault in the signalling system, an incapacitated signalman, or the unexpected entry of a train, that a train will never be shown an erroneous "clear" signal. Railroad engineers are instructed that a railway signal showing a confusing, contradictory or unfamiliar aspect (for example a colour light signal that has suffered an electrical failure and is showing no light at all) must be treated as showing "danger". In this way, the driver contributes to the fail-safety of the system. Other terminology Fail-safe (foolproof) devices are also known as poka-yoke devices. Poka-yoke, a Japanese term, was coined by Shigeo Shingo, a quality expert. "Safe to fail" refers to civil engineering designs such as the Room for the River project in Netherlands and the Thames Estuary 2100 Plan which incorporate flexible adaptation strategies or climate change adaptation which provide for, and limit, damage, should severe events such as 500-year floods occur. Fail safe and fail secure Fail-safe and fail-secure are distinct concepts. Fail-safe means that a device will not endanger lives or property when it fails. Fail-secure, also called fail-closed, means that access or data will not fall into the wrong hands in a security failure. Sometimes the approaches suggest opposite solutions. For example, if a building catches fire, fail-safe systems would unlock doors to ensure quick escape and allow firefighters inside, while fail-secure would lock doors to prevent unauthorized access to the building. The opposite of fail-closed is called fail-open. Fail active operational Fail active operational can be installed on systems that have a high degree of redundancy so that a single failure of any part of the system can be tolerated (fail active operational) and a second failure can be detected – at which point the system will turn itself off (uncouple, fail passive). One way of accomplishing this is to have three identical systems installed, and a control logic which detects discrepancies. An example for this are many aircraft systems, among them inertial navigation systems and pitot tubes. Failsafe point During the Cold War, "failsafe point" was the term used for the point of no return for American Strategic Air Command nuclear bombers, just outside Soviet airspace. In the event of receiving an attack order, the bombers were required to linger at the failsafe point and wait for a second confirming order; until one was received, they would not arm their bombs or proceed further. The design was to prevent any single failure of the American command system causing nuclear war. This sense of the term entered the American popular lexicon with the publishing of the 1962 novel Fail-Safe. (Other nuclear war command control systems have used the opposite scheme, fail-deadly, which requires continuous or regular proof that an enemy first-strike attack has not occurred to prevent the launching of a nuclear strike.) See also Look up fail-safe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Fail-fast system Control theory Dead man's switch EIA-485 Elegant degradation Failing badly Fail-deadly Fault tolerance IEC 61508 Interlock Safe-life design Safety engineering References ^ "Fail-safe". AudioEnglich.net. Accessed 2009.12.31 ^ e.g., David B. Rutherford Jr., What Do You Mean It\'s Fail Safe? . 1990 Rapid Transit Conference ^ Force V: The history of Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982, ISBN 0710602383, p.144. ^ Bornschlegl, Susanne (2012). Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications. MEN Mikro Elektronik. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ Wragg, David W. (1973). A Dictionary of Aviation (first ed.). Osprey. p. 127. ISBN 9780850451634. ^ Bornschlegl, Susanne (2012). Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications. MEN Mikro Elektronik. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ "P2138 DTC Throttle/Pedal Pos Sensor/Switch D / E Voltage Correlation". www.obd-codes.com. ^ Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, Federal Highway Administration, 2003 ^ "When Failure Is Not an Option: The Evolution of Fail-Safe Actuators". KMC Controls. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2021. ^ Harris, Tom (29 August 2002). "How Aircraft Carriers Work". HowStuffWorks, Inc. Retrieved 2007-10-20. ^ Shingo, Shigeo; Andrew P. Dillon (1989). A study of the Toyota production system from an industrial engineering viewpoint. Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-915299-17-8. OCLC 19740349 ^ John R. Grout, Brian T. Downs. "A Brief Tutorial on Mistake-proofing, Poka-Yoke, and ZQC", MistakeProofing.com Archived 2016-03-19 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Thames Estuary 2100 Plan" (PDF). UK Environment Agency. November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-10. Retrieved March 20, 2013. ^ "Thames Estuary 2100 (TE2100)". UK Environment Agency. Retrieved March 20, 2013. ^ Jennifer Weeks (March 20, 2013). "Adaptation expert Paul Kirshen proposes a new paradigm for civil engineers: 'safe to fail,' not 'fail safe'". The Daily Climate. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2013. ^ "fail-safe". Dictionary.com. Retrieved November 7, 2021.

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Unlike inherent safety to a particular hazard, a system being \"fail-safe\" does not mean that failure is naturally inconsequential, but rather that the system's design prevents or mitigates unsafe consequences of the system's failure. If and when a \"fail-safe\" system fails, it remains at least as safe as it was before the failure.[1][2] Since many types of failure are possible, failure mode and effects analysis is used to examine failure situations and recommend safety design and procedures.[3]Some systems can never be made fail-safe, as continuous availability is needed. Redundancy, fault tolerance, or contingency plans are used for these situations (e.g. multiple independently controlled and fuel-fed engines).[4]","title":"Fail-safe"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pl_control_valve.jpg"},{"link_name":"fusible link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusible_link"},{"link_name":"baggage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baggage"},{"link_name":"carts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cart"},{"link_name":"dead man's switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_man%27s_switch"},{"link_name":"Lawnmowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawnmower"},{"link_name":"snow blowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_blower"},{"link_name":"Air brakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_brake_(rail)"},{"link_name":"trains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train"},{"link_name":"air brakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_brake_(road_vehicle)"},{"link_name":"trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"wig wags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wig_wag_(truck_braking_systems)"},{"link_name":"fluids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid"},{"link_name":"fuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(hydraulic)"},{"link_name":"safety valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_valve"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:130330_Thomas_ELC_and_Wansbeck_Railtour_Northumberlandia_030.jpg"},{"link_name":"railway semaphore signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_semaphore_signal"},{"link_name":"Isolation valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_valve"},{"link_name":"elevator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator"}],"sub_title":"Mechanical or physical","text":"Globe control valve with pneumatic diaphragm actuator. Such a valve can be designed to fail to safety using spring pressure if the actuating air is lost.Examples include:Roller-shutter fire doors that are activated by building alarm systems or local smoke detectors must close automatically when signaled regardless of power. In case of power outage the coiling fire door does not need to close, but must be capable of automatic closing when given a signal from the building alarm systems or smoke detectors. A temperature-sensitive fusible link may be employed to hold the fire doors open against gravity or a closing spring. In case of fire, the link melts and releases the doors, and they close.\nSome airport baggage carts require that the person hold down a given cart's handbrake switch at all times; if the handbrake switch is released, the brake will activate, and assuming that all other portions of the braking system are working properly, the cart will stop. The handbrake-holding requirement thus both operates according to the principles of \"fail-safety\" and contributes to (but does not necessarily ensure) the fail-security of the system. This is an example of a dead man's switch.\nLawnmowers and snow blowers have a hand-closed lever that must be held down at all times. If it is released, it stops the blade's or rotor's rotation. This also functions as a dead man's switch.\nAir brakes on railway trains and air brakes on trucks. The brakes are held in the \"off\" position by air pressure created in the brake system. Should a brake line split, or a carriage become uncoupled, the air pressure will be lost and the brakes applied, by springs in the case of trucks, or by a local air reservoir in trains. It is impossible to drive a truck with a serious leak in the air brake system. (Trucks may also employ wig wags to indicate low air pressure.)\nMotorized gates – In case of power outage the gate can be pushed open by hand with no crank or key required. However, as this would allow virtually anyone to go through the gate, a fail-secure design is used: In a power outage, the gate can only be opened by a hand crank that is usually kept in a safe area or under lock and key. When such a gate provides vehicle access to homes, a fail-safe design is used, where the door opens to allow fire department access.\nSafety valves – Various devices that operate with fluids use fuses or safety valves as fail-safe mechanisms.Railway semaphore signals. \"Stop\" or \"caution\" is a horizontal arm, \"Clear to Proceed\" is 45 degrees upwards, so failure of the actuating cable releases the signal arm to safety under gravity.A railway semaphore signal is specially designed so that, should the cable controlling the signal break, the arm returns to the \"danger\" position, preventing any trains passing the inoperative signal.\nIsolation valves, and control valves, that are used for example in systems containing hazardous substances, can be designed to close upon loss of power, for example by spring force. This is known as fail-closed upon loss of power.\nAn elevator has brakes that are held off brake pads by the tension of the elevator cable. If the cable breaks, tension is lost and the brakes latch on the rails in the shaft, so that the elevator cabin does not fall.\nVehicle air conditioning – Defrost controls require vacuum for diverter damper operation for all functions except defrost. If vacuum fails, defrost is still available.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"short circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit"},{"link_name":"fuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"circuit breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker"},{"link_name":"current limiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_limiting"},{"link_name":"Avionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"redundant systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"same computation using three different systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_modular_redundancy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Drive-by-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive-by-wire"},{"link_name":"fly-by-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly-by-wire"},{"link_name":"ECU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unit"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Traffic light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_light"},{"link_name":"green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"computer system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system"},{"link_name":"watchdog timer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchdog_timer"},{"link_name":"Fail-safe (computer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-safe_(computer)"},{"link_name":"control operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_operation"},{"link_name":"catastrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_failure"},{"link_name":"circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit"},{"link_name":"track circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_circuit"},{"link_name":"railway block signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_signaling"},{"link_name":"Bathyscaphe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe"},{"link_name":"electromagnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnet"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"industrial automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_automation"},{"link_name":"normally closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normally_closed"},{"link_name":"current loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_loop"},{"link_name":"normally open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normally_open"},{"link_name":"normally closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normally_closed"},{"link_name":"SPDT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology"},{"link_name":"HVAC control systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC_control_system"},{"link_name":"actuators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuators"},{"link_name":"pneumatic actuators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic_actuators"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Programmable logic controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"},{"link_name":"voltage regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulator"},{"link_name":"crowbar (circuit)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowbar_(circuit)"}],"sub_title":"Electrical or electronic","text":"Examples include:Many devices are protected from short circuit by fuses, circuit breakers, or current limiting circuits. The electrical interruption under overload conditions will prevent damage or destruction of wiring or circuit devices due to overheating.\nAvionics[5] using redundant systems to perform the same computation using three different systems. Different results indicate a fault in the system.[6]\nDrive-by-wire and fly-by-wire controls such as an Accelerator Position Sensor typically have two potentiometers which read in opposite directions, such that moving the control will result in one reading becoming higher, and the other generally equally lower. Mismatches between the two readings indicates a fault in the system, and the ECU can often deduce which of the two readings is faulty.[7]\nTraffic light controllers use a Conflict Monitor Unit to detect faults or conflicting signals and switch an intersection to an all flashing error signal, rather than displaying potentially dangerous conflicting signals, e.g. showing green in all directions.[8]\nThe automatic protection of programs and/or processing systems when a computer hardware or software failure is detected in a computer system. A classic example is a watchdog timer. See Fail-safe (computer).\nA control operation or function that prevents improper system functioning or catastrophic degradation in the event of circuit malfunction or operator error; for example, the failsafe track circuit used to control railway block signals. The fact that a flashing amber is more permissive than a solid amber on many railway lines is a sign of a failsafe, as the relay, if not working, will revert to a more restrictive setting.\nThe iron pellet ballast on the Bathyscaphe is dropped to allow the submarine to ascend. The ballast is held in place by electromagnets. If electrical power fails, the ballast is released, and the submarine then ascends to safety.\nMany nuclear reactor designs have neutron-absorbing control rods suspended by electromagnets. If the power fails, they drop under gravity into the core and shut down the chain reaction in seconds by absorbing the neutrons needed for fission to continue.\nIn industrial automation, alarm circuits are usually \"normally closed\". This ensures that in case of a wire break the alarm will be triggered. If the circuit were normally open, a wire failure would go undetected, while blocking actual alarm signals.\nAnalog sensors and modulating actuators can usually be installed and wired such that the circuit failure results in an out-of-bound reading – see current loop. For example, a potentiometer indicating pedal position might only travel from 20% to 80% of its full range, such that a cable break or short results in a 0% or 100% reading.\nIn control systems, critically important signals can be carried by a complementary pair of wires (<signal> and <not_signal>). Only states where the two signals are opposite (one is high, the other low) are valid. If both are high or both are low the control system knows that something is wrong with the sensor or connecting wiring. Simple failure modes (dead sensor, cut or unplugged wires) are thereby detected. An example would be a control system reading both the normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC) poles of a SPDT selector switch against common, and checking them for coherency before reacting to the input.\nIn HVAC control systems, actuators that control dampers and valves may be fail-safe, for example, to prevent coils from freezing or rooms from overheating. Older pneumatic actuators were inherently fail-safe because if the air pressure against the internal diaphragm failed, the built-in spring would push the actuator to its home position – of course the home position needed to be the \"safe\" position. Newer electrical and electronic actuators need additional components (springs or capacitors) to automatically drive the actuator to home position upon loss of electrical power.[9]\nProgrammable logic controllers (PLCs). To make a PLC fail-safe the system does not require energization to stop the drives associated. For example, usually, an emergency stop is a normally closed contact. In the event of a power failure this would remove the power directly from the coil and also the PLC input. Hence, a fail-safe system.\nIf a voltage regulator fails, it can destroy connected equipment. A crowbar (circuit) prevents damage by short-circuiting the power supply as soon as it detects overvoltage.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FA-18-Afterburners.jpg"},{"link_name":"afterburners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterburner"},{"link_name":"arrested landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrested_landing"},{"link_name":"aircraft carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"Apollo program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"free return trajectory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_return_trajectory"},{"link_name":"lunar orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_orbit"},{"link_name":"aircraft carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"arresting wires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arresting_wire"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"railway signalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_signalling"},{"link_name":"colour light signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_signalling#Colour_light_signals"}],"sub_title":"Procedural safety","text":"An aircraft lights its afterburners to maintain full power during an arrested landing aboard an aircraft carrier. If the arrested landing fails, the aircraft can safely take off again.As well as physical devices and systems fail-safe procedures can be created so that if a procedure is not carried out or carried out incorrectly no dangerous action results. \nFor example:Spacecraft trajectory - During early Apollo program missions to the Moon, the spacecraft was put on a free return trajectory — if the engines had failed at lunar orbit insertion, the craft would have safely coasted back to Earth.\nThe pilot of an aircraft landing on an aircraft carrier increases the throttle to full power at touchdown. If the arresting wires fail to capture the aircraft, it is able to take off again; this is an example of fail-safe practice.[10]\nIn railway signalling signals which are not in active use for a train are required to be kept in the 'danger' position. The default position of every controlled absolute signal is therefore \"danger\", and therefore a positive action — setting signals to \"clear\" — is required before a train may pass. This practice also ensures that, in case of a fault in the signalling system, an incapacitated signalman, or the unexpected entry of a train, that a train will never be shown an erroneous \"clear\" signal.\nRailroad engineers are instructed that a railway signal showing a confusing, contradictory or unfamiliar aspect (for example a colour light signal that has suffered an electrical failure and is showing no light at all) must be treated as showing \"danger\". In this way, the driver contributes to the fail-safety of the system.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"foolproof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiot_proof"},{"link_name":"poka-yoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poka-yoke"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Shigeo Shingo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeo_Shingo"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Room for the River project in Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_for_the_River_(Netherlands)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TE2100-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TE21-14"},{"link_name":"climate change adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TDC032013-15"}],"text":"Fail-safe (foolproof) devices are also known as poka-yoke devices. Poka-yoke, a Japanese term, was coined by Shigeo Shingo, a quality expert.[11][12] \"Safe to fail\" refers to civil engineering designs such as the Room for the River project in Netherlands and the Thames Estuary 2100 Plan[13][14] which incorporate flexible adaptation strategies or climate change adaptation which provide for, and limit, damage, should severe events such as 500-year floods occur.[15]","title":"Other terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Fail safe and fail secure","text":"Fail-safe and fail-secure are distinct concepts. Fail-safe means that a device will not endanger lives or property when it fails. Fail-secure, also called fail-closed, means that access or data will not fall into the wrong hands in a security failure. Sometimes the approaches suggest opposite solutions. For example, if a building catches fire, fail-safe systems would unlock doors to ensure quick escape and allow firefighters inside, while fail-secure would lock doors to prevent unauthorized access to the building.The opposite of fail-closed is called fail-open.","title":"Other terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inertial navigation systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system"},{"link_name":"pitot tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube"}],"sub_title":"Fail active operational","text":"Fail active operational can be installed on systems that have a high degree of redundancy so that a single failure of any part of the system can be tolerated (fail active operational) and a second failure can be detected – at which point the system will turn itself off (uncouple, fail passive). One way of accomplishing this is to have three identical systems installed, and a control logic which detects discrepancies. An example for this are many aircraft systems, among them inertial navigation systems and pitot tubes.","title":"Other terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Strategic Air Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Fail-Safe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-Safe_(novel)"},{"link_name":"fail-deadly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-deadly"}],"sub_title":"Failsafe point","text":"During the Cold War, \"failsafe point\" was the term used for the point of no return for American Strategic Air Command nuclear bombers, just outside Soviet airspace. In the event of receiving an attack order, the bombers were required to linger at the failsafe point and wait for a second confirming order; until one was received, they would not arm their bombs or proceed further.[16] The design was to prevent any single failure of the American command system causing nuclear war. This sense of the term entered the American popular lexicon with the publishing of the 1962 novel Fail-Safe.(Other nuclear war command control systems have used the opposite scheme, fail-deadly, which requires continuous or regular proof that an enemy first-strike attack has not occurred to prevent the launching of a nuclear strike.)","title":"Other terminology"}]

[{"image_text":"Globe control valve with pneumatic diaphragm actuator. Such a valve can be designed to fail to safety using spring pressure if the actuating air is lost.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pl_control_valve.jpg/220px-Pl_control_valve.jpg"},{"image_text":"Railway semaphore signals. \"Stop\" or \"caution\" is a horizontal arm, \"Clear to Proceed\" is 45 degrees upwards, so failure of the actuating cable releases the signal arm to safety under gravity.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/130330_Thomas_ELC_and_Wansbeck_Railtour_Northumberlandia_030.jpg/220px-130330_Thomas_ELC_and_Wansbeck_Railtour_Northumberlandia_030.jpg"},{"image_text":"An aircraft lights its afterburners to maintain full power during an arrested landing aboard an aircraft carrier. If the arrested landing fails, the aircraft can safely take off again.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/FA-18-Afterburners.jpg/220px-FA-18-Afterburners.jpg"}]

[{"title":"fail-safe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fail-safe"},{"title":"Fail-fast system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-fast_system"},{"title":"Control theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory"},{"title":"Dead man's switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_man%27s_switch"},{"title":"EIA-485","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIA-485"},{"title":"Elegant degradation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegant_degradation"},{"title":"Failing badly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failing_badly"},{"title":"Fail-deadly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-deadly"},{"title":"Fault tolerance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tolerance"},{"title":"IEC 61508","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61508"},{"title":"Interlock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlock"},{"title":"Safe-life design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe-life_design"},{"title":"Safety engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering"}]

[{"reference":"Bornschlegl, Susanne (2012). Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications. MEN Mikro Elektronik. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2015-09-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190609205912/https://www.menmicro.com/downloads/search/dl/sk/%22White%20Paper%3A%20Ready%20for%20SIL4%3A%20Modular%20Computers%20for%20Safety-Critical%20Mobile%20Applications%22/dx/1/","url_text":"Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications"},{"url":"https://www.menmicro.com/downloads/search/dl/sk/%22White%20Paper%3A%20Ready%20for%20SIL4%3A%20Modular%20Computers%20for%20Safety-Critical%20Mobile%20Applications%22/dx/1/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wragg, David W. (1973). A Dictionary of Aviation (first ed.). Osprey. p. 127. ISBN 9780850451634.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850451634","url_text":"9780850451634"}]},{"reference":"Bornschlegl, Susanne (2012). Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications. MEN Mikro Elektronik. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2015-09-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190609205912/https://www.menmicro.com/downloads/search/dl/sk/%22White%20Paper%3A%20Ready%20for%20SIL4%3A%20Modular%20Computers%20for%20Safety-Critical%20Mobile%20Applications%22/dx/1/","url_text":"Ready for SIL 4: Modular Computers for Safety-Critical Mobile Applications"},{"url":"https://www.menmicro.com/downloads/search/dl/sk/%22White%20Paper%3A%20Ready%20for%20SIL4%3A%20Modular%20Computers%20for%20Safety-Critical%20Mobile%20Applications%22/dx/1/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"P2138 DTC Throttle/Pedal Pos Sensor/Switch D / E Voltage Correlation\". www.obd-codes.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.obd-codes.com/p2138","url_text":"\"P2138 DTC Throttle/Pedal Pos Sensor/Switch D / E Voltage Correlation\""}]},{"reference":"\"When Failure Is Not an Option: The Evolution of Fail-Safe Actuators\". KMC Controls. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kmccontrols.com/blog/when-failure-is-not-an-option-the-evolution-of-fail-safe-actuators/","url_text":"\"When Failure Is Not an Option: The Evolution of Fail-Safe Actuators\""}]},{"reference":"Harris, Tom (29 August 2002). \"How Aircraft Carriers Work\". HowStuffWorks, Inc. Retrieved 2007-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://science.howstuffworks.com/aircraft-carrier4.htm","url_text":"\"How Aircraft Carriers Work\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thames Estuary 2100 Plan\" (PDF). UK Environment Agency. November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-10. Retrieved March 20, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121210131034/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Leisure/SE_TE2100_briefing.pdf","url_text":"\"Thames Estuary 2100 Plan\""},{"url":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Leisure/SE_TE2100_briefing.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Thames Estuary 2100 (TE2100)\". UK Environment Agency. Retrieved March 20, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/floods/125045.aspx","url_text":"\"Thames Estuary 2100 (TE2100)\""}]},{"reference":"Jennifer Weeks (March 20, 2013). \"Adaptation expert Paul Kirshen proposes a new paradigm for civil engineers: 'safe to fail,' not 'fail safe'\". The Daily Climate. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130513080832/http://wwwp.dailyclimate.org/tdc-newsroom/2013/03/flexible-infrastructure-climate-stress","url_text":"\"Adaptation expert Paul Kirshen proposes a new paradigm for civil engineers: 'safe to fail,' not 'fail safe'\""},{"url":"http://wwwp.dailyclimate.org/tdc-newsroom/2013/03/flexible-infrastructure-climate-stress","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"fail-safe\". Dictionary.com. Retrieved November 7, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/failsafe","url_text":"\"fail-safe\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%27s_noisy_channel_theorem

Noisy-channel coding theorem

["1 Overview","2 Mathematical statement","3 Outline of proof","3.1 Achievability for discrete memoryless channels","3.2 Weak converse for discrete memoryless channels","3.3 Strong converse for discrete memoryless channels","4 Channel coding theorem for non-stationary memoryless channels","4.1 Outline of the proof","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]

Limit on data transfer rate Information theory Entropy Differential entropy Conditional entropy Joint entropy Mutual information Directed information Conditional mutual information Relative entropy Entropy rate Limiting density of discrete points Asymptotic equipartition property Rate–distortion theory Shannon's source coding theorem Channel capacity Noisy-channel coding theorem Shannon–Hartley theorem vte "Shannon's theorem" redirects here. Shannon's name is also associated with the sampling theorem. In information theory, the noisy-channel coding theorem (sometimes Shannon's theorem or Shannon's limit), establishes that for any given degree of noise contamination of a communication channel, it is possible (in theory) to communicate discrete data (digital information) nearly error-free up to a computable maximum rate through the channel. This result was presented by Claude Shannon in 1948 and was based in part on earlier work and ideas of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley. The Shannon limit or Shannon capacity of a communication channel refers to the maximum rate of error-free data that can theoretically be transferred over the channel if the link is subject to random data transmission errors, for a particular noise level. It was first described by Shannon (1948), and shortly after published in a book by Shannon and Warren Weaver entitled The Mathematical Theory of Communication (1949). This founded the modern discipline of information theory. Overview Stated by Claude Shannon in 1948, the theorem describes the maximum possible efficiency of error-correcting methods versus levels of noise interference and data corruption. Shannon's theorem has wide-ranging applications in both communications and data storage. This theorem is of foundational importance to the modern field of information theory. Shannon only gave an outline of the proof. The first rigorous proof for the discrete case is given in (Feinstein 1954). The Shannon theorem states that given a noisy channel with channel capacity C and information transmitted at a rate R, then if R < C {\displaystyle R<C} there exist codes that allow the probability of error at the receiver to be made arbitrarily small. This means that, theoretically, it is possible to transmit information nearly without error at any rate below a limiting rate, C. The converse is also important. If R > C {\displaystyle R>C} , an arbitrarily small probability of error is not achievable. All codes will have a probability of error greater than a certain positive minimal level, and this level increases as the rate increases. So, information cannot be guaranteed to be transmitted reliably across a channel at rates beyond the channel capacity. The theorem does not address the rare situation in which rate and capacity are equal. The channel capacity C {\displaystyle C} can be calculated from the physical properties of a channel; for a band-limited channel with Gaussian noise, using the Shannon–Hartley theorem. Simple schemes such as "send the message 3 times and use a best 2 out of 3 voting scheme if the copies differ" are inefficient error-correction methods, unable to asymptotically guarantee that a block of data can be communicated free of error. Advanced techniques such as Reed–Solomon codes and, more recently, low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes and turbo codes, come much closer to reaching the theoretical Shannon limit, but at a cost of high computational complexity. Using these highly efficient codes and with the computing power in today's digital signal processors, it is now possible to reach very close to the Shannon limit. In fact, it was shown that LDPC codes can reach within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon limit (for binary additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channels, with very long block lengths). Mathematical statement Graph showing the proportion of a channel’s capacity (y-axis) that can be used for payload based on how noisy the channel is (probability of bit flips; x-axis). The basic mathematical model for a communication system is the following: → Message W Encoder f n → E n c o d e d s e q u e n c e X n Channel p ( y | x ) → R e c e i v e d s e q u e n c e Y n Decoder g n → E s t i m a t e d m e s s a g e W ^ {\displaystyle {\xrightarrow{W}}{\begin{array}{|c| }\hline {\text{Encoder}}\\f_{n}\\\hline \end{array}}{\xrightarrow{X^{n}}}{\begin{array}{|c| }\hline {\text{Channel}}\\p(y|x)\\\hline \end{array}}{\xrightarrow{Y^{n}}}{\begin{array}{|c| }\hline {\text{Decoder}}\\g_{n}\\\hline \end{array}}{\xrightarrow{\hat {W}}}} A message W is transmitted through a noisy channel by using encoding and decoding functions. An encoder maps W into a pre-defined sequence of channel symbols of length n. In its most basic model, the channel distorts each of these symbols independently of the others. The output of the channel –the received sequence– is fed into a decoder which maps the sequence into an estimate of the message. In this setting, the probability of error is defined as: P e = Pr { W ^ ≠ W } . {\displaystyle P_{e}={\text{Pr}}\left\{{\hat {W}}\neq W\right\}.} Theorem (Shannon, 1948): 1. For every discrete memoryless channel, the channel capacity, defined in terms of the mutual information I ( X ; Y ) {\displaystyle I(X;Y)} as   C = sup p X I ( X ; Y ) {\displaystyle \ C=\sup _{p_{X}}I(X;Y)} has the following property. For any ϵ > 0 {\displaystyle \epsilon >0} and R < C {\displaystyle R<C} , for large enough N {\displaystyle N} , there exists a code of length N {\displaystyle N} and rate ≥ R {\displaystyle \geq R} and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is ≤ ϵ {\displaystyle \leq \epsilon } . 2. If a probability of bit error p b {\displaystyle p_{b}} is acceptable, rates up to R ( p b ) {\displaystyle R(p_{b})} are achievable, where R ( p b ) = C 1 − H 2 ( p b ) . {\displaystyle R(p_{b})={\frac {C}{1-H_{2}(p_{b})}}.} and H 2 ( p b ) {\displaystyle H_{2}(p_{b})} is the binary entropy function H 2 ( p b ) = − [ p b log 2 ⁡ p b + ( 1 − p b ) log 2 ⁡ ( 1 − p b ) ] {\displaystyle H_{2}(p_{b})=-\left} 3. For any p b {\displaystyle p_{b}} , rates greater than R ( p b ) {\displaystyle R(p_{b})} are not achievable. (MacKay (2003), p. 162; cf Gallager (1968), ch.5; Cover and Thomas (1991), p. 198; Shannon (1948) thm. 11) Outline of proof As with the several other major results in information theory, the proof of the noisy channel coding theorem includes an achievability result and a matching converse result. These two components serve to bound, in this case, the set of possible rates at which one can communicate over a noisy channel, and matching serves to show that these bounds are tight bounds. The following outlines are only one set of many different styles available for study in information theory texts. Achievability for discrete memoryless channels This particular proof of achievability follows the style of proofs that make use of the asymptotic equipartition property (AEP). Another style can be found in information theory texts using error exponents. Both types of proofs make use of a random coding argument where the codebook used across a channel is randomly constructed - this serves to make the analysis simpler while still proving the existence of a code satisfying a desired low probability of error at any data rate below the channel capacity. By an AEP-related argument, given a channel, length n {\displaystyle n} strings of source symbols X 1 n {\displaystyle X_{1}^{n}} , and length n {\displaystyle n} strings of channel outputs Y 1 n {\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}} , we can define a jointly typical set by the following: A ε ( n ) = { ( x n , y n ) ∈ X n × Y n {\displaystyle A_{\varepsilon }^{(n)}=\{(x^{n},y^{n})\in {\mathcal {X}}^{n}\times {\mathcal {Y}}^{n}} 2 − n ( H ( X ) + ε ) ≤ p ( X 1 n ) ≤ 2 − n ( H ( X ) − ε ) {\displaystyle 2^{-n(H(X)+\varepsilon )}\leq p(X_{1}^{n})\leq 2^{-n(H(X)-\varepsilon )}} 2 − n ( H ( Y ) + ε ) ≤ p ( Y 1 n ) ≤ 2 − n ( H ( Y ) − ε ) {\displaystyle 2^{-n(H(Y)+\varepsilon )}\leq p(Y_{1}^{n})\leq 2^{-n(H(Y)-\varepsilon )}} 2 − n ( H ( X , Y ) + ε ) ≤ p ( X 1 n , Y 1 n ) ≤ 2 − n ( H ( X , Y ) − ε ) } {\displaystyle {2^{-n(H(X,Y)+\varepsilon )}}\leq p(X_{1}^{n},Y_{1}^{n})\leq 2^{-n(H(X,Y)-\varepsilon )}\}} We say that two sequences X 1 n {\displaystyle {X_{1}^{n}}} and Y 1 n {\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}} are jointly typical if they lie in the jointly typical set defined above. Steps In the style of the random coding argument, we randomly generate 2 n R {\displaystyle 2^{nR}} codewords of length n from a probability distribution Q. This code is revealed to the sender and receiver. It is also assumed that one knows the transition matrix p ( y | x ) {\displaystyle p(y|x)} for the channel being used. A message W is chosen according to the uniform distribution on the set of codewords. That is, P r ( W = w ) = 2 − n R , w = 1 , 2 , … , 2 n R {\displaystyle Pr(W=w)=2^{-nR},w=1,2,\dots ,2^{nR}} . The message W is sent across the channel. The receiver receives a sequence according to P ( y n | x n ( w ) ) = ∏ i = 1 n p ( y i | x i ( w ) ) {\displaystyle P(y^{n}|x^{n}(w))=\prod _{i=1}^{n}p(y_{i}|x_{i}(w))} Sending these codewords across the channel, we receive Y 1 n {\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}} , and decode to some source sequence if there exists exactly 1 codeword that is jointly typical with Y. If there are no jointly typical codewords, or if there are more than one, an error is declared. An error also occurs if a decoded codeword does not match the original codeword. This is called typical set decoding. The probability of error of this scheme is divided into two parts: First, error can occur if no jointly typical X sequences are found for a received Y sequence Second, error can occur if an incorrect X sequence is jointly typical with a received Y sequence. By the randomness of the code construction, we can assume that the average probability of error averaged over all codes does not depend on the index sent. Thus, without loss of generality, we can assume W = 1. From the joint AEP, we know that the probability that no jointly typical X exists goes to 0 as n grows large. We can bound this error probability by ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } . Also from the joint AEP, we know the probability that a particular X 1 n ( i ) {\displaystyle X_{1}^{n}(i)} and the Y 1 n {\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}} resulting from W = 1 are jointly typical is ≤ 2 − n ( I ( X ; Y ) − 3 ε ) {\displaystyle \leq 2^{-n(I(X;Y)-3\varepsilon )}} . Define: E i = { ( X 1 n ( i ) , Y 1 n ) ∈ A ε ( n ) } , i = 1 , 2 , … , 2 n R {\displaystyle E_{i}=\{(X_{1}^{n}(i),Y_{1}^{n})\in A_{\varepsilon }^{(n)}\},i=1,2,\dots ,2^{nR}} as the event that message i is jointly typical with the sequence received when message 1 is sent. P ( error ) = P ( error | W = 1 ) ≤ P ( E 1 c ) + ∑ i = 2 2 n R P ( E i ) ≤ P ( E 1 c ) + ( 2 n R − 1 ) 2 − n ( I ( X ; Y ) − 3 ε ) ≤ ε + 2 − n ( I ( X ; Y ) − R − 3 ε ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P({\text{error}})&{}=P({\text{error}}|W=1)\leq P(E_{1}^{c})+\sum _{i=2}^{2^{nR}}P(E_{i})\\&{}\leq P(E_{1}^{c})+(2^{nR}-1)2^{-n(I(X;Y)-3\varepsilon )}\\&{}\leq \varepsilon +2^{-n(I(X;Y)-R-3\varepsilon )}.\end{aligned}}} We can observe that as n {\displaystyle n} goes to infinity, if R < I ( X ; Y ) {\displaystyle R<I(X;Y)} for the channel, the probability of error will go to 0. Finally, given that the average codebook is shown to be "good," we know that there exists a codebook whose performance is better than the average, and so satisfies our need for arbitrarily low error probability communicating across the noisy channel. Weak converse for discrete memoryless channels Suppose a code of 2 n R {\displaystyle 2^{nR}} codewords. Let W be drawn uniformly over this set as an index. Let X n {\displaystyle X^{n}} and Y n {\displaystyle Y^{n}} be the transmitted codewords and received codewords, respectively. n R = H ( W ) = H ( W | Y n ) + I ( W ; Y n ) {\displaystyle nR=H(W)=H(W|Y^{n})+I(W;Y^{n})} using identities involving entropy and mutual information ≤ H ( W | Y n ) + I ( X n ( W ) ; Y n ) {\displaystyle \leq H(W|Y^{n})+I(X^{n}(W);Y^{n})} since X is a function of W ≤ 1 + P e ( n ) n R + I ( X n ( W ) ; Y n ) {\displaystyle \leq 1+P_{e}^{(n)}nR+I(X^{n}(W);Y^{n})} by the use of Fano's Inequality ≤ 1 + P e ( n ) n R + n C {\displaystyle \leq 1+P_{e}^{(n)}nR+nC} by the fact that capacity is maximized mutual information. The result of these steps is that P e ( n ) ≥ 1 − 1 n R − C R {\displaystyle P_{e}^{(n)}\geq 1-{\frac {1}{nR}}-{\frac {C}{R}}} . As the block length n {\displaystyle n} goes to infinity, we obtain P e ( n ) {\displaystyle P_{e}^{(n)}} is bounded away from 0 if R is greater than C - we can get arbitrarily low rates of error only if R is less than C. Strong converse for discrete memoryless channels A strong converse theorem, proven by Wolfowitz in 1957, states that, P e ≥ 1 − 4 A n ( R − C ) 2 − e − n ( R − C ) 2 {\displaystyle P_{e}\geq 1-{\frac {4A}{n(R-C)^{2}}}-e^{-{\frac {n(R-C)}{2}}}} for some finite positive constant A {\displaystyle A} . While the weak converse states that the error probability is bounded away from zero as n {\displaystyle n} goes to infinity, the strong converse states that the error goes to 1. Thus, C {\displaystyle C} is a sharp threshold between perfectly reliable and completely unreliable communication. Channel coding theorem for non-stationary memoryless channels We assume that the channel is memoryless, but its transition probabilities change with time, in a fashion known at the transmitter as well as the receiver. Then the channel capacity is given by C = lim inf max p ( X 1 ) , p ( X 2 ) , . . . 1 n ∑ i = 1 n I ( X i ; Y i ) . {\displaystyle C=\lim \inf \max _{p^{(X_{1})},p^{(X_{2})},...}{\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}I(X_{i};Y_{i}).} The maximum is attained at the capacity achieving distributions for each respective channel. That is, C = lim inf 1 n ∑ i = 1 n C i {\displaystyle C=\lim \inf {\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}C_{i}} where C i {\displaystyle C_{i}} is the capacity of the ith channel. Outline of the proof The proof runs through in almost the same way as that of channel coding theorem. Achievability follows from random coding with each symbol chosen randomly from the capacity achieving distribution for that particular channel. Typicality arguments use the definition of typical sets for non-stationary sources defined in the asymptotic equipartition property article. The technicality of lim inf comes into play when 1 n ∑ i = 1 n C i {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}C_{i}} does not converge. See also Asymptotic equipartition property (AEP) Fano's inequality Rate–distortion theory Shannon's source coding theorem Shannon–Hartley theorem Turbo code Notes ^ Sae-Young Chung; Forney, G. D.; Richardson, T.J.; Urbank, R. (February 2001). "On the Design of Low-Density Parity-Check Codes within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon Limit" (PDF). IEEE Communications Letters. 5 (2): 58–60. doi:10.1109/4234.905935. S2CID 7381972. ^ For a description of the "sup" function, see Supremum ^ Gallager, Robert (1968). Information Theory and Reliable Communication. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-29048-3. References Aazhang, B. (2004). "Shannon's Noisy Channel Coding Theorem" (PDF). Connections. Cover, T.M.; Thomas, J.A. (1991). Elements of Information Theory. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-06259-6. Fano, R.M. (1961). Transmission of information; a statistical theory of communications. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-06001-9. Feinstein, Amiel (September 1954). "A new basic theorem of information theory". Transactions of the IRE Professional Group on Information Theory. 4 (4): 2–22. Bibcode:1955PhDT........12F. doi:10.1109/TIT.1954.1057459. hdl:1721.1/4798. Lundheim, Lars (2002). "On Shannon and Shannon's Formula" (PDF). Telektronik. 98 (1): 20–29. MacKay, David J.C. (2003). Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64298-1. Shannon, C. E. (1948). "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". Bell System Technical Journal. 27 (3): 379–423. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x. Shannon, C.E. (1998) . A Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press. Wolfowitz, J. (1957). "The coding of messages subject to chance errors". Illinois J. Math. 1 (4): 591–606. doi:10.1215/ijm/1255380682.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sampling theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_theorem"},{"link_name":"information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"Harry Nyquist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Nyquist"},{"link_name":"Ralph Hartley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Hartley"},{"link_name":"rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_rate"},{"link_name":"Warren Weaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Weaver"},{"link_name":"The Mathematical Theory of Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Theory_of_Communication"},{"link_name":"information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"}],"text":"\"Shannon's theorem\" redirects here. Shannon's name is also associated with the sampling theorem.In information theory, the noisy-channel coding theorem (sometimes Shannon's theorem or Shannon's limit), establishes that for any given degree of noise contamination of a communication channel, it is possible (in theory) to communicate discrete data (digital information) nearly error-free up to a computable maximum rate through the channel. This result was presented by Claude Shannon in 1948 and was based in part on earlier work and ideas of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley.The Shannon limit or Shannon capacity of a communication channel refers to the maximum rate of error-free data that can theoretically be transferred over the channel if the link is subject to random data transmission errors, for a particular noise level. It was first described by Shannon (1948), and shortly after published in a book by Shannon and Warren Weaver entitled The Mathematical Theory of Communication (1949). This founded the modern discipline of information theory.","title":"Noisy-channel coding theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"error-correcting methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error-correcting_code"},{"link_name":"data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device"},{"link_name":"information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"},{"link_name":"Feinstein 1954","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFeinstein1954"},{"link_name":"channel capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity"},{"link_name":"codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code"},{"link_name":"probability of error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_of_error"},{"link_name":"Shannon–Hartley theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem"},{"link_name":"Reed–Solomon codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_code"},{"link_name":"low-density parity-check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_parity-check_code"},{"link_name":"turbo codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code"},{"link_name":"digital signal processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processors"},{"link_name":"additive white Gaussian noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_white_Gaussian_noise"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Stated by Claude Shannon in 1948, the theorem describes the maximum possible efficiency of error-correcting methods versus levels of noise interference and data corruption. Shannon's theorem has wide-ranging applications in both communications and data storage. This theorem is of foundational importance to the modern field of information theory. Shannon only gave an outline of the proof. The first rigorous proof for the discrete case is given in (Feinstein 1954).The Shannon theorem states that given a noisy channel with channel capacity C and information transmitted at a rate R, then if \n \n \n \n R\n <\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R<C}\n \n there exist codes that allow the probability of error at the receiver to be made arbitrarily small. This means that, theoretically, it is possible to transmit information nearly without error at any rate below a limiting rate, C.The converse is also important. If \n \n \n \n R\n >\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R>C}\n \n, an arbitrarily small probability of error is not achievable. All codes will have a probability of error greater than a certain positive minimal level, and this level increases as the rate increases. So, information cannot be guaranteed to be transmitted reliably across a channel at rates beyond the channel capacity. The theorem does not address the rare situation in which rate and capacity are equal.The channel capacity \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n can be calculated from the physical properties of a channel; for a band-limited channel with Gaussian noise, using the Shannon–Hartley theorem.Simple schemes such as \"send the message 3 times and use a best 2 out of 3 voting scheme if the copies differ\" are inefficient error-correction methods, unable to asymptotically guarantee that a block of data can be communicated free of error. Advanced techniques such as Reed–Solomon codes and, more recently, low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes and turbo codes, come much closer to reaching the theoretical Shannon limit, but at a cost of high computational complexity. Using these highly efficient codes and with the computing power in today's digital signal processors, it is now possible to reach very close to the Shannon limit. In fact, it was shown that LDPC codes can reach within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon limit (for binary additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channels, with very long block lengths).[1]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noisy-channel_coding_theorem_%E2%80%94_channel_capacity_graph.png"},{"link_name":"channel capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity"},{"link_name":"mutual information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_information"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"binary entropy function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_entropy_function"}],"text":"Graph showing the proportion of a channel’s capacity (y-axis) that can be used for payload based on how noisy the channel is (probability of bit flips; x-axis).The basic mathematical model for a communication system is the following:→\n \n \n Message\n \n \n \n W\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Encoder\n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n n\n c\n o\n d\n e\n d\n \n \n s\n e\n q\n u\n e\n n\n c\n e\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Channel\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n (\n y\n \n |\n \n x\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n \n \n R\n e\n c\n e\n i\n v\n e\n d\n \n \n s\n e\n q\n u\n e\n n\n c\n e\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Decoder\n \n \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n s\n t\n i\n m\n a\n t\n e\n d\n \n \n m\n e\n s\n s\n a\n g\n e\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n W\n ^\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\xrightarrow[{\\text{Message}}]{W}}{\\begin{array}{|c| }\\hline {\\text{Encoder}}\\\\f_{n}\\\\\\hline \\end{array}}{\\xrightarrow[{\\mathrm {Encoded \\atop sequence} }]{X^{n}}}{\\begin{array}{|c| }\\hline {\\text{Channel}}\\\\p(y|x)\\\\\\hline \\end{array}}{\\xrightarrow[{\\mathrm {Received \\atop sequence} }]{Y^{n}}}{\\begin{array}{|c| }\\hline {\\text{Decoder}}\\\\g_{n}\\\\\\hline \\end{array}}{\\xrightarrow[{\\mathrm {Estimated \\atop message} }]{\\hat {W}}}}A message W is transmitted through a noisy channel by using encoding and decoding functions. An encoder maps W into a pre-defined sequence of channel symbols of length n. In its most basic model, the channel distorts each of these symbols independently of the others. The output of the channel –the received sequence– is fed into a decoder which maps the sequence into an estimate of the message. In this setting, the probability of error is defined as:P\n \n e\n \n \n =\n \n Pr\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n W\n ^\n \n \n \n ≠\n W\n \n }\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{e}={\\text{Pr}}\\left\\{{\\hat {W}}\\neq W\\right\\}.}Theorem (Shannon, 1948):1. For every discrete memoryless channel, the channel capacity, defined in terms of the mutual information \n \n \n \n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I(X;Y)}\n \n asC\n =\n \n sup\n \n \n p\n \n X\n \n \n \n \n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ C=\\sup _{p_{X}}I(X;Y)}\n \n[2]has the following property. For any \n \n \n \n ϵ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon >0}\n \n and \n \n \n \n R\n <\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R<C}\n \n, for large enough \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n, there exists a code of length \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n and rate \n \n \n \n ≥\n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\geq R}\n \n and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is \n \n \n \n ≤\n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\leq \\epsilon }\n \n.2. If a probability of bit error \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{b}}\n \n is acceptable, rates up to \n \n \n \n R\n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(p_{b})}\n \n are achievable, whereR\n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n C\n \n 1\n −\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(p_{b})={\\frac {C}{1-H_{2}(p_{b})}}.}and \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{2}(p_{b})}\n \n is the binary entropy functionH\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n =\n −\n \n [\n \n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n \n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n \n +\n (\n 1\n −\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n \n 1\n −\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n \n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{2}(p_{b})=-\\left[p_{b}\\log _{2}{p_{b}}+(1-p_{b})\\log _{2}({1-p_{b}})\\right]}3. For any \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{b}}\n \n, rates greater than \n \n \n \n R\n (\n \n p\n \n b\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(p_{b})}\n \n are not achievable.(MacKay (2003), p. 162; cf Gallager (1968), ch.5; Cover and Thomas (1991), p. 198; Shannon (1948) thm. 11)","title":"Mathematical statement"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"As with the several other major results in information theory, the proof of the noisy channel coding theorem includes an achievability result and a matching converse result. These two components serve to bound, in this case, the set of possible rates at which one can communicate over a noisy channel, and matching serves to show that these bounds are tight bounds.The following outlines are only one set of many different styles available for study in information theory texts.","title":"Outline of proof"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptotic equipartition property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_equipartition_property"},{"link_name":"error exponents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_exponent"},{"link_name":"channel capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity"}],"sub_title":"Achievability for discrete memoryless channels","text":"This particular proof of achievability follows the style of proofs that make use of the asymptotic equipartition property (AEP). Another style can be found in information theory texts using error exponents.Both types of proofs make use of a random coding argument where the codebook used across a channel is randomly constructed - this serves to make the analysis simpler while still proving the existence of a code satisfying a desired low probability of error at any data rate below the channel capacity.By an AEP-related argument, given a channel, length \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n strings of source symbols \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{1}^{n}}\n \n, and length \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n strings of channel outputs \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}}\n \n, we can define a jointly typical set by the following:A\n \n ε\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n =\n {\n (\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n ∈\n \n \n \n X\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n ×\n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{\\varepsilon }^{(n)}=\\{(x^{n},y^{n})\\in {\\mathcal {X}}^{n}\\times {\\mathcal {Y}}^{n}}2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n X\n )\n +\n ε\n )\n \n \n ≤\n p\n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n )\n ≤\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n X\n )\n −\n ε\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{-n(H(X)+\\varepsilon )}\\leq p(X_{1}^{n})\\leq 2^{-n(H(X)-\\varepsilon )}}2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n Y\n )\n +\n ε\n )\n \n \n ≤\n p\n (\n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n )\n ≤\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n Y\n )\n −\n ε\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{-n(H(Y)+\\varepsilon )}\\leq p(Y_{1}^{n})\\leq 2^{-n(H(Y)-\\varepsilon )}}2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n X\n ,\n Y\n )\n +\n ε\n )\n \n \n \n ≤\n p\n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n )\n ≤\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n H\n (\n X\n ,\n Y\n )\n −\n ε\n )\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {2^{-n(H(X,Y)+\\varepsilon )}}\\leq p(X_{1}^{n},Y_{1}^{n})\\leq 2^{-n(H(X,Y)-\\varepsilon )}\\}}We say that two sequences \n \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {X_{1}^{n}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}}\n \n are jointly typical if they lie in the jointly typical set defined above.StepsIn the style of the random coding argument, we randomly generate \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{nR}}\n \n codewords of length n from a probability distribution Q.\nThis code is revealed to the sender and receiver. It is also assumed that one knows the transition matrix \n \n \n \n p\n (\n y\n \n |\n \n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(y|x)}\n \n for the channel being used.\nA message W is chosen according to the uniform distribution on the set of codewords. That is, \n \n \n \n P\n r\n (\n W\n =\n w\n )\n =\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n R\n \n \n ,\n w\n =\n 1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n …\n ,\n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Pr(W=w)=2^{-nR},w=1,2,\\dots ,2^{nR}}\n \n.\nThe message W is sent across the channel.\nThe receiver receives a sequence according to \n \n \n \n P\n (\n \n y\n \n n\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n (\n w\n )\n )\n =\n \n ∏\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n p\n (\n \n y\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n (\n w\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P(y^{n}|x^{n}(w))=\\prod _{i=1}^{n}p(y_{i}|x_{i}(w))}\n \n\nSending these codewords across the channel, we receive \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}}\n \n, and decode to some source sequence if there exists exactly 1 codeword that is jointly typical with Y. If there are no jointly typical codewords, or if there are more than one, an error is declared. An error also occurs if a decoded codeword does not match the original codeword. This is called typical set decoding.The probability of error of this scheme is divided into two parts:First, error can occur if no jointly typical X sequences are found for a received Y sequence\nSecond, error can occur if an incorrect X sequence is jointly typical with a received Y sequence.By the randomness of the code construction, we can assume that the average probability of error averaged over all codes does not depend on the index sent. Thus, without loss of generality, we can assume W = 1.\nFrom the joint AEP, we know that the probability that no jointly typical X exists goes to 0 as n grows large. We can bound this error probability by \n \n \n \n ε\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n \n.\nAlso from the joint AEP, we know the probability that a particular \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n (\n i\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X_{1}^{n}(i)}\n \n and the \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{1}^{n}}\n \n resulting from W = 1 are jointly typical is \n \n \n \n ≤\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n −\n 3\n ε\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\leq 2^{-n(I(X;Y)-3\\varepsilon )}}\n \n.Define: \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n i\n \n \n =\n {\n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n (\n i\n )\n ,\n \n Y\n \n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n )\n ∈\n \n A\n \n ε\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n }\n ,\n i\n =\n 1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n …\n ,\n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{i}=\\{(X_{1}^{n}(i),Y_{1}^{n})\\in A_{\\varepsilon }^{(n)}\\},i=1,2,\\dots ,2^{nR}}as the event that message i is jointly typical with the sequence received when message 1 is sent.P\n (\n \n error\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n\n \n =\n P\n (\n \n error\n \n \n |\n \n W\n =\n 1\n )\n ≤\n P\n (\n \n E\n \n 1\n \n \n c\n \n \n )\n +\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n \n P\n (\n \n E\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n ≤\n P\n (\n \n E\n \n 1\n \n \n c\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n −\n 3\n ε\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n ≤\n ε\n +\n \n 2\n \n −\n n\n (\n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n −\n R\n −\n 3\n ε\n )\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}P({\\text{error}})&{}=P({\\text{error}}|W=1)\\leq P(E_{1}^{c})+\\sum _{i=2}^{2^{nR}}P(E_{i})\\\\&{}\\leq P(E_{1}^{c})+(2^{nR}-1)2^{-n(I(X;Y)-3\\varepsilon )}\\\\&{}\\leq \\varepsilon +2^{-n(I(X;Y)-R-3\\varepsilon )}.\\end{aligned}}}We can observe that as \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n goes to infinity, if \n \n \n \n R\n <\n I\n (\n X\n ;\n Y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R<I(X;Y)}\n \n for the channel, the probability of error will go to 0.Finally, given that the average codebook is shown to be \"good,\" we know that there exists a codebook whose performance is better than the average, and so satisfies our need for arbitrarily low error probability communicating across the noisy channel.","title":"Outline of proof"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fano's Inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fano%27s_Inequality"}],"sub_title":"Weak converse for discrete memoryless channels","text":"Suppose a code of \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{nR}}\n \n codewords. Let W be drawn uniformly over this set as an index. Let \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X^{n}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y^{n}}\n \n be the transmitted codewords and received codewords, respectively.n\n R\n =\n H\n (\n W\n )\n =\n H\n (\n W\n \n |\n \n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n +\n I\n (\n W\n ;\n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle nR=H(W)=H(W|Y^{n})+I(W;Y^{n})}\n \n using identities involving entropy and mutual information\n\n \n \n \n ≤\n H\n (\n W\n \n |\n \n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n +\n I\n (\n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n (\n W\n )\n ;\n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\leq H(W|Y^{n})+I(X^{n}(W);Y^{n})}\n \n since X is a function of W\n\n \n \n \n ≤\n 1\n +\n \n P\n \n e\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n n\n R\n +\n I\n (\n \n X\n \n n\n \n \n (\n W\n )\n ;\n \n Y\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\leq 1+P_{e}^{(n)}nR+I(X^{n}(W);Y^{n})}\n \n by the use of Fano's Inequality\n\n \n \n \n ≤\n 1\n +\n \n P\n \n e\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n n\n R\n +\n n\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\leq 1+P_{e}^{(n)}nR+nC}\n \n by the fact that capacity is maximized mutual information.The result of these steps is that \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n e\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n ≥\n 1\n −\n \n \n 1\n \n n\n R\n \n \n \n −\n \n \n C\n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{e}^{(n)}\\geq 1-{\\frac {1}{nR}}-{\\frac {C}{R}}}\n \n. As the block length \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n goes to infinity, we obtain \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n e\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{e}^{(n)}}\n \n is bounded away from 0 if R is greater than C - we can get arbitrarily low rates of error only if R is less than C.","title":"Outline of proof"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Strong converse for discrete memoryless channels","text":"A strong converse theorem, proven by Wolfowitz in 1957,[3] states that,P\n \n e\n \n \n ≥\n 1\n −\n \n \n \n 4\n A\n \n \n n\n (\n R\n −\n C\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n e\n \n −\n \n \n \n n\n (\n R\n −\n C\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{e}\\geq 1-{\\frac {4A}{n(R-C)^{2}}}-e^{-{\\frac {n(R-C)}{2}}}}for some finite positive constant \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n. While the weak converse states that the error probability is bounded away from zero as \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n goes to infinity, the strong converse states that the error goes to 1. Thus, \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n is a sharp threshold between perfectly reliable and completely unreliable communication.","title":"Outline of proof"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"We assume that the channel is memoryless, but its transition probabilities change with time, in a fashion known at the transmitter as well as the receiver.Then the channel capacity is given byC\n =\n lim\n inf\n \n max\n \n \n p\n \n (\n \n X\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n p\n \n (\n \n X\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n \n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n I\n (\n \n X\n \n i\n \n \n ;\n \n Y\n \n i\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C=\\lim \\inf \\max _{p^{(X_{1})},p^{(X_{2})},...}{\\frac {1}{n}}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}I(X_{i};Y_{i}).}The maximum is attained at the capacity achieving distributions for each respective channel. That is,\n\n \n \n \n C\n =\n lim\n inf\n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n C\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C=\\lim \\inf {\\frac {1}{n}}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}C_{i}}\n \n\nwhere \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{i}}\n \n is the capacity of the ith channel.","title":"Channel coding theorem for non-stationary memoryless channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptotic equipartition property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_equipartition_property"},{"link_name":"lim inf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lim_inf"}],"sub_title":"Outline of the proof","text":"The proof runs through in almost the same way as that of channel coding theorem. Achievability follows from random coding with each symbol chosen randomly from the capacity achieving distribution for that particular channel. Typicality arguments use the definition of typical sets for non-stationary sources defined in the asymptotic equipartition property article.The technicality of lim inf comes into play when \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n C\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{n}}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}C_{i}}\n \n does not converge.","title":"Channel coding theorem for non-stationary memoryless channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Forney, G. D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._David_Forney,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Urbank, R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Urbanke"},{"link_name":"\"On the Design of Low-Density Parity-Check Codes within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon Limit\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.josephboutros.org/ldpc_vs_turbo/ldpc_Chung_CLfeb01.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/4234.905935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2F4234.905935"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7381972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7381972"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Supremum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supremum"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-29048-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-29048-3"}],"text":"^ Sae-Young Chung; Forney, G. D.; Richardson, T.J.; Urbank, R. (February 2001). \"On the Design of Low-Density Parity-Check Codes within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon Limit\" (PDF). IEEE Communications Letters. 5 (2): 58–60. doi:10.1109/4234.905935. S2CID 7381972.\n\n^ For a description of the \"sup\" function, see Supremum\n\n^ Gallager, Robert (1968). Information Theory and Reliable Communication. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-29048-3.","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Graph showing the proportion of a channel’s capacity (y-axis) that can be used for payload based on how noisy the channel is (probability of bit flips; x-axis).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Noisy-channel_coding_theorem_%E2%80%94_channel_capacity_graph.png/300px-Noisy-channel_coding_theorem_%E2%80%94_channel_capacity_graph.png"}]

[{"title":"Asymptotic equipartition property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_equipartition_property"},{"title":"Fano's inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fano%27s_inequality"},{"title":"Rate–distortion theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate%E2%80%93distortion_theory"},{"title":"Shannon's source coding theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%27s_source_coding_theorem"},{"title":"Shannon–Hartley theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem"},{"title":"Turbo code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code"}]

[{"reference":"Sae-Young Chung; Forney, G. D.; Richardson, T.J.; Urbank, R. (February 2001). \"On the Design of Low-Density Parity-Check Codes within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon Limit\" (PDF). IEEE Communications Letters. 5 (2): 58–60. doi:10.1109/4234.905935. S2CID 7381972.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._David_Forney,_Jr.","url_text":"Forney, G. D."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Urbanke","url_text":"Urbank, R."},{"url":"http://www.josephboutros.org/ldpc_vs_turbo/ldpc_Chung_CLfeb01.pdf","url_text":"\"On the Design of Low-Density Parity-Check Codes within 0.0045 dB of the Shannon Limit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F4234.905935","url_text":"10.1109/4234.905935"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7381972","url_text":"7381972"}]},{"reference":"Gallager, Robert (1968). Information Theory and Reliable Communication. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-29048-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-29048-3","url_text":"0-471-29048-3"}]},{"reference":"Aazhang, B. (2004). \"Shannon's Noisy Channel Coding Theorem\" (PDF). Connections.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cse.iitd.ac.in/~vinay/courses/CSL858/reading/m10180.pdf","url_text":"\"Shannon's Noisy Channel Coding Theorem\""}]},{"reference":"Cover, T.M.; Thomas, J.A. (1991). Elements of Information Theory. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-06259-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Cover","url_text":"Cover, T.M."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-06259-6","url_text":"0-471-06259-6"}]},{"reference":"Fano, R.M. (1961). Transmission of information; a statistical theory of communications. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-06001-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fano","url_text":"Fano, R.M."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-06001-9","url_text":"0-262-06001-9"}]},{"reference":"Feinstein, Amiel (September 1954). \"A new basic theorem of information theory\". Transactions of the IRE Professional Group on Information Theory. 4 (4): 2–22. Bibcode:1955PhDT........12F. doi:10.1109/TIT.1954.1057459. hdl:1721.1/4798.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955PhDT........12F","url_text":"1955PhDT........12F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTIT.1954.1057459","url_text":"10.1109/TIT.1954.1057459"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F4798","url_text":"1721.1/4798"}]},{"reference":"Lundheim, Lars (2002). \"On Shannon and Shannon's Formula\" (PDF). Telektronik. 98 (1): 20–29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.miami.edu/home/burt/learning/Csc524.142/LarsTelektronikk02.pdf","url_text":"\"On Shannon and Shannon's Formula\""}]},{"reference":"MacKay, David J.C. (2003). Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64298-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_J.C._MacKay","url_text":"MacKay, David J.C."},{"url":"http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html","url_text":"Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64298-1","url_text":"0-521-64298-1"}]},{"reference":"Shannon, C. E. (1948). \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\". Bell System Technical Journal. 27 (3): 379–423. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon","url_text":"Shannon, C. E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x"}]},{"reference":"Shannon, C.E. (1998) [1948]. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon","url_text":"Shannon, C.E."},{"url":"http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html","url_text":"A Mathematical Theory of Communication"}]},{"reference":"Wolfowitz, J. (1957). \"The coding of messages subject to chance errors\". Illinois J. Math. 1 (4): 591–606. doi:10.1215/ijm/1255380682.","urls":[{"url":"https://projecteuclid.org/download/pdf_1/euclid.ijm/1255380682","url_text":"\"The coding of messages subject to chance errors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1215%2Fijm%2F1255380682","url_text":"10.1215/ijm/1255380682"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane

1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane

["1 Uses","1.1 Aspirational and niche applications","2 History and environmental impacts","3 Production and reactions","4 Safety","5 Medical use","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

HFC, hydrofluoroalkane refrigerant 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane Structure 3-D structure Names Preferred IUPAC name 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane Other names Freon 134aDymel 134aForane 134aGenetron 134aHFA-134aHFC-134aR-134aSuva 134aNorflurane Identifiers CAS Number 811-97-2 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChEMBL ChEMBL2104432 ChemSpider 12577 Y DrugBank DB13116 ECHA InfoCard 100.011.252 EC Number 212-377-0 KEGG D05208 Y PubChem CID 13129 RTECS number KI8842500 UNII DH9E53K1Y8 Y UN number 3159 CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID1021324 InChI InChI=1S/C2H2F4/c3-1-2(4,5)6/h1H2 YKey: LVGUZGTVOIAKKC-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y SMILES FCC(F)(F)F Properties Chemical formula C2H2F4 Molar mass 102.032 g·mol−1 Appearance Colorless gas Density 0.00425 g/cm3, gas Melting point −103.3 °C (−153.9 °F; 169.8 K) Boiling point −26.3 °C (−15.3 °F; 246.8 K) Solubility in water 0.15 wt% Hazards Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): Main hazards Asphyxiant GHS labelling: Pictograms Signal word Warning Hazard statements H280 Precautionary statements P410+P403 NFPA 704 (fire diamond) 1 0 1 Flash point 250 °C (482 °F; 523 K) Related compounds Related refrigerants DifluoromethanePentafluoroethane Related compounds 1-Chloro-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane1,1,1-Trichloroethane Supplementary data page 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (data page) Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). Y verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (also known as norflurane (INN), R-134a, Klea 134a, Freon 134a, Forane 134a, Genetron 134a, Green Gas, Florasol 134a, Suva 134a, HFA-134a, or HFC-134a) is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and haloalkane refrigerant with thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a lower 100-year global warming potential (1,430, compared to R-12's GWP of 10,900). It has the formula CF3CH2F and a boiling point of −26.3 °C (−15.34 °F) at atmospheric pressure. R-134a cylinders are colored light blue. A phaseout and transition to HFO-1234yf and other refrigerants, with GWPs similar to CO2, began in 2012 within the automotive market. Uses 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is a non-flammable gas used primarily as a "high-temperature" refrigerant for domestic refrigeration and automobile air conditioners. These devices began using 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane in the early 1990s as a replacement for the more environmentally harmful R-12. Retrofit kits are available to convert units that were originally R-12-equipped. Boiling of Tetrafluoroethane liquid when exposed to normal atmospheric pressure and temperature. Other common uses include plastic foam blowing, as a cleaning solvent, a propellant for the delivery of pharmaceuticals (e.g. bronchodilators), wine cork removers, gas dusters ("canned air"), and in air driers for removing the moisture from compressed air. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane has also been used to cool computers in some overclocking attempts. It is the refrigerant used in plumbing pipe freeze kits. It is also commonly used as a propellant for airsoft airguns. The gas is often mixed with a silicone-based lubricant. Aspirational and niche applications 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is also being considered as an organic solvent, both in liquid and supercritical fluid. It is used in the resistive plate chamber particle detectors in the Large Hadron Collider. It is also used for other types of particle detectors, e.g. some cryogenic particle detectors. It can be used as an alternative to sulfur hexafluoride in magnesium smelting as a shielding gas. History and environmental impacts 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane was introduced in the early 1990s as a replacement for dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12), which has massive ozone depleting properties. Even though 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane has insignificant ozone depletion potential (ozone layer) and negligible acidification potential (acid rain), it has a 100-year global warming potential (GWP) of 1430 and an approximate atmospheric lifetime of 14 years. Its concentration in the atmosphere and contribution to radiative forcing have been growing since its introduction. Thus it was included in the IPCC list of greenhouse gases. HFC-134a measured by the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) at stations around the world. Abundances are given as pollution free monthly mean mole fractions in parts-per-trillion. HFC-134a atmospheric concentration since year 1995. R-134a began being phased out from use in the European Union, starting in the mid 2010s, by a directive of 2006, recommending the replacement of gases in air conditioning systems with a GWP above 100. 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is subject to use restrictions in the US and other countries as well. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has proposed that it be best replaced by a new fluorochemical refrigerant HFO-1234yf (CF3CF=CH2) in automobile air-conditioning systems. By model year 2021, newly manufactured light-duty vehicles in the United States will no longer use R-134a. California may also prohibit the sale of canned R-134a to individuals to avoid non-professional recharge of air conditioners. A ban had been in place in Wisconsin since October 1994 under ATCP 136 prohibiting sales of container sizes holding less than 15 lbs of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, but this restriction applied only when the chemical was intended to be a refrigerant. However, the ban was lifted in Wisconsin in 2012. During the time that it was active, this Wisconsin-specific ban contained loopholes. For example, it was legal for a person to purchase gas duster containers with any amount of the chemical because in that instance the chemical is neither intended to be a refrigerant  nor is HFC-134a included in the § 7671a listing of class I and class II substances. Production and reactions Tetrafluoroethane is typically made by reacting trichloroethylene with hydrogen fluoride: CHCl=CCl2 + 4 HF → CF3CH2F + 3 HCl It reacts with butyllithium to give trifluorovinyl lithium: CF3CH2F + 2 BuLi → CF2=CFLi + LiF + 2 BuH Safety R-134a cylinder Mixtures with air of the gas 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane are not flammable at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F). However, mixtures with high concentrations of air at elevated pressure and/or temperature can be ignited. Contact of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane with flames or hot surfaces in excess of 250 °C (482 °F) may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of toxic gases including hydrogen fluoride and carbonyl fluoride, however the decomposition temperature has been reported as above 370 °C. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane itself has an LD50 of 1,500 g/m3 in rats, making it relatively non-toxic, apart from the dangers inherent to inhalant abuse. Its gaseous form is denser than air and will displace air in the lungs. This can result in asphyxiation if excessively inhaled. This contributes to most deaths by inhalant abuse. Aerosol cans containing 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, when inverted, become effective freeze sprays. Under pressure, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is compressed into a liquid, which upon vaporization absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy. As a result, it will greatly lower the temperature of any object it contacts as it evaporates. Freon 134a refrigerant for car AC Medical use For its medical uses, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane has the generic name norflurane. It is used as propellant for some metered dose inhalers. It is considered safe for this use. In combination with pentafluoropropane, it is used as a topical vapocoolant spray for numbing boils before curettage. It has also been studied as a potential inhalational anesthetic, but it is nonanaesthetic at doses used in inhalers. See also List of refrigerants Tetrabromoethane Tetrachloroethane References ^ a b "Table 2.14 (Errata). Lifetimes, radiative efficiencies and direct (except for CH4) GWPs relative to CO2". Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017. ^ "Example image of a 30 lbs R134a bottle". budgetheating.com. Retrieved 26 March 2018. ^ a b "Refrigerant Transition & Environmental Impacts". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2020. ^ Corr, Stuart (2005). "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (R-134a): A Selective Solvent for the Generation of Flavor and Fragrance Ingredients". Natural Flavors and Fragrances. ACS Symposium Series. Vol. 908. p. 41. doi:10.1021/bk-2005-0908.ch003. ISBN 0-8412-3904-5. ^ Abbott, Andrew P.; Eltringham, Wayne; Hope, Eric G.; Nicola, Mazin (2005). "Solubility of unsaturated carboxylic acids in supercritical 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a) and a methodology for the separation of ternary mixtures". Green Chemistry. 7 (4): 210. doi:10.1039/B412697A. ^ Abbott, Andrew P.; Eltringham, Wayne; Hope, Eric G.; Nicola, Mazin (2005). "Hydrogenation in supercritical 1,1,1,2 tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a)" (PDF). Green Chemistry. 7 (10): 721. doi:10.1039/B507554H. hdl:2381/604. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2019. ^ Anushree Ghosh STUDY OF GLASS RESISTIVE PLATE CHAMBERS (RPC) AND CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY Archived 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. INO Graduate Training Programme DHEP, TIFR, Mumbai. ^ M. Capeans, I. Glushkov, R. Guida, F. Hahn, S. Haider (CERN, Switzerland) RPC operation at the LHC experiments in an optimized closed loop gas system. Medical Imaging Conference. 25–31 October 2009. ^ Norbeck, E.; Olson, J. E.; Moeller, A.; Onel, Y. (2006). "Rad Hard Active Media For Calorimeters" (PDF). AIP Conference Proceedings. 867: 84. Bibcode:2006AIPC..867...84N. doi:10.1063/1.2396941. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2012. ^ Magnesium recycling in the United States in 1998. (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Franklin J (1993). "The Atmospheric Degradation and Impact of 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluorethane (Hydrofluorocarbon 134a)". Chemosphere. 27 (8): 1565–1601. Bibcode:1993Chmsp..27.1565F. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(93)90251-Y. ^ Forster, P.; et al. (2007). "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing." (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2010. ^ "DIRECTIVE 2006/40/EC relating to emissions from air-conditioning systems in motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/156/EEC". eur-lex.europa.eu. 17 May 2006. Retrieved 29 May 2021. ^ HFO-1234yf A Low GWP Refrigerant For MAC Archived 27 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Refrigerants.dupont.com (17 August 2011). Retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ California restricts use of HFC-134a in cars. 27 June 2007. R744.com. Retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ a b Chapter ATCP 136. MOBILE AIR CONDITIONERS; RECLAIMING OR RECYCLING REFRIGERANT. State.wi.us. (PDF). Retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Class I Ozone-depleting Substances. EPA.gov. Retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ "Solvay in North America | Solvay" (PDF). ^ Burdon, James; Coe, Paul L.; Haslock, Iain B.; Powell, Richard L. (1996). "The hydrofluorocarbon 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) as a ready source of trifluorovinyllithium". Chemical Communications: 49. doi:10.1039/CC9960000049. ^ DuPont (2004). DuPont HFC-134a— Properties, Uses, Storage, and Handling (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016. ^ Honeywell International (December 2005). "MSDS # GTRN-0047 For Genetron 134aUV". ^ "SAFETY DATA SHEET according to Regulation (EU) 2015/8301/7 Harp 134a" (PDF). ^ Alexander D. J.; Libretto S. E. (1995). "An overview of the toxicology of HFA-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane)". Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 14 (9): 715–20. doi:10.1177/096032719501400903. PMID 8579881. S2CID 19669317. ^ G. E. Millward; E. Tschuikow-Roux (1972). "Kinetic analysis of the shock wave decomposition of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 76 (3): 292–298. doi:10.1021/j100647a002. ^ Sellers, William F. S. (2017). "Asthma pressurised metered dose inhaler performance: Propellant effect studies in delivery systems". Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology. 13: 30. doi:10.1186/s13223-017-0202-0. PMC 5492461. PMID 28670327. ^ a b Shah, S. B; Hariharan, U; Bhargava, A. K (2015). "Anaesthetic in the garb of a propellant". Indian Journal of Anaesthesia. 59 (4): 258–260. doi:10.4103/0019-5049.155011. PMC 4408662. PMID 25937660. This propellant has been shown to be safe and nonanaesthetic in standard inhaler doses ^ Huchon, G; Hofbauer, P; Cannizzaro, G; Iacono, P; Wald, F (2000). "Comparison of the safety of drug delivery via HFA- and CFC-metered dose inhalers in CAO". The European Respiratory Journal. 15 (4): 663–9. doi:10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15d07.x. PMID 10780756. ^ "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane". Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 3 February 2018. ^ "Norflurane". DrugBank. ^ "Norflurane-Pentafluoropropane Aerosol, Spray". WebMD. ^ Shulman M, Sadove MS (1967). "1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane: an inhalational agent of intermediate potency". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 46 (5): 629–635. doi:10.1213/00000539-196709000-00029. S2CID 5868484. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. International Chemical Safety Card 1281 European Fluorocarbons Technical Committee (EFCTC) MSDS at Oxford University Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 11, at inchem.org Pressure temperature calculator "The Coexisting Curve of the Refrigerant HFC 134a: Some Scaling Models" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2006. Retrieved 11 September 2007. R134a 2 phase computer cooling Archived 18 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine vteGeneral anesthetics (N01A)Inhalational Chloroform‡ Cyclopropane‡ Desflurane Diethyl ether‡ Enflurane Ethylene‡ Fluroxene‡ Halothane# Isoflurane# Methoxyflurane Methoxypropane‡ Nitrous oxide# Sevoflurane Trichloroethylene‡ Vinyl ether‡ Xenon InjectionPhenols Ciprofol† Fospropofol Propofol# Barbiturates Amobarbital Hexobarbital Methohexital Narcobarbital Thiamylal Thiopental# Thiotetrabarbital Benzodiazepines Midazolam# Diazepam# Lorazepam# Remimazolam Opioids Morphine# Oxycodone Anileridine‡ Embutramide‡ Fentanyl# Alfentanil Phenoperidine Remifentanil÷ Sufentanil Arylcyclohexylamines Esketamine Ketamine# Phencyclidine‡ Tiletamine Neuroactive steroids Alfadolone Alfaxalone Hydroxydione Others Etomidate Propanidid‡ #WHO-EM ‡Withdrawn from market Clinical trials: †Phase III §Never to phase III vteGABAA receptor positive modulatorsAlcohols Brometone Butanol Chloralodol Chlorobutanol (cloretone) Ethanol (alcohol) (alcoholic drink) Ethchlorvynol Isobutanol Isopropanol Menthol Methanol Methylpentynol Pentanol Petrichloral Propanol tert-Butanol (2M2P) tert-Pentanol (2M2B) Tribromoethanol Trichloroethanol Triclofos Trifluoroethanol Barbiturates (-)-DMBB Allobarbital Alphenal Amobarbital Aprobarbital Barbexaclone Barbital Benzobarbital Benzylbutylbarbiturate Brallobarbital Brophebarbital Butabarbital/Secbutabarbital Butalbital Buthalital Butobarbital Butallylonal Carbubarb Crotylbarbital Cyclobarbital Cyclopentobarbital Difebarbamate Enallylpropymal Ethallobarbital Eterobarb Febarbamate Heptabarb Heptobarbital Hexethal Hexobarbital Metharbital Methitural Methohexital Methylphenobarbital Narcobarbital Nealbarbital Pentobarbital Phenallymal Phenobarbital Phetharbital Primidone Probarbital Propallylonal Propylbarbital Proxibarbital Reposal Secobarbital Sigmodal Spirobarbital Talbutal Tetrabamate Tetrabarbital Thialbarbital Thiamylal Thiobarbital Thiobutabarbital Thiopental Thiotetrabarbital Valofane Vinbarbital Vinylbital Benzodiazepines 2-Oxoquazepam 3-Hydroxyphenazepam Adinazolam Alprazolam Arfendazam Avizafone Bentazepam Bretazenil Bromazepam Bromazolam Brotizolam Camazepam Carburazepam Chlordiazepoxide Ciclotizolam Cinazepam Cinolazepam Clazolam Climazolam Clobazam Clonazepam Clonazolam Cloniprazepam Clorazepate Clotiazepam Cloxazolam CP-1414S Cyprazepam Delorazepam Demoxepam Diazepam Diclazepam Doxefazepam Elfazepam Estazolam Ethyl carfluzepate Ethyl dirazepate Ethyl loflazepate Etizolam EVT-201 FG-8205 Fletazepam Flubromazepam Flubromazolam Fludiazepam Flunitrazepam Flunitrazolam Flurazepam Flutazolam Flutemazepam Flutoprazepam Fosazepam Gidazepam Halazepam Haloxazolam Iclazepam Imidazenil Irazepine Ketazolam Lofendazam Lopirazepam Loprazolam Lorazepam Lormetazepam Meclonazepam Medazepam Menitrazepam Metaclazepam Mexazolam Midazolam Motrazepam N-Desalkylflurazepam Nifoxipam Nimetazepam Nitrazepam Nitrazepate Nitrazolam Nordazepam Nortetrazepam Oxazepam Oxazolam Phenazepam Pinazepam Pivoxazepam Prazepam Premazepam Proflazepam Pyrazolam QH-II-66 Quazepam Reclazepam Remimazolam Rilmazafone Ripazepam Ro48-6791 Ro48-8684 SH-053-R-CH3-2′F Sulazepam Temazepam Tetrazepam Tolufazepam Triazolam Triflubazam Triflunordazepam (Ro5-2904) Tuclazepam Uldazepam Zapizolam Zolazepam Zomebazam Carbamates Carisbamate Carisoprodol Clocental Cyclarbamate Difebarbamate Emylcamate Ethinamate Febarbamate Felbamate Hexapropymate Hydroxyphenamate Lorbamate Mebutamate Meprobamate Nisobamate Pentabamate Phenprobamate Procymate Styramate Tetrabamate Tybamate Flavonoids 6-Methylapigenin Ampelopsin (dihydromyricetin) Apigenin Baicalein Baicalin Catechin EGC EGCG Hispidulin Linarin Luteolin Rc-OMe Skullcap constituents (e.g., baicalin) Wogonin Imidazoles Etomidate Metomidate Propoxate Kava constituents 10-Methoxyyangonin 11-Methoxyyangonin 11-Hydroxyyangonin Desmethoxyyangonin 11-Methoxy-12-hydroxydehydrokavain 7,8-Dihydroyangonin Kavain 5-Hydroxykavain 5,6-Dihydroyangonin 7,8-Dihydrokavain 5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroyangonin 5,6-Dehydromethysticin Methysticin 7,8-Dihydromethysticin Yangonin Monoureides Acecarbromal Apronal (apronalide) Bromisoval Carbromal Capuride Ectylurea Neuroactive steroids Acebrochol Allopregnanolone (brexanolone) Alfadolone Alfaxalone 3α-Androstanediol Androstenol Androsterone Certain anabolic-androgenic steroids Cholesterol DHDOC 3α-DHP 5α-DHP 5β-DHP DHT Etiocholanolone Ganaxolone Hydroxydione Minaxolone ORG-20599 ORG-21465 P1-185 Posovolone Pregnanolone (eltanolone) Progesterone Renanolone SAGE-105 SAGE-324 SAGE-516 SAGE-689 SAGE-872 Testosterone THDOC Zuranolone Nonbenzodiazepines Cyclopyrrolones: Eszopiclone Pagoclone Pazinaclone Suproclone Suriclone Zopiclone Imidazopyridines: Alpidem DS-1 Necopidem Saripidem Zolpidem Pyrazolopyrimidines: Divaplon Fasiplon Indiplon Lorediplon Ocinaplon Panadiplon Taniplon Zaleplon Others: Adipiplon CGS-8216 CGS-9896 CGS-13767 CGS-20625 CL-218,872 CP-615,003 CTP-354 ELB-139 GBLD-345 Imepitoin JM-1232 L-838,417 Lirequinil (Ro41-3696) NS-2664 NS-2710 NS-11394 Pipequaline ROD-188 RWJ-51204 SB-205,384 SX-3228 TGSC01AA TP-003 TPA-023 TP-13 U-89843A U-90042 Viqualine Y-23684 Phenols Fospropofol Propofol Thymol Piperidinediones Glutethimide Methyprylon Piperidione Pyrithyldione Pyrazolopyridines Cartazolate Etazolate ICI-190,622 Tracazolate Quinazolinones Afloqualone Cloroqualone Diproqualone Etaqualone Mebroqualone Mecloqualone Methaqualone Methylmethaqualone Nitromethaqualone SL-164 Volatiles/gases Acetone Acetophenone Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate Aliflurane Benzene Butane Butylene Centalun Chloral Chloral betaine Chloral hydrate Chloroform Cryofluorane Desflurane Dichloralphenazone Dichloromethane Diethyl ether Enflurane Ethyl chloride Ethylene Fluroxene Gasoline Halopropane Halothane Isoflurane Kerosine Methoxyflurane Methoxypropane Nitric oxide Nitrogen Nitrous oxide Norflurane Paraldehyde Propane Propylene Roflurane Sevoflurane Synthane Teflurane Toluene Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) Trichloroethylene Vinyl ether Others/unsorted 3-Hydroxybutanal α-EMTBL AA-29504 Alogabat Avermectins (e.g., ivermectin) Bromide compounds (e.g., lithium bromide, potassium bromide, sodium bromide) Carbamazepine Chloralose Chlormezanone Clomethiazole Darigabat DEABL Deuterated etifoxine Dihydroergolines (e.g., dihydroergocryptine, dihydroergosine, dihydroergotamine, ergoloid (dihydroergotoxine)) DS2 Efavirenz Etazepine Etifoxine Fenamates (e.g., flufenamic acid, mefenamic acid, niflumic acid, tolfenamic acid) Fluoxetine Flupirtine Hopantenic acid KRM-II-81 Lanthanum Lavender oil Lignans (e.g., 4-O-methylhonokiol, honokiol, magnolol, obovatol) Loreclezole Menthyl isovalerate (validolum) Monastrol Niacin Niacinamide Org 25,435 Phenytoin Propanidid Retigabine (ezogabine) Safranal Seproxetine Stiripentol Sulfonylalkanes (e.g., sulfonmethane (sulfonal), tetronal, trional) Terpenoids (e.g., borneol) Topiramate Valerian constituents (e.g., isovaleric acid, isovaleramide, valerenic acid, valerenol) Unsorted benzodiazepine site positive modulators: α-Pinene MRK-409 (MK-0343) TCS-1105 TCS-1205 See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • GABA receptor modulators • GABA metabolism/transport modulators Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"INN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Nonproprietary_Name"},{"link_name":"hydrofluorocarbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrofluorocarbon"},{"link_name":"haloalkane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkane"},{"link_name":"refrigerant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerant"},{"link_name":"R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorodifluoromethane"},{"link_name":"ozone depletion potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion_potential"},{"link_name":"global warming potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipccgwp-1"},{"link_name":"boiling point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point"},{"link_name":"light blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_blue"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"HFO-1234yf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HFO-1234yf"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-epa-3"}],"text":"Chemical compound1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (also known as norflurane (INN), R-134a, Klea 134a, Freon 134a, Forane 134a, Genetron 134a, Green Gas, Florasol 134a, Suva 134a, HFA-134a, or HFC-134a) is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and haloalkane refrigerant with thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a lower 100-year global warming potential (1,430, compared to R-12's GWP of 10,900).[1] It has the formula CF3CH2F and a boiling point of −26.3 °C (−15.34 °F) at atmospheric pressure. R-134a cylinders are colored light blue.[2] A phaseout and transition to HFO-1234yf and other refrigerants, with GWPs similar to CO2, began in 2012 within the automotive market.[3]","title":"1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-flammable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-flammable"},{"link_name":"refrigeration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigeration"},{"link_name":"automobile air conditioners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning"},{"link_name":"R-12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorodifluoromethane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetrafluoroethane_liquid.jpg"},{"link_name":"bronchodilators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchodilator"},{"link_name":"gas dusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_duster"},{"link_name":"compressed air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_air"},{"link_name":"overclocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overclocking"},{"link_name":"airsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airsoft"}],"text":"1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is a non-flammable gas used primarily as a \"high-temperature\" refrigerant for domestic refrigeration and automobile air conditioners. These devices began using 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane in the early 1990s as a replacement for the more environmentally harmful R-12. Retrofit kits are available to convert units that were originally R-12-equipped.Boiling of Tetrafluoroethane liquid when exposed to normal atmospheric pressure and temperature.Other common uses include plastic foam blowing, as a cleaning solvent, a propellant for the delivery of pharmaceuticals (e.g. bronchodilators), wine cork removers, gas dusters (\"canned air\"), and in air driers for removing the moisture from compressed air. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane has also been used to cool computers in some overclocking attempts. It is the refrigerant used in plumbing pipe freeze kits. It is also commonly used as a propellant for airsoft airguns. The gas is often mixed with a silicone-based lubricant.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organic solvent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_solvent"},{"link_name":"supercritical fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"resistive plate chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_plate_chamber"},{"link_name":"particle detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_detector"},{"link_name":"Large Hadron Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"cryogenic particle detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic_particle_detector"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"sulfur hexafluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"smelting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting"},{"link_name":"shielding gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielding_gas"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Aspirational and niche applications","text":"1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is also being considered as an organic solvent, both in liquid and supercritical fluid.[4][5]\n[6]It is used in the resistive plate chamber particle detectors in the Large Hadron Collider.[7][8] It is also used for other types of particle detectors, e.g. some cryogenic particle detectors.[9] It can be used as an alternative to sulfur hexafluoride in magnesium smelting as a shielding gas.[10]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorodifluoromethane"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"ozone layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer"},{"link_name":"acid rain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain"},{"link_name":"global warming potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential"},{"link_name":"atmospheric lifetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#Atmospheric_lifetime"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipccgwp-1"},{"link_name":"radiative forcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing"},{"link_name":"IPCC list of greenhouse gases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_list_of_greenhouse_gases"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HFC-134a_mm.png"},{"link_name":"AGAGE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//agage.mit.edu/"},{"link_name":"troposphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere"},{"link_name":"parts-per-trillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts-per_notation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mauna_Loa_HFC-134a_(CH2FCF3)_concentration.png"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"HFO-1234yf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HFO-1234yf"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-epa-3"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ref-1-16"},{"link_name":"gas duster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_duster"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ref-1-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane was introduced in the early 1990s as a replacement for dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12), which has massive ozone depleting properties.[11] Even though 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane has insignificant ozone depletion potential (ozone layer) and negligible acidification potential (acid rain), it has a 100-year global warming potential (GWP) of 1430 and an approximate atmospheric lifetime of 14 years.[1] Its concentration in the atmosphere and contribution to radiative forcing have been growing since its introduction. Thus it was included in the IPCC list of greenhouse gases.[12]HFC-134a measured by the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) at stations around the world. Abundances are given as pollution free monthly mean mole fractions in parts-per-trillion.HFC-134a atmospheric concentration since year 1995.R-134a began being phased out from use in the European Union, starting in the mid 2010s, by a directive of 2006, recommending the replacement of gases in air conditioning systems with a GWP above 100.[13]1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is subject to use restrictions in the US and other countries as well. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has proposed that it be best replaced by a new fluorochemical refrigerant HFO-1234yf (CF3CF=CH2) in automobile air-conditioning systems.[14] By model year 2021, newly manufactured light-duty vehicles in the United States will no longer use R-134a.[3]California may also prohibit the sale of canned R-134a to individuals to avoid non-professional recharge of air conditioners.[15] A ban had been in place in Wisconsin since October 1994 under ATCP 136 prohibiting sales of container sizes holding less than 15 lbs of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, but this restriction applied only when the chemical was intended to be a refrigerant. However, the ban was lifted in Wisconsin in 2012.[16] During the time that it was active, this Wisconsin-specific ban contained loopholes. For example, it was legal for a person to purchase gas duster containers with any amount of the chemical because in that instance the chemical is neither intended to be a refrigerant [16] nor is HFC-134a included in the § 7671a listing of class I and class II substances.[17]","title":"History and environmental impacts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trichloroethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichloroethylene"},{"link_name":"hydrogen fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Tetrafluoroethane is typically made by reacting trichloroethylene with hydrogen fluoride:[18]CHCl=CCl2 + 4 HF → CF3CH2F + 3 HClIt reacts with butyllithium to give trifluorovinyl lithium:[19]CF3CH2F + 2 BuLi → CF2=CFLi + LiF + 2 BuH","title":"Production and reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R134a_container.png"},{"link_name":"flammable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable"},{"link_name":"ignited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposition"},{"link_name":"toxic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin"},{"link_name":"hydrogen fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride"},{"link_name":"carbonyl fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_fluoride"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"LD50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_lethal_dose"},{"link_name":"inhalant abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalant_abuse"},{"link_name":"asphyxiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"inhalant abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalant_abuse"},{"link_name":"thermal energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Freon_134a_refrigerant_for_car_AC_001_(cropped).jpg"}],"text":"R-134a cylinderMixtures with air of the gas 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane are not flammable at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F). However, mixtures with high concentrations of air at elevated pressure and/or temperature can be ignited.[20] Contact of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane with flames or hot surfaces in excess of 250 °C (482 °F) may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of toxic gases including hydrogen fluoride and carbonyl fluoride,[21] however the decomposition temperature has been reported as above 370 °C.[22] 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane itself has an LD50 of 1,500 g/m3 in rats, making it relatively non-toxic, apart from the dangers inherent to inhalant abuse. Its gaseous form is denser than air and will displace air in the lungs. This can result in asphyxiation if excessively inhaled.[23][24] This contributes to most deaths by inhalant abuse.Aerosol cans containing 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, when inverted, become effective freeze sprays. Under pressure, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is compressed into a liquid, which upon vaporization absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy. As a result, it will greatly lower the temperature of any object it contacts as it evaporates.Freon 134a refrigerant for car AC","title":"Safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"generic name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_nomenclature#Nonproprietary_(generic)_names"},{"link_name":"inhalers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhaler"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmc4408662-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"pentafluoropropane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentafluoropropane"},{"link_name":"vapocoolant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapocoolant"},{"link_name":"boils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boil"},{"link_name":"curettage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curettage"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"inhalational anesthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalational_anesthetic"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmc4408662-26"}],"text":"For its medical uses, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane has the generic name norflurane. It is used as propellant for some metered dose inhalers.[25] It is considered safe for this use.[26][27][28] In combination with pentafluoropropane, it is used as a topical vapocoolant spray for numbing boils before curettage.[29][30] It has also been studied as a potential inhalational anesthetic,[31] but it is nonanaesthetic at doses used in inhalers.[26]","title":"Medical use"}]

[{"image_text":"Structure","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/1%2C1%2C1%2C2-Tetrafluoroethane.svg/110px-1%2C1%2C1%2C2-Tetrafluoroethane.svg.png"},{"image_text":"3-D structure","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1%2C1%2C1%2C2-tetrafluoroethane-3D-balls.png/110px-1%2C1%2C1%2C2-tetrafluoroethane-3D-balls.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Boiling of Tetrafluoroethane liquid when exposed to normal atmospheric pressure and temperature.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tetrafluoroethane_liquid.jpg/200px-Tetrafluoroethane_liquid.jpg"},{"image_text":"HFC-134a measured by the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) at stations around the world. Abundances are given as pollution free monthly mean mole fractions in parts-per-trillion.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/HFC-134a_mm.png/260px-HFC-134a_mm.png"},{"image_text":"HFC-134a atmospheric concentration since year 1995.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mauna_Loa_HFC-134a_%28CH2FCF3%29_concentration.png/200px-Mauna_Loa_HFC-134a_%28CH2FCF3%29_concentration.png"},{"image_text":"R-134a cylinder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/R134a_container.png/220px-R134a_container.png"},{"image_text":"Freon 134a refrigerant for car AC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Freon_134a_refrigerant_for_car_AC_001_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Freon_134a_refrigerant_for_car_AC_001_%28cropped%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"List of refrigerants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants"},{"title":"Tetrabromoethane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrabromoethane"},{"title":"Tetrachloroethane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachloroethane"}]

[{"reference":"\"Table 2.14 (Errata). Lifetimes, radiative efficiencies and direct (except for CH4) GWPs relative to CO2\". Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170706070425/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/errataserrata-errata.html#table214","url_text":"\"Table 2.14 (Errata). Lifetimes, radiative efficiencies and direct (except for CH4) GWPs relative to CO2\""},{"url":"https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/errataserrata-errata.html#table214","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Example image of a 30 lbs R134a bottle\". budgetheating.com. Retrieved 26 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.budgetheating.com/v/vspfiles/assets/images/r134a-refrigerant.jpg","url_text":"\"Example image of a 30 lbs R134a bottle\""}]},{"reference":"\"Refrigerant Transition & Environmental Impacts\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.epa.gov/mvac/refrigerant-transition-environmental-impacts","url_text":"\"Refrigerant Transition & Environmental Impacts\""}]},{"reference":"Corr, Stuart (2005). \"1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (R-134a): A Selective Solvent for the Generation of Flavor and Fragrance Ingredients\". Natural Flavors and Fragrances. ACS Symposium Series. Vol. 908. p. 41. doi:10.1021/bk-2005-0908.ch003. ISBN 0-8412-3904-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbk-2005-0908.ch003","url_text":"10.1021/bk-2005-0908.ch003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8412-3904-5","url_text":"0-8412-3904-5"}]},{"reference":"Abbott, Andrew P.; Eltringham, Wayne; Hope, Eric G.; Nicola, Mazin (2005). \"Solubility of unsaturated carboxylic acids in supercritical 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a) and a methodology for the separation of ternary mixtures\". Green Chemistry. 7 (4): 210. doi:10.1039/B412697A.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1039%2FB412697A","url_text":"10.1039/B412697A"}]},{"reference":"Abbott, Andrew P.; Eltringham, Wayne; Hope, Eric G.; Nicola, Mazin (2005). \"Hydrogenation in supercritical 1,1,1,2 tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a)\" (PDF). Green Chemistry. 7 (10): 721. doi:10.1039/B507554H. hdl:2381/604. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180719170805/https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/604/1/10.1039_b507554h.pdf","url_text":"\"Hydrogenation in supercritical 1,1,1,2 tetrafluoroethane (HFC 134a)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1039%2FB507554H","url_text":"10.1039/B507554H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2381%2F604","url_text":"2381/604"},{"url":"https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/604/1/10.1039_b507554h.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Norbeck, E.; Olson, J. E.; Moeller, A.; Onel, Y. (2006). \"Rad Hard Active Media For Calorimeters\" (PDF). AIP Conference Proceedings. 867: 84. Bibcode:2006AIPC..867...84N. doi:10.1063/1.2396941. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120323165423/http://highenergy.physics.uiowa.edu/HEP/Files/Talks/RadHardPaper.pdf","url_text":"\"Rad Hard Active Media For Calorimeters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006AIPC..867...84N","url_text":"2006AIPC..867...84N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2396941","url_text":"10.1063/1.2396941"},{"url":"http://highenergy.physics.uiowa.edu/HEP/Files/Talks/RadHardPaper.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Franklin J (1993). \"The Atmospheric Degradation and Impact of 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluorethane (Hydrofluorocarbon 134a)\". Chemosphere. 27 (8): 1565–1601. Bibcode:1993Chmsp..27.1565F. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(93)90251-Y.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sim_chemosphere_1993-10_27_8/page/1565","url_text":"\"The Atmospheric Degradation and Impact of 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluorethane (Hydrofluorocarbon 134a)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Chmsp..27.1565F","url_text":"1993Chmsp..27.1565F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0045-6535%2893%2990251-Y","url_text":"10.1016/0045-6535(93)90251-Y"}]},{"reference":"Forster, P.; et al. (2007). \"Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing.\" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida,_Tokyo

Machida, Tokyo

["1 Geography","1.1 Surrounding municipalities","1.2 Climate","2 Demographics","3 History","4 Government","4.1 Mayors","5 Education","5.1 Universities and colleges","5.2 Primary and secondary education","6 Transportation","6.1 Railway","6.2 Highway","7 Notable people from Machida","8 Local attractions","9 Sports","10 References","11 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°33′15″N 139°26′35″E / 35.55417°N 139.44306°E / 35.55417; 139.44306City in Kantō, JapanMachida 町田市CityMachida City Hall FlagSealLocation of Machida in TokyoMachida Coordinates: 35°33′15″N 139°26′35″E / 35.55417°N 139.44306°E / 35.55417; 139.44306CountryJapanRegionKantōPrefectureTokyoTown settledApril 1, 1913City settledFebruary 1, 1958Government • MayorJoichi IshizakaArea • Total71.80 km2 (27.72 sq mi)Population (April 2021) • Total428,851 • Density6,000/km2 (15,000/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+9 (Japan Standard Time)Symbols • TreeZelkova serrata• FlowerScarlet sage• BirdCommon kingfisherPhone number042-722-3111Address1-20-23 Nakamachi, Machida-shi, Tokyo 194-8520WebsiteOfficial website One of the ponds of Yakushi-Ike Park in Machida A road lined with cherry blossom trees in Machida Machida (町田市, Machida-shi) is a city located in the western portion of Tokyo Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 April 2021, the city had an estimated population of 428,851, and a population density of 6,000 persons per km2. The total area of the city was 71.80 square kilometres (27.72 sq mi). Due to geographical and other reasons, Machida is often regarded as having more connection to Kanagawa Prefecture than to Tokyo Metropolis, to which it administratively belongs. Geography Machida is located in the Tama Hills of southern Tokyo Metropolis, bordered by Kanagawa Prefecture on the west, south, and east approximately 40 to 50 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The highest point is Mount Kusato (elevation 364 meters) at the western end. There are few flatlands near Machida Station, the Sakai River flows to the west and south, and the Tsurumi River flows almost in the center of the city. Surrounding municipalities Tokyo Metropolis Tama Hachioji Kanagawa Prefecture Kawasaki Yokohama Sagamihara Yamato Climate Machida has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Machida is 14.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1621 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.8 °C. Demographics Per Japanese census data, the population of Machida has seen consistent but uneven growth over the past century. Historical populationYearPop.±% 1920 23,620—     1930 26,669+12.9% 1940 32,020+20.1% 1950 52,486+63.9% 1960 71,269+35.8% 1970 202,499+184.1% 1980 295,405+45.9% 1990 349,050+18.2% 2000 377,494+8.1% 2010 427,016+13.1% 2020 431,079+1.0% History The area of present-day Machida was part of ancient Musashi Province. In the post-Meiji Restoration cadastral reform of July 22, 1878, the area became part of Minamitama District in Kanagawa Prefecture. The village of Machida was created on April 1, 1889, with the establishment of modern municipalities system. Minamitama District was transferred to the administrative control of Tokyo Metropolis on April 1, 1893. Tama was elevated to town status on April 1, 1913. The town was bombed by American forces on May 24, 1945, during World War II. Machida expanded through annexation of the neighboring village of Minami on April 1, 1954, followed by the villages of Tsurukawa, Tadao and Sakai on February 1, 1958, to become the city of Machida. A USMC RF-8A crashed in a residential area Machida on April 1, 1964, killing four people. From 1973, the Tama New Town development resulted in a rapid increase in population, turning the city into a bedroom community for Tokyo and Yokohama. Government Machida has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 36 members, whose members are elected for a four-year term. Machida contributes four members to the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Tokyo 23rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan. Mayors Tokichiro Aoyama (1958–1970, 3 terms) Katsumasa Oshita (1970–1990, 5 terms) Kazuo Terada (1990–2006, 4 terms) Joichi Ishizaka (2006–present, 4th term incumbent) Education Universities and colleges J. F. Oberlin University Kokushikan University Showa Pharmaceutical University Tamagawa University Tokyo Kasei-Gakuin University Tokyo Jogakkan College Hosei University - Machida campus Wako University Tsurukawa Women's Junior College Primary and secondary education Machida has seven public high schools operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education, including: Machida High School Machida Sogo High School  Machida Technical High School  Naruse High School  Nozuta High School  Ogawa High School  Yamazaki High School  The Machida city government operates 20 public junior high schools and 42 elementary schools. Combined municipal elementary and junior high schools: Yukinoki Gakuen (ゆくのき学園) - For elementary, it occupies Oto Elementary (大戸小学校). For junior high, it occupies Musashigaoka Junior High School (武蔵岡中学校) Municipal junior high schools: Kanai (金井中学校) Kiso (木曽中学校) Machida No. 1 (町田第一中学校) Machida No. 2 (町田第二中学校) Machida No. 3 (町田第三中学校) Minami (南中学校) Minaminaruse (南成瀬中学校) Minamiotani (南大谷中学校) Narusedai (成瀬台中学校) Oyama (小山中学校) Oyamada (小山田中学校) Sakai (堺中学校) Shinkoji (真光寺中学校) Tadao (忠生中学校) Tsukushino (つくし野中学校) Tsurukawa (鶴川中学校) Tsurukawa No. 2 (鶴川第二中学校) Yakushi (薬師中学校) Yamasaki (山崎中学校) Municipal elementary schools: Aihara (相原小学校) Fujinodai (藤の台小学校) Honmachida (本町田小学校) Honmachida Higashi (本町田東小学校) Kanai (金井小学校) Kiso Sakaigawa (木曽境川小学校) Machida No. 1 (町田第一小学校) Machida No. 2 (町田第二小学校) Machida No. 3 (町田第三小学校) Machida No. 4 (町田第四小学校) Machida No. 5 (町田第五小学校) Machida No. 6 (町田第六小学校) Minami No. 1 (南第一小学校) Minami No. 2 (南第二小学校) Minami No. 3 (南第三小学校) Minami No. 4 (南第四小学校) Minaminaruse (南成瀬小学校) Minamioya (南大谷小学校) Minami Tsukushino (南つくし野小学校) Miwa (三輪小学校) Nanakuniyama (七国山小学校) Naruse Chuo (成瀬中央小学校) Narusedai (成瀬台小学校) Ogawa (小川小学校) Okura (大蔵小学校) Oyama (小山小学校) Oyama Chuo (小山中央小学校) Oyamada (小山田小学校) Oyamada Minami (小山田南小学校) Oyama Gaoka (小山ヶ丘小学校) Tadao (忠生小学校) Tadao No. 3 (忠生第三小学校) Takagasaka (高ヶ坂小学校) Tsukushino (つくし野小学校) Tsurukawa No. 1 (鶴川第一小学校) Tsurukawa No. 2 (鶴川第二小学校) Tsurukawa No. 3 (鶴川第三小学校) Tsurukawa No. 4 (鶴川第四小学校) Tsuruma (鶴間小学校) Yamazaki (山崎小学校) Zushi (図師小学校) The city also operates one special education school for the handicapped. There are also seven private high schools, including: Tamagawa Gakuen Third Junior & Senior High School of Nihon University There are also five private junior high schools and three private elementary schools. International schools West Tokyo Korean 2nd Elementary School  - North Korean school Transportation Railway Odakyu Electric Railway - Odakyu Odawara Line Machida - Tamagawagakuen-mae - Tsurukawa Tokyu Corporation - Tōkyū Den-en-toshi Line Minami-machida Grandberry Park - Suzukakedai - Tsukushino JR East JR East - Yokohama Line Aihara - <Hashimoto - Sagamihara - Yabe - Fuchinobe - Kobuchi> - Machida - Naruse Keio Corporation - Keiō Sagamihara Line Tamasakai Highway Tōmei Expressway National Route 16 National Route 246 Notable people from Machida Ami Onuki, half of the J-pop group Puffy Taiten Kusunoki, voice actor Megumi Toyoguchi, voice actress Satoshi Tajiri, creator of Pokémon; based Pallet Town on this town in the original Pokémon Red and Blue Masashi Takeda, Japanese professional wrestler and mixed martial artist Local attractions Buaisō museum, former residence of the Shirasu family Machida City Museum of Graphic Arts Machida Squirrel Garden Tadao Park Grandberry Park (Grandberry Mall closed in Feb 2017,redeveloped and re-opened in November 2019) Sports F.C. Machida Zelvia, a football club based in Machida Pescadola Machida, a futsal club based in Machida References ^ "Machida city official statistics" (in Japanese). Japan. ^ "町田市が神奈川県になった？…駆け巡るうわさの背後に一大 ..." ^ Machida climate data ^ Machida population statistics ^ a b "町田市立小学校一覧および児童数・学級数一覧". Machida City. Retrieved 2022-12-11. ^ a b "町田市立中学校一覧 全20校". Machida City. Retrieved 2022-12-11. ^ "Home page (English)". Third Junior & Senior High School of Nihon University. Retrieved 2019-05-01. ^ "ウリハッキョ一覧" (Archive). Chongryon. Retrieved on October 14, 2015. External links Tokyo portal Media related to Machida, Tokyo at Wikimedia Commons Machida travel guide from Wikivoyage Machida City Official Website (in Japanese) vteTokyo Metropolis Architecture Education Festivals History Neighborhoods Politics Sports Symbols Tourism Transportation Special Wardsof Tokyo Adachi Arakawa Bunkyō Chiyoda Chūō Edogawa Itabashi Katsushika Kita Kōtō Meguro Minato Nakano Nerima Ōta Setagaya Shibuya Shinagawa Shinjuku Suginami Sumida Taitō Toshima Western(Tama area)Core city Hachiōji Cities Akiruno Akishima Chōfu Fuchū Fussa Hamura Higashikurume Higashimurayama Higashiyamato Hino Inagi Kiyose Kodaira Koganei Kokubunji Komae Kunitachi Machida Mitaka Musashimurayama Musashino Nishitokyo Ōme Tachikawa Tama Nishitama District Hinode Mizuho Okutama Hinohara Insular Area Ōshima Subprefecture Ōshima To-shima Niijima Kōzushima Miyake Subprefecture Miyake Mikurajima Hachijō Subprefecture Hachijō Aogashima Ogasawara Subprefecture Ogasawara List of mergers in Tokyo Metropolis Portal Category vte Cities in Japan with a population of 200,000+2,000,000 and more Tokyo (capital) Yokohama Osaka Nagoya 1,000,000–1,999,999 Sapporo Fukuoka Kobe Kyoto Kawasaki Saitama Hiroshima Sendai 500,000–999,999 Kitakyushu Chiba Setagaya Sakai Niigata Hamamatsu Shizuoka Sagamihara Nerima Okayama Ōta Kumamoto Edogawa Adachi Kagoshima Funabashi Hachiōji Kawaguchi Himeji Suginami Itabashi Matsuyama Higashiōsaka Utsunomiya 200,000–499,999 Matsudo Nishinomiya Kurashiki Ichikawa, Chiba Oita Fukuyama Amagasaki Kanazawa Nagasaki Kōtō Katsushika Yokosuka Toyama Toyota Takamatsu Machida Gifu Hirakata Fujisawa Kashiwa Toyonaka Nagano Toyohashi Ichinomiya Wakayama Okazaki Miyazaki Nara Suita Takatsuki Shinagawa Asahikawa Iwaki Kochi Takasaki Kōriyama Tokorozawa Kawagoe Kita Akita Ōtsu Koshigaya Maebashi Naha Nakano, Tokyo Shinjuku Yokkaichi Aomori Kurume Kasugai Morioka Akashi Fukushima Tsu Shimonoseki Nagaoka Ichihara Hakodate Yao Ibaraki, Osaka Fukui Meguro Kakogawa Tokushima Mito Hiratsuka Toshima Yamagata Sasebo Fuchū, Tokyo Kure, Hiroshima Hachinohe Saga Neyagawa Sōka Sumida Fuji Kasukabe Chigasaki Matsumoto Atsugi Yamato Ageo Takarazuka Chōfu Ōta, Gunma Tsukuba Numazu Joetsu Shibuya Minato Kumagaya Isesaki Nishitokyo Kishiwada Tottori Authority control databases International VIAF National Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Geographic MusicBrainz area Academics CiNii

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yakushi.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Street_blossoming_cherry_trees_Yakushidai.jpg"},{"link_name":"city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"the western portion of","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Metropolis"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machida,_Tokyo&action=edit"},{"link_name":"population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population"},{"link_name":"population density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Machida-hp-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yomiuri-2"}],"text":"City in Kantō, JapanOne of the ponds of Yakushi-Ike Park in MachidaA road lined with cherry blossom trees in MachidaMachida (町田市, Machida-shi) is a city located in the western portion of Tokyo Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 April 2021[update], the city had an estimated population of 428,851, and a population density of 6,000 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city was 71.80 square kilometres (27.72 sq mi).Due to geographical and other reasons, Machida is often regarded as having more connection to Kanagawa Prefecture than to Tokyo Metropolis, to which it administratively belongs.[2]","title":"Machida, Tokyo"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tama Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tama_Hills"},{"link_name":"Machida Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida_Station_(Tokyo)"}],"text":"Machida is located in the Tama Hills of southern Tokyo Metropolis, bordered by Kanagawa Prefecture on the west, south, and east approximately 40 to 50 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. The highest point is Mount Kusato (elevation 364 meters) at the western end. There are few flatlands near Machida Station, the Sakai River flows to the west and south, and the Tsurumi River flows almost in the center of the city.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tokyo Metropolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Metropolis"},{"link_name":"Tama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tama,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Hachioji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachioji,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Kanagawa Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanagawa_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Kawasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasaki,_Kanagawa"},{"link_name":"Yokohama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama,_Kanagawa"},{"link_name":"Sagamihara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagamihara,_Kanagawa"},{"link_name":"Yamato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamato,_Kanagawa"}],"sub_title":"Surrounding municipalities","text":"Tokyo MetropolisTama\nHachiojiKanagawa PrefectureKawasaki\nYokohama\nSagamihara\nYamato","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"humid subtropical climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Climate","text":"Machida has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Machida is 14.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1621 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.8 °C.[3]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Per Japanese census data,[4] the population of Machida has seen consistent but uneven growth over the past century.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Musashi Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musashi_Province"},{"link_name":"Meiji Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Restoration"},{"link_name":"Minamitama District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamitama_District,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Kanagawa Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanagawa_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"USMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corp"},{"link_name":"RF-8A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vought_F-8_Crusader"},{"link_name":"crashed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Machida_F-8_crash"},{"link_name":"Tama New Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tama_New_Town"},{"link_name":"bedroom community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedroom_community"}],"text":"The area of present-day Machida was part of ancient Musashi Province. In the post-Meiji Restoration cadastral reform of July 22, 1878, the area became part of Minamitama District in Kanagawa Prefecture. The village of Machida was created on April 1, 1889, with the establishment of modern municipalities system. Minamitama District was transferred to the administrative control of Tokyo Metropolis on April 1, 1893. Tama was elevated to town status on April 1, 1913. The town was bombed by American forces on May 24, 1945, during World War II.Machida expanded through annexation of the neighboring village of Minami on April 1, 1954, followed by the villages of Tsurukawa, Tadao and Sakai on February 1, 1958, to become the city of Machida. A USMC RF-8A crashed in a residential area Machida on April 1, 1964, killing four people. From 1973, the Tama New Town development resulted in a rapid increase in population, turning the city into a bedroom community for Tokyo and Yokohama.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mayor-council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor-council"},{"link_name":"unicameral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicameral"},{"link_name":"Tokyo 23rd district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_23rd_district"},{"link_name":"lower house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Diet of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_of_Japan"}],"text":"Machida has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 36 members, whose members are elected for a four-year term. Machida contributes four members to the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Tokyo 23rd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Mayors","text":"Tokichiro Aoyama (1958–1970, 3 terms)\nKatsumasa Oshita (1970–1990, 5 terms)\nKazuo Terada (1990–2006, 4 terms)\nJoichi Ishizaka (2006–present, 4th term incumbent)","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"J. F. Oberlin University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._F._Oberlin_University"},{"link_name":"Kokushikan University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokushikan_University"},{"link_name":"Showa Pharmaceutical University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Showa_Pharmaceutical_University"},{"link_name":"Tamagawa University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamagawa_University"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Kasei-Gakuin University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Kasei-Gakuin_University"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Jogakkan College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Jogakkan_College"},{"link_name":"Hosei University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosei_University"},{"link_name":"Wako University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wako_University"},{"link_name":"Tsurukawa Women's Junior College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsurukawa_Women%27s_Junior_College"}],"sub_title":"Universities and colleges","text":"J. F. Oberlin University\nKokushikan University\nShowa Pharmaceutical University\nTamagawa University\nTokyo Kasei-Gakuin University\nTokyo Jogakkan College\nHosei University - Machida campus\nWako University\nTsurukawa Women's Junior College","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Metropolitan_Government_Board_of_Education"},{"link_name":"Machida High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida_High_School"},{"link_name":"Machida Sogo High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machida_Sogo_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E7%B7%8F%E5%90%88%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Machida Technical High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machida_Technical_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Naruse High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naruse_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%90%E7%80%AC%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Nozuta High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nozuta_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E9%87%8E%E6%B4%A5%E7%94%B0%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Ogawa High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ogawa_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E5%B0%8F%E5%B7%9D%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Yamazaki High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yamazaki_High_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E7%AB%8B%E5%B1%B1%E5%B4%8E%E9%AB%98%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MachidaESlist-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MachidaJHSlist-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MachidaJHSlist-6"},{"link_name":"金井中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E9%87%91%E4%BA%95%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"町田第三中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南成瀬中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E6%88%90%E7%80%AC%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"成瀬台中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%90%E7%80%AC%E5%8F%B0%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"小山中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%B0%8F%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"堺中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%A0%BA%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"つくし野中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E3%81%A4%E3%81%8F%E3%81%97%E9%87%8E%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"鶴川第二中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E9%B6%B4%E5%B7%9D%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MachidaESlist-5"},{"link_name":"本町田小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E6%9C%AC%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"町田第六小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E7%AC%AC%E5%85%AD%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南第二小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南第三小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南第四小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"南つくし野小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%8D%97%E3%81%A4%E3%81%8F%E3%81%97%E9%87%8E%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"成瀬中央小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%90%E7%80%AC%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"成瀬台小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%90%E7%80%AC%E5%8F%B0%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"小山小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E5%B0%8F%E5%B1%B1%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"鶴川第二小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E9%B6%B4%E5%B7%9D%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"鶴川第三小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E9%B6%B4%E5%B7%9D%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"鶴川第四小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%BA%E7%94%B0%E5%B8%82%E7%AB%8B%E9%B6%B4%E5%B7%9D%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"Tamagawa Gakuen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamagawa_Gakuen"},{"link_name":"Third Junior & Senior High School of Nihon University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Junior_%26_Senior_High_School_of_Nihon_University"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Home-7"},{"link_name":"West Tokyo Korean 2nd Elementary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Tokyo_Korean_2nd_Elementary_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%88%9D%E7%B4%9A%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"North Korean school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosen_gakko"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Primary and secondary education","text":"Machida has seven public high schools operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education, including:Machida High School\nMachida Sogo High School [ja]\nMachida Technical High School [ja]\nNaruse High School [ja]\nNozuta High School [ja]\nOgawa High School [ja]\nYamazaki High School [ja]The Machida city government operates 20 public junior high schools and 42 elementary schools.Combined municipal elementary and junior high schools:Yukinoki Gakuen (ゆくのき学園) - For elementary, it occupies Oto Elementary (大戸小学校).[5] For junior high, it occupies Musashigaoka Junior High School (武蔵岡中学校)[6]Municipal junior high schools:[6]Kanai (金井中学校)\nKiso (木曽中学校)\nMachida No. 1 (町田第一中学校)\nMachida No. 2 (町田第二中学校)\nMachida No. 3 (町田第三中学校)\nMinami (南中学校)\nMinaminaruse (南成瀬中学校)\nMinamiotani (南大谷中学校)\nNarusedai (成瀬台中学校)\nOyama (小山中学校)\nOyamada (小山田中学校)\nSakai (堺中学校)\nShinkoji (真光寺中学校)\nTadao (忠生中学校)\nTsukushino (つくし野中学校)\nTsurukawa (鶴川中学校)\nTsurukawa No. 2 (鶴川第二中学校)\nYakushi (薬師中学校)\nYamasaki (山崎中学校)Municipal elementary schools:[5]Aihara (相原小学校)\nFujinodai (藤の台小学校)\nHonmachida (本町田小学校)\nHonmachida Higashi (本町田東小学校)\nKanai (金井小学校)\nKiso Sakaigawa (木曽境川小学校)\nMachida No. 1 (町田第一小学校)\nMachida No. 2 (町田第二小学校)\nMachida No. 3 (町田第三小学校)\nMachida No. 4 (町田第四小学校)\nMachida No. 5 (町田第五小学校)\nMachida No. 6 (町田第六小学校)\nMinami No. 1 (南第一小学校)\nMinami No. 2 (南第二小学校)\nMinami No. 3 (南第三小学校)\nMinami No. 4 (南第四小学校)\nMinaminaruse (南成瀬小学校)\nMinamioya (南大谷小学校)\nMinami Tsukushino (南つくし野小学校)\nMiwa (三輪小学校)\nNanakuniyama (七国山小学校)\nNaruse Chuo (成瀬中央小学校)\nNarusedai (成瀬台小学校)\nOgawa (小川小学校)\nOkura (大蔵小学校)\nOyama (小山小学校)\nOyama Chuo (小山中央小学校)\nOyamada (小山田小学校)\nOyamada Minami (小山田南小学校)\nOyama Gaoka (小山ヶ丘小学校)\nTadao (忠生小学校)\nTadao No. 3 (忠生第三小学校)\nTakagasaka (高ヶ坂小学校)\nTsukushino (つくし野小学校)\nTsurukawa No. 1 (鶴川第一小学校)\nTsurukawa No. 2 (鶴川第二小学校)\nTsurukawa No. 3 (鶴川第三小学校)\nTsurukawa No. 4 (鶴川第四小学校)\nTsuruma (鶴間小学校)\nYamazaki (山崎小学校)\nZushi (図師小学校)The city also operates one special education school for the handicapped.There are also seven private high schools, including:Tamagawa Gakuen\nThird Junior & Senior High School of Nihon University[7]There are also five private junior high schools and three private elementary schools.International schoolsWest Tokyo Korean 2nd Elementary School [ja] - North Korean school[8]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Odakyu_electric_railway_company_logos.svg"},{"link_name":"Odakyu Electric Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odakyu_Electric_Railway"},{"link_name":"Odakyu Odawara Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odakyu_Odawara_Line"},{"link_name":"Machida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida_Station_(Tokyo)"},{"link_name":"Tamagawagakuen-mae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamagawagakuen-mae_Station"},{"link_name":"Tsurukawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsurukawa_Station"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TokyuLogotype.svg"},{"link_name":"Tokyu Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyu_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Tōkyū Den-en-toshi Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dky%C5%AB_Den-en-toshi_Line"},{"link_name":"Minami-machida Grandberry Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minami-machida_Grandberry_Park_Station"},{"link_name":"Suzukakedai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzukakedai_Station"},{"link_name":"Tsukushino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukushino_Station"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JR_logo_(east).svg"},{"link_name":"JR East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JR_East"},{"link_name":"JR East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JR_East"},{"link_name":"Yokohama Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama_Line"},{"link_name":"Aihara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aihara_Station"},{"link_name":"Hashimoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashimoto_Station_(Kanagawa)"},{"link_name":"Sagamihara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagamihara_Station"},{"link_name":"Yabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yabe_Station"},{"link_name":"Fuchinobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuchinobe_Station"},{"link_name":"Kobuchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobuchi_Station_(Kanagawa)"},{"link_name":"Machida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida_Station_(JR_East)"},{"link_name":"Naruse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naruse_Station"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KeioRailway_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Keio Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keio_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Keiō Sagamihara Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei%C5%8D_Sagamihara_Line"},{"link_name":"Tamasakai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamasakai_Station"}],"sub_title":"Railway","text":"Odakyu Electric Railway - Odakyu Odawara LineMachida - Tamagawagakuen-mae - TsurukawaTokyu Corporation - Tōkyū Den-en-toshi LineMinami-machida Grandberry Park - Suzukakedai - TsukushinoJR East JR East - Yokohama LineAihara - <Hashimoto - Sagamihara - Yabe - Fuchinobe - Kobuchi> - Machida - NaruseKeio Corporation - Keiō Sagamihara LineTamasakai","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tōmei Expressway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dmei_Expressway"},{"link_name":"National Route 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_National_Route_16"},{"link_name":"National Route 246","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_National_Route_246"}],"sub_title":"Highway","text":"Tōmei Expressway\n National Route 16\n National Route 246","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ami Onuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ami_Onuki"},{"link_name":"Taiten Kusunoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiten_Kusunoki"},{"link_name":"Megumi Toyoguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megumi_Toyoguchi"},{"link_name":"Satoshi Tajiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satoshi_Tajiri"},{"link_name":"Pokémon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon"},{"link_name":"Pokémon Red and Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Red_and_Blue"},{"link_name":"Masashi Takeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masashi_Takeda"},{"link_name":"Japanese professional wrestler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puroresu"},{"link_name":"mixed martial artist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_martial_artist"}],"text":"Ami Onuki, half of the J-pop group Puffy\nTaiten Kusunoki, voice actor\nMegumi Toyoguchi, voice actress\nSatoshi Tajiri, creator of Pokémon; based Pallet Town on this town in the original Pokémon Red and Blue\nMasashi Takeda, Japanese professional wrestler and mixed martial artist","title":"Notable people from Machida"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buaisō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buais%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Machida City Museum of Graphic Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machida_City_Museum_of_Graphic_Arts"}],"text":"Buaisō museum, former residence of the Shirasu family\nMachida City Museum of Graphic Arts\nMachida Squirrel Garden\nTadao Park\nGrandberry Park (Grandberry Mall closed in Feb 2017,redeveloped and re-opened in November 2019)","title":"Local attractions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"F.C. Machida Zelvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.C._Machida_Zelvia"},{"link_name":"Pescadola Machida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescadola_Machida"},{"link_name":"futsal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futsal"}],"text":"F.C. Machida Zelvia, a football club based in Machida\nPescadola Machida, a futsal club based in Machida","title":"Sports"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection,_injection,_and_surjection

Bijection, injection and surjection

["1 Injection","2 Surjection","3 Bijection","3.1 Cardinality","4 Examples","5 Properties","6 Category theory","7 History","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Properties of mathematical functions surjective non-surjective injective bijective injective-only non- injective surjective-only general In mathematics, injections, surjections, and bijections are classes of functions distinguished by the manner in which arguments (input expressions from the domain) and images (output expressions from the codomain) are related or mapped to each other. A function maps elements from its domain to elements in its codomain. Given a function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} : The function is injective, or one-to-one, if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one element of the domain, or equivalently, if distinct elements of the domain map to distinct elements in the codomain. An injective function is also called an injection. Notationally: ∀ x , x ′ ∈ X , f ( x ) = f ( x ′ ) ⟹ x = x ′ , {\displaystyle \forall x,x'\in X,f(x)=f(x')\implies x=x',} or, equivalently (using logical transposition), ∀ x , x ′ ∈ X , x ≠ x ′ ⟹ f ( x ) ≠ f ( x ′ ) . {\displaystyle \forall x,x'\in X,x\neq x'\implies f(x)\neq f(x').} The function is surjective, or onto, if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the domain. That is, the image and the codomain of the function are equal. A surjective function is a surjection. Notationally: ∀ y ∈ Y , ∃ x ∈ X  such that  y = f ( x ) . {\displaystyle \forall y\in Y,\exists x\in X{\text{ such that }}y=f(x).} The function is bijective (one-to-one and onto, one-to-one correspondence, or invertible) if each element of the codomain is mapped to by exactly one element of the domain. That is, the function is both injective and surjective. A bijective function is also called a bijection. That is, combining the definitions of injective and surjective, ∀ y ∈ Y , ∃ ! x ∈ X  such that  y = f ( x ) , {\displaystyle \forall y\in Y,\exists !x\in X{\text{ such that }}y=f(x),} where ∃ ! x {\displaystyle \exists !x} means "there exists exactly one x". In any case (for any function), the following holds: ∀ x ∈ X , ∃ ! y ∈ Y  such that  y = f ( x ) . {\displaystyle \forall x\in X,\exists !y\in Y{\text{ such that }}y=f(x).} An injective function need not be surjective (not all elements of the codomain may be associated with arguments), and a surjective function need not be injective (some images may be associated with more than one argument). The four possible combinations of injective and surjective features are illustrated in the adjacent diagrams. Injection Main article: Injective function Further information on notation: Function (mathematics) § Notation Injective composition: the second function need not be injective. A function is injective (one-to-one) if each possible element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one argument. Equivalently, a function is injective if it maps distinct arguments to distinct images. An injective function is an injection. The formal definition is the following. The function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is injective, if for all x , x ′ ∈ X {\displaystyle x,x'\in X} , f ( x ) = f ( x ′ ) ⇒ x = x ′ . {\displaystyle f(x)=f(x')\Rightarrow x=x'.} The following are some facts related to injections: A function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is injective if and only if X {\displaystyle X} is empty or f {\displaystyle f} is left-invertible; that is, there is a function g : f ( X ) → X {\displaystyle g\colon f(X)\to X} such that g ∘ f = {\displaystyle g\circ f=} identity function on X. Here, f ( X ) {\displaystyle f(X)} is the image of f {\displaystyle f} . Since every function is surjective when its codomain is restricted to its image, every injection induces a bijection onto its image. More precisely, every injection f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} can be factored as a bijection followed by an inclusion as follows. Let f R : X → f ( X ) {\displaystyle f_{R}\colon X\rightarrow f(X)} be f {\displaystyle f} with codomain restricted to its image, and let i : f ( X ) → Y {\displaystyle i\colon f(X)\to Y} be the inclusion map from f ( X ) {\displaystyle f(X)} into Y {\displaystyle Y} . Then f = i ∘ f R {\displaystyle f=i\circ f_{R}} . A dual factorization is given for surjections below. The composition of two injections is again an injection, but if g ∘ f {\displaystyle g\circ f} is injective, then it can only be concluded that f {\displaystyle f} is injective (see figure). Every embedding is injective. Surjection Main article: Surjective function Surjective composition: the first function need not be surjective. A function is surjective or onto if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the domain. In other words, each element of the codomain has a non-empty preimage. Equivalently, a function is surjective if its image is equal to its codomain. A surjective function is a surjection. The formal definition is the following. The function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is surjective, if for all y ∈ Y {\displaystyle y\in Y} , there is x ∈ X {\displaystyle x\in X} such that f ( x ) = y . {\displaystyle f(x)=y.} The following are some facts related to surjections: A function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is surjective if and only if it is right-invertible, that is, if and only if there is a function g : Y → X {\displaystyle g\colon Y\to X} such that f ∘ g = {\displaystyle f\circ g=} identity function on Y {\displaystyle Y} . (This statement is equivalent to the axiom of choice.) By collapsing all arguments mapping to a given fixed image, every surjection induces a bijection from a quotient set of its domain to its codomain. More precisely, the preimages under f of the elements of the image of f {\displaystyle f} are the equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on the domain of f {\displaystyle f} , such that x and y are equivalent if and only they have the same image under f {\displaystyle f} . As all elements of any one of these equivalence classes are mapped by f {\displaystyle f} on the same element of the codomain, this induces a bijection between the quotient set by this equivalence relation (the set of the equivalence classes) and the image of f {\displaystyle f} (which is its codomain when f {\displaystyle f} is surjective). Moreover, f is the composition of the canonical projection from f to the quotient set, and the bijection between the quotient set and the codomain of f {\displaystyle f} . The composition of two surjections is again a surjection, but if g ∘ f {\displaystyle g\circ f} is surjective, then it can only be concluded that g {\displaystyle g} is surjective (see figure). Bijection Main article: Bijective function Bijective composition: the first function need not be surjective and the second function need not be injective. A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. A bijective function is also called a bijection or a one-to-one correspondence (not to be confused with one-to-one function, which refers to injection). A function is bijective if and only if every possible image is mapped to by exactly one argument. This equivalent condition is formally expressed as follows: The function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is bijective, if for all y ∈ Y {\displaystyle y\in Y} , there is a unique x ∈ X {\displaystyle x\in X} such that f ( x ) = y . {\displaystyle f(x)=y.} The following are some facts related to bijections: A function f : X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} is bijective if and only if it is invertible, that is, there is a function g : Y → X {\displaystyle g\colon Y\to X} such that g ∘ f = {\displaystyle g\circ f=} identity function on X and f ∘ g = {\displaystyle f\circ g=} identity function on Y {\displaystyle Y} . This function maps each image to its unique preimage. The composition of two bijections is again a bijection, but if g ∘ f {\displaystyle g\circ f} is a bijection, then it can only be concluded that f {\displaystyle f} is injective and g {\displaystyle g} is surjective (see the figure at right and the remarks above regarding injections and surjections). The bijections from a set to itself form a group under composition, called the symmetric group. Cardinality Suppose that one wants to define what it means for two sets to "have the same number of elements". One way to do this is to say that two sets "have the same number of elements", if and only if all the elements of one set can be paired with the elements of the other, in such a way that each element is paired with exactly one element. Accordingly, one can define two sets to "have the same number of elements"—if there is a bijection between them. In which case, the two sets are said to have the same cardinality. Likewise, one can say that set X {\displaystyle X} "has fewer than or the same number of elements" as set Y {\displaystyle Y} , if there is an injection from X {\displaystyle X} to Y {\displaystyle Y} ; one can also say that set X {\displaystyle X} "has fewer than the number of elements" in set Y {\displaystyle Y} , if there is an injection from X {\displaystyle X} to Y {\displaystyle Y} , but not a bijection between X {\displaystyle X} and Y {\displaystyle Y} . Examples It is important to specify the domain and codomain of each function, since by changing these, functions which appear to be the same may have different properties. Injective and surjective (bijective) The identity function idX for every non-empty set X, and thus specifically R → R : x ↦ x . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \to \mathbf {R} :x\mapsto x.} R + → R + : x ↦ x 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{+}\to \mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\mapsto x^{2}} , and thus also its inverse R + → R + : x ↦ x . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{+}\to \mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\mapsto {\sqrt {x}}.} The exponential function exp : R → R + : x ↦ e x {\displaystyle \exp \colon \mathbf {R} \to \mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\mapsto \mathrm {e} ^{x}} (that is, the exponential function with its codomain restricted to its image), and thus also its inverse the natural logarithm ln : R + → R : x ↦ ln ⁡ x . {\displaystyle \ln \colon \mathbf {R} ^{+}\to \mathbf {R} :x\mapsto \ln {x}.} Injective and non-surjective The exponential function exp : R → R : x ↦ e x . {\displaystyle \exp \colon \mathbf {R} \to \mathbf {R} :x\mapsto \mathrm {e} ^{x}.} Non-injective and surjective R → R : x ↦ ( x − 1 ) x ( x + 1 ) = x 3 − x . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \to \mathbf {R} :x\mapsto (x-1)x(x+1)=x^{3}-x.} R → [ − 1 , 1 ] : x ↦ sin ⁡ ( x ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \to :x\mapsto \sin(x).} Non-injective and non-surjective R → R : x ↦ sin ⁡ ( x ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \to \mathbf {R} :x\mapsto \sin(x).} Properties For every function f, subset X of the domain and subset Y of the codomain, X ⊂ f−1(f(X)) and f(f−1(Y)) ⊂ Y. If f is injective, then X = f−1(f(X)), and if f is surjective, then f(f−1(Y)) = Y. For every function h : X → Y, one can define a surjection H : X → h(X) : x → h(x) and an injection I : h(X) → Y : y → y. It follows that h = I ∘ H {\displaystyle h=I\circ H} . This decomposition is unique up to isomorphism. Category theory In the category of sets, injections, surjections, and bijections correspond precisely to monomorphisms, epimorphisms, and isomorphisms, respectively. History The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word injection as a noun by S. Mac Lane in Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (1950), and injective as an adjective by Eilenberg and Steenrod in Foundations of Algebraic Topology (1952). However, it was not until the French Bourbaki group coined the injective-surjective-bijective terminology (both as nouns and adjectives) that they achieved widespread adoption. See also Horizontal line test Injective module Permutation References ^ a b c d e f "Injective, Surjective and Bijective". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2019-12-07. ^ a b c d e f "Bijection, Injection, And Surjection | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki". brilliant.org. Retrieved 2019-12-07. ^ a b c d e f Farlow, S. J. "Injections, Surjections, and Bijections" (PDF). math.umaine.edu. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ a b c d e f "6.3: Injections, Surjections, and Bijections". Mathematics LibreTexts. 2017-09-20. Retrieved 2019-12-07. ^ "Section 7.3 (00V5): Injective and surjective maps of presheaves—The Stacks project". stacks.math.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2019-12-07. ^ "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (I)". jeff560.tripod.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11. ^ Mashaal, Maurice (2006). Bourbaki. American Mathematical Soc. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8218-3967-6. External links Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: entry on Injection, Surjection and Bijection has the history of Injection and related terms.

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Given a function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n:The function is injective, or one-to-one, if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one element of the domain, or equivalently, if distinct elements of the domain map to distinct elements in the codomain. An injective function is also called an injection.[1] Notationally:∀\n x\n ,\n \n x\n ′\n \n ∈\n X\n ,\n f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n f\n (\n \n x\n ′\n \n )\n \n ⟹\n \n x\n =\n \n x\n ′\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x,x'\\in X,f(x)=f(x')\\implies x=x',}\n \n\nor, equivalently (using logical transposition),\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n x\n ,\n \n x\n ′\n \n ∈\n X\n ,\n x\n ≠\n \n x\n ′\n \n \n ⟹\n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n ≠\n f\n (\n \n x\n ′\n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x,x'\\in X,x\\neq x'\\implies f(x)\\neq f(x').}\n \n[2][3][4]The function is surjective, or onto, if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the domain. That is, the image and the codomain of the function are equal. A surjective function is a surjection.[1] Notationally:∀\n y\n ∈\n Y\n ,\n ∃\n x\n ∈\n X\n \n  such that \n \n y\n =\n f\n (\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall y\\in Y,\\exists x\\in X{\\text{ such that }}y=f(x).}\n \n[2][3][4]The function is bijective (one-to-one and onto, one-to-one correspondence, or invertible) if each element of the codomain is mapped to by exactly one element of the domain. That is, the function is both injective and surjective. A bijective function is also called a bijection.[1][2][3][4] That is, combining the definitions of injective and surjective,∀\n y\n ∈\n Y\n ,\n ∃\n !\n x\n ∈\n X\n \n  such that \n \n y\n =\n f\n (\n x\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall y\\in Y,\\exists !x\\in X{\\text{ such that }}y=f(x),}\n \n\nwhere \n \n \n \n ∃\n !\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists !x}\n \n means \"there exists exactly one x\".In any case (for any function), the following holds:∀\n x\n ∈\n X\n ,\n ∃\n !\n y\n ∈\n Y\n \n  such that \n \n y\n =\n f\n (\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x\\in X,\\exists !y\\in Y{\\text{ such that }}y=f(x).}An injective function need not be surjective (not all elements of the codomain may be associated with arguments), and a surjective function need not be injective (some images may be associated with more than one argument). The four possible combinations of injective and surjective features are illustrated in the adjacent diagrams.","title":"Bijection, injection and surjection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Function (mathematics) § Notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)#Notation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Injective_composition.svg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-4"},{"link_name":"if and only if","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if"},{"link_name":"invertible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function"},{"link_name":"codomain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codomain"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"embedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedding"}],"text":"Further information on notation: Function (mathematics) § NotationInjective composition: the second function need not be injective.A function is injective (one-to-one) if each possible element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one argument. Equivalently, a function is injective if it maps distinct arguments to distinct images. An injective function is an injection.[1] The formal definition is the following.The function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is injective, if for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n \n x\n ′\n \n ∈\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,x'\\in X}\n \n, \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n f\n (\n \n x\n ′\n \n )\n ⇒\n x\n =\n \n x\n ′\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x)=f(x')\\Rightarrow x=x'.}\n \n[2][3][4]The following are some facts related to injections:A function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is injective if and only if \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n is empty or \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is left-invertible; that is, there is a function \n \n \n \n g\n :\n f\n (\n X\n )\n →\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\colon f(X)\\to X}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n g\n ∘\n f\n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\circ f=}\n \n identity function on X. Here, \n \n \n \n f\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(X)}\n \n is the image of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n.\nSince every function is surjective when its codomain is restricted to its image, every injection induces a bijection onto its image. More precisely, every injection \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n can be factored as a bijection followed by an inclusion as follows. Let \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n R\n \n \n :\n X\n →\n f\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{R}\\colon X\\rightarrow f(X)}\n \n be \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n with codomain restricted to its image, and let \n \n \n \n i\n :\n f\n (\n X\n )\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\colon f(X)\\to Y}\n \n be the inclusion map from \n \n \n \n f\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(X)}\n \n into \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n. Then \n \n \n \n f\n =\n i\n ∘\n \n f\n \n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f=i\\circ f_{R}}\n \n. A dual factorization is given for surjections below.\nThe composition of two injections is again an injection, but if \n \n \n \n g\n ∘\n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\circ f}\n \n is injective, then it can only be concluded that \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is injective (see figure).\nEvery embedding is injective.","title":"Injection"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surjective_composition.svg"},{"link_name":"codomain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codomain"},{"link_name":"domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"preimage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preimage"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-4"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"quotient set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_set"},{"link_name":"equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_classes"},{"link_name":"equivalence relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_relation"},{"link_name":"quotient set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_set"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"canonical projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_projection"}],"text":"Surjective composition: the first function need not be surjective.A function is surjective or onto if each element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the domain. In other words, each element of the codomain has a non-empty preimage. Equivalently, a function is surjective if its image is equal to its codomain. A surjective function is a surjection.[1] The formal definition is the following.The function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is surjective, if for all \n \n \n \n y\n ∈\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y\\in Y}\n \n, there is \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in X}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n y\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x)=y.}\n \n[2][3][4]The following are some facts related to surjections:A function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is surjective if and only if it is right-invertible, that is, if and only if there is a function \n \n \n \n g\n :\n Y\n →\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\colon Y\\to X}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n f\n ∘\n g\n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\circ g=}\n \n identity function on \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n. (This statement is equivalent to the axiom of choice.)\nBy collapsing all arguments mapping to a given fixed image, every surjection induces a bijection from a quotient set of its domain to its codomain. More precisely, the preimages under f of the elements of the image of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n are the equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on the domain of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n, such that x and y are equivalent if and only they have the same image under \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n. As all elements of any one of these equivalence classes are mapped by \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \non the same element of the codomain, this induces a bijection between the quotient set by this equivalence relation (the set of the equivalence classes) and the image of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n (which is its codomain when \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is surjective). Moreover, f is the composition of the canonical projection from f to the quotient set, and the bijection between the quotient set and the codomain of \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n.\nThe composition of two surjections is again a surjection, but if \n \n \n \n g\n ∘\n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\circ f}\n \n is surjective, then it can only be concluded that \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n is surjective (see figure).","title":"Surjection"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bijective_composition.svg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-4"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"symmetric group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group"}],"text":"Bijective composition: the first function need not be surjective and the second function need not be injective.A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. A bijective function is also called a bijection or a one-to-one correspondence (not to be confused with one-to-one function, which refers to injection). A function is bijective if and only if every possible image is mapped to by exactly one argument.[1] This equivalent condition is formally expressed as follows:The function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is bijective, if for all \n \n \n \n y\n ∈\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y\\in Y}\n \n, there is a unique \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in X}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n y\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x)=y.}\n \n[2][3][4]The following are some facts related to bijections:A function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n X\n →\n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\colon X\\to Y}\n \n is bijective if and only if it is invertible, that is, there is a function \n \n \n \n g\n :\n Y\n →\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\colon Y\\to X}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n g\n ∘\n f\n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\circ f=}\n \n identity function on X and \n \n \n \n f\n ∘\n g\n =\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\circ g=}\n \n identity function on \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n. This function maps each image to its unique preimage.\nThe composition of two bijections is again a bijection, but if \n \n \n \n g\n ∘\n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g\\circ f}\n \n is a bijection, then it can only be concluded that \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is injective and \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n is surjective (see the figure at right and the remarks above regarding injections and surjections).\nThe bijections from a set to itself form a group under composition, called the symmetric group.","title":"Bijection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"}],"sub_title":"Cardinality","text":"Suppose that one wants to define what it means for two sets to \"have the same number of elements\". One way to do this is to say that two sets \"have the same number of elements\", if and only if all the elements of one set can be paired with the elements of the other, in such a way that each element is paired with exactly one element. Accordingly, one can define two sets to \"have the same number of elements\"—if there is a bijection between them. In which case, the two sets are said to have the same cardinality.Likewise, one can say that set \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n \"has fewer than or the same number of elements\" as set \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n, if there is an injection from \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n to \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n; one can also say that set \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n \"has fewer than the number of elements\" in set \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n, if there is an injection from \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n to \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n, but not a bijection between \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n.","title":"Bijection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"exponential function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function"},{"link_name":"natural logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm"}],"text":"It is important to specify the domain and codomain of each function, since by changing these, functions which appear to be the same may have different properties.Injective and surjective (bijective)\nThe identity function idX for every non-empty set X, and thus specifically \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n →\n \n R\n \n :\n x\n ↦\n x\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} \\to \\mathbf {R} :x\\mapsto x.}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n →\n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n :\n x\n ↦\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{+}\\to \\mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\\mapsto x^{2}}\n \n, and thus also its inverse \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n →\n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n :\n x\n ↦\n \n \n x\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{+}\\to \\mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\\mapsto {\\sqrt {x}}.}\n \n\nThe exponential function \n \n \n \n exp\n :\n \n R\n \n →\n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n :\n x\n ↦\n \n \n e\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exp \\colon \\mathbf {R} \\to \\mathbf {R} ^{+}:x\\mapsto \\mathrm {e} ^{x}}\n \n (that is, the exponential function with its codomain restricted to its image), and thus also its inverse the natural logarithm \n \n \n \n ln\n :\n \n \n R\n \n \n +\n \n \n →\n \n R\n \n :\n x\n ↦\n ln\n ⁡\n \n x\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln \\colon \\mathbf {R} ^{+}\\to \\mathbf {R} :x\\mapsto \\ln {x}.}Injective and non-surjective\nThe exponential function \n \n \n \n exp\n :\n \n R\n \n →\n \n R\n \n :\n x\n ↦\n \n \n e\n \n \n x\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exp \\colon \\mathbf {R} \\to \\mathbf {R} :x\\mapsto \\mathrm {e} ^{x}.}Non-injective and surjective\n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n →\n \n R\n \n :\n x\n ↦\n (\n x\n −\n 1\n )\n x\n (\n x\n +\n 1\n )\n =\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n x\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} \\to \\mathbf {R} :x\\mapsto (x-1)x(x+1)=x^{3}-x.}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n →\n [\n −\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ]\n :\n x\n ↦\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} \\to [-1,1]:x\\mapsto \\sin(x).}Non-injective and non-surjective\n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n →\n \n R\n \n :\n x\n ↦\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n x\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} \\to \\mathbf {R} :x\\mapsto \\sin(x).}","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"up to","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_to"},{"link_name":"isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism"}],"text":"For every function f, subset X of the domain and subset Y of the codomain, X ⊂ f−1(f(X)) and f(f−1(Y)) ⊂ Y. If f is injective, then X = f−1(f(X)), and if f is surjective, then f(f−1(Y)) = Y.\nFor every function h : X → Y, one can define a surjection H : X → h(X) : x → h(x) and an injection I : h(X) → Y : y → y. It follows that \n \n \n \n h\n =\n I\n ∘\n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h=I\\circ H}\n \n. This decomposition is unique up to isomorphism.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"monomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomorphism"},{"link_name":"epimorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimorphism"},{"link_name":"isomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In the category of sets, injections, surjections, and bijections correspond precisely to monomorphisms, epimorphisms, and isomorphisms, respectively.[5]","title":"Category theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"S. Mac Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane"},{"link_name":"Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"Eilenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eilenberg"},{"link_name":"Steenrod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Steenrod"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Bourbaki group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbaki_group"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word injection as a noun by S. Mac Lane in Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (1950), and injective as an adjective by Eilenberg and Steenrod in Foundations of Algebraic Topology (1952).[6]However, it was not until the French Bourbaki group coined the injective-surjective-bijective terminology (both as nouns and adjectives) that they achieved widespread adoption.[7]","title":"History"}]

[{"image_text":"Injective composition: the second function need not be injective.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Injective_composition.svg/300px-Injective_composition.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Surjective composition: the first function need not be surjective.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Surjective_composition.svg/300px-Surjective_composition.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Bijective composition: the first function need not be surjective and the second function need not be injective.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bijective_composition.svg/300px-Bijective_composition.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Horizontal line test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_line_test"},{"title":"Injective module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_module"},{"title":"Permutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Sainsbury,_Baron_Sainsbury_of_Turville

David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville

["1 Early life and business career","2 Political career","3 Charitable works","4 Chancellor of the University of Cambridge","5 Personal life","6 Academic titles","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

British politician, businessman and philanthropist This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Right HonourableThe Lord Sainsbury of TurvilleHonFRS HonFREngSainsbury in 2013Chancellor of the University of CambridgeIncumbentAssumed office 16 October 2011Preceded byPrince PhilipParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and InnovationIn office27 July 1998 – 10 November 2006Prime MinisterTony BlairPreceded byJohn BattleSucceeded byMalcolm WicksMember of the House of LordsLord TemporalLife peerage3 October 1997 – 1 July 2021 Personal detailsBornDavid John Sainsbury (1940-10-24) 24 October 1940 (age 83)Political partyLabour (1960s–81; since 1996)SDP (1981–88)'Continuing' SDP (1988–90)Spouse(s)Susan Carroll, Lady Sainsbury, DBERelationsAlan Sainsbury (uncle)Parent(s)Robert Sainsbury (father) Lisa van den Bergh (mother)Alma materKing's College, Cambridge (BA)Columbia University (MBA)OccupationPoliticianProfessionBusinessman, philanthropist David John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, HonFRS, HonFREng (born 24 October 1940) is a British politician, businessman and philanthropist. From 1992 to 1997, he served as chairman of Sainsbury's, the supermarket chain established by his great grandfather John James Sainsbury in 1869. He was made a life peer in 1997 as a member of the Labour Party, and was on a leave of absence from the House of Lords from 15 July 2013 to his retirement in 2021. He served in the government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation from 1998 and 2006. He is a major donor to the University of Cambridge and, in 2011, was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. He also made the largest donation in British political history, giving £8 million to the Liberal Democrats. Early life and business career This section of a biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The son of Sir Robert Sainsbury (1906–2000) and Lisa Ingeborg (née van den Bergh; 1912–2014), Sainsbury attended Eton College before going on to earn a degree in History and Psychology at King's College, Cambridge. He then completed an MBA at Columbia Business School in the United States. Sainsbury joined the family firm, then known as J. Sainsbury Ltd., in 1963, working in the personnel department. He became a director in 1966. He was Financial Controller from 1971 to 1973, just before the company's flotation. When the company listed on the London Stock Exchange on 12 July 1973, at the time the largest flotation ever, his family retained control with an 85% stake. His father, Sir Robert Sainsbury, gave almost his entire stake in the company to David Sainsbury, his only son, whereas his uncle Alan Sainsbury split his stake in the business between his sons John Davan Sainsbury, Simon Sainsbury, and Tim Sainsbury. John Davan Sainsbury became chairman in 1969 on Sir Robert Sainsbury's retirement. He was the group's Finance Director from 1973 to 1990, during which time the company grew rapidly. He was chairman of Savacentre from 1984 to 1993, during which time the hypermarkets business grew slowly. He was deputy chairman from 1988 to 1992. On JD Sainsbury's retirement as chairman and chief executive on 2 November 1992, David Sainsbury became chairman. In 1996, Sainsbury's announced its first drop in profits in 22 years, and the first of three profits warnings during his chairmanship was issued. Although there were senior management changes, which included David relinquishing the chief executive's role to Dino Adriano and becoming non-executive chairman, there were no new directors or outsiders appointed to the senior management team. Profits fell the next year, but rose in 1998. At this point, David Sainsbury, who had wanted to step down at the end of 1997, made a surprise announcement of his retirement as chairman to pursue his long-held ambition to have a career in politics, after "32 enjoyable and fulfilling years" working for Sainsbury's. Sainsbury's share price increased on the day of this announcement. On his retirement as chairman, to avoid any conflict of interest, David Sainsbury placed his then 23% stake in Sainsbury's into a "blind" trust, to be administered by lawyer Judith Portrait. When David Sainsbury announced his intention to give away £1 billion to charity in 2005, his 23% stake was sold down, eventually to 12.9% by early 2007. His beneficial holding became just 7.75% when he regained control of his shares in February 2007 following his decision to step down as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation in November 2006. During the private equity takeover bid in the first half of 2007, David indicated he was willing to let the Sainsbury's board open its books for due diligence if someone offered him a price of 600 pence per share or more. David Sainsbury retains a sizeable shareholding in his family's supermarket chain (around 5.85%). To further his philanthropy interests, he placed 92million of his shares (representing 5.28% of the Company's share capital), into his investment vehicle, Innotech Advisers Ltd (which donates all its dividends to charity), meaning his beneficial stake is just 0.57% (lower than JD's 1.6% beneficial interest). The Sainsbury family as a whole control approximately 15% of Sainsbury's. In the Sunday Times Rich List 2008 his family fortune was estimated at £1.3 billion. Political career Sainsbury joined the Labour Party in the 1960s, but was one of the 100 signatories of the 'Limehouse Declaration' in an advertisement in The Guardian on 5 February 1981; he went on to be a member of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) formed by the authors of the Declaration. After the 1983 election, he prompted the party to give more priority to recruiting members and finding a firm financial base; he was by far the biggest donor to the party, and a trustee, giving about £750,000 between 1981 and 1987. His donations were typically earmarked to specific projects rather than general day-to-day operations. Along with David Owen, Sainsbury opposed merging the SDP with the Liberal Party after the 1987 election, and provided office space for Owen to help him re-establish a separate political party, which was created in 1988. The 'continuing' SDP was wound up in 1990, and Sainsbury changed allegiance back to the Labour Party, rejoining them in 1996. A year later, following the Labour Party's election victory, he entered the House of Lords as a Labour peer, being created Baron Sainsbury of Turville, of Turville in the County of Buckinghamshire, on 3 October 1997. Between 1996, the year he rejoined Labour, and 2006, when he stood down as a government minister, Sainsbury donated £16 million to the Labour Party, usually in batches of £1 million or £2 million each year. He donated a further £2 million on 7 September 2007, stating that he was impressed by Gordon Brown's leadership and believed "that Labour is the only party which is committed to delivering both social justice and economic prosperity". He gave another £500,000 on 15 December 2008, making a total of £18.5 million. He is associated with the Labour Friends of Israel. In April 2006, it was reported Sainsbury "faced a possible probe into an alleged breach of the ministerial code after admitting he had failed to disclose a £2 million loan he had made to the Labour Party – despite publicly stating that he had." He subsequently apologised for "unintentionally" misleading the public, blaming a mix-up between the £2 million loan and a £2 million donation he had made earlier. In July 2006, he became the first government minister to be questioned by police in the "Cash for Peerages" inquiry. On 10 November 2006, he resigned as Science Minister, stating that he wanted to focus on business and charity work. He categorically denied that his resignation had anything to do with the "Cash for Peerages" affair, although this was contradicted by subsequent press reports attributed to "Labour insiders" which suggested that his resignation was indeed a direct consequence of the affair. From July 1998 to November 2006, he held the office of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation at the Department of Trade and Industry, serving in the House of Lords and accepting no salary. Because of his importance to the Labour Party as a donor, contemporary press reports described him as "unsackable". He has argued that there are "far too many reshuffles", and that there were considerable benefits to his remaining in post for so long. Sainsbury has also been associated with the Institute for Public Policy Research and Progress. Between 2001 and 2011 he provided £2 million of funding for Progress. In 2009, he created the Institute for Government with £15 million of funding through the Gatsby Charitable Foundation to help government and opposition politicians to prepare for political transitions and government. He donated £390,000 to Progress and the Movement for Change between December 2011 and April 2013, while he was not on a UK electoral register, which is contrary to electoral law, leading to Progress and the Movement for Change being fined by the Electoral Commission. Sainsbury funded the "Remain" side of the 2016 European Union membership referendum campaign, giving £2,150,000 to the Labour and £2,125,000 to the Liberal Democrats "Remain" campaigns. After the 2017 general election, Sainsbury announced he would no longer provide financial backing to party political causes, but will donate to charitable causes. During 2016 he had donated £260,000 to Progress in addition to backing "Remain" organisations. However in late 2018 he donated £25,000 to Scottish Conservatives MP Luke Graham. During the 2019 United Kingdom general election campaign Sainsbury donated £8 million to the Liberal Democrats, over half the party's election funding, making its election donations larger than the Labour Party's. Sainsbury has been a long-time patron of the socialist society Scientists for Labour. He ranked 14 out of 50 on the Top 50 Influential Lib Dems of 2020 list – the only non-Lib Dem member to feature. Charitable works Sainsbury founded the Gatsby Charitable Foundation in 1967. In 1993, he donated £200 million of Sainsbury's shares to the Foundation's assets. By 2009 the foundation had given £660 million to a range of charitable causes. In 2009, he allocated a further £465 million to the foundation, making him the first Briton to donate more than £1 billion to charity. He set up the Sainsbury Management Fellowship scheme in 1987 to develop UK engineers into leaders in industry. In 2003 Sainsbury was granted the Andrew Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy. Sainsbury has donated £127 million of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation's money to Cambridge University in the last decade: he gave £45 million to the Cambridge University Botanic Garden in 2005. In 2011, Cambridge's Sainsbury Laboratory opened, paid for by an £82 million donation from the Gatsby Foundation made in 2008. It was said by the Financial Times to be "one of the biggest donations ever made to a British university ... surpassed only by a 2000 gift to the university by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation." In 2013, together with his wife Susie, he joined the Giving Pledge, the group started by Warren Buffett and Bill and Melinda Gates, pledging to donate half his fortune to charitable trusts during his lifetime. Chancellor of the University of Cambridge In 2011, Sainsbury was formally proposed by the Nominations Board of Cambridge University to succeed the Duke of Edinburgh as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. If his election had not been contested by 17 June, he would have assumed office on 1 July. However, his nomination became the first in 163 years to be contested by another candidate when, on 29 May, local shopkeeper Abdul Arain stood in protest at a planning application for a Sainsbury's Local branch in Cambridge's Mill Road district, triggering a contest that would have to wait until an October ballot. Four days later, a group of Cambridge University alumni successfully drafted actor Brian Blessed as an alternative candidate. On 20 June, socialist barrister Michael Mansfield became the third candidate to oppose Sainsbury. An election took place on 14 and 15 October 2011 in which Sainsbury won with 52% of the votes (2893 votes out of 5558) on a 2.5% turnout and he was confirmed to the position on 16 October 2011. On 2 February 2024, the University announced that Sainsbury had advised of his intention to step down later in the year from his role as Chancellor. Personal life Sainsbury and his wife, Susan Carroll (née Reid), a former teacher, have three daughters. Lady Sainsbury is a Trustee of the Royal Academy of Music. She was appointed DBE in the 2022 Birthday Honours, for "services to the Arts, particularly during Covid-19", described in the list as "Philanthropist". The family live in the Manor of Turville in Turville, Buckinghamshire. The Manor once belonged to the abbey at St Albans, but was seized by the Crown in the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1547. The manor house has since been rebuilt as Turville Park, a fine stately home in the village. Sainsbury's elder sister was Mrs Elizabeth Clark (19 July 1938 – 14 August 1977), and his younger sisters are Celia and Annabel. He is the nephew of Alan Sainsbury. His cousins have included Simon Sainsbury, Conservative peer John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover, KG, and former Conservative MP Sir Tim Sainsbury. His great-grandparents, John James Sainsbury and Mary Ann Staples, established a grocer's at 173 Drury Lane in 1869 which became the British supermarket chain Sainsbury's. Academic titles In 1994, Sainsbury was appointed as an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering. In 2001, he was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society. In 2003, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2007, he was awarded an honorary degree in science by University College London. In 2007, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University. In 2008, he was awarded an honorary degree in science by the University of Bath. In 2008, he was made an honorary fellow of the Royal Society. See also List of billionaires References ^ a b "List of Fellows". Archived from the original on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2014., raeng.org.uk. Accessed 8 September 2022. ^ "Lord Sainsbury of Turville". UK Parliament. Retrieved 27 August 2016. ^ a b "Sainsbury wins Chancellor election". Retrieved 22 October 2018. ^ Yorke, Harry (27 February 2020). "Lord Sainsbury gave biggest political donation in history". The Telegraph. Retrieved 28 February 2020. ^ Benthall, Jonathan (1989). "An Interview with Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury". Anthropology Today. 5 (1): 2–5. doi:10.2307/3032851. ISSN 0268-540X. JSTOR 3032851. ^ "J Sainsbury plc major shareholders". Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. ^ Ivor Crewe, Anthony King, "SDP: The Birth, Life and Death of the Social Democratic Party", Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 94. ^ Jenkins, Roy (2006). A Life at the Centre. Politico's. p. 599. ISBN 978-1-84275-177-0. David Sainsbury, a trustee and major benefactor of the SDP, as well as a dedictated Owenite ^ Ivor Crewe, Anthony King, "SDP: The Birth, Life and Death of the Social Democratic Party", Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 249, 251. ^ Ivor Crewe, Anthony King, "SDP: The Birth, Life and Death of the Social Democratic Party", Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 422. ^ "No. 54914". The London Gazette. 8 October 1997. p. 11339. ^ "Cash for honours: What am I bid? £10,000? £1m? A loan, no questions asked?". The Independent. London. 12 March 2006. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. ^ "Lord Sainsbury gives Labour £2m". BBC News. 7 September 2007. ^ Pierce, Andrew (18 November 1997). "Blair's chance to raise cash for Pounds 1m refund". The Times. ^ "SAINSBURY FACES INQUIRY ABOUT £2m LOAN - FT.com". Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. ^ Mulholland, Hélène (19 April 2006). "Falconer defends Sainsbury's loans". The Guardian. London. ^ Ministers quizzed in donor probe. BBC News (14 July 2006) (accessed 19 January 2009) ^ "Lord Sainsbury quits as minister". 10 November 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2018 – via news.bbc.co.uk. ^ Wilson, Graeme (11 November 2006). "Sainsbury quits 'in anger at loans affair'". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ "Sainsbury sets out a different way of operating". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ Kayte Rath (15 June 2012). "New Labour group Progress rejects GMB union 'outlaw' threat". BBC. Retrieved 16 June 2012. ^ "Objectives and strategy". Institute for Government. Archived from the original on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2009. ^ "Sainsbury-backed Labour groups fined by Electoral Commission". BBC. 13 February 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2014. ^ "Electoral Commission fines Progress Ltd and Movement for Change – failure to return impermissible donations". Electoral Commission. 13 February 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015. ^ Gordon, Sarah (23 February 2016). "The public wants to know where companies stand on Brexit". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2016. Sainsbury is unusually sensitive on the issue because of the close involvement of one of its shareholders, David Sainsbury, in funding the Remain campaign. ^ "Lord Sainsbury gives to Labour and Lib Dems". BBC News. 25 August 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016. ^ Stewart, Heather (23 June 2017). "UK's biggest political donor, Lord Sainsbury, to end his contributions". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 June 2017. ^ Andrews, Kieran (30 November 2018). "Labour benefactor Lord Sainsbury donates £25,000 to Scottish Conservatives MP". The Times. London. Retrieved 23 April 2020. ^ Syal, Rajeev (27 February 2020). "Tories raised three times as much as Labour in pre-election donations". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 February 2020. ^ "2020". 18 November 2020. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021. ^ "Homepage". The Gatsby Charitable Foundation. Retrieved 29 June 2011. ^ Cookson, Clive. "The billion-pound philanthropist". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 29 June 2011. ^ "Profile: Lord Sainsbury". 10 November 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2018 – via news.bbc.co.uk. ^ a b Butterworth, Myra (19 April 2009). "Lord Sainsbury becomes first Briton to donate more than £1 billion to charity". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 20 April 2009. ^ "Sainsbury David John | P/273 - Sainsbury; David John (1940- present); Baron Sainsbury of Turville; Sainsbury Family; Sainsbury's Chairman; politician | The people that made Sainsbury's | People | Sainsbury Archive". www.sainsburyarchive.org.uk. Retrieved 25 August 2021. ^ , Formoda. "The Queen opens new plant science laboratory at Cambridge – Plant Science". www.plantsci.org.uk. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2018. ^ "Sainsbury donates £82m for plant research". Financial Times. 19 November 2008. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2018. (subscription required) ^ "The Giving Pledge List". Retrieved 15 April 2015. ^ a b "Chancellorship of the University". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011. ^ "Mill Road shopkeeper to take on Lord Sainsbury for Chancellorship". Retrieved 22 October 2018. ^ "Brian is blessed with 50 backers". Cambridge News. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2011. ^ "Brian Blessed bids to be Cambridge chancellor". BBC News. 3 June 2011. ^ "Election of the Chancellor". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ "Office of Chancellor" (PDF). Cambridge University Reporter. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 6 February 2024. ^ "Governing Body". Royal Academy of Music. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019. ^ "Birthday Honours 2022" (PDF). gov.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2022. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 18 October 2021. ^ "David John Sainsbury". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 18 October 2021. ^ "Annual Review 2007 : Principal's Review". www1.hw.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 29 March 2016. ^ "Royal Society". royalsociety.org. Retrieved 22 October 2018. External links David Sainsbury, Lord Sainsbury of Turville Official Website Gatsby Charitable Foundation Lord (David) Sainsbury of Turville – DTI ministers The Sainsbury Family and Lord (David) Sainsbury Lord (David) Sainsbury interview on Desert Island Discs Lord (David) Sainsbury: UK politics profile SPEAK – Profile of Lord (David) Sainsbury of Turville David Sainsbury Forbes.com: Forbes World's Richest People David Sainsbury of Turville and Software Patents Archived 2 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Profile of the Sainsbury family The Sainsbury Laboratory funded by The Sainsbury Family Charitable Trusts Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University The Centre for Mental Health, funded by The Sainsbury Family Charitable Trusts Academic offices Preceded byThe Duke of Edinburgh Chancellor of the University of Cambridge 2011 – present Incumbent Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom Preceded byThe Lord Blackwell GentlemenBaron Sainsbury of Turville Followed byThe Lord Davies of Oldham vteChancellors of the University of Cambridge Richard of Wetheringsett Hugh de Hotton Reginald Gerninghall Stephen Hepworth William de Ludham Richard de Gedney Richard Dryfield John de Asgarby John Hooke Roger de Fulbourn Andrew de Gisleham Thomas Sheringham Stephen Hepworth Ralph de Leicester Henry de Boyton John de Bradenham Thomas de Sheringham Stephen Hepworth Stephen Haslingfield Stephen de Segrace Stephen Haslingfield Richard de Ashton Roger Northburgh Richard de Badew Thomas de Foxton Robert de Winwick Robert de Winwick John de Langley Robert de Mildenhall Henry de Herwarden Richard Harling Robert de Claydon Thomas de Northwood Thomas de Northwood John de Crakhall Thomas de Grantchester William de Lymbergh Richard Harling Anthony of Grantchester William Tynkell Thomas Sutton Richard de Wetherset Michael de Haynton Michael de Causton William de Gotham Thomas de Stewkley John de Donwich Adam de Lakenheath John de Donwich William de Gotham Richard Scrope Eudo Zouche John Cavendish Guy Zouche John de Bromyard John of Neketon John de Burgh Thomas Hetherset John de Burgh William Colvile Richard Dereham William Colvile John de Neketon William Colvile Guy Zouche Richard Billingford Richard Dereham Richard Billingford Stephen le Scrope John de Rickingale Thomas of Cobham Robert Fitzhugh William Wymbell Marmaduke Lumley John Holeroke William Lascells Richard Billingford Richard Cawdray John Langton Nicholas Kenton John Langton Robert Ascogh Nicholas Close William Percy Lawrence Booth William Wilflete Robert Woodlark Richard Scroope Robert Woodlark John Booth William Wilflete John Harrison William Wilflete Edward Story Thomas Rotherham (or Scot) Edward Story Thomas Rotherham John Boynton Thomas Rotherham Thomas Cosyn John Blythe George Fitzhugh Thomas Rotherham Richard Fox George Fitzhugh Thomas Ruthall (or Rowthall) John Fisher Thomas Cromwell Stephen Gardiner Edward Seymour The Duke of Northumberland Stephen Gardiner Reginald Pole The Lord Burghley The Earl of Essex The Earl of Salisbury The Earl of Northampton The Earl of Suffolk The Duke of Buckingham The Earl of Holland The Earl of Manchester Oliver St John The Duke of Manchester The Duke of Buckingham The Duke of Monmouth The Duke of Albemarle The Duke of Somerset Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle The Duke of Grafton HRH The Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh The Marquess Camden The Duke of Northumberland HRH The Prince Consort The Duke of Devonshire The Duke of Devonshire The Lord Rayleigh The Earl of Balfour The Earl Baldwin of Bewdley Jan Smuts The Lord Tedder The Lord Adrian HRH The Duke of Edinburgh David Sainsbury vteSainsbury'sKey people(Sainsbury family) John James Sainsbury and Mary Ann Sainsbury John Benjamin Sainsbury Alan Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover Robert Sainsbury Tim Sainsbury Peter Davis Justin King David Tyler Mike Coupe Martin Scicluna Simon Roberts Retail operations Argos Habitat Sainsbury's Sainsbury's Bank Sainsbury's Local Sainsbury's Online Customer programmes Nectar Sainsbury's Active Kids Products Classic Cola Former formats/interests Sainsbury's Calais Wine Store Sainsbury's Central Sainsbury's Freezer Centres SavaCentre Sainsbury's Pharmacy Mobile by Sainsbury's Former subsidiaries Bells Stores Homebase Jacksons Stores Netto Shaw's and Star Market Star Market Texas Homecare vteFellows of the Royal Society elected in 2008Fellows Girish Saran Agarwal Dario Alessi Michael Alpers Fraser Armstrong Alan Ashworth John Bell Jon Blundy Leszek Borysiewicz Alexander Bradshaw Stephen Cohen Fergus Craik David Deutsch John Duncan Russell G. Foster Brian Foster Derek Fray Peter Hudson Christopher Hunter Stephen Jackson Nicholas Kaiser Mark Kisin Christopher John Lamb Peter Simon Liss Jan Löwe Yiu-Wing Mai John C. Marshall Harvey McMahon Anne O'Garra Peter Parham Ian Parker Michael Payne Laurence Pearl Matthew Rosseinsky Robert Russell George Sawatzky James F. Scott Evgeny Sklyanin Philip J. Stephens Claudio Daniel Stern Michael Stratton Roger Summons Ulrike Tillmann Kenneth Timmis Chris Toumazou Foreign J. Michael Bishop William A. Catterall Barbara Hohn Ho-Kwang Mao Peter Marler David Mumford Richard Schrock Susan Solomon Honorary David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National United States Netherlands People UK Parliament Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HonFRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"HonFREng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellow_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-List_of_Fellows-1"},{"link_name":"Sainsbury's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury%27s"},{"link_name":"John James Sainsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Sainsbury"},{"link_name":"life peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_peer"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_Science_and_Innovation"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Chancellor of the University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-varsity.co.uk-3"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"David John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, HonFRS, HonFREng[1] (born 24 October 1940) is a British politician, businessman and philanthropist. From 1992 to 1997, he served as chairman of Sainsbury's, the supermarket chain established by his great grandfather John James Sainsbury in 1869.He was made a life peer in 1997 as a member of the Labour Party, and was on a leave of absence from the House of Lords from 15 July 2013 to his retirement in 2021.[2] He served in the government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation from 1998 and 2006.He is a major donor to the University of Cambridge and, in 2011, was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.[3] He also made the largest donation in British political history, giving £8 million to the Liberal Democrats.[4]","title":"David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Sainsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sainsbury"},{"link_name":"née","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Eton College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eton_College"},{"link_name":"King's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Columbia Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Business_School"},{"link_name":"London Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Savacentre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savacentre"},{"link_name":"Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_Science_and_Innovation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Sainsbury family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury_family"},{"link_name":"Sunday Times Rich List 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Times_Rich_List_2008"}],"text":"The son of Sir Robert Sainsbury (1906–2000) and Lisa Ingeborg (née van den Bergh; 1912–2014),[5] Sainsbury attended Eton College before going on to earn a degree in History and Psychology at King's College, Cambridge. He then completed an MBA at Columbia Business School in the United States.Sainsbury joined the family firm, then known as J. Sainsbury Ltd., in 1963, working in the personnel department. He became a director in 1966. He was Financial Controller from 1971 to 1973, just before the company's flotation.When the company listed on the London Stock Exchange on 12 July 1973, at the time the largest flotation ever, his family retained control with an 85% stake. His father, Sir Robert Sainsbury, gave almost his entire stake in the company to David Sainsbury, his only son, whereas his uncle Alan Sainsbury split his stake in the business between his sons John Davan Sainsbury, Simon Sainsbury, and Tim Sainsbury. John Davan Sainsbury became chairman in 1969 on Sir Robert Sainsbury's retirement.He was the group's Finance Director from 1973 to 1990, during which time the company grew rapidly. He was chairman of Savacentre from 1984 to 1993, during which time the hypermarkets business grew slowly. He was deputy chairman from 1988 to 1992. On JD Sainsbury's retirement as chairman and chief executive on 2 November 1992, David Sainsbury became chairman.In 1996, Sainsbury's announced its first drop in profits in 22 years, and the first of three profits warnings during his chairmanship was issued. Although there were senior management changes, which included David relinquishing the chief executive's role to Dino Adriano and becoming non-executive chairman, there were no new directors or outsiders appointed to the senior management team. Profits fell the next year, but rose in 1998. At this point, David Sainsbury, who had wanted to step down at the end of 1997, made a surprise announcement of his retirement as chairman to pursue his long-held ambition to have a career in politics, after \"32 enjoyable and fulfilling years\" working for Sainsbury's. Sainsbury's share price increased on the day of this announcement.On his retirement as chairman, to avoid any conflict of interest, David Sainsbury placed his then 23% stake in Sainsbury's into a \"blind\" trust, to be administered by lawyer Judith Portrait. When David Sainsbury announced his intention to give away £1 billion to charity in 2005, his 23% stake was sold down, eventually to 12.9% by early 2007. His beneficial holding became just 7.75% when he regained control of his shares in February 2007 following his decision to step down as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation in November 2006. During the private equity takeover bid in the first half of 2007, David indicated he was willing to let the Sainsbury's board open its books for due diligence if someone offered him a price of 600 pence per share or more.David Sainsbury retains a sizeable shareholding in his family's supermarket chain (around 5.85%).[6] To further his philanthropy interests, he placed 92million of his shares (representing 5.28% of the Company's share capital), into his investment vehicle, Innotech Advisers Ltd (which donates all its dividends to charity), meaning his beneficial stake is just 0.57% (lower than JD's 1.6% beneficial interest). The Sainsbury family as a whole control approximately 15% of Sainsbury's. In the Sunday Times Rich List 2008 his family fortune was estimated at £1.3 billion.","title":"Early life and business career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Limehouse Declaration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limehouse_Declaration"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"1983 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-royjenkins-autobio-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"David Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Owen"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"'continuing' SDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(UK,_1988)"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"Turville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turville"},{"link_name":"County of Buckinghamshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"vague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness"},{"link_name":"Labour Friends of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Friends_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"verification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Cash for Peerages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_for_Peerages"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_Science_and_Innovation"},{"link_name":"Department of Trade and Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Trade_and_Industry_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"reshuffles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_shuffle"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Institute for Public Policy Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Public_Policy_Research"},{"link_name":"Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_(organisation)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-20120515-21"},{"link_name":"Institute for Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Government"},{"link_name":"Gatsby Charitable Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatsby_Charitable_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"electoral law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Parties,_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000"},{"link_name":"Electoral Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-20140213-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"2016 European Union membership referendum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thepublicwantsft-25"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-20160825-26"},{"link_name":"2017 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_local_elections"},{"link_name":"Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_(organisation)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-20170623-27"},{"link_name":"Luke Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Graham_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-20181130-28"},{"link_name":"2019 United Kingdom general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-20200227-29"},{"link_name":"socialist society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_society_(Labour_Party)"},{"link_name":"Scientists for Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_Labour"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"Sainsbury joined the Labour Party in the 1960s, but was one of the 100 signatories of the 'Limehouse Declaration' in an advertisement in The Guardian on 5 February 1981;[7] he went on to be a member of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) formed by the authors of the Declaration. After the 1983 election, he prompted the party to give more priority to recruiting members and finding a firm financial base; he was by far the biggest donor to the party, and a trustee,[8] giving about £750,000 between 1981 and 1987. His donations were typically earmarked to specific projects rather than general day-to-day operations.[9]Along with David Owen, Sainsbury opposed merging the SDP with the Liberal Party after the 1987 election, and provided office space for Owen to help him re-establish a separate political party, which was created in 1988.[10] The 'continuing' SDP was wound up in 1990, and Sainsbury changed allegiance back to the Labour Party, rejoining them in 1996. A year later, following the Labour Party's election victory, he entered the House of Lords as a Labour peer, being created Baron Sainsbury of Turville, of Turville in the County of Buckinghamshire, on 3 October 1997.[11]Between 1996, the year he rejoined Labour, and 2006, when he stood down as a government minister, Sainsbury donated £16 million to the Labour Party, usually in batches of £1 million or £2 million each year.[12] He donated a further £2 million on 7 September 2007, stating that he was impressed by Gordon Brown's leadership and believed \"that Labour is the only party which is committed to delivering both social justice and economic prosperity\".[13] He gave another £500,000 on 15 December 2008, making a total of £18.5 million.[citation needed] He is associated with[vague] the Labour Friends of Israel.[14][verification needed]In April 2006, it was reported Sainsbury \"faced a possible probe into an alleged breach of the ministerial code after admitting he had failed to disclose a £2 million loan he had made to the Labour Party – despite publicly stating that he had.\" He subsequently apologised for \"unintentionally\" misleading the public, blaming a mix-up between the £2 million loan and a £2 million donation he had made earlier.[15][16]In July 2006, he became the first government minister to be questioned by police in the \"Cash for Peerages\" inquiry.[17] On 10 November 2006, he resigned as Science Minister, stating that he wanted to focus on business and charity work.[18] He categorically denied that his resignation had anything to do with the \"Cash for Peerages\" affair, although this was contradicted by subsequent press reports attributed to \"Labour insiders\" which suggested that his resignation was indeed a direct consequence of the affair.[19]From July 1998 to November 2006, he held the office of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Science and Innovation at the Department of Trade and Industry, serving in the House of Lords and accepting no salary.Because of his importance to the Labour Party as a donor, contemporary press reports described him as \"unsackable\".[citation needed] He has argued that there are \"far too many reshuffles\", and that there were considerable benefits to his remaining in post for so long.[20]Sainsbury has also been associated with the Institute for Public Policy Research and Progress. Between 2001 and 2011 he provided £2 million of funding for Progress.[21] In 2009, he created the Institute for Government with £15 million of funding through the Gatsby Charitable Foundation to help government and opposition politicians to prepare for political transitions and government.[22] He donated £390,000 to Progress and the Movement for Change between December 2011 and April 2013, while he was not on a UK electoral register, which is contrary to electoral law, leading to Progress and the Movement for Change being fined by the Electoral Commission.[23][24]Sainsbury funded the \"Remain\" side of the 2016 European Union membership referendum campaign,[25] giving £2,150,000 to the Labour and £2,125,000 to the Liberal Democrats \"Remain\" campaigns.[26]After the 2017 general election, Sainsbury announced he would no longer provide financial backing to party political causes, but will donate to charitable causes. During 2016 he had donated £260,000 to Progress in addition to backing \"Remain\" organisations.[27] However in late 2018 he donated £25,000 to Scottish Conservatives MP Luke Graham.[28]During the 2019 United Kingdom general election campaign Sainsbury donated £8 million to the Liberal Democrats, over half the party's election funding, making its election donations larger than the Labour Party's.[29]Sainsbury has been a long-time patron of the socialist society Scientists for Labour.He ranked 14 out of 50 on the Top 50 Influential Lib Dems of 2020 list – the only non-Lib Dem member to feature.[30]","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gatsby Charitable Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatsby_Charitable_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph1-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph1-34"},{"link_name":"Sainsbury Management Fellowship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury_Management_Fellowship"},{"link_name":"Andrew Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_of_Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Botanic Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Botanic_Garden"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Sainsbury Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury_Laboratory_(Cambridge)"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_and_Melinda_Gates_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Giving Pledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giving_Pledge"},{"link_name":"Warren Buffett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Buffett"},{"link_name":"Bill and Melinda Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"Sainsbury founded the Gatsby Charitable Foundation in 1967.[31][32] In 1993, he donated £200 million of Sainsbury's shares to the Foundation's assets.[33] By 2009 the foundation had given £660 million to a range of charitable causes.[34] In 2009, he allocated a further £465 million to the foundation, making him the first Briton to donate more than £1 billion to charity.[34] He set up the Sainsbury Management Fellowship scheme in 1987 to develop UK engineers into leaders in industry.In 2003 Sainsbury was granted the Andrew Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy.[35]Sainsbury has donated £127 million of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation's money to Cambridge University in the last decade: he gave £45 million to the Cambridge University Botanic Garden in 2005.[36] In 2011, Cambridge's Sainsbury Laboratory opened, paid for by an £82 million donation from the Gatsby Foundation made in 2008. It was said by the Financial Times to be \"one of the biggest donations ever made to a British university ... surpassed only by a 2000 gift to the university by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.\"[37]In 2013, together with his wife Susie, he joined the Giving Pledge, the group started by Warren Buffett and Bill and Melinda Gates, pledging to donate half his fortune to charitable trusts during his lifetime.[38]","title":"Charitable works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chancellor of the University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-admin.cam.ac.uk-39"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-admin.cam.ac.uk-39"},{"link_name":"became the first in 163 years to be contested by another candidate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1847_University_of_Cambridge_Chancellor_election"},{"link_name":"Sainsbury's Local","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury%27s_Local"},{"link_name":"Mill Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill_Road,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"alumni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alumni"},{"link_name":"Brian Blessed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Blessed"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"barrister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrister"},{"link_name":"Michael Mansfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mansfield"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-varsity.co.uk-3"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chancellor20240202-44"}],"text":"In 2011, Sainsbury was formally proposed by the Nominations Board of Cambridge University to succeed the Duke of Edinburgh as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.[39] If his election had not been contested by 17 June, he would have assumed office on 1 July.[39] However, his nomination became the first in 163 years to be contested by another candidate when, on 29 May, local shopkeeper Abdul Arain stood in protest at a planning application for a Sainsbury's Local branch in Cambridge's Mill Road district, triggering a contest that would have to wait until an October ballot.[40] Four days later, a group of Cambridge University alumni successfully drafted actor Brian Blessed as an alternative candidate.[41][42] On 20 June, socialist barrister Michael Mansfield became the third candidate to oppose Sainsbury. An election took place on 14 and 15 October 2011[43] in which Sainsbury won with 52% of the votes (2893 votes out of 5558) on a 2.5% turnout and he was confirmed to the position on 16 October 2011.[3]On 2 February 2024, the University announced that Sainsbury had advised of his intention to step down later in the year from his role as Chancellor.[44]","title":"Chancellor of the University of Cambridge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Music"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"DBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"2022 Birthday Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Turville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turville"},{"link_name":"Buckinghamshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alan Sainsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Sainsbury,_Baron_Sainsbury"},{"link_name":"Simon Sainsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Sainsbury"},{"link_name":"John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover, KG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sainsbury,_Baron_Sainsbury_of_Preston_Candover"},{"link_name":"Sir Tim Sainsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Sainsbury"},{"link_name":"Mary Ann Staples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ann_Staples"},{"link_name":"Drury Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drury_Lane"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Sainsbury and his wife, Susan Carroll (née Reid), a former teacher, have three daughters. Lady Sainsbury is a Trustee of the Royal Academy of Music.[45] She was appointed DBE in the 2022 Birthday Honours, for \"services to the Arts,\nparticularly during Covid-19\", described in the list as \"Philanthropist\".[46] The family live in the Manor of Turville in Turville, Buckinghamshire. The Manor once belonged to the abbey at St Albans, but was seized by the Crown in the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1547. The manor house has since been rebuilt as Turville Park, a fine stately home in the village.[citation needed]Sainsbury's elder sister was Mrs Elizabeth Clark (19 July 1938 – 14 August 1977), and his younger sisters are Celia and Annabel. He is the nephew of Alan Sainsbury. His cousins have included Simon Sainsbury, Conservative peer John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover, KG, and former Conservative MP Sir Tim Sainsbury. His great-grandparents, John James Sainsbury and Mary Ann Staples, established a grocer's at 173 Drury Lane in 1869 which became the British supermarket chain Sainsbury's.[citation needed]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-List_of_Fellows-1"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"University College London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London"},{"link_name":"Heriot-Watt University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heriot-Watt_University"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"University of Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bath"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"In 1994, Sainsbury was appointed as an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering.[1]\nIn 2001, he was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society.[47]\nIn 2003, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[48]\nIn 2007, he was awarded an honorary degree in science by University College London.\nIn 2007, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University.[49]\nIn 2008, he was awarded an honorary degree in science by the University of Bath.\nIn 2008, he was made an honorary fellow of the Royal Society.[50]","title":"Academic titles"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of billionaires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_billionaires"}]

[{"reference":"\"List of Fellows\". Archived from the original on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160608094405/http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows","url_text":"\"List of Fellows\""},{"url":"http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Lord Sainsbury of Turville\". UK Parliament. Retrieved 27 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.parliament.uk/biographies/lords/lord-sainsbury-of-turville/2161","url_text":"\"Lord Sainsbury of Turville\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sainsbury wins Chancellor election\". Retrieved 22 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.varsity.co.uk/news/3859","url_text":"\"Sainsbury wins Chancellor election\""}]},{"reference":"Yorke, Harry (27 February 2020). \"Lord Sainsbury gave biggest political donation in history\". The Telegraph. Retrieved 28 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2020/02/27/lord-sainsbury-gave-biggest-political-donation-history-lib-dems/","url_text":"\"Lord Sainsbury gave biggest political donation in history\""}]},{"reference":"Benthall, Jonathan (1989). \"An Interview with Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury\". Anthropology Today. 5 (1): 2–5. doi:10.2307/3032851. ISSN 0268-540X. JSTOR 3032851.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3032851","url_text":"\"An Interview with Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3032851","url_text":"10.2307/3032851"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0268-540X","url_text":"0268-540X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3032851","url_text":"3032851"}]},{"reference":"\"J Sainsbury plc major shareholders\". Archived from the original on 29 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101229050258/http://www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/index.asp?pageid=229","url_text":"\"J Sainsbury plc major shareholders\""},{"url":"http://www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/index.asp?pageid=229","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jenkins, Roy (2006). A Life at the Centre. Politico's. p. 599. ISBN 978-1-84275-177-0. David Sainsbury, a trustee and major benefactor of the SDP, as well as a dedictated Owenite","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84275-177-0","url_text":"978-1-84275-177-0"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 54914\". The London Gazette. 8 October 1997. p. 11339.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/54914/page/11339","url_text":"\"No. 54914\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"Cash for honours: What am I bid? £10,000? £1m? A loan, no questions asked?\". The Independent. London. 12 March 2006. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121112005401/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/cash-for-honours-what-am-i-bid-16310000-1631m-a-loan-no-questions-asked-469601.html","url_text":"\"Cash for honours: What am I bid? £10,000? £1m? A loan, no questions asked?\""},{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/cash-for-honours-what-am-i-bid-16310000-1631m-a-loan-no-questions-asked-469601.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Lord Sainsbury gives Labour £2m\". BBC News. 7 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6983228.stm","url_text":"\"Lord Sainsbury gives Labour £2m\""}]},{"reference":"Pierce, Andrew (18 November 1997). \"Blair's chance to raise cash for Pounds 1m refund\". The Times.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"SAINSBURY FACES INQUIRY ABOUT £2m LOAN - FT.com\". Archived from the original on 7 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20150507221837/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9b260140-c2ae-11da-ac03-0000779e2340.html%23axzz3ZUfsXz00","url_text":"\"SAINSBURY FACES INQUIRY ABOUT £2m LOAN - FT.com\""},{"url":"https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9b260140-c2ae-11da-ac03-0000779e2340.html%23axzz3ZUfsXz00","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mulholland, Hélène (19 April 2006). \"Falconer defends Sainsbury's loans\". The Guardian. London.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2006/apr/19/partyfunding.uk","url_text":"\"Falconer defends Sainsbury's loans\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lord Sainsbury quits as minister\". 10 November 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2018 – via news.bbc.co.uk.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6135666.stm","url_text":"\"Lord Sainsbury quits as minister\""}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Graeme (11 November 2006). \"Sainsbury quits 'in anger at loans affair'\". The Daily Telegraph. London.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1533851/Sainsbury-quits-in-anger-at-loans-affair.html","url_text":"\"Sainsbury quits 'in anger at loans affair'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sainsbury sets out a different way of operating\". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090720112022/http://www.spectator.co.uk/coffeehouse/5193743/sainsbury-sets-out-a-different-way-of-operating.thtml","url_text":"\"Sainsbury sets out a different way of operating\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spectator","url_text":"The Spectator"},{"url":"http://www.spectator.co.uk/coffeehouse/5193743/sainsbury-sets-out-a-different-way-of-operating.thtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kayte Rath (15 June 2012). \"New Labour group Progress rejects GMB union 'outlaw' threat\". BBC. Retrieved 16 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-18445895","url_text":"\"New Labour group Progress rejects GMB union 'outlaw' threat\""}]},{"reference":"\"Objectives and strategy\". Institute for Government. Archived from the original on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091010224151/http://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/content/45/objectives-and-strategy","url_text":"\"Objectives and strategy\""},{"url":"http://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/content/45/objectives-and-strategy","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sainsbury-backed Labour groups fined by Electoral Commission\". BBC. 13 February 2014. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K_Street_(Washington,_D.C.)

K Street (Washington, D.C.)

["1 Location","2 Traffic configuration","2.1 Current","2.2 Proposed","3 Lobbying","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Major thoroughfare in Washington, D.C.; a metonym for the U.S. lobbying industry K Street Northwest and NortheastThe 1500 block of K Street NW in Downtown, Washington, D.C.Maintained byDDOTLength4.0 mi (6.4 km)LocationNorthwest and Northeast, Washington, D.C.West endWisconsin Avenue in GeorgetownMajorjunctions I-66 / US 29 / Rock Creek Parkway in West End Pennsylvania / New Hampshire Avenues at Washington Circle Connecticut Avenue at Farragut Square Massachusetts / New York Avenues at Mount Vernon Square East endFlorida Avenue in Near NortheastNorthL StreetSouthI StreetConstructionCommissioned1791 K Street in Washington, D.C. has become a metonym for the American lobbying industry. K Street is a major thoroughfare in the United States capital of Washington, D.C., known as a center for lobbying and the location of numerous advocacy groups, law firms, trade associations, and some think tanks. In political discourse, "K Street" has become a metonym for Washington's lobbying industry or lobbying in the United States in general, the same way Wall Street in New York City became a metonym for the financial markets of the United States, since many lobbying firms are or at least traditionally were located on the section in Northwest Washington which passes from Georgetown through a portion of Downtown Washington, D.C. Location In the Washington D.C. street grid there are three (3) unconnected east-to-west street segments designated as K Street NW / NE, and also a southern K Street. The middle segment of K Street NW / NE, which carries a segment of U.S. Route 29, begins in the city's Northwest quadrant as K Street NW, just west of the abutment of the old Aqueduct Bridge on the Georgetown waterfront. The street travels east underneath the Whitehurst Freeway, crosses Rock Creek on the K Street Bridge, and continues through downtown D.C. After its intersection with North Capitol Street, the street's designation changes to K Street NE as it enters the Northeast quadrant. The street ends at Florida Avenue in the Near Northeast neighborhood, just south of Gallaudet University. K Street NE briefly reappears further east in the Carver neighborhood, extending from Blandensburg Road for six blocks to Maryland Avenue NE. The westernmost (Georgetown) segment of K street NW was known as Water Street prior to the Georgetown street renaming of 1895. West of 33rd Street NW, the United States Postal Service still recognizes both "K Street" and "Water Street" in addresses. The westernmost end of K Street occupies the former right of way of the Georgetown Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. When that line was abandoned, K Street was extended west to the Washington Canoe Club. The rest of the Georgetown right of way is now occupied by the Capital Crescent Trail, which begins at the terminus of K Street. The southern K Street runs between the Potomac and Anacostia rivers, crossing the Southwest and Southeast quadrants (as K Street SW and K Street SE, respectively). Traffic configuration Current International Finance Corporation (IFC) Headquarters at the crossroads of K Street and Pennsylvania Avenue at Washington Circle in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood K Street provides a major east-west thoroughfare for traffic through Washington, primarily from Mount Vernon Square to the Whitehurst Freeway. The street continues through Georgetown under the Whitehurst Freeway; however most westbound traffic exits to the freeway. A portion of the street travels in a tunnel underneath Washington Circle, allowing through traffic to avoid the circle. Portions of the street are divided into both "local" (or service) lanes and "express" lanes in both directions. Proposed The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority has been studying the conversion of K Street into part of a proposed busway. The route would begin at Georgetown University, cross downtown Washington on K Street, switch to Massachusetts Avenue at Mount Vernon Square, and end at Union Station. Currently, the DC Circulator provides service along most of the proposed route, although it must share right of way with other vehicles. A streetcar line spanning from 26th Street NW to the H Street line's terminus at Union Station is planned as the next phase of DC's streetcar expansion. A proposal announced April 7, 2022, would redesign K Street between 12th and 21st Streets, N.W. The proposal would remove the service lanes in favor of dedicated bus and bicycle lanes. Under the proposal, construction would begin in the spring of 2023. Lobbying "K Street" is the common metonym for Washington's lobbying industry (often used negatively in political campaign advertisements) the same way Wall Street in New York City became a metonymy for the financial markets of the United States. Many of the major Washington lobbying firms were located on the section in Northwest Washington which passes from Georgetown through a portion of downtown D.C., although the strip has grown less popular for lobbyists in recent years. Since the late 1980s, however, many of the largest lobbying firms have moved off of K Street into larger spaces on adjacent streets; as of 2012, only one of the top-20 largest lobbying firms has a K Street address. The major lobbying firms that physically remain on K Street, as of 2017, include CGCN Group and K&L Gates; although smaller and midsized lobbying and advocacy groups as well as law firms, trade associations, some think tanks, and members of the public affairs industry who commonly interact with each other still occupy spaces on K Street and adjacent areas of Downtown Washington, D.C. The 2003 HBO television series K Street about a lobbying firm takes its name and location from the street. See also Capitol Hill – in addition to being a metonym for the United States Congress, it is the largest historic residential neighborhood in Washington, D.C. Think Tank Row – an area containing a notable cluster of think tanks located on or around Massachusetts Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., between Thomas Circle and Dupont Circle (not too far from K Street) Wall Street – a street in the financial district of Lower Manhattan in New York City, New York that serves as a notable center of and a metonymy for the financial markets of the United States Tufton Street – a similar location in London hosting think-tanks and lobbyists Rue de la loi, Brussels – The second biggest lobbying place of the world, in the "capital city" of the EU References ^ Google (March 9, 2019). "K Street NW and NE" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved March 9, 2019. ^ a b Birnbaum, Jeffrey H. (June 22, 2005). "The Road to Riches Is Called K Street". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved June 17, 2008. ^ David Alpert (July 30, 2009). "K Street Transitway options balance buses, bikes, cars, and loading". Greater Greater Washington. Retrieved January 5, 2012. ^ Halsey III, Ashley. "Navigating a Bus Path For K Street - Again." Washington Post. August 30, 2009. ^ "From seedy to sought-after: D.C.'s Mount Vernon Triangle becoming urban village". Washington Post. January 30, 2010. Retrieved January 5, 2012. ^ "K Street makeover will bring dedicated bus lanes, remove service lanes", The Washington Post, April 7, 2022 ^ "Lobbying Database - OpenSecrets". OpenSecrets.org. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved October 29, 2010. ^ Montopoli, Brian (October 27, 2009). "Grayson Calls Linda Robertson A "K Street Whore"". cbsnews.com "Political Hotsheet". CBS. Retrieved October 29, 2010. ^ a b Zak, Dan (February 5, 2012). "K Street: The route of all evil, or just the main drag?". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 7, 2012. ^ "Another lobbyist joins the administration". POLITICO. Retrieved July 18, 2017. ^ Stanley, Alessandra (September 14, 2003). "Inside Washington Politics, Turned Inside Out". The New York Times. p. 40. ^ Shales, Tom (September 15, 2003). "HBO's K Street, In Uncharted Territory". Washington Post. pp. C01. ^ Gallo, Phil (September 16, 2003). "K Street". Variety. p. 10. ^ Bianculli, David (September 16, 2003). "Been Down This Street". The New York Daily News. p. 82. ^ Buckman, Adam (September 16, 2003). "K Street Stands for "Kooky"". The New York Post. p. 82. ^ Bianco, Robert (September 19, 2003). "Well-intentioned K Street is headed the wrong way". USA Today. pp. 12E. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to K Street (Washington, D.C.). K Street Busway project leaflet "The Road to Riches Is Called K Street" vteStreets and highways of Washington, D.C.Numbered streets 7th Street 14th Street 16th Street NW 18th Street NW Lettered streets F Street H Street K Street M Street P Street U Street State-namedroadways Connecticut Florida Georgia Maine Massachusetts Missouri New Hampshire New York Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Border avenuesand streets Capitol Streets North East South Border Avenues Western Eastern Southern National Mall Constitution Independence President's Park Jackson Madison East Executive West Executive Other streets Benning Road Black Lives Matter Plaza Columbia Road Embassy Row Klingle Road MacArthur Boulevard Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue Circles Anna J. Cooper Banneker Barney Chevy Chase Columbus Dave Thomas Dupont Grant Logan Observatory Peace Scott Sheridan Sherman Tenley Thomas Truxton Ward Washington Squares Farragut Franklin Freedom Lafayette Lincoln McPherson Mount Vernon Seward Stanton Union Parkways Clara Barton George Washington Memorial Oxon Run Rock Creek and Potomac Suitland Expressways 9th Street 12th Street Anacostia Center Leg E Street Kenilworth Avenue Potomac River Southeast Southwest

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The street travels east underneath the Whitehurst Freeway, crosses Rock Creek on the K Street Bridge, and continues through downtown D.C. After its intersection with North Capitol Street, the street's designation changes to K Street NE as it enters the Northeast quadrant. The street ends at Florida Avenue in the Near Northeast neighborhood, just south of Gallaudet University.K Street NE briefly reappears further east in the Carver neighborhood, extending from Blandensburg Road for six blocks to Maryland Avenue NE.The westernmost (Georgetown) segment of K street NW was known as Water Street prior to the Georgetown street renaming of 1895. West of 33rd Street NW, the United States Postal Service still recognizes both \"K Street\" and \"Water Street\" in addresses. The westernmost end of K Street occupies the former right of way of the Georgetown Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. When that line was abandoned, K Street was extended west to the Washington Canoe Club. 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Currently, the DC Circulator provides service along most of the proposed route, although it must share right of way with other vehicles.A streetcar line spanning from 26th Street NW to the H Street line's terminus at Union Station is planned as the next phase of DC's streetcar expansion.[5]A proposal announced April 7, 2022, would redesign K Street between 12th and 21st Streets, N.W. The proposal would remove the service lanes in favor of dedicated bus and bicycle lanes. Under the proposal, construction would begin in the spring of 2023.[6]","title":"Traffic configuration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metonym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"lobbying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobbying"},{"link_name":"political campaign advertisements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_advertising"},{"link_name":"Wall Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kstreet-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zak-9"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K_Street_(Washington,_D.C.)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zak-9"},{"link_name":"CGCN Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGCN_Group"},{"link_name":"K&L Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%26L_Gates"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"advocacy groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advocacy_group"},{"link_name":"law firms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_firm"},{"link_name":"trade associations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_association"},{"link_name":"think tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank"},{"link_name":"public affairs industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_affairs_industry"},{"link_name":"Downtown Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_(Washington,_D.C.)"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"television series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_series"},{"link_name":"K Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K_Street_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gallo-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bianculli-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckman-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bianco-16"}],"text":"\"K Street\" is the common metonym for Washington's lobbying industry (often used negatively in political campaign advertisements) the same way Wall Street in New York City became a metonymy for the financial markets of the United States.[7][8] Many of the major Washington lobbying firms were located on the section in Northwest Washington which passes from Georgetown through a portion of downtown D.C., although the strip has grown less popular for lobbyists in recent years.[2][9]Since the late 1980s, however, many of the largest lobbying firms have moved off of K Street into larger spaces on adjacent streets; as of 2012[update], only one of the top-20 largest lobbying firms has a K Street address.[9] The major lobbying firms that physically remain on K Street, as of 2017, include CGCN Group and K&L Gates;[10] although smaller and midsized lobbying and advocacy groups as well as law firms, trade associations, some think tanks, and members of the public affairs industry who commonly interact with each other still occupy spaces on K Street and adjacent areas of Downtown Washington, D.C.The 2003 HBO television series K Street about a lobbying firm takes its name and location from the street.[11][12][13][14][15][16]","title":"Lobbying"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail,_British_Columbia

Trail, British Columbia

["1 Geography","2 Demographics","2.1 Ethnicity","2.2 Religion","3 Education and employment","3.1 School district","3.2 Education","4 Economic situation","5 Teck Cominco lead-zinc smelter","5.1 Trail smelter arbitration (1938–1942)","5.2 Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals","6 Manhattan Project","7 Attractions","7.1 Trail Memorial Centre & Sports Hall of Memories","7.2 River Activities and Music in the Park at Gyro Park in Trail","7.3 The Historic Gulch","8 Home of Champions","9 Notable people","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 External links"]

Coordinates: 49°05′40″N 117°42′33″W / 49.09444°N 117.70917°W / 49.09444; -117.70917This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Trail, British Columbia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article is missing information about overall town history, 1948 Columbia River flood. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (January 2022) City in British Columbia, CanadaTrail Trail CreekCityCity of Trail Coat of armsMotto: Explore Your TrailTrailLocation of Trail in British ColumbiaCoordinates: 49°05′40″N 117°42′33″W / 49.09444°N 117.70917°W / 49.09444; -117.70917CountryCanadaProvinceBritish ColumbiaRegionKootenaysRegional districtKootenay BoundaryGovernment • TypeElected city council • MayorColleen Jones • Governing bodyTrail City Council • MPRichard Cannings (NDP) • MLAKatrine Conroy (BC NDP)Area • Total34.93 km2 (13.49 sq mi)Elevation440 m (1,440 ft)Population (2016) • Total7,709Time zoneUTC-8 (PST)Forward sortation areaV1RArea code(s)250, 778, 236, 672Highways3B22WaterwaysColumbia RiverWebsitetrail.ca Trail is a city in the West Kootenay region of the Interior of British Columbia, Canada. It was named after the Dewdney Trail, which passed through the area. The town was first called Trail Creek or Trail Creek Landing, and the name was shortened to Trail in 1897. Geography Trail has an area of 34.78 km2 (13.43 sq mi). The city is located on both banks of the Columbia River, approximately 10 km (6.2 mi) north of the United States border. This section of the Columbia River valley is located between the Monashee Mountains to the west and the Selkirk Mountains to the east. The Columbia flows directly north-south from Castlegar, turns east near downtown Trail, and then meets the Canada–United States border at Waneta and the Pend d'Oreille River. Summer climate in Trail is generally hot and dry with moderately cool nights. Temperatures often exceed 35 °C (95 °F) during summer afternoons, average 29 °C (84 °F). Thunderstorms are common during the late-spring and summer season, often moving into the valley from the south. The fall months bring dense river fog, especially overnight and in the morning, as a cold air inversion lingers above the relatively warm river surface. Winters are mild to cold with periods of moderate snowfall. Nearby villages such as Warfield, Fruitvale and especially Rossland receive greater amounts of snow due to higher elevation. The Monashee Mountains are the first major mountain range east of the Coastal Mountains to intercept moisture laden westerly flow from the Pacific Ocean. As a result, areas west of Trail, including the Christina Range, Rossland Range, the city of Rossland, and the Blueberry-Paulson section of the Crowsnest Highway (Highway 3) receive greater amounts of winter precipitation, mostly in the form of heavy snow. Vegetation in the Trail area, although still fairly lush, is noticeably drier than other areas of the West Kootenay, with a more westerly aspect. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Trail had a population of 7,920 living in 3,736 of its 3,973 total private dwellings, a change of 2.7% from its 2016 population of 7,709. With a land area of 34.9 km2 (13.5 sq mi), it had a population density of 226.9/km2 (587.8/sq mi) in 2021. Ethnicity The city is noted for its large Italian community. Persons of Italian ancestry numbered 1,856 and formed 16.2 percent of the total population according to the 1951 census,: 525  decreasing in number but increasing in proportion to 1,790 persons and 23.2 percent as per the 1991 census, decreasing to 1,515 persons or 20.2 percent in 1996, falling further by 2011 to 1,290 persons or 17.4 percent of the population, prior to a slight increase to 1,320 persons or 17.8 percent according to the 2016 census. Panethnic groups in the City of Trail (1991−2021) Panethnicgroup 2021 2016 2011 2006 2001 1996 1991 Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % European 6,425 84.54% 6,475 87.26% 6,775 91.49% 6,330 90.82% 6,685 91.26% 7,160 95.85% 7,110 92.34% Indigenous 675 8.88% 645 8.69% 390 5.27% 450 6.46% 290 3.96% 130 1.74% 235 3.05% South Asian 255 3.36% 45 0.61% 0 0% 15 0.22% 100 1.37% 65 0.87% 60 0.78% Southeast Asian 95 1.25% 65 0.88% 15 0.2% 65 0.93% 70 0.96% 45 0.6% 135 1.75% East Asian 60 0.79% 95 1.28% 110 1.49% 45 0.65% 135 1.84% 40 0.54% 95 1.23% African 20 0.26% 40 0.54% 90 1.22% 30 0.43% 0 0% 0 0% 35 0.45% Latin American 15 0.2% 30 0.4% 0 0% 10 0.14% 30 0.41% 10 0.13% 10 0.13% Middle Eastern 0 0% 0 0% 15 0.2% 25 0.36% 20 0.27% 0 0% 20 0.26% Other/Multiracial 55 0.72% 20 0.27% 0 0% 10 0.14% 0 0% 10 0.13% — — Total responses 7,600 95.96% 7,420 96.25% 7,405 96.41% 6,970 96.31% 7,325 96.7% 7,470 97.06% 7,700 97.23% Total population 7,920 100% 7,709 100% 7,681 100% 7,237 100% 7,575 100% 7,696 100% 7,919 100% Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses Religion According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Trail included: Irreligion (3,865 persons or 50.9%) Christianity (3,455 persons or 45.5%) Sikhism (95 persons or 1.3%) Hinduism (75 persons or 1.0%) Buddhism (15 persons or 0.2%) Other (80 persons or 1.1%) Education and employment The entrance of J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School Trail is the location of the head office of the Kootenay Boundary Regional District, which is one of the city's employers. Trail is part of School District 20 Kootenay-Columbia and schools in the town include: Glenmerry Elementary School (Public elementary school K-7) J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School (Public secondary school 8–12) James L Webster Elementary School (Public elementary school K-7.) St. Michael's Catholic School (Independent elementary school K-7) Kootenay-Columbia Learning Centre (Public school 6–12) School district The school district in the Greater Trail area is focused on improving the district and schools and has a focused, well organized improvement plans in place. The strategies selected to achieve the goals are a blend of research, best practice, and innovative thinking. In 2007, the J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School Replacement program started the construction of a new facility in Trail to replace the existing school that was built in the late 1950s. The new facility opened in September 2009. Education Trail’s education statistics differ sharply from that of the province in the percentage of the population aged 45–64 with a trades certificate or diploma: Trail—26%, compared to BC—14%. This is directly attributable to Teck Resources and the diversified mining and metals company's presence in the area. The percentage of this age group with a university level education is also very different: Trail—12%, compared to BC—22%. The general picture is a working population heavily geared to the trades and historically very reliant on Teck Resources for employment. Economic situation Employing approximately 1,800 people, Teck Resources (formerly Cominco) is the region’s largest employer. The average age of an employee at Teck Resources' Trail operation is 47. It is anticipated that within 15 years Teck Resources' Trail operation will have a completely new and different labour force. A younger and perhaps more technical labour force will most likely replace those that are retiring. The big picture for the area is one of an aging population which brings about ongoing employment opportunities in the area. Trail Regional Airport The City of Trail is also home to the largest hospital in the West Kootenay region. Teck Cominco lead-zinc smelter Main article: Teck Cominco smelter Trail Smelter in 1929 Trail is home to one of the largest lead and zinc smelter in the world and the smelter is the largest employer in Trail, providing 1,400 jobs in the town of 7800. The smelter has been in operation for over a hundred years and has provided many well-paying jobs that do not require more than a high school education. Intergenerational families worked at the smelter and Teck Cominco became Trail's "economic and cultural centre." The Teck Cominco Interpretive Centre in downtown Trail provides a history of Cominco's Trail smelting operations with displays, a mini-science centre, hands-on exhibits, and videos, as well as a 2.5 hour industrial tour of the Teck Cominco smelter. Presentations include exhibits of sophisticated environmental monitoring systems installed in the Trail area by Teck. In February 1896, Fritz Augustus Heinze opened his British Columbia Smelting and Refining Company smelter at Trail to process ore brought from Rossland on his Columbia and Western Railway. The concentrate from the smelter was transported to Butte, Montana, for refining. The plant capacity was soon increased from about 150 to 400 tons per day. However, with the supply of Rossland ore largely going south to Northport, the plant was unprofitable. The output was 50 per cent pure copper at best, and the yellow clouds of sulfur dioxide became health hazards for the region. When the Canadian Pacific Railway (CP) expressed interest in buying the Columbia and Western Railway (C&W), Heinze insisted the package include the Trail smelter. In February 1898, CP bought the C&W for $600,000, and the smelter for $200,000. Heinze retained several other holdings. CP created the Canadian Smelting Works to run the plant. CP's new Crowsnest Pass branch supplied cheap coal, and the new Bonnington Falls dam provided electricity. That August, new blast furnaces increased efficiency and tall chimneys lifted the toxic smoke farther above Trail. Since lead was the most common ore in the region, the company built two lead furnaces, which were operational by the end of 1901. The next year, the federal government offered a subsidy of five dollars for each ton of lead smelted in Canada. However, the concentrate still required refining at the American Smelting and Refining Company's plant in Tacoma, Washington. To address this problem, by the end of 1902, Trail opened the first commercial electrolytic refining process in the world, producing pure lead, pure copper, fine silver and gold. In 1906, the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada (CM&S), a consortium comprising the smelter and certain Red Mountain mines at Rossland, was formed. CP had a 54 per cent holding. After the Northport smelter closed in 1921, Trail remained the sole operator in the region. By 1925, the 250-acre plant employed 2,100 men and comprised a lead plant, an electrolytic zinc plant, a copper smelter, a copper refinery, a silver and gold refinery, plants for making bluestone, hydrofluosilicic acid and sulfuric acid, a foundry, a machine shop and round-house, and a copper rod mill. That year, CM&S processed 380,000 tons of ores and concentrates at Trail to recover 21,352 ounces of gold, nearly 4.5 million ounces of silver, 9,500 tons of copper, 117,500 tons of lead and almost 50,000 tons of zinc. Trail smelter arbitration (1938–1942) Main article: Trail Smelter dispute By the end of World War I, the smoke pollution had devastated the surrounding district. During the following decades, this triggered the Trail Smelter dispute, which resulted in decades of legal action. This case, known commonly as the "Trail smelter arbitration", is a landmark in environmental law, as it helped to establish the "polluter pays" principle for transnational pollution issues. In 1966, the company name changed to Cominco. Over the following decades, the smelter spent millions on pollution control. In 1975, the soils in some parts of Trail were found to be contaminated with lead and certain other heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, zinc) to levels above regulatory limits. The monitored lead levels in the blood of local school children fell from high that year to insignificant 30 years later. In 2007, a free testing program was instituted, with removal of above-limit top soil in residential yards (with a priority focus on families with young children). Teck provides funding for this ongoing operation. Because of improvements in smelting processes and emissions controls over the years, the existing contamination is attributed to smelting activities that pre-date the 1997 adoption of newer technologies. Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals Main article: Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals The Trail lead and zinc smelter is located 10 miles (16 km) north of the United States-Canadian border. Over the decades it has discharged approximately 10 million to 20 million tons of smelting byproduct containing lead, arsenic and mercury into the Columbia River and Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake in Washington. In 2004, a citizen lawsuit was filed under the 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) against Teck Cominco—, now Teck Resources The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) rejected Teck Metals' Petition for certiorari on June 10, 2019 in Teck Metals Ltd. v. The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation. In 2018, the Supreme Court rejected Teck's appeal and found in favor of the litigants. Manhattan Project Main article: P-9 Project As its contribution to the Manhattan Project's P-9 Project, Cominco built and operated a 1000 to 1200 pound per month (design capacity) electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, which operated from 1943 to 1956. Lt-Col Nichols noted environmental damage from emissions to the "beautiful valley and mountain slopes" in the first half of 1943.: 97  Attractions Trail Memorial Centre & Sports Hall of Memories The Trail Memorial Centre currently plays host to the Trail & District Public Library, the Trail Smoke Eaters hockey team, the Trail Museum, and the Sports Hall of Memories, in addition to many local sports facilities. This historic landmark, located at 1051 Victoria Street, was home to two world championship Smoke Eaters teams. Pedestrian suspension bridge Trail, BC The Trail Memorial Centre is a hub of civic activity year-round, and has been a focal point of the community since its inception. River Activities and Music in the Park at Gyro Park in Trail Located at 1090 Charles Lakes Drive in East Trail on the route to Sunningdale, Gyro Park is the home to Music in the Park during the summer. Victoria Street Bridge "The Onions" and other popular river currents that wind between the rocks on the East banks of the Columbia River, are a popular summer magnet for river activity. The Historic Gulch In the early 1900s a large influx of Italian immigrants lent a distinctive character to "The Gulch" which is located at the entrance to Trail accessed by the Schofield Highway which drops down the long grade from the city of Rossland and the village of Warfield and sub-division of Annabel onto Rossland Avenue. The Historic Gulch in Trail BC This neighbourhood which runs the length of Rossland Avenue is known as "the Gulch." Originally called the "Dublin Gulch" in the very early days, it eventually became known as "The Gulch" as it filled up with Italians who chose not to live on the original Trail townsite. The Gulch starts as throat of Trail Creek narrows between the high, sandy slope of Smelter Hill on its left bank and the West Trail bank where early pioneer houses were built by immigrants as they purchased properties along the west bank steep terrain. In the early pioneer days industrious Chinese launderers and cooks spent time gardening in the defile of the Gulch. Few of these immigrants ever acquired rights to own land in the Gulch and their gardens were gradually displaced by Italians and other European working families who terraced their properties into level plots. Despite the steep terrain, these immigrant families planted vegetable gardens reminiscent of the old country sustained by water from Trail Creek and a hot summer sun. The Gulch is home to shops and the Terra Nova hotel, located at the entrance to Trail’s central business district at the foot of Rossland Avenue. Home of Champions The Greater Trail Area is known as the Home of Champions, in recognition of those who reside in the area, or are from the area, and have excelled in their chosen field of endeavour. In 1995, Kootenay Savings Credit Union was seeking a project that would represent their commitment and appreciation to the Greater Trail community. The Credit Union decided to sponsor the construction of a monument which was constructed in the summer of 1996 outside their offices in Trail's downtown that would honour the "Champions" of the Greater Trail area in Sports, Industry and Lifestyle. A society was formed to establish criteria for selection of the persons to be honoured on the monument. The monument was constructed in the summer of 1996 and forty-three champions were selected to be honoured at the inaugural dedication ceremony which took place on September 28, 1996. To date, eighty-nine individuals and organizations have been honoured with a place on the Home of Champions monument. The Home of Champions monument project is an ongoing one, managed by the City of Trail. Additional persons will be honoured regularly for their special contribution to the social, cultural, economic and educational fabric of the community. Notable people John Rogers Anderson, chief of the Defence Staff Jason Bay, former MLB player Lauren Bay, Canadian National Softball Team and National Pro Fastpitch pitcher Ed Cristofoli, former NHL player Craig Cunningham, former NHL Player Adam Deadmarsh, former NHL player, won Stanley cup in 1996 with the Colorado Avalanche Dallas Drake, former NHL player, won Stanley Cup in 2008 with the Detroit Red Wings Landon Ferraro, current NHL player for the Minnesota Wild Ray Ferraro, former NHL player and current TSN analyst Derek Haas, retired WHA player Jake Lucchini, current NHL player for the Ottawa Senators Bruno Freschi, architect for Expo 86 Ken Georgetti, former president of the Canadian Labour Congress Robert Hampton Gray, one of the last Canadians to die in WWII and the last Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross Tom Harrison, former MLB pitcher for the Kansas City A's, now known as the Oakland Athletics Shawn Hook, singer Shawn Horcoff former NHL player, most notably a former captain of the Edmonton Oilers Barret Jackman, former NHL player Hal Jones, hockey player who won gold at the 1961 Ice Hockey World Championships Mike Kobluk of the Chad Mitchell Trio Richard Kromm, former NHL player Kerrin Lee-Gartner, Canadian Olympic Women's Ski Team, Downhill Olympic Gold Medal 1992 Gary Lunn, former Canadian MP and Cabinet minister Cesare Maniago, former NHL player Seth Martin, former NHL player Mike Matteucci, former NHL player Steve McCarthy, current AHL player with Springfield Falcons, former NHL player Tom McVie, former professional hockey player and NHL Coach and current Scout for Boston Bruins Ben McPeek, composer, arranger, conductor, and pianist Bill McEwan, President and CEO of Sobeys Faron Moller, President of the British Colloquium for Theoretical Computer Science Martin Popoff, heavy metal music journalist Garth Rizzuto, former NHL player David Sylvester (medievalist)- President of University of St. Michael's College, University of Toronto, Canada. Steve Tambellini, former NHL player & former GM of the Edmonton Oilers See also Trail Airport Trail Daily Times Notes ^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Filipino" and "Southeast Asian" under visible minority section on census. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Chinese", "Korean", and "Japanese" under visible minority section on census. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "West Asian" and "Arab" under visible minority section on census. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Visible minority, n.i.e." and "Multiple visible minorities" under visible minority section on census. References ^ "Inside City Hall". Trail BC. Retrieved 2014-11-16. ^ a b Statistics Canada (2016 Census). Trail, City , British Columbia and Canada ^ Barman, Jean The West Beyond the West, University of Toronto Press, 2007, p. 130. ^ Hamilton, William (1978). The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names. Toronto: Macmillan. p. 51. ISBN 0-7715-9754-1. ^ "Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), British Columbia". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 20, 2022. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-04-03). "Ninth census of Canada, 1951 = Neuvième recensement du Canada Vol. 1. Population: general characteristics". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-12-30. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-03-29). "1991 Census Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions - Part B". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-03-29). "Data tables, 1991 Census Population by Ethnic Origin (24), Showing Single and Multiple Origins (2) - Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-06-04). "Electronic Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions, 1996 Census". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2015-11-27). "NHS Profile". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ Ethnic Origin, both sexes, age (total), Trail, 2016 Census ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-11-11. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2021-10-27). "Census Profile, 2016 Census". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-08-20). "2006 Community Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-07-02). "2001 Community Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10. ^ a b Friedman, Gabriel (January 22, 2018). "'A shock to all of us': Teck Resources' dam sale upsets workers, community in Trail, B.C." Financial Post. Retrieved March 23, 2021. ^ "Teck Cominco Interpretive Centre". Kootenay Rockies Tourism. Retrieved 11 May 2015. ^ a b c "Trail". www.crowsnest-highway.ca. ^ a b Parrish, A. (2005). "Trail Smelter Deja Vu: Extraterritoriality, International Environmental Law, and the Search for Solutions to Canada-U.S. Transboundary Water Pollution Disputes". www.ssrn.com. ^ "Trail Smelter Arbitration, 1938/1941". University of Idaho. Archived from the original on 2004-08-22. ^ Profiles on Remediation Projects, Teck Cominco Lead-Zinc Smelter, Trail, BC, BC Ministry of Environment, January 2009 ^ "Trail Area Health and Environment Program. Soil Management Program". www.thep.ca. ^ "Canadian Environmental Health Atlas: Trail BC". www.ehatlas.ca. ^ Geranios, Nicholas K. (August 27, 2004). "Teck Cominco Seeks Dismissal of Suit Over Pollution in Lake Roosevelt". ^ Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals, 2578982 (District Court for the Eastern District of Washington 2004). ^ "Joseph A. Pakootas, Donald R. Michel (Plaintiffs) v. Teck Cominco Metals, Ltd. (Defendant) | InforMEA". 2004. Retrieved March 23, 2021. ^ a b Teck Metals Ltd. v. The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, 18-1160 (June 10, 2019) ("Petition for certiorari denied"). ^ Chris Waltham (20 June 2002). "An Early History of Heavy Water". arXiv:physics/0206076. ^ "Project '9' – Heavy-Water (Deuterium) Production". The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. Retrieved 2007-12-06. ^ Manhattan District History, Book III, The P-9 Project (PDF) (Report). United States Department of Energy. 1947-04-08. p. 99. Retrieved 2019-02-16. The original design production was 1000 lbs./month, later increased to 1200 lbs./month. Maximum production was 1330 lbs./month. ^ Nichols, Kenneth (1987). The Road to Trinity. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 068806910X. ^ Trail Historical Society External links Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Trail. Media related to Trail, British Columbia at Wikimedia Commons Official website vteSubdivisions of British ColumbiaSubdivisions Regional districts School districts Land districts Health regions Counties (court system) Communities Municipalities Cities District municipalities Indian government districts Island municipalities Mountain resort municipalities Resort municipalities Towns Villages Ghost towns Indian reserves Metro areas andagglomerations Abbotsford–Mission Chilliwack Kamloops Kelowna Nanaimo Greater Vancouver Greater Victoria Census agglomerations Cities Abbotsford Armstrong Burnaby Campbell River Castlegar Chilliwack Colwood Coquitlam Courtenay Cranbrook Dawson Creek Duncan Enderby Fernie Fort St. John Grand Forks Greenwood Kamloops Kelowna Kimberley Kitimat Langford Langley Merritt Mission Nanaimo Nelson New Westminster North Vancouver Parksville Penticton Pitt Meadows Port Alberni Port Coquitlam Port Moody Powell River Prince George Prince Rupert Quesnel Revelstoke Richmond Rossland Salmon Arm Surrey Terrace Trail Vancouver Vernon Victoria White Rock Williams Lake Category:British Columbia Portal:Canada WikiProject:British Columbia vteSteamboats of the Arrow LakesSteamboats and tugs Forty-Nine (1865) Kootenai (1885) Dispatch / Despatch (1888) Marion (1890) Lytton (1890) Columbia (1891 sternwheeler) Illecillewaet (1892) Nakusp (1895) Trail (1890) Columbia (1896 tug) Kootenay (1897) Rossland (1897) Minto (1898) Whatshan (1909) Bonnington (1911) Nipigonian (1929) Widget (1948) Landings (south to north) Marcus WA Northport WA Ft. Colville WA Trail Castlegar Robson Edgewood Needles Fauquier Graham Landing Carrolls Landing Mackinson East Arrow Park Birds Arrow Park West Demars Burton Nakusp St. Leon Halcyon Hot Springs Galena Bay Beaton Comaplix Arrowhead Revelstoke Downie Creek La Porte Steamboat lines Columbia and Kootenay Steam Navigation Company Canadian Pacific Railway Lake and River Service Interior Tug & Transport Company Geographic features Dalles des Morts (EN : Death Rapids) Columbia River Arrow Lakes Owners, captains and personnel James W. Troup Gustavus Blin-Wright J.A. Mara Frank Barnard Jr. Selby Soules Modern ferry lines BC Ministry of Transportation (Department of Highways) Railway connections Columbia and Kootenay Railway Nakusp and Slocan Railway Canadian Pacific Railway (mainline) Kettle Valley Railway British Columbia steamboats Upper Fraser, Nechako and Stuart Rivers Skeena River Arrow Lakes and Columbia River Slocan Lake Kootenay Lake Columbia Lake-East Kootenay Lakes Route (Seton, Anderson and Lillooet Lakes) Lake Okanagan Skaha Lake Thompson-Shuswap Stikine River Peace & Finlay Rivers Inside Passage Gulf of Georgia-Lower Fraser Pacific Northwest steamboats Columbia River Oregon Coast Willamette River Yaquina Bay and River Coquille River Cowlitz River Puget Sound Lake Washington Grays Harbor Chehalis River Hoquiam River Willapa Bay Columbia River (Wenatchee Reach) Lake Crescent Lower Kootenai River Upper Kootenai River Authority control databases Geographic MusicBrainz area Other NARA

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"West Kootenay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Kootenay"},{"link_name":"Interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Dewdney Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewdney_Trail"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"City in British Columbia, CanadaTrail is a city in the West Kootenay region of the Interior of British Columbia, Canada. It was named after the Dewdney Trail, which passed through the area.[3] The town was first called Trail Creek or Trail Creek Landing, and the name was shortened to Trail in 1897.[4]","title":"Trail, British Columbia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Columbia River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_River"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Monashee Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monashee_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Selkirk Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selkirk_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Castlegar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castlegar,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Canada–United States border","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border"},{"link_name":"Pend d'Oreille River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pend_Oreille_River"},{"link_name":"inversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversion_(meteorology)"},{"link_name":"Warfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfield,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Fruitvale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruitvale,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Rossland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossland,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Rossland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossland,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Crowsnest Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowsnest_Highway"}],"text":"Trail has an area of 34.78 km2 (13.43 sq mi). The city is located on both banks of the Columbia River, approximately 10 km (6.2 mi) north of the United States border. This section of the Columbia River valley is located between the Monashee Mountains to the west and the Selkirk Mountains to the east. The Columbia flows directly north-south from Castlegar, turns east near downtown Trail, and then meets the Canada–United States border at Waneta and the Pend d'Oreille River.Summer climate in Trail is generally hot and dry with moderately cool nights. Temperatures often exceed 35 °C (95 °F) during summer afternoons, average 29 °C (84 °F). Thunderstorms are common during the late-spring and summer season, often moving into the valley from the south. The fall months bring dense river fog, especially overnight and in the morning, as a cold air inversion lingers above the relatively warm river surface. Winters are mild to cold with periods of moderate snowfall. Nearby villages such as Warfield, Fruitvale and especially Rossland receive greater amounts of snow due to higher elevation.The Monashee Mountains are the first major mountain range east of the Coastal Mountains to intercept moisture laden westerly flow from the Pacific Ocean. As a result, areas west of Trail, including the Christina Range, Rossland Range, the city of Rossland, and the Blueberry-Paulson section of the Crowsnest Highway (Highway 3) receive greater amounts of winter precipitation, mostly in the form of heavy snow. Vegetation in the Trail area, although still fairly lush, is noticeably drier than other areas of the West Kootenay, with a more westerly aspect.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2021 Census of Population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"Statistics Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2021census-5"}],"text":"In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Trail had a population of 7,920 living in 3,736 of its 3,973 total private dwellings, a change of 2.7% from its 2016 population of 7,709. With a land area of 34.9 km2 (13.5 sq mi), it had a population density of 226.9/km2 (587.8/sq mi) in 2021.[5]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians"},{"link_name":"Italian ancestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Canadians"},{"link_name":"1951 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1951census-6"},{"link_name":"1991 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1991census-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1991censusB-8"},{"link_name":"in 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1996census-9"},{"link_name":"by 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2011census-10"},{"link_name":"2016 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Ethnicity","text":"The city is noted for its large Italian community. Persons of Italian ancestry numbered 1,856 and formed 16.2 percent of the total population according to the 1951 census,[6]: 525  decreasing in number but increasing in proportion to 1,790 persons and 23.2 percent as per the 1991 census,[7][8] decreasing to 1,515 persons or 20.2 percent in 1996,[9] falling further by 2011 to 1,290 persons or 17.4 percent of the population,[10] prior to a slight increase to 1,320 persons or 17.8 percent according to the 2016 census.[11]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2021 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2021censusB-12"},{"link_name":"Irreligion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreligion_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Sikhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Hinduism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Trail included:[12]Irreligion (3,865 persons or 50.9%)\nChristianity (3,455 persons or 45.5%)\nSikhism (95 persons or 1.3%)\nHinduism (75 persons or 1.0%)\nBuddhism (15 persons or 0.2%)\nOther (80 persons or 1.1%)","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JL_crowe_pic.png"},{"link_name":"Kootenay Boundary Regional District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kootenay_Boundary_Regional_District"},{"link_name":"School District 20 Kootenay-Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_District_20_Kootenay-Columbia"},{"link_name":"Glenmerry Elementary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenmerry_Elementary_School"},{"link_name":"J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lloyd_Crowe_Secondary_School"},{"link_name":"James L Webster Elementary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L_Webster_Elementary_School"},{"link_name":"Kootenay-Columbia Learning Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kootenay-Columbia_Learning_Centre"}],"text":"The entrance of J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary SchoolTrail is the location of the head office of the Kootenay Boundary Regional District, which is one of the city's employers.Trail is part of School District 20 Kootenay-Columbia and schools in the town include:Glenmerry Elementary School (Public elementary school K-7)\nJ. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School (Public secondary school 8–12)\nJames L Webster Elementary School (Public elementary school K-7.)\nSt. Michael's Catholic School (Independent elementary school K-7)\nKootenay-Columbia Learning Centre (Public school 6–12)","title":"Education and employment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"School district","text":"The school district in the Greater Trail area is focused on improving the district and schools and has a focused, well organized improvement plans in place[citation needed]. The strategies selected to achieve the goals are a blend of research, best practice, and innovative thinking.In 2007, the J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School Replacement program started the construction of a new facility in Trail to replace the existing school that was built in the late 1950s. The new facility opened in September 2009[citation needed].","title":"Education and employment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teck Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"}],"sub_title":"Education","text":"Trail’s education statistics differ sharply from that of the province in the percentage of the population aged 45–64 with a trades certificate or diploma: Trail—26%, compared to BC—14%. This is directly attributable to Teck Resources and the diversified mining and metals company's presence in the area. The percentage of this age group with a university level education is also very different: Trail—12%, compared to BC—22%. The general picture is a working population heavily geared to the trades and historically very reliant on Teck Resources for employment.","title":"Education and employment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teck Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"},{"link_name":"Cominco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cominco"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trail_Regional_Airport.jpg"},{"link_name":"Trail Regional Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_Airport"},{"link_name":"West Kootenay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Kootenay"}],"text":"Employing approximately 1,800 people, Teck Resources (formerly Cominco) is the region’s largest employer. The average age of an employee at Teck Resources' Trail operation is 47. It is anticipated that within 15 years Teck Resources' Trail operation will have a completely new and different labour force.[citation needed] A younger and perhaps more technical labour force will most likely replace those that are retiring. The big picture for the area is one of an aging population which brings about ongoing employment opportunities in the area.Trail Regional AirportThe City of Trail is also home to the largest hospital in the West Kootenay region.","title":"Economic situation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trail_Smelter_in_Year_1929.png"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"smelter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-financialpost_Friedman_20180122-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-financialpost_Friedman_20180122-21"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"environmental monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_monitoring"},{"link_name":"Fritz Augustus Heinze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._Augustus_Heinze"},{"link_name":"smelter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting"},{"link_name":"Columbia and Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_and_Western_Railway"},{"link_name":"Butte, Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte,_Montana"},{"link_name":"Northport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northport,_Washington"},{"link_name":"sulfur dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Canadian Pacific Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway"},{"link_name":"Columbia and Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_and_Western_Railway"},{"link_name":"Crowsnest Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowsnest_Pass"},{"link_name":"Bonnington Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnington_Falls"},{"link_name":"American Smelting and Refining Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asarco"},{"link_name":"Tacoma, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacoma,_Washington"},{"link_name":"electrolytic refining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)#Electrolytic_refining"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crow-23"}],"text":"Trail Smelter in 1929Trail is home to one of the largest lead and zinc smelter in the world and the smelter is the largest employer in Trail, providing 1,400 jobs in the town of 7800.[16] The smelter has been in operation for over a hundred years and has provided many well-paying jobs that do not require more than a high school education. Intergenerational families worked at the smelter and Teck Cominco became Trail's \"economic and cultural centre.\"[16]The Teck Cominco Interpretive Centre in downtown Trail provides a history of Cominco's Trail smelting operations with displays, a mini-science centre, hands-on exhibits, and videos, as well as a 2.5 hour industrial tour of the Teck Cominco smelter.[17] Presentations include exhibits of sophisticated environmental monitoring systems installed in the Trail area by Teck.In February 1896, Fritz Augustus Heinze opened his British Columbia Smelting and Refining Company smelter at Trail to process ore brought from Rossland on his Columbia and Western Railway. The concentrate from the smelter was transported to Butte, Montana, for refining. The plant capacity was soon increased from about 150 to 400 tons per day. However, with the supply of Rossland ore largely going south to Northport, the plant was unprofitable. The output was 50 per cent pure copper at best, and the yellow clouds of sulfur dioxide became health hazards for the region.When the Canadian Pacific Railway (CP) expressed interest in buying the Columbia and Western Railway (C&W), Heinze insisted the package include the Trail smelter. In February 1898, CP bought the C&W for $600,000, and the smelter for $200,000. Heinze retained several other holdings. CP created the Canadian Smelting Works to run the plant. CP's new Crowsnest Pass branch supplied cheap coal, and the new Bonnington Falls dam provided electricity. That August, new blast furnaces increased efficiency and tall chimneys lifted the toxic smoke farther above Trail.Since lead was the most common ore in the region, the company built two lead furnaces, which were operational by the end of 1901. The next year, the federal government offered a subsidy of five dollars for each ton of lead smelted in Canada. However, the concentrate still required refining at the American Smelting and Refining Company's plant in Tacoma, Washington. To address this problem, by the end of 1902, Trail opened the first commercial electrolytic refining process in the world, producing pure lead, pure copper, fine silver and gold. In 1906, the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada (CM&S), a consortium comprising the smelter and certain Red Mountain mines at Rossland, was formed. CP had a 54 per cent holding. After the Northport smelter closed in 1921, Trail remained the sole operator in the region.By 1925, the 250-acre plant employed 2,100 men and comprised a lead plant, an electrolytic zinc plant, a copper smelter, a copper refinery, a silver and gold refinery, plants for making bluestone, hydrofluosilicic acid and sulfuric acid, a foundry, a machine shop and round-house, and a copper rod mill. That year, CM&S processed 380,000 tons of ores and concentrates at Trail to recover 21,352 ounces of gold, nearly 4.5 million ounces of silver, 9,500 tons of copper, 117,500 tons of lead and almost 50,000 tons of zinc.[18]","title":"Teck Cominco lead-zinc smelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Trail Smelter dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_Smelter_dispute"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSRN_Parrish_2005-24"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Cominco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crow-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crow-23"},{"link_name":"top soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_soil"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Teck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Trail smelter arbitration (1938–1942)","text":"By the end of World War I, the smoke pollution had devastated the surrounding district. During the following decades, this triggered the Trail Smelter dispute, which resulted in decades of legal action. This case, known commonly as the \"Trail smelter arbitration\", is a landmark in environmental law,[19] as it helped to establish the \"polluter pays\" principle for transnational pollution issues.[20]In 1966, the company name changed to Cominco. Over the following decades, the smelter spent millions on pollution control.[18] In 1975, the soils in some parts of Trail were found to be contaminated with lead and certain other heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, zinc) to levels above regulatory limits.[21] The monitored lead levels in the blood of local school children fell from high that year to insignificant 30 years later.[18]In 2007, a free testing program was instituted, with removal of above-limit top soil in residential yards (with a priority focus on families with young children).[22] Teck provides funding for this ongoing operation. Because of improvements in smelting processes and emissions controls over the years, the existing contamination is attributed to smelting activities that pre-date the 1997 adoption of newer technologies.[23]","title":"Teck Cominco lead-zinc smelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trail lead and zinc smelter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Cominco_smelter"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"arsenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic"},{"link_name":"mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)"},{"link_name":"Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Lake"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"citizen lawsuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_suit"},{"link_name":"Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfund"},{"link_name":"Teck Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pakootas_2004-30"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PakootasVTeck_InforMEA_2004-31"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSRN_Parrish_2005-24"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeckVColville_20190610-32"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TeckVColville_20190610-32"}],"sub_title":"Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals","text":"The Trail lead and zinc smelter is located 10 miles (16 km) north of the United States-Canadian border. Over the decades it has discharged approximately 10 million to 20 million tons of smelting byproduct containing lead, arsenic and mercury into the Columbia River and Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake in Washington.[24] In 2004, a citizen lawsuit was filed under the 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) against Teck Cominco—, now Teck Resources[25][26][19] The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) rejected Teck Metals' Petition for certiorari on June 10, 2019 in Teck Metals Ltd. v. The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation.[27] In 2018, the Supreme Court rejected Teck's appeal and found in favor of the litigants.[27]","title":"Teck Cominco lead-zinc smelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P-9 Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-9_Project"},{"link_name":"heavy water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_water"},{"link_name":"Nichols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"As its contribution to the Manhattan Project's P-9 Project, Cominco built and operated a 1000 to 1200 pound per month (design capacity) electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, which operated from 1943 to 1956. Lt-Col Nichols noted environmental damage from emissions to the \"beautiful valley and mountain slopes\" in the first half of 1943.[28][29][30][31]: 97","title":"Manhattan Project"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Attractions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trail Smoke Eaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_Smoke_Eaters_(senior)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Columbia_Skywalk_2018.jpg"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Trail Memorial Centre & Sports Hall of Memories","text":"The Trail Memorial Centre currently plays host to the Trail & District Public Library, the Trail Smoke Eaters hockey team, the Trail Museum, and the Sports Hall of Memories, in addition to many local sports facilities. This historic landmark, located at 1051 Victoria Street, was home to two world championship Smoke Eaters teams.Pedestrian suspension bridge Trail, BCThe Trail Memorial Centre is a hub of civic activity year-round, and has been a focal point of the community since its inception.[citation needed]","title":"Attractions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_Street_Bridge.jpg"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"River Activities and Music in the Park at Gyro Park in Trail","text":"Located at 1090 Charles Lakes Drive in East Trail on the route to Sunningdale, Gyro Park is the home to Music in the Park during the summer.Victoria Street Bridge\"The Onions\" and other popular river currents that wind between the rocks on the East banks of the Columbia River, are a popular summer magnet for river activity.[citation needed]","title":"Attractions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Historic_Gulch_in_Trail.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_people"},{"link_name":"defile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defile_(geography)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"old country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherland"}],"sub_title":"The Historic Gulch","text":"In the early 1900s a large influx of Italian immigrants lent a distinctive character to \"The Gulch\" which is located at the entrance to Trail accessed by the Schofield Highway which drops down the long grade from the city of Rossland and the village of Warfield and sub-division of Annabel onto Rossland Avenue.The Historic Gulch in Trail BCThis neighbourhood which runs the length of Rossland Avenue is known as \"the Gulch.\" Originally called the \"Dublin Gulch\" in the very early days, it eventually became known as \"The Gulch\" as it filled up with Italians who chose not to live on the original Trail townsite. The Gulch starts as throat of Trail Creek narrows between the high, sandy slope of Smelter Hill on its left bank and the West Trail bank where early pioneer houses were built by immigrants as they purchased properties along the west bank steep terrain.In the early pioneer days industrious Chinese launderers and cooks spent time gardening in the defile of the Gulch. Few of these immigrants ever acquired rights to own land[citation needed] in the Gulch and their gardens were gradually displaced by Italians and other European working families who terraced their properties into level plots. Despite the steep terrain, these immigrant families planted vegetable gardens reminiscent of the old country sustained by water from Trail Creek and a hot summer sun.The Gulch is home to shops and the Terra Nova hotel, located at the entrance to Trail’s central business district at the foot of Rossland Avenue.","title":"Attractions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kootenay Savings Credit Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kootenay_Savings_Credit_Union&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"The Greater Trail Area is known as the Home of Champions, in recognition of those who reside in the area, or are from the area, and have excelled in their chosen field of endeavour.In 1995, Kootenay Savings Credit Union was seeking a project that would represent their commitment and appreciation to the Greater Trail community. The Credit Union decided to sponsor the construction of a monument which was constructed in the summer of 1996 outside their offices in Trail's downtown that would honour the \"Champions\" of the Greater Trail area in Sports, Industry and Lifestyle.A society was formed to establish criteria for selection of the persons to be honoured on the monument. The monument was constructed in the summer of 1996 and forty-three champions were selected to be honoured at the inaugural dedication ceremony which took place on September 28, 1996. To date, eighty-nine individuals and organizations have been honoured with a place on the Home of Champions monument.[32]The Home of Champions monument project is an ongoing one, managed by the City of Trail. Additional persons will be honoured regularly for their special contribution to the social, cultural, economic and educational fabric of the community.","title":"Home of Champions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Rogers Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rogers_Anderson"},{"link_name":"chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Jason Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Bay"},{"link_name":"Lauren Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Bay"},{"link_name":"Ed Cristofoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Cristofoli"},{"link_name":"Craig Cunningham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Cunningham"},{"link_name":"Adam Deadmarsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Deadmarsh"},{"link_name":"Colorado Avalanche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Avalanche"},{"link_name":"Dallas Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Drake"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cup"},{"link_name":"Detroit Red Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings"},{"link_name":"Landon Ferraro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landon_Ferraro"},{"link_name":"Minnesota Wild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Wild"},{"link_name":"Ray Ferraro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Ferraro"},{"link_name":"TSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sports_Network"},{"link_name":"Derek Haas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Haas_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"Jake Lucchini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Lucchini"},{"link_name":"Ottawa Senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Senators"},{"link_name":"Bruno Freschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Freschi"},{"link_name":"Expo 86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_86"},{"link_name":"Ken Georgetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Georgetti"},{"link_name":"Canadian Labour Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Labour_Congress"},{"link_name":"Robert Hampton Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hampton_Gray"},{"link_name":"Victoria Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Cross"},{"link_name":"Tom Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Harrison_(baseball)"},{"link_name":"Oakland Athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Athletics"},{"link_name":"Shawn Hook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn_Hook"},{"link_name":"Shawn Horcoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn_Horcoff"},{"link_name":"Edmonton Oilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers"},{"link_name":"Barret Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barret_Jackman"},{"link_name":"Hal Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Jones_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"1961 Ice Hockey World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"Mike Kobluk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Kobluk"},{"link_name":"Richard Kromm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kromm"},{"link_name":"Kerrin Lee-Gartner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerrin_Lee-Gartner"},{"link_name":"Olympic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"Gary Lunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Lunn"},{"link_name":"Cesare Maniago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Maniago"},{"link_name":"Seth Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Martin"},{"link_name":"Mike Matteucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Matteucci"},{"link_name":"Steve McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_McCarthy_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"AHL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"Springfield Falcons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield_Falcons"},{"link_name":"Tom McVie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_McVie"},{"link_name":"Boston Bruins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Bruins"},{"link_name":"Ben McPeek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_McPeek"},{"link_name":"Bill McEwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_McEwan"},{"link_name":"Sobeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobeys"},{"link_name":"Faron Moller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faron_Moller"},{"link_name":"British Colloquium for Theoretical Computer Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Colloquium_for_Theoretical_Computer_Science"},{"link_name":"Martin Popoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Popoff"},{"link_name":"Garth Rizzuto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garth_Rizzuto"},{"link_name":"David Sylvester (medievalist)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Sylvester_(medievalist)"},{"link_name":"University of St. Michael's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St._Michael%27s_College"},{"link_name":"University of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"Steve Tambellini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Tambellini"},{"link_name":"Edmonton Oilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers"}],"text":"John Rogers Anderson, chief of the Defence Staff\nJason Bay, former MLB player\nLauren Bay, Canadian National Softball Team and National Pro Fastpitch pitcher\nEd Cristofoli, former NHL player\nCraig Cunningham, former NHL Player\nAdam Deadmarsh, former NHL player, won Stanley cup in 1996 with the Colorado Avalanche\nDallas Drake, former NHL player, won Stanley Cup in 2008 with the Detroit Red Wings\nLandon Ferraro, current NHL player for the Minnesota Wild\nRay Ferraro, former NHL player and current TSN analyst\nDerek Haas, retired WHA player\nJake Lucchini, current NHL player for the Ottawa Senators\nBruno Freschi, architect for Expo 86\nKen Georgetti, former president of the Canadian Labour Congress\nRobert Hampton Gray, one of the last Canadians to die in WWII and the last Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross\nTom Harrison, former MLB pitcher for the Kansas City A's, now known as the Oakland Athletics\nShawn Hook, singer\nShawn Horcoff former NHL player, most notably a former captain of the Edmonton Oilers\nBarret Jackman, former NHL player\nHal Jones, hockey player who won gold at the 1961 Ice Hockey World Championships\nMike Kobluk of the Chad Mitchell Trio\nRichard Kromm, former NHL player\nKerrin Lee-Gartner, Canadian Olympic Women's Ski Team, Downhill Olympic Gold Medal 1992Gary Lunn, former Canadian MP and Cabinet ministerCesare Maniago, former NHL playerSeth Martin, former NHL player\nMike Matteucci, former NHL player\nSteve McCarthy, current AHL player with Springfield Falcons, former NHL player\nTom McVie, former professional hockey player and NHL Coach and current Scout for Boston Bruins\nBen McPeek, composer, arranger, conductor, and pianist\nBill McEwan, President and CEO of Sobeys\nFaron Moller, President of the British Colloquium for Theoretical Computer Science\nMartin Popoff, heavy metal music journalist\nGarth Rizzuto, former NHL player\nDavid Sylvester (medievalist)- President of University of St. Michael's College, University of Toronto, Canada.\nSteve Tambellini, former NHL player & former GM of the Edmonton Oilers","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-euro_16-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-SoutheastAsian_17-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EastAsian_18-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MiddleEastern_19-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Other_20-0"}],"text":"^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.\n\n^ Statistic includes total responses of \"Filipino\" and \"Southeast Asian\" under visible minority section on census.\n\n^ Statistic includes total responses of \"Chinese\", \"Korean\", and \"Japanese\" under visible minority section on census.\n\n^ Statistic includes total responses of \"West Asian\" and \"Arab\" under visible minority section on census.\n\n^ Statistic includes total responses of \"Visible minority, n.i.e.\" and \"Multiple visible minorities\" under visible minority section on census.","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"The entrance of J. Lloyd Crowe Secondary School","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/JL_crowe_pic.png/220px-JL_crowe_pic.png"},{"image_text":"Trail Regional Airport","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Trail_Regional_Airport.jpg/220px-Trail_Regional_Airport.jpg"},{"image_text":"Trail Smelter in 1929","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Trail_Smelter_in_Year_1929.png/250px-Trail_Smelter_in_Year_1929.png"},{"image_text":"Pedestrian suspension bridge Trail, BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Columbia_Skywalk_2018.jpg/220px-Columbia_Skywalk_2018.jpg"},{"image_text":"Victoria Street Bridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Victoria_Street_Bridge.jpg/220px-Victoria_Street_Bridge.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Historic Gulch in Trail BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/The_Historic_Gulch_in_Trail.jpg/220px-The_Historic_Gulch_in_Trail.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Trail Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_Airport"},{"title":"Trail Daily Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_Daily_Times"}]

[{"reference":"\"Inside City Hall\". Trail BC. Retrieved 2014-11-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.trail.ca/en/inside-city-hall/mayor-lisa-pasin.asp","url_text":"\"Inside City Hall\""}]},{"reference":"Hamilton, William (1978). The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names. Toronto: Macmillan. p. 51. ISBN 0-7715-9754-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7715-9754-1","url_text":"0-7715-9754-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), British Columbia\". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 20, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000202&geocode=A000259","url_text":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), British Columbia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada","url_text":"Statistics Canada"}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-04-03). \"Ninth census of Canada, 1951 = Neuvième recensement du Canada Vol. 1. Population: general characteristics\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.836019/publication.html","url_text":"\"Ninth census of Canada, 1951 = Neuvième recensement du Canada Vol. 1. Population: general characteristics\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-03-29). \"1991 Census Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions - Part B\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/English/census91/data/profiles/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=1&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=1&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=30&PRID=0&PTYPE=3&S=0&SHOWALL=No&SUB=0&Temporal=1991&THEME=113&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=","url_text":"\"1991 Census Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions - Part B\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-03-29). \"Data tables, 1991 Census Population by Ethnic Origin (24), Showing Single and Multiple Origins (2) - Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/English/census91/data/tables/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=1&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=1&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=61&PRID=0&PTYPE=4&S=0&SHOWALL=No&SUB=0&Temporal=1991&THEME=104&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=","url_text":"\"Data tables, 1991 Census Population by Ethnic Origin (24), Showing Single and Multiple Origins (2) - Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-06-04). \"Electronic Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions, 1996 Census\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census96/data/profiles/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=35782&PRID=0&PTYPE=3&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=1996&THEME=34&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=","url_text":"\"Electronic Area Profiles Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions, 1996 Census\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2015-11-27). \"NHS Profile\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5905014&Data=Count&SearchText=Trail&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1","url_text":"\"NHS Profile\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). \"Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-11-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Trail&DGUIDlist=2021A00055905014&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0","url_text":"\"Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2021-10-27). \"Census Profile, 2016 Census\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5905014&Geo2=CD&Code2=5905&SearchText=Trail&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0","url_text":"\"Census Profile, 2016 Census\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-08-20). \"2006 Community Profiles\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-591/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5905014&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Trail&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=","url_text":"\"2006 Community Profiles\""}]},{"reference":"Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-07-02). \"2001 Community Profiles\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/Profil01/CP01/Details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5905014&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Trail&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=","url_text":"\"2001 Community Profiles\""}]},{"reference":"Friedman, Gabriel (January 22, 2018). \"'A shock to all of us': Teck Resources' dam sale upsets workers, community in Trail, B.C.\" Financial Post. Retrieved March 23, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://financialpost.com/commodities/mining/a-shock-to-all-of-us-teck-resources-dam-sale-upsets-workers-community-in-trail-b-c","url_text":"\"'A shock to all of us': Teck Resources' dam sale upsets workers, community in Trail, B.C.\""}]},{"reference":"\"Teck Cominco Interpretive Centre\". Kootenay Rockies Tourism. Retrieved 11 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kootenayrockies.com/partner/teck-cominco-interpretive-centre","url_text":"\"Teck Cominco Interpretive Centre\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trail\". www.crowsnest-highway.ca.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.crowsnest-highway.ca/cgi-bin/citypage.pl?city=TRAIL","url_text":"\"Trail\""}]},{"reference":"Parrish, A. (2005). \"Trail Smelter Deja Vu: Extraterritoriality, International Environmental Law, and the Search for Solutions to Canada-U.S. Transboundary Water Pollution Disputes\". www.ssrn.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://ssrn.com/abstract=1019924","url_text":"\"Trail Smelter Deja Vu: Extraterritoriality, International Environmental Law, and the Search for Solutions to Canada-U.S. Transboundary Water Pollution Disputes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trail Smelter Arbitration, 1938/1941\". University of Idaho. Archived from the original on 2004-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040822223151/http://www.law.uidaho.edu/default.aspx?pid=66516","url_text":"\"Trail Smelter Arbitration, 1938/1941\""},{"url":"http://www.law.uidaho.edu/default.aspx?pid=66516","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Trail Area Health and Environment Program. Soil Management Program\". www.thep.ca.","urls":[{"url":"https://thep.ca/soil","url_text":"\"Trail Area Health and Environment Program. Soil Management Program\""}]},{"reference":"\"Canadian Environmental Health Atlas: Trail BC\". www.ehatlas.ca.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ehatlas.ca/lead/teaching-tools/case-study-trail-bc","url_text":"\"Canadian Environmental Health Atlas: Trail BC\""}]},{"reference":"Geranios, Nicholas K. (August 27, 2004). \"Teck Cominco Seeks Dismissal of Suit Over Pollution in Lake Roosevelt\".","urls":[{"url":"http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/188145_roosevelt27.html","url_text":"\"Teck Cominco Seeks Dismissal of Suit Over Pollution in Lake Roosevelt\""}]},{"reference":"Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakootas_v._Teck_Cominco_Metals","url_text":"Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals"}]},{"reference":"\"Joseph A. Pakootas, Donald R. Michel (Plaintiffs) v. Teck Cominco Metals, Ltd. (Defendant) | InforMEA\". 2004. Retrieved March 23, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.informea.org/en/court-decision/joseph-pakootas-donald-r-michel-plaintiffs-v-teck-cominco-metals-ltd-defendant","url_text":"\"Joseph A. Pakootas, Donald R. Michel (Plaintiffs) v. Teck Cominco Metals, Ltd. (Defendant) | InforMEA\""}]},{"reference":"Teck Metals Ltd. v. The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chris Waltham (20 June 2002). \"An Early History of Heavy Water\". arXiv:physics/0206076.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0206076","url_text":"physics/0206076"}]},{"reference":"\"Project '9' – Heavy-Water (Deuterium) Production\". The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. Retrieved 2007-12-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mphpa.org/classic/CP/Canada/CM&S/CM&S-01.htm","url_text":"\"Project '9' – Heavy-Water (Deuterium) Production\""}]},{"reference":"Manhattan District History, Book III, The P-9 Project (PDF) (Report). United States Department of Energy. 1947-04-08. p. 99. Retrieved 2019-02-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/includes/opennet/includes/MED_scans/Book%20III%20-%20The%20P-9%20Project.pdf","url_text":"Manhattan District History, Book III, The P-9 Project"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy","url_text":"United States Department of Energy"}]},{"reference":"Nichols, Kenneth (1987). The Road to Trinity. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 068806910X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/068806910X","url_text":"068806910X"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_think,_therefore_I_am

Cogito, ergo sum

["1 In Descartes's writings","1.1 Discourse on the Method","1.2 Meditations on First Philosophy","1.3 Principles of Philosophy","1.4 The Search for Truth by Natural Light","1.5 Other forms","2 Translation","2.1 \"I am thinking\" vs. \"I think\"","2.2 \"I exist\" vs. \"I am\"","2.3 Punctuation","3 Interpretation","4 Predecessors","5 Critique","5.1 Use of \"I\"","5.2 Kierkegaard","5.3 Williams","5.4 Heidegger","5.5 John Macmurray","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]

Philosophical statement made by René Descartes "I think, therefore I am" redirects here. For the R. Dean Taylor album, see I Think, Therefore I Am. For the Billie Eilish song, see Therefore I Am (song). Part of a series onRené Descartes Philosophy Cartesianism Rationalism Foundationalism Mechanism Doubt and certainty Dream argument Cogito, ergo sum Evil demon Trademark argument Causal adequacy principle Mind–body dichotomy Analytic geometry Coordinate system Cartesian circle Folium Rule of signs Cartesian diver Balloonist theory Wax argument Res cogitans Res extensa Works Rules for the Direction of the Mind The Search for Truth The World Discourse on the Method La Géométrie Meditations on First Philosophy Principles of Philosophy Passions of the Soul People Christina, Queen of Sweden Nicolas Malebranche Baruch Spinoza Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Francine Descartes vte The Latin cogito, ergo sum, usually translated into English as "I think, therefore I am", is the "first principle" of René Descartes's philosophy. He originally published it in French as je pense, donc je suis in his 1637 Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed. It later appeared in Latin in his Principles of Philosophy, and a similar phrase also featured prominently in his Meditations on First Philosophy. The dictum is also sometimes referred to as the cogito. As Descartes explained in a margin note, "we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt." In the posthumously published The Search for Truth by Natural Light, he expressed this insight as dubito, ergo sum, vel, quod idem est, cogito, ergo sum ("I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am"). Antoine Léonard Thomas, in a 1765 essay in honor of Descartes presented it as dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum ("I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am"). Descartes's statement became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to provide a certain foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one's own existence served—at minimum—as proof of the reality of one's own mind; there must be a thinking entity—in this case the self—for there to be a thought. One critique of the dictum, first suggested by Pierre Gassendi, is that it presupposes that there is an "I" which must be doing the thinking. According to this line of criticism, the most that Descartes was entitled to say was that "thinking is occurring", not that "I am thinking". In Descartes's writings Descartes first wrote the phrase in French in his 1637 Discourse on the Method. He referred to it in Latin without explicitly stating the familiar form of the phrase in his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy. The earliest written record of the phrase in Latin is in his 1644 Principles of Philosophy, where, in a margin note (see below), he provides a clear explanation of his intent: "e cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt". Fuller forms of the phrase are attributable to other authors. Discourse on the Method The phrase first appeared (in French) in Descartes's 1637 Discourse on the Method in the first paragraph of its fourth part: Ainsi, à cause que nos sens nous trompent quelquefois, je voulus supposer qu'il n'y avait aucune chose qui fût telle qu'ils nous la font imaginer; Et parce qu'il y a des hommes qui se méprennent en raisonnant, même touchant les plus simples matières de Géométrie, et y font des Paralogismes, jugeant que j'étais sujet à faillir autant qu'aucun autre, je rejetai comme fausses toutes les raisons que j'avais prises auparavant pour Démonstrations; Et enfin, considérant que toutes les mêmes pensées que nous avons étant éveillés nous peuvent aussi venir quand nous dormons, sans qu'il y en ait aucune raison pour lors qui soit vraie, je me résolus de feindre que toutes les choses qui m'étaient jamais entrées en l'esprit n'étaient non plus vraies que les illusions de mes songes. Mais aussitôt après je pris garde que, pendant que je voulais ainsi penser que tout était faux, il fallait nécessairement que moi qui le pensais fusse quelque chose; Et remarquant que cette vérité, je pense, donc je suis, était si ferme et si assurée, que toutes les plus extravagantes suppositions des Sceptiques n'étaient pas capables de l'ébranler, je jugeai que je pouvais la recevoir sans scrupule pour le premier principe de la Philosophie que je cherchais. Accordingly, seeing that our senses sometimes deceive us, I was willing to suppose that there existed nothing really such as they presented to us; And because some men err in reasoning, and fall into Paralogisms, even on the simplest matters of Geometry, I, convinced that I was as open to error as any other, rejected as false all the reasonings I had hitherto taken for Demonstrations; And finally, when I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be something; And as I observed that this truth, I think, therefore I am, was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the Sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search. Meditations on First Philosophy In 1641, Descartes published (in Latin) Meditations on first philosophy in which he referred to the proposition, though not explicitly as "cogito, ergo sum" in Meditation II: hoc pronuntiatum: Ego sum, Ego existo, quoties a me profertur, vel mente concipitur, necessario esse verum. this proposition: I am, I exist, whenever it is uttered by me, or conceived by the mind, necessarily is true. Principles of Philosophy In 1644, Descartes published (in Latin) his Principles of Philosophy where the phrase "ego cogito, ergo sum" appears in Part 1, article 7: Sic autem rejicientes illa omnia, de quibus aliquo modo possumus dubitare, ac etiam, falsa esse fingentes, facilè quidem, supponimus nullum esse Deum, nullum coelum, nulla corpora; nosque etiam ipsos, non habere manus, nec pedes, nec denique ullum corpus, non autem ideò nos qui talia cogitamus nihil esse: repugnat enim ut putemus id quod cogitat eo ipso tempore quo cogitat non existere. Ac proinde haec cognitio, ego cogito, ergo sum, est omnium prima & certissima, quae cuilibet ordine philosophanti occurrat. While we thus reject all of which we can entertain the smallest doubt, and even imagine that it is false, we easily indeed suppose that there is neither God, nor sky, nor bodies, and that we ourselves even have neither hands nor feet, nor, finally, a body; but we cannot in the same way suppose that we are not while we doubt of the truth of these things; for there is a repugnance in conceiving that what thinks does not exist at the very time when it thinks. Accordingly, the knowledge, I think, therefore I am, is the first and most certain that occurs to one who philosophizes orderly. Descartes's margin note for the above paragraph is: Non posse à nobis dubitari, quin existamus dum dubitamus; atque hoc esse primum, quod ordine philosophando cognoscimus. That we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt, and that this is the first knowledge we acquire when we philosophize in order. The Search for Truth by Natural Light Descartes, in a lesser-known posthumously published work dated as written ca. 1647 and titled La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale (The Search for Truth by Natural Light), provides his only known phrasing of the cogito as cogito, ergo sum and admits that his insight is also expressible as dubito, ergo sum: ... entio, oportere, ut quid dubitatio, quid cogitatio, quid exsistentia sit antè sciamus, quàm de veritate hujus ratiocinii: dubito, ergo sum, vel, quod idem est, cogito, ergo sum : plane simus persuasi. … it is necessary to know what doubt is, and what thought is, , before we can be fully persuaded of this reasoning — I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am. Other forms The proposition is sometimes given as dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum. This form was penned by the French literary critic, Antoine Léonard Thomas, in an award-winning 1765 essay in praise of Descartes, where it appeared as "Puisque je doute, je pense; puisque je pense, j'existe" ('Since I doubt, I think; since I think, I exist'). With rearrangement and compaction, the passage translates to "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am," or in Latin, "dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum." This aptly captures Descartes's intent as expressed in his posthumously published La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale as noted above: I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am. A further expansion, dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum—res cogitans ("…—a thinking thing") extends the cogito with Descartes's statement in the subsequent Meditation, "Ego sum res cogitans, id est dubitans, affirmans, negans, pauca intelligens, multa ignorans, volens, nolens, imaginans etiam et sentiens…" ("I am a thinking thing, that is, a being who doubts, affirms, denies, knows a few objects, and is ignorant of many,-- who loves, hates, wills, refuses, who imagines likewise, and perceives"). This has been referred to as "the expanded cogito." Translation "I am thinking" vs. "I think" While the Latin cōgitō may be translated rather easily as "I think/ponder/visualize", je pense does not indicate whether the verb form corresponds to the English simple present or progressive aspect. Technically speaking, the French lemma pense by itself is actually the result of numerous different conjugations of the verb penser (to think) – it could mean "I think... (something)"/"He thinks... (something)", "I think."/"He thinks.", or even "You (must) think... (something).", thereby necessitating the use of the wider context, or a pronoun, to understand the meaning. In the case of je pense, a pronoun is already included, je or "I", but this still leaves the question of whether "I think..." or "I think." is intended. Therefore, translation needs a larger context to determine aspect. Following John Lyons (1982), Vladimir Žegarac notes, "The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of cogito as habitual or generic" (cf. gnomic aspect). Also following Lyons, Ann Banfield writes, "In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge,… its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive,… not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of the Latin or French present tense in such nongeneric, nonstative contexts." Or in the words of Simon Blackburn, "Descartes's premise is not 'I think' in the sense of 'I ski', which can be true even if you are not at the moment skiing. It is supposed to be parallel to 'I am skiing'." The similar translation "I am thinking, therefore I exist" of Descartes's correspondence in French ("je pense, donc je suis") appears in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes by Cottingham et al. (1988).: 247  The earliest known translation as "I am thinking, therefore I am" is from 1872 by Charles Porterfield Krauth. Fumitaka Suzuki writes "Taking consideration of Cartesian theory of continuous creation, which theory was developed especially in the Meditations and in the Principles, we would assure that 'I am thinking, therefore I am/exist' is the most appropriate English translation of 'ego cogito, ergo sum'." "I exist" vs. "I am" Alexis Deodato S. Itao notes that cogito, ergo sum is "literally 'I think, therefore I am'." Others differ: 1) " precise English translation will read as 'I am thinking, therefore I exist'.; and 2) "ince Descartes ... emphasized that existence is such an important 'notion,' a better translation is 'I am thinking, therefore I exist.'" Punctuation Descartes wrote this phrase as such only once, in the posthumously published lesser-known work noted above, The Search for Truth by Natural Light. It appeared there mid-sentence, uncapitalized, and with a comma. (Commas were not used in Classical Latin but were a regular feature of scholastic Latin, the Latin Descartes "had learned in a Jesuit college at La Flèche.") Most modern reference works show it with a comma, but it is often presented without a comma in academic work and in popular usage. In Descartes's Principia Philosophiae, the proposition appears as ego cogito, ergo sum. Interpretation As put succinctly by Krauth (1872), "That cannot doubt which does not think, and that cannot think which does not exist. I doubt, I think, I exist." The phrase cogito, ergo sum is not used in Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy but the term "the cogito" is used to refer to an argument from it. In the Meditations, Descartes phrases the conclusion of the argument as "that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind" (Meditation II). George Henry Lewes says Descartes "has told us that was to find a starting point from which to reason—to find an irreversible certainty. And where did he find this? In his own consciousness. Doubt as I may, I cannot doubt of my own existence, because my very doubts reveal to me a something which doubts. You may call this an assumption, if you will; I point out the fact as one above and beyond all logic; which logic can neither prove nor disprove; but which must always remain an irreversible certainty, and as such a fitting basis of philosophy." At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt—his argument from the existence of a deceiving god—Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one's belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived. But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I, too, do not exist? No. If I convinced myself of something , then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who deliberately and constantly deceives me. In that case, I, too, undoubtedly exist, if he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. (AT VII 25; CSM II 16–17) There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view — he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition "I am, I exist" is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to discover further truths. As he puts it: Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakable. (AT VII 24; CSM II 16) According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion — the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito—a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see—but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence. Baruch Spinoza in "Principia philosophiae cartesianae" at its Prolegomenon identified "cogito ergo sum" the "ego sum cogitans" (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation. Predecessors Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Plato spoke about the "knowledge of knowledge" (Greek: νόησις νοήσεως, nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length: But if life itself is good and pleasant…and if one who sees is conscious that he sees, one who hears that he hears, one who walks that he walks and similarly for all the other human activities there is a faculty that is conscious of their exercise, so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious that we perceive, and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think, and to be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious that we exist... (Nicomachean Ethics, 1170a 25 ff.) The Cartesian statement was interpreted to be an Aristotelian syllogism where the premise that all thinkers are also beings is not made explicit. In the late sixth or early fifth century BC, Parmenides is quoted as saying "For to be aware and to be are the same". (Fragment B3) In the early fifth century AD, Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei (book XI, 26) affirmed his certain knowledge of his own existence, and added: "So far as these truths are concerned, I do not at all fear the arguments of the Academics when they say, What if you are mistaken? For if I am mistaken, I exist." This formulation (si fallor, sum) is sometimes called the Augustinian cogito. In 1640, Descartes wrote to thank Andreas Colvius (a friend of Descartes's mentor, Isaac Beeckman) for drawing his attention to Augustine: I am obliged to you for drawing my attention to the passage of St Augustine relevant to my I am thinking, therefore I exist. I went today to the library of this town to read it, and I do indeed find that he does use it to prove the certainty of our existence. He goes on to show that there is a certain likeness of the Trinity in us, in that we exist, we know that we exist, and we love the existence and the knowledge we have. I, on the other hand, use the argument to show that this I which is thinking is an immaterial substance with no bodily element. These are two very different things. In itself it is such a simple and natural thing to infer that one exists from the fact that one is doubting that it could have occurred to any writer. But I am very glad to find myself in agreement with St Augustine, if only to hush the little minds who have tried to find fault with the principle.: 159  Another predecessor was Avicenna's "Floating Man" thought experiment on human self-awareness and self-consciousness. The 8th century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara wrote, in a similar fashion, that no one thinks 'I am not', arguing that one's existence cannot be doubted, as there must be someone there to doubt. Spanish philosopher Gómez Pereira in his 1554 work De Inmortalitate Animae, wrote "nosco me aliquid noscere, & quidquid noscit, est, ergo ego sum" ('I know that I know something, anyone who knows is, therefore I am'). Critique Use of "I" In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. The first to raise the "I" problem was Pierre Gassendi, who in his Disquisitio Metaphysica, as noted by Saul Fisher "points out that recognition that one has a set of thoughts does not imply that one is a particular thinker or another. …he only claim that is indubitable here is the agent-independent claim that there is cognitive activity present." The objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: "thinking is occurring." That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the "I," is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an "I", that there is such an activity as "thinking", and that "I" know what "thinking" is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be "it thinks" wherein the "it" could be an impersonal subject as in the sentence "It is raining." Kierkegaard The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard calls the phrase a tautology in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript.: 38–42  He argues that the cogito already presupposes the existence of "I", and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard's argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise "I think" into the premises "'x' thinks" and "I am that 'x'", where "x" is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the "I" from the thinking thing. Here, the cogito has already assumed the "I"'s existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely "developing the content of a concept", namely that the "I", which already exists, thinks.: 40  As Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking. Williams Bernard Williams claims that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking," is something conceivable from a third-person perspective—namely objective "thought-events" in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking" without relativizing it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind. Heidegger As a critic of Cartesian subjectivity, Heidegger sought to ground human subjectivity in death as that certainty which individualizes and authenticates our being. As he wrote in 1925 in History of the Concept of Time:This certainty, that "I myself am in that I will die," is the basic certainty of Dasein itself. It is a genuine statement of Dasein, while cogito sum is only the semblance of such a statement. If such pointed formulations mean anything at all, then the appropriate statement pertaining to Dasein in its being would have to be sum moribundus , moribundus not as someone gravely ill or wounded, but insofar as I am, I am moribundus. The MORIBUNDUS first gives the SUM its sense. John Macmurray The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejects the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitles the Form of the Personal. "We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality." The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost, thus dissolving the integrity of our selves, and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of "I do" for "I think," ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation. See also Philosophy portal Cartesian doubt Floating man Solipsism Academic skepticism Brain in a vat I Am that I Am Tat Tvam Asi, "You are that" The Animal That Therefore I Am Vertiginous question Notes ^ Some sources offer "I am thinking, therefore I am" as a better translation. (See § Translation.) ^ This expression is often mistakenly attributed to Descartes. (See Other forms.) ^ a b c d e Cogito variant highlighted to facilitate comparison; the phrase was italicized in the original. ^ Capitalization as in original; spelling updated from Middle French to Modern French. ^ See original Discours manuscript here. ^ This translation, by Veitch in 1850, is modified here as follows: Veitch's "I think, hence I am" is changed to the form by which it is currently best known in English, "I think, therefore I am", which appeared in the Haldane and Ross 1911 translation,: 100  and as an isolated attributed phrase previously, e.g., in Sullivan (1794); in the preceding line, Veitch's "I, who thus thought, should be somewhat" is given here as "… should be something" for clarity (in accord with other translations, e.g., that of Cress); and capitalization was reverted to conform to Descartes's original in French. ^ The 1637 Discours was translated to Latin in the 1644 Specimina Philosophiae but this is not referenced here because of issues raised regarding translation quality. ^ a b Cogito variant highlighted to facilitate comparison; capitalization as in original. ^ This combines, for clarity and to retain phrase ordering, the Cress and Haldane: 150  translations. ^ Jaako Hintikka comments that ego sum, ego existo is the simplest example of an "existentially self-verifying" sentence, i.e., one whose negation verifies itself "when … expressly uttered or otherwise professed"; and that ego sum is an alternative to cogito, ergo sum to express "the existential inconsistency of the sentence 'I don't exist' and the existential self-verifiability of 'I exist'". ^ See original Principia manuscript here. ^ A 1647 French translation, published with Descartes's enthusiastic approval, substituted 'conclusion' for 'knowledge'. ^ a b Translation from The Principles of Philosophy at Project Gutenberg. ^ Titled Inquisitio Veritatis per Lumen Naturale in a 1683 compendium of posthumously published works. ^ Translation by Hallam, with additions for completeness. ^ Thomas was known in his time for his great eloquence especially for éloges in praise of past luminaries. ^ The 1765 work, Éloge de René Descartes, by Antoine Léonard Thomas, was awarded the 1765 Le Prix De L'académie Française and republished in the 1826 compilation of Descartes's work, Oeuvres de Descartes by Victor Cousin. The French text is available in more accessible format at Project Gutenberg. The compilation by Cousin is credited with a revival of interest in Descartes. ^ the French adds "loves, hates"; hence Veitch's inclusion despite its absence from the Latin here. see Cottingham, J. (ed), 1986, "Meditations on First Philosophy, with selections from Objections and Replies", p.24fn1. ^ This translation by Veitch is the first English translation from Descartes as "I am a thinking thing". ^ Martin Schoock, in the 1642–43 controversy between Descartes and Gisbertus Voetius, fiercely attacked Descartes and his philosophy in an essay. He wrote cogito, ergo sum, res cogitans and cogito, inquiro, dubito ergo sum as well as cogito, ergo sum (multiple times) in his 1652 De Scepticismo. ^ The tense of je pense is marked indicatif présent by e.g., conjugation.com; cōgitō is indicative active present per e.g., Wiktionary. ^ Krauth is not explicitly acknowledged as author of this article, but is so identified the following year by Garretson. ^ See Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age. ^ a b AT refers to Adams and Tannery; CSM II to Cottingham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch; CSMK III to Cottingham, Stoothoff, Murdoch, and Kenny ^ Augustine makes a similar argument in the Enchiridion, ch. 7, sec. 20. References ^ Burns, William E. (2001). The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-87436-875-8. ^ "COGITO | Meaning & Definition for UK English | Lexico.com". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved 2022-07-11. ^ a b c d Adam, Charles; Tannery, Paul, eds. (1901), "La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale", Oeuvres de Descartes, vol. X, p. 535. ^ a b c Hintikka, Jaakko (1962). "Cogito, Ergo Sum: Inference or Performance?". The Philosophical Review. 71 (1): 3–32. doi:10.2307/2183678. ISSN 0031-8108. JSTOR 2183678. ^ a b Monte, Jonas (2015). "Sum, Ergo Cogito: Nietzsche Re-orders Decartes" (PDF). aporia.byu.edu. BYU. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2016. ^ Veitch, John (1850). Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking Truth in the Sciences, by Descartes. Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox. pp. 74–5. ^ a b Descartes, René (1911). The Philosophical Works of Descartes, rendered into English. Translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross. Cambridge University Press. ^ Richard Joseph Sullivan (1794). A View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller among the Alps, with Reflections on Atheistical Philosophy now exemplified in France. London: printed for T. Becket. p. 129. ^ a b Descartes, René (1986). Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. Translated by Donald A. Cress. Hackett. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-60384-551-9. ^ Descartes, René (1644). Specimina philosophiae. Ludovicus Elzevirius. p. 30. ^ Vermeulen, Corinna Lucia (2006). "René Descartes, Specimina philosophiae. Introduction and Critical Edition". Quaestiones Infinitae (Dissertation, Utrecht University). 53. hdl:1874/23451. ^ Descartes, René (1642). Meditationes de prima philosophia: in quibus Dei existentia, & animae humanae à corpore distinctio, demonstrantur (in Latin). Apud Danielem Elsevirium. p. 298. ^ Descartes (1647). Principes de la philosophie. Translated by Picot, Abbé Claude. Paris. ISBN 9782711622313. ^ Miller, Valentine Roger; Miller, Reese P. (1983). Descartes, René. Principles of Philosophy. Translated, with explanatory notes. Springer. pp. xi, 5. ISBN 978-90-277-1754-2. ^ Gouhier, Henri (1924), La pensée religieuse de Descartes, p. 319 ^ Descartes, René (1683), Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii ut et Inquisitio Veritatis per Lumen Naturale, p. 86 ^ Hallam, Henry (1843), Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries, vol. II (2nd ed.), p. 451 ^ Stephens, Henry Morse (1892). Mirabeau. Vergniaud. Gensonné. Guadet. Louvet. Cambon (in French). Clarendon Press. p. 9. ^ Thomas, Antoine Léonard (1765). Éloge de René Descartes. E. van Harrevelt. pp. 23–24. ^ Cousin, Victor (1824). Oeuvres de Descartes. ^ The Edinburgh Review for July, 1890 … October, 1890. Leonard Scott Publication Co. 1890. p. 469. ^ Bohemia, Princess Elisabeth of; Descartes, René (2007-11-01). The Correspondence between Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and René Descartes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-20444-4. ^ Veitch, John (1880). The Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles of René Descartes (7th ed.). Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons. p. 115. ^ Kline, George L. (1967). "Randall's Interpretation of the Philosophies of Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz". In John Peter Anton (ed.). Naturalism and Historical Understanding. SUNY Press. p. 85. ^ Schoockius, Martinus (1643), Admiranda Methodus Novae Philosophiae Renati Des Cartes ^ Schoockius, Martinus (1652), De Scepticismo, p. 87 ^ Pope, Rob (2013). Textual Intervention: Critical and Creative Strategies for Literary Studies. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-135-08328-1. ^ Dunlap, J. R. (2006). An Answer Key to A Primer of Ecclesiastical Latin: A Supplement to the Text by John F. Collins. CUA Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-8132-1469-6. ^ Lyons, J. (1982). "Deixis and subjectivity: Loquor, ergo sum?". In Jarvella, Rovert J.; Klein, Wolfgang (eds.). Speech, place, and action: Studies in deixis and related topics. pp. 101–224. ^ Žegarac, Vladimir (1991). Tense, aspect and relevance (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of London. pp. 84, 85. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-18. ^ Banfield, A. (1998). "The Name of the Subject: The "il"?". Yale French Studies (93): 133–174. doi:10.2307/3040735. JSTOR 3040735. ^ Simon Blackburn (1999). Think: A compelling introduction to philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976984-1. "am thinking, therefore". ^ a b c The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Vol. III. Translated by Cottingham, J.; Stoothoff, R.; Kenny, A.; Murdoch, D. Cambridge University Press. 1991. ISBN 978-0-521-42350-2. ^ a b Krauth, Charles Porterfield (1872). "Notes in Class — Descartes". The Penn Monthly. University Press Company. 3: 11. ^ James Edmund Garretson (1873). Thinkers and Thinking. J.B. Lippincott & Company. p. 182. descartes he affirmed thinking. ^ Suzuki, Fumitaka (2012). "The Cogito Proposition of Descartes and Characteristics of His Ego Theory". Aporia.byu.edu. Bulletin of Aichi Univ. of Education. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018. ^ Itao, Alexis Deodato S. (2010). "Paul Ricoeurs hermeneutics of symbols: A critical dialectic of suspicion and faith" (PDF). Kritike. 4 (2): 1–17. doi:10.25138/4.2.a.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-03-24. ^ del Pozo Baños, Marcos (2015). My Mind, My Self, My Identity: A Task-Independent Neural Signature for Biometric Identification (PhD). Universidad De Las Palmas De Gran Canaria. ^ Carpenter, John Michael (2012). Remedying Some Defects in the History of Analyticity (PhD). Florida State University. ^ "Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age | Otha E. Wingo, E. Otha Wingo | download". u1lib.org. p. 16. Archived from the original on 2021-12-25. Retrieved 2021-12-25. ^ Saenger, Paul (1997). Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-4016-6. ^ Clarke, Desmond M. (2015). "Descartes' Biography as a Guide to His Meditations". In Allen Speight (ed.). Narrative, Philosophy and Life. Springer. p. 177. ISBN 978-94-017-9348-3. ^ Descartes, René (1644). Principia Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum Elzevirium. pp. 30, 31. "Ego Cogito ergo sum". ^ Lewes, George Henry (1867). The History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte: Modern philosophy. Longmans, Green, and Company. See replies to the third and fifth series of Objections affixed to his Mediations. ^ The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Vol. II. Translated by Cottingham, J.; Stoothoff, R.; Kenny, A.; Murdoch, D. Cambridge University Press. 1984. ISBN 978-0-521-28808-8. ^ Self, Reason, and Freedom: A New Light on Descartes' Metaphysics Andrea Christofidou; chapter 2 ^ "Definition of Syllogism". 3 October 2015. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. ^ Augustine: The City of God Against the Pagans. Translated by R. W. Dyson. Cambridge University Press. 1998. p. 484. ^ Matthews, Gareth (2019-05-15). "3. The Augustinian Cogito". Thought's Ego in Augustine and Descartes. Cornell University Press. pp. 29–38. doi:10.7591/9781501737152-005. ISBN 978-1-5017-3715-2. S2CID 242208218. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, and Oliver Leaman. 1996. History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. p. 315. ISBN 0-415-13159-6. ^ Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. 1948. Indian Philosophy II. George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 476. ^ Pereira, Gómez. 1749. Antoniana Margarita: "De Immortalitate Animae". p. 277. ^ López, Modesto Santos. 1986. "Gómez Pereira, médico y filósofo medinense." In Historia de Medina del Campo y su Tierra, volumen I: Nacimiento y expansión, edited by E. L. Sanz. ^ a b Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen (1978). Descartes: The Project of Pure Enquiry. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-013840-5. ^ Gassendi, Pierre (1644). Disquisito metaphysica, seu dubitationes et instantiae adversus Renati Cartesii metaphysicam et responsa (in Latin). Vrin. ^ Fisher, Saul. 2013. "Pierre Gassendi" (revised ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 17 June 2020. ^ a b Kierkegaard, Søren. 1985. Philosophical Fragments, translated by P. Hong. ^ Schönbaumsfeld, Genia. A Confusion of the Spheres. Oxford, 2007. p. 168-170. ^ Archie, Lee C. 2006. "Søren Kierkegaard, 'God's Existence Cannot Be Proved'." In Philosophy of Religion. Lander Philosophy. ^ Heidegger, Martin; Kisiel, Theodore (1985). History of the Concept of Time: Prolegomena. Indiana University Press. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-253-32730-7. JSTOR j.ctt16gzbw5. ^ Macmurray, John. 1991. The Self as Agent. Humanity Books. p. 78. Further reading Abraham, W. E. 1974. "Disentangling the Cogito." Mind 83:329. Baird, Forrest E., and Walter Kaufmann. 2008. From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1. Boufoy-Bastick, Z. 2005. "Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge." Sophia Journal of Philosophy 8:39–52. Christofidou, A. 2013. Self, Reason, and Freedom: A New Light on Descartes' Metaphysics. Routledge. Hatfield, G. 2003. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11192-7. Kierkegaard, Søren. 1985. Philosophical Fragments. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-02036-5. — 1985. Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-02081-5. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Cogito, ergo sum. Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Descartes's Epistemology". 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"I Think, Therefore I Am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Think,_Therefore_I_Am"},{"link_name":"Therefore I Am (song)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therefore_I_Am_(song)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-better_translation-1"},{"link_name":"first principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_principle"},{"link_name":"René Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Discourse on the Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Principles of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Meditations on First Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"dictum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictum"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"margin note","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalia"},{"link_name":"doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt"},{"link_name":"existence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence"},{"link_name":"The Search for Truth by Natural Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Search_for_Truth_by_Natural_Light"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AT-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hintikka-5"},{"link_name":"Antoine Léonard Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_L%C3%A9onard_Thomas"},{"link_name":"think","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Western philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy"},{"link_name":"certain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certainty"},{"link_name":"foundation for knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"radical doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_skepticism"},{"link_name":"thinking entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"self","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self"},{"link_name":"Pierre Gassendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thinkingisoccurring-7"}],"text":"\"I think, therefore I am\" redirects here. For the R. Dean Taylor album, see I Think, Therefore I Am. For the Billie Eilish song, see Therefore I Am (song).The Latin cogito, ergo sum, usually translated into English as \"I think, therefore I am\",[a] is the \"first principle\" of René Descartes's philosophy. He originally published it in French as je pense, donc je suis in his 1637 Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed.[1] It later appeared in Latin in his Principles of Philosophy, and a similar phrase also featured prominently in his Meditations on First Philosophy. The dictum is also sometimes referred to as the cogito.[2] As Descartes explained in a margin note, \"we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt.\" In the posthumously published The Search for Truth by Natural Light, he expressed this insight as dubito, ergo sum, vel, quod idem est, cogito, ergo sum (\"I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am\").[3][4] Antoine Léonard Thomas, in a 1765 essay in honor of Descartes presented it as dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum (\"I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am\").[b]Descartes's statement became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to provide a certain foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one's own existence served—at minimum—as proof of the reality of one's own mind; there must be a thinking entity—in this case the self—for there to be a thought.One critique of the dictum, first suggested by Pierre Gassendi, is that it presupposes that there is an \"I\" which must be doing the thinking. According to this line of criticism, the most that Descartes was entitled to say was that \"thinking is occurring\", not that \"I am thinking\".[5]","title":"Cogito, ergo sum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Discourse on the Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method"},{"link_name":"Meditations on First Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Principles of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy"}],"text":"Descartes first wrote the phrase in French in his 1637 Discourse on the Method. He referred to it in Latin without explicitly stating the familiar form of the phrase in his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy. The earliest written record of the phrase in Latin is in his 1644 Principles of Philosophy, where, in a margin note (see below), he provides a clear explanation of his intent: \"[W]e cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt\". Fuller forms of the phrase are attributable to other authors.","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Discourse on the Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method"}],"sub_title":"Discourse on the Method","text":"The phrase first appeared (in French) in Descartes's 1637 Discourse on the Method in the first paragraph of its fourth part:","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Meditations on first philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_first_philosophy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Meditations on First Philosophy","text":"In 1641, Descartes published (in Latin) Meditations on first philosophy in which he referred to the proposition, though not explicitly as \"cogito, ergo sum\" in Meditation II:[12]","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Principles of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"margin note","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalia"}],"sub_title":"Principles of Philosophy","text":"In 1644, Descartes published (in Latin) his Principles of Philosophy where the phrase \"ego cogito, ergo sum\" appears in Part 1, article 7:Descartes's margin note for the above paragraph is:","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AT-4"},{"link_name":"[n]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hintikka-5"}],"sub_title":"The Search for Truth by Natural Light","text":"Descartes, in a lesser-known posthumously published work dated as written ca. 1647[15] and titled La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale (The Search for Truth by Natural Light),[3][n] provides his only known phrasing of the cogito as cogito, ergo sum and admits that his insight is also expressible as dubito, ergo sum:[4]","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Antoine Léonard Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_L%C3%A9onard_Thomas"},{"link_name":"[p]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[q]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[r]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[s]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kline1967-43"},{"link_name":"[t]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Other forms","text":"The proposition is sometimes given as dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum. This form was penned by the French literary critic, Antoine Léonard Thomas,[p] in an award-winning 1765 essay in praise of Descartes, where it appeared as \"Puisque je doute, je pense; puisque je pense, j'existe\" ('Since I doubt, I think; since I think, I exist'). With rearrangement and compaction, the passage translates to \"I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am,\" or in Latin, \"dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum.\"[q] This aptly captures Descartes's intent as expressed in his posthumously published La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale as noted above: I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am.A further expansion, dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum—res cogitans (\"…—a thinking thing\") extends the cogito with Descartes's statement in the subsequent Meditation, \"Ego sum res cogitans, id est dubitans, affirmans, negans, pauca intelligens, multa ignorans, volens, nolens, imaginans etiam et sentiens…\" (\"I am a thinking [conscious] thing, that is, a being who doubts, affirms, denies, knows a few objects, and is ignorant of many,-- who loves, hates,[r] wills, refuses, who imagines likewise, and perceives\").[s] This has been referred to as \"the expanded cogito.\"[24][t]","title":"In Descartes's writings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Translation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"simple present","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_present"},{"link_name":"progressive aspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[u]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"aspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"John Lyons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lyons_(linguist)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"gnomic aspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnomic_aspect"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Ann Banfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Banfield"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Simon Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blackburn1999-53"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSMK_III-54"},{"link_name":"Charles Porterfield Krauth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Porterfield_Krauth"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krauth-55"},{"link_name":"[v]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"\"I am thinking\" vs. \"I think\"","text":"While the Latin cōgitō may be translated rather easily as \"I think/ponder/visualize\", je pense does not indicate whether the verb form corresponds to the English simple present or progressive aspect.[27] Technically speaking, the French lemma pense by itself is actually the result of numerous different conjugations of the verb penser (to think) – it could mean \"I think... (something)\"/\"He thinks... (something)\", \"I think.\"/\"He thinks.\", or even \"You (must) think... (something).\",[u] thereby necessitating the use of the wider context, or a pronoun, to understand the meaning. In the case of je pense, a pronoun is already included, je or \"I\", but this still leaves the question of whether \"I think...\" or \"I think.\" is intended. Therefore, translation needs a larger context to determine aspect.[28]Following John Lyons (1982),[29] Vladimir Žegarac notes, \"The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of cogito as habitual or generic\" (cf. gnomic aspect).[30] Also following Lyons, Ann Banfield writes, \"In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge,… its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive,… not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of the Latin or French present tense in such nongeneric, nonstative contexts.\"[31] Or in the words of Simon Blackburn, \"Descartes's premise is not 'I think' in the sense of 'I ski', which can be true even if you are not at the moment skiing. It is supposed to be parallel to 'I am skiing'.\"[32]The similar translation \"I am thinking, therefore I exist\" of Descartes's correspondence in French (\"je pense, donc je suis\") appears in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes by Cottingham et al. (1988).[33]: 247The earliest known translation as \"I am thinking, therefore I am\" is from 1872 by Charles Porterfield Krauth.[34][v]Fumitaka Suzuki writes \"Taking consideration of Cartesian theory of continuous creation, which theory was developed especially in the Meditations and in the Principles, we would assure that 'I am thinking, therefore I am/exist' is the most appropriate English translation of 'ego cogito, ergo sum'.\"[36]","title":"Translation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"\"I exist\" vs. \"I am\"","text":"Alexis Deodato S. Itao notes that cogito, ergo sum is \"literally 'I think, therefore I am'.\"[37] Others differ: 1) \"[A] precise English translation will read as 'I am thinking, therefore I exist'.;[38] and 2) \"[S]ince Descartes ... emphasized that existence is such an important 'notion,' a better translation is 'I am thinking, therefore I exist.'\"[39]","title":"Translation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Search for Truth by Natural Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Search_for_Truth_by_Natural_Light"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AT-4"},{"link_name":"Classical Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latin"},{"link_name":"[w]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Principia Philosophiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Descartes1644-66"}],"sub_title":"Punctuation","text":"Descartes wrote this phrase as such only once, in the posthumously published lesser-known work noted above, The Search for Truth by Natural Light.[3] It appeared there mid-sentence, uncapitalized, and with a comma. (Commas were not used in Classical Latin[w] but were a regular feature of scholastic Latin,[41] the Latin Descartes \"had learned in a Jesuit college at La Flèche.\"[42]) Most modern reference works show it with a comma, but it is often presented without a comma in academic work and in popular usage. In Descartes's Principia Philosophiae, the proposition appears as ego cogito, ergo sum.[43]","title":"Translation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Krauth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Porterfield_Krauth"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krauth-55"},{"link_name":"Meditations on First Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"necessarily true","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_truth"},{"link_name":"George Henry Lewes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Henry_Lewes"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"evil demon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_demon"},{"link_name":"[x]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbreviations-69"},{"link_name":"instantiation principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instantiation_principle"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[x]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbreviations-69"},{"link_name":"Étienne Gilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson"},{"link_name":"Baruch Spinoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza"},{"link_name":"Principia philosophiae cartesianae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principia_philosophiae_cartesianae"},{"link_name":"substance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_theory"},{"link_name":"ontological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology"}],"text":"As put succinctly by Krauth (1872), \"That cannot doubt which does not think, and that cannot think which does not exist. I doubt, I think, I exist.\"[34]The phrase cogito, ergo sum is not used in Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy but the term \"the cogito\" is used to refer to an argument from it. In the Meditations, Descartes phrases the conclusion of the argument as \"that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind\" (Meditation II). George Henry Lewes says Descartes \"has told us that [his objective] was to find a starting point from which to reason—to find an irreversible certainty. And where did he find this? In his own consciousness. Doubt as I may, I cannot doubt of my own existence, because my very doubts reveal to me a something which doubts. You may call this an assumption, if you will; I point out the fact as one above and beyond all logic; which logic can neither prove nor disprove; but which must always remain an irreversible certainty, and as such a fitting basis of philosophy.\"[44]At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt—his argument from the existence of a deceiving god—Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one's belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived.But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I, too, do not exist? No. If I convinced myself of something [or thought anything at all], then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who deliberately and constantly deceives me. In that case, I, too, undoubtedly exist, if he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. (AT VII 25; CSM II 16–17)[x]There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view — he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition \"I am, I exist\" is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to discover further truths.[46] As he puts it:Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakable. (AT VII 24; CSM II 16)[x]According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion — the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito—a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see—but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence.\nBaruch Spinoza in \"Principia philosophiae cartesianae\" at its Prolegomenon identified \"cogito ergo sum\" the \"ego sum cogitans\" (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation.","title":"Interpretation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"Nicomachean Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics"},{"link_name":"syllogism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism"},{"link_name":"beings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Parmenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides"},{"link_name":"Augustine of Hippo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo"},{"link_name":"De Civitate Dei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_God_(book)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[y]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Isaac Beeckman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Beeckman"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSMK_III-54"},{"link_name":"Avicenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna"},{"link_name":"Floating Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_man"},{"link_name":"thought experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment"},{"link_name":"self-awareness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness"},{"link_name":"self-consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-consciousness"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leaman-75"},{"link_name":"Adi Shankara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Shankara"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Radhakrishnan.S-76"},{"link_name":"Gómez Pereira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B3mez_Pereira"},{"link_name":"De Inmortalitate Animae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B3mez_Pereira#The_immortality_of_the_soul"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"text":"Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Plato spoke about the \"knowledge of knowledge\" (Greek: νόησις νοήσεως, nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length:But if life itself is good and pleasant…and if one who sees is conscious that he sees, one who hears that he hears, one who walks that he walks and similarly for all the other human activities there is a faculty that is conscious of their exercise, so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious that we perceive, and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think, and to be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious that we exist... (Nicomachean Ethics, 1170a 25 ff.)The Cartesian statement was interpreted to be an Aristotelian syllogism where the premise that all thinkers are also beings is not made explicit.[47]In the late sixth or early fifth century BC, Parmenides is quoted as saying \"For to be aware and to be are the same\". (Fragment B3)In the early fifth century AD, Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei (book XI, 26) affirmed his certain knowledge of his own existence, and added: \"So far as these truths are concerned, I do not at all fear the arguments of the Academics when they say, What if you are mistaken? For if I am mistaken, I exist.\"[48][y] This formulation (si fallor, sum) is sometimes called the Augustinian cogito.[49] In 1640, Descartes wrote to thank Andreas Colvius (a friend of Descartes's mentor, Isaac Beeckman) for drawing his attention to Augustine:I am obliged to you for drawing my attention to the passage of St Augustine relevant to my I am thinking, therefore I exist. I went today to the library of this town to read it, and I do indeed find that he does use it to prove the certainty of our existence. He goes on to show that there is a certain likeness of the Trinity in us, in that we exist, we know that we exist, and we love the existence and the knowledge we have. I, on the other hand, use the argument to show that this I which is thinking is an immaterial substance with no bodily element. These are two very different things. In itself it is such a simple and natural thing to infer that one exists from the fact that one is doubting that it could have occurred to any writer. But I am very glad to find myself in agreement with St Augustine, if only to hush the little minds who have tried to find fault with the principle.[33]: 159Another predecessor was Avicenna's \"Floating Man\" thought experiment on human self-awareness and self-consciousness.[50]The 8th century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara wrote, in a similar fashion, that no one thinks 'I am not', arguing that one's existence cannot be doubted, as there must be someone there to doubt.[51]Spanish philosopher Gómez Pereira in his 1554 work De Inmortalitate Animae, wrote \"nosco me aliquid noscere, & quidquid noscit, est, ergo ego sum\" ('I know that I know something, anyone who knows is, therefore I am').[52][53]","title":"Predecessors"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bernard Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Williams"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-79"},{"link_name":"Pierre Gassendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Georg Lichtenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche"},{"link_name":"impersonal subject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummy_pronoun"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thinkingisoccurring-7"}],"sub_title":"Use of \"I\"","text":"In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue.[54] The first to raise the \"I\" problem was Pierre Gassendi, who in his Disquisitio Metaphysica,[55] as noted by Saul Fisher \"points out that recognition that one has a set of thoughts does not imply that one is a particular thinker or another. …[T]he only claim that is indubitable here is the agent-independent claim that there is cognitive activity present.\"[56]The objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: \"thinking is occurring.\" That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the \"I,\" is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an \"I\", that there is such an activity as \"thinking\", and that \"I\" know what \"thinking\" is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be \"it thinks\" wherein the \"it\" could be an impersonal subject as in the sentence \"It is raining.\"[5]","title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Søren Kierkegaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"link_name":"tautology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Concluding Unscientific Postscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-82"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-82"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"sub_title":"Kierkegaard","text":"The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard calls the phrase a tautology in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript.[57]: 38–42  He argues that the cogito already presupposes the existence of \"I\", and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard's argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise \"I think\" into the premises \"'x' thinks\" and \"I am that 'x'\", where \"x\" is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the \"I\" from the thinking thing.[58]Here, the cogito has already assumed the \"I\"'s existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely \"developing the content of a concept\", namely that the \"I\", which already exists, thinks.[57]: 40  As Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking.[59]","title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"third-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person"},{"link_name":"objective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"introspection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-79"}],"sub_title":"Williams","text":"Bernard Williams claims that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say \"I am thinking,\" is something conceivable from a third-person perspective—namely objective \"thought-events\" in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of \"there is thinking\" without relativizing it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind.[54]","title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cartesian subjectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_Self"},{"link_name":"Heidegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidegger"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Dasein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasein"}],"sub_title":"Heidegger","text":"As a critic of Cartesian subjectivity, Heidegger sought to ground human subjectivity in death as that certainty which individualizes and authenticates our being. As he wrote in 1925 in History of the Concept of Time:[60]This certainty, that \"I myself am in that I will die,\" is the basic certainty of Dasein itself. It is a genuine statement of Dasein, while cogito sum is only the semblance of such a statement. If such pointed formulations mean anything at all, then the appropriate statement pertaining to Dasein in its being would have to be sum moribundus [I am in dying], moribundus not as someone gravely ill or wounded, but insofar as I am, I am moribundus. The MORIBUNDUS first gives the SUM its sense.","title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Macmurray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Macmurray"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unity"}],"sub_title":"John Macmurray","text":"The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejects the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitles the Form of the Personal. \"We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality.\"[61] The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost, thus dissolving the integrity of our selves, and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of \"I do\" for \"I think,\" ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation.","title":"Critique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-better_translation_1-0"},{"link_name":"§ Translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Translation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Other forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum#Other_forms"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting_8-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting_8-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting_8-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting_8-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting2_9-0"},{"link_name":"Middle French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_French"},{"link_name":"Modern French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_French"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86069594/f37.item.zoom"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Veitch1850-11"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haldane1911-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sullivan1794-13"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cress1986-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Descartes1644Specimina-16"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeulen2006-17"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting3_20-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-formatting3_20-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cress1986-14"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haldane1911-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hintikka-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=nHBTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3&q=%22ego%20cogito%22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-GutPrinc4391_27-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-GutPrinc4391_27-1"},{"link_name":"The Principles of Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.org/ebooks/4391"},{"link_name":"Project Gutenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas1765-35"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cousin1824-36"},{"link_name":"Victor Cousin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Cousin"},{"link_name":"more accessible format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gutenberg.org/files/13846/13846-h/13846-h.htm"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edinburgh1890-37"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Descartes2007-38"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-42"},{"link_name":"Veitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Veitch_(poet)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Veitch1880-41"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"Martin Schoock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Schoock"},{"link_name":"Gisbertus Voetius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisbertus_Voetius"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"conjugation.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.the-conjugation.com/french/verb/penser.php"},{"link_name":"Wiktionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cogito#Inflection"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garretson1873-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-63"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-abbreviations_69-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-abbreviations_69-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AT-4"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSM_II-68"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSMK_III-54"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-73"},{"link_name":"Enchiridion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Augustine"}],"text":"^ Some sources offer \"I am thinking, therefore I am\" as a better translation. (See § Translation.)\n\n^ This expression is often mistakenly attributed to Descartes. (See Other forms.)\n\n^ a b c d e Cogito variant highlighted to facilitate comparison; the phrase was italicized in the original.\n\n^ Capitalization as in original; spelling updated from Middle French to Modern French.\n\n^ See original Discours manuscript here.\n\n^ This translation, by Veitch in 1850,[6] is modified here as follows: Veitch's \"I think, hence I am\" is changed to the form by which it is currently best known in English, \"I think, therefore I am\", which appeared in the Haldane and Ross 1911 translation,[7]: 100  and as an isolated attributed phrase previously, e.g., in Sullivan (1794);[8] in the preceding line, Veitch's \"I, who thus thought, should be somewhat\" is given here as \"… should be something\" for clarity (in accord with other translations, e.g., that of Cress[9]); and capitalization was reverted to conform to Descartes's original in French.\n\n^ The 1637 Discours was translated to Latin in the 1644 Specimina Philosophiae[10] but this is not referenced here because of issues raised regarding translation quality.[11]\n\n^ a b Cogito variant highlighted to facilitate comparison; capitalization as in original.\n\n^ This combines, for clarity and to retain phrase ordering, the Cress[9] and Haldane[7]: 150  translations.\n\n^ Jaako Hintikka comments that ego sum, ego existo is the simplest example of an \"existentially self-verifying\" sentence, i.e., one whose negation verifies itself \"when … expressly uttered or otherwise professed\"; and that ego sum is an alternative to cogito, ergo sum to express \"the existential inconsistency of the sentence 'I don't exist' and the existential self-verifiability of 'I exist'\".[4]\n\n^ See original Principia manuscript here.\n\n^ A 1647 French translation,[13] published with Descartes's enthusiastic approval, substituted 'conclusion' for 'knowledge'.[14]\n\n^ a b Translation from The Principles of Philosophy at Project Gutenberg.\n\n^ Titled Inquisitio Veritatis per Lumen Naturale in a 1683 compendium of posthumously published works.[16]\n\n^ Translation by Hallam,[17] with additions for completeness.\n\n^ Thomas was known in his time for his great eloquence especially for éloges in praise of past luminaries.[18]\n\n^ The 1765 work, Éloge de René Descartes,[19] by Antoine Léonard Thomas, was awarded the 1765 Le Prix De L'académie Française and republished in the 1826 compilation of Descartes's work, Oeuvres de Descartes[20] by Victor Cousin. The French text is available in more accessible format at Project Gutenberg. The compilation by Cousin is credited with a revival of interest in Descartes.[21][22]\n\n^ the French adds \"loves, hates\"; hence Veitch's inclusion despite its absence from the Latin here. see Cottingham, J. (ed), 1986, \"Meditations on First Philosophy, with selections from Objections and Replies\", p.24fn1.\n\n^ This translation by Veitch[23] is the first English translation from Descartes as \"I am a thinking thing\".\n\n^ Martin Schoock, in the 1642–43 controversy between Descartes and Gisbertus Voetius, fiercely attacked Descartes and his philosophy in an essay.[25]\nHe wrote cogito, ergo sum, res cogitans and cogito, inquiro, dubito ergo sum as well as cogito, ergo sum (multiple times) in his 1652 De Scepticismo.[26]\n\n^ The tense of je pense is marked indicatif présent by e.g., conjugation.com; cōgitō is indicative active present per e.g., Wiktionary.\n\n^ Krauth is not explicitly acknowledged as author of this article, but is so identified the following year by Garretson.[35]\n\n^ See Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age.[40]\n\n^ a b AT refers to Adams and Tannery;[3] CSM II to Cottingham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch;[45] CSMK III to Cottingham, Stoothoff, Murdoch, and Kenny[33]\n\n^ Augustine makes a similar argument in the Enchiridion, ch. 7, sec. 20.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abraham, W. E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Emmanuel_Abraham"},{"link_name":"Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Walter Kaufmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"Pearson Prentice Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_Prentice_Hall"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-13-158591-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-11192-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-11192-7"},{"link_name":"Kierkegaard, Søren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"link_name":"Philosophical Fragments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Fragments"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-02036-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02036-5"},{"link_name":"Concluding Unscientific Postscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-02081-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02081-5"}],"text":"Abraham, W. E. 1974. \"Disentangling the Cogito.\" Mind 83:329.\nBaird, Forrest E., and Walter Kaufmann. 2008. From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1.\nBoufoy-Bastick, Z. 2005. \"Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge.\" Sophia Journal of Philosophy 8:39–52.\nChristofidou, A. 2013. Self, Reason, and Freedom: A New Light on Descartes' Metaphysics. Routledge.\nHatfield, G. 2003. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11192-7.\nKierkegaard, Søren. [1844] 1985. Philosophical Fragments. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-02036-5.\n— [1846] 1985. Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-02081-5.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Philosophy portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy"},{"title":"Cartesian doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_doubt"},{"title":"Floating man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_man"},{"title":"Solipsism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism"},{"title":"Academic skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_skepticism"},{"title":"Brain in a vat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat"},{"title":"I Am that I Am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_that_I_Am"},{"title":"Tat Tvam Asi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tat_Tvam_Asi"},{"title":"The Animal That Therefore I Am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Animal_That_Therefore_I_Am"},{"title":"Vertiginous question","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertiginous_question"}]

[{"reference":"Burns, William E. (2001). The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-87436-875-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-875-8","url_text":"978-0-87436-875-8"}]},{"reference":"\"COGITO | Meaning & Definition for UK English | Lexico.com\". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved 2022-07-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210308153135/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cogito","url_text":"\"COGITO | Meaning & Definition for UK English | Lexico.com\""},{"url":"https://www.lexico.com/definition/cogito","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Adam, Charles; Tannery, Paul, eds. (1901), \"La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale\", Oeuvres de Descartes, vol. X, p. 535","urls":[{"url":"https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Descartes_-_%C5%92uvres,_%C3%A9d._Adam_et_Tannery,_X.djvu/535","url_text":"\"La Recherche de la Vérité par La Lumiere Naturale\""}]},{"reference":"Hintikka, Jaakko (1962). \"Cogito, Ergo Sum: Inference or Performance?\". The Philosophical Review. 71 (1): 3–32. doi:10.2307/2183678. ISSN 0031-8108. JSTOR 2183678.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2183678","url_text":"\"Cogito, Ergo Sum: Inference or Performance?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2183678","url_text":"10.2307/2183678"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8108","url_text":"0031-8108"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2183678","url_text":"2183678"}]},{"reference":"Monte, Jonas (2015). \"Sum, Ergo Cogito: Nietzsche Re-orders Decartes\" (PDF). aporia.byu.edu. BYU. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220602112713/https://aporia.byu.edu/pdfs/monte-Sum_ergo_cogito.pdf","url_text":"\"Sum, Ergo Cogito: Nietzsche Re-orders Decartes\""},{"url":"http://aporia.byu.edu/pdfs/monte-Sum_ergo_cogito.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Veitch, John (1850). Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking Truth in the Sciences, by Descartes. Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox. pp. 74–5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Veitch_(poet)","url_text":"Veitch, John"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/Descartes1637DiscourseOnTheMethodTrVeitch1850/Descartes%201637%20Discourse%20tr%20Veitch%201850#page/n77/mode/2up/search/Therefore+I+am","url_text":"Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking Truth in the Sciences, by Descartes"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1911). The Philosophical Works of Descartes, rendered into English. Translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross. Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/philosophicalwor01desc","url_text":"The Philosophical Works of Descartes, rendered into English"}]},{"reference":"Richard Joseph Sullivan (1794). A View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller among the Alps, with Reflections on Atheistical Philosophy now exemplified in France. London: printed for T. Becket. p. 129.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Joseph_Sullivan","url_text":"Richard Joseph Sullivan"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1q00AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA129","url_text":"A View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller among the Alps, with Reflections on Atheistical Philosophy now exemplified in France"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1986). Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. Translated by Donald A. Cress. Hackett. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-60384-551-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=r7F27Ra9ecoC&pg=PA65","url_text":"Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-551-9","url_text":"978-1-60384-551-9"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1644). Specimina philosophiae. Ludovicus Elzevirius. p. 30.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00001403-001","url_text":"Specimina philosophiae"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00001403-001/page/n68","url_text":"30"}]},{"reference":"Vermeulen, Corinna Lucia (2006). \"René Descartes, Specimina philosophiae. Introduction and Critical Edition\". Quaestiones Infinitae (Dissertation, Utrecht University). 53. hdl:1874/23451.","urls":[{"url":"https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/23451","url_text":"\"René Descartes, Specimina philosophiae. Introduction and Critical Edition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F23451","url_text":"1874/23451"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1642). Meditationes de prima philosophia: in quibus Dei existentia, & animae humanae à corpore distinctio, demonstrantur (in Latin). Apud Danielem Elsevirium. p. 298.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=r0APAAAAQAAJ","url_text":"Meditationes de prima philosophia: in quibus Dei existentia, & animae humanae à corpore distinctio, demonstrantur"}]},{"reference":"Descartes (1647). Principes de la philosophie. Translated by Picot, Abbé Claude. Paris. ISBN 9782711622313.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=C7r-GKWF2xoC&q=abbe+Claude+Picot","url_text":"Principes de la philosophie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782711622313","url_text":"9782711622313"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Valentine Roger; Miller, Reese P. (1983). Descartes, René. Principles of Philosophy. Translated, with explanatory notes. Springer. pp. xi, 5. ISBN 978-90-277-1754-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1754-2","url_text":"978-90-277-1754-2"}]},{"reference":"Gouhier, Henri (1924), La pensée religieuse de Descartes, p. 319","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Gouhier","url_text":"Gouhier, Henri"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8Dw1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319","url_text":"La pensée religieuse de Descartes"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1683), Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii ut et Inquisitio Veritatis per Lumen Naturale, p. 86","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes","url_text":"Descartes, René"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XDBnAAAAcAAJ&q=%22dubitatio,+quid+cogitatio%22+cogito&pg=RA2-PA86","url_text":"Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii ut et Inquisitio Veritatis per Lumen Naturale"}]},{"reference":"Hallam, Henry (1843), Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries, vol. II (2nd ed.), p. 451","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M4dZUnDvc1kC&q=%22%27%27%27%27%27I+doubt,+therefore+I+am%27%27%27%27%27,+or+what+is+the+same,+%27%27%27%27%27I+think,+therefore+I+am%27%27%27%27%27,+%22&pg=PA451","url_text":"Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries"}]},{"reference":"Stephens, Henry Morse (1892). 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SUNY Press. p. 85.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Schoockius, Martinus (1643), Admiranda Methodus Novae Philosophiae Renati Des Cartes","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1PQGAAAAcAAJ","url_text":"Admiranda Methodus Novae Philosophiae Renati Des Cartes"}]},{"reference":"Schoockius, Martinus (1652), De Scepticismo, p. 87","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vW5WAAAAcAAJ&q=%22cogito+ergo+fum%22+cogito+-%22ego+cogito%22&pg=PA100","url_text":"De Scepticismo"}]},{"reference":"Pope, Rob (2013). Textual Intervention: Critical and Creative Strategies for Literary Studies. Routledge. p. 35. 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Speech, place, and action: Studies in deixis and related topics. pp. 101–224.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Žegarac, Vladimir (1991). Tense, aspect and relevance (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of London. pp. 84, 85. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1349786/1/363483.pdf","url_text":"Tense, aspect and relevance"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151018113314/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1349786/1/363483.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Banfield, A. (1998). \"The Name of the Subject: The \"il\"?\". Yale French Studies (93): 133–174. doi:10.2307/3040735. JSTOR 3040735.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3040735","url_text":"10.2307/3040735"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3040735","url_text":"3040735"}]},{"reference":"Simon Blackburn (1999). Think: A compelling introduction to philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976984-1. \"am thinking, therefore\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn","url_text":"Simon Blackburn"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/thinkcompellingi00bla_kzi","url_text":"Think: A compelling introduction to philosophy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976984-1","url_text":"978-0-19-976984-1"}]},{"reference":"The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Vol. III. Translated by Cottingham, J.; Stoothoff, R.; Kenny, A.; Murdoch, D. Cambridge University Press. 1991. ISBN 978-0-521-42350-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3RRKISL810C&q=%22The+Philosophical+Writings+of+Descartes%22+Cottingham,+Stoothoff,+Murdoch,+and+Kenny","url_text":"The Philosophical Writings of Descartes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42350-2","url_text":"978-0-521-42350-2"}]},{"reference":"Krauth, Charles Porterfield (1872). \"Notes in Class — Descartes\". The Penn Monthly. University Press Company. 3: 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=T75OAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA11","url_text":"\"Notes in Class — Descartes\""}]},{"reference":"James Edmund Garretson (1873). Thinkers and Thinking. J.B. Lippincott & Company. p. 182. descartes he affirmed thinking.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/thinkersandthin00garrgoog","url_text":"Thinkers and Thinking"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/thinkersandthin00garrgoog/page/n187","url_text":"182"}]},{"reference":"Suzuki, Fumitaka (2012). \"The Cogito Proposition of Descartes and Characteristics of His Ego Theory\". Aporia.byu.edu. Bulletin of Aichi Univ. of Education. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180510050634/https://aue.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=106&item_no=1&attribute_id=15&file_no=1","url_text":"\"The Cogito Proposition of Descartes and Characteristics of His Ego Theory\""},{"url":"https://aue.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=106&item_no=1&attribute_id=15&file_no=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Itao, Alexis Deodato S. (2010). \"Paul Ricoeurs hermeneutics of symbols: A critical dialectic of suspicion and faith\" (PDF). Kritike. 4 (2): 1–17. doi:10.25138/4.2.a.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_8/itao_december2010.pdf","url_text":"\"Paul Ricoeurs hermeneutics of symbols: A critical dialectic of suspicion and faith\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.25138%2F4.2.a.1","url_text":"10.25138/4.2.a.1"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120324060809/http://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_8/itao_december2010.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"del Pozo Baños, Marcos (2015). My Mind, My Self, My Identity: A Task-Independent Neural Signature for Biometric Identification (PhD). Universidad De Las Palmas De Gran Canaria.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Carpenter, John Michael (2012). Remedying Some Defects in the History of Analyticity (PhD). Florida State University.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age | Otha E. Wingo, E. Otha Wingo | download\". u1lib.org. p. 16. Archived from the original on 2021-12-25. Retrieved 2021-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://u1lib.org/book/2832553/98631c","url_text":"\"Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age | Otha E. Wingo, E. Otha Wingo | download\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211225053605/https://u1lib.org/book/2832553/98631c","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Saenger, Paul (1997). Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-4016-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=w3vZaFoaa3EC&pg=PA1","url_text":"Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4016-6","url_text":"978-0-8047-4016-6"}]},{"reference":"Clarke, Desmond M. (2015). \"Descartes' Biography as a Guide to His Meditations\". In Allen Speight (ed.). Narrative, Philosophy and Life. Springer. p. 177. ISBN 978-94-017-9348-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_I-aBQAAQBAJ&q=%22the+only+Latin%22","url_text":"Narrative, Philosophy and Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9348-3","url_text":"978-94-017-9348-3"}]},{"reference":"Descartes, René (1644). Principia Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum Elzevirium. pp. 30, 31. \"Ego Cogito ergo sum\".","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00001403-001","url_text":"Principia Philosophiae"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00001403-001/page/n68","url_text":"30"}]},{"reference":"Lewes, George Henry (1867). The History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte: Modern philosophy. Longmans, Green, and Company. See [Descartes's] replies to the third and fifth series of Objections affixed to his Mediations.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=de8eP3HJIe8C&pg=PA142","url_text":"The History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte: Modern philosophy"}]},{"reference":"The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Vol. II. Translated by Cottingham, J.; Stoothoff, R.; Kenny, A.; Murdoch, D. Cambridge University Press. 1984. ISBN 978-0-521-28808-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5P2lFaM8GgC&q=%22The+Philosophical+Writings+of+Descartes%22&pg=PP9","url_text":"The Philosophical Writings of Descartes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28808-8","url_text":"978-0-521-28808-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of Syllogism\". 3 October 2015. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://literarydevices.com/syllogism/","url_text":"\"Definition of Syllogism\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20210506053835/https://literarydevices.com/syllogism/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Augustine: The City of God Against the Pagans. Translated by R. W. Dyson. Cambridge University Press. 1998. p. 484.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cityofgodagainst0000augu_p2b5/page/484/mode/2up?view=theater","url_text":"Augustine: The City of God Against the Pagans"}]},{"reference":"Matthews, Gareth (2019-05-15). \"3. The Augustinian Cogito\". Thought's Ego in Augustine and Descartes. Cornell University Press. pp. 29–38. doi:10.7591/9781501737152-005. ISBN 978-1-5017-3715-2. S2CID 242208218.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7591/9781501737152-005/html","url_text":"\"3. 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JSTOR j.ctt16gzbw5.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gzbw5","url_text":"History of the Concept of Time: Prolegomena"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-32730-7","url_text":"978-0-253-32730-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gzbw5","url_text":"j.ctt16gzbw5"}]},{"reference":"Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). \"Descartes's Epistemology\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta","url_text":"Zalta, Edward N."},{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/","url_text":"\"Descartes's Epistemology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy","url_text":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Kyburg,_Jr.

Henry E. Kyburg Jr.

["1 Philosophical relatives","2 Theory of probability","3 Acceptance and principles of rational belief","4 References","5 External links"]

American philosopher Henry E. Kyburg Jr. (1928–2007) was Gideon Burbank Professor of Moral Philosophy and Professor of Computer Science at the University of Rochester, New York, and Pace Eminent Scholar at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida. His first faculty posts were at Rockefeller Institute, University of Denver, Wesleyan College, and Wayne State University. Kyburg worked in probability and logic, and is known for his Lottery Paradox (1961). Kyburg also edited Studies in Subjective Probability (1964) with Howard Smokler. Because of this collection's relation to Bayesian probability, Kyburg is often misunderstood to be a Bayesian. His own theory of probability is outlined in Logical Foundations of Statistical Inference (1974), a theory that first found form in his 1961 book Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief (in turn, a work closely related to his doctoral thesis). Kyburg describes his theory as Keynesian and Fisherian (see John Maynard Keynes and Ronald Fisher), a delivery on the promises of Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach for a logical probability based on reference classes, a reaction to Neyman–Pearson statistics (see Jerzy Neyman, Karl Pearson, and Neyman–Pearson lemma), and neutral with respect to Bayesian confirmational conditionalization. On the latter subject, Kyburg had extended discussion in the literature with lifelong friend and colleague Isaac Levi. Kyburg's later major works include Epistemology and Inference (1983), a collection of essays; Theory and Measurement (1984), a response to Krantz–Luce–Suppes–Tversky's Foundations of Measurement; and Science and Reason (1990), which seeks to allay Karl Popper's and Bruno de Finetti's concerns that empirical data could not confirm a universally quantified scientific axiom (e.g., F = ma). Kyburg was Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1982), Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Science (1995), Fellow of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (2002), and recipient of the Butler Medal for Philosophy in Silver from Columbia University, where he received his PhD with Ernest Nagel as his advisor. Kyburg was also a graduate of Yale University and a 1980 Guggenheim Fellow. Kyburg owned a farm in Lyons, New York where he raised Angus cattle with his wife, Sarah, and promoted wind turbine systems for energy-independent farmers. Philosophical relatives Several full professors of philosophy today were once undergraduates of Henry Kyburg, including Daniel Dennett, Robert Stalnaker, Rich Thomason, Teddy Seidenfeld, and William L. Harper. His AI dissertation students were Ronald Loui, Bulent Murtezaoglu, and Choh Man Teng, and postdoctoral visitor Fahiem Bacchus. His philosophy students included daughter Alice Kyburg, Mariam Thalos, Gregory Wheeler, William Harper, Abhaya Nayak, Prashanta Bandyopadhaya, in addition to those listed above. Theory of probability This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Several ideas distinguish Kyburg's Kyburgian or epistemological interpretation of probability: Probability is measured by an interval (some mistake this as an affinity to Dempster–Shafer theory, but Kyburg firmly rejects their rule of combination; his work remained closer to confidence intervals, and was often interpreted by Bayesians as a commitment to a set of distributions, which Kyburg did not repudiate) All probability statements can be traced to direct inference of frequency in a reference class (there can be Bayes-rule calculations upon direct-inference conclusions, but there is nothing like a prior distribution in Kyburg's theory) The reference class is the most specific class with suitable frequency knowledge (this is the Reichenbach rule, which Kyburg made precise; his framework was later reinterpreted as a defeasible reasoning system by John L. Pollock, but Kyburg never intended the calculation of objective probabilities to be shortcut by bounded rationality due to computational imperfection) All probability inferences are based on knowledge of frequencies and properties, not ignorance of frequencies; however, randomness is essentially the lack of knowledge of bias (Kyburg especially rejects the maximum entropist methods of Harold Jeffreys, E.T. Jaynes and other uses of the Principle of Indifference here; and Kyburg disagrees here with Isaac Levi who believes that chance must be positively asserted upon knowledge of relevant physical symmetries) There is no disagreement over the probability once there is agreement on the relevant knowledge; this is an objectivism relativized to an evidential state (i.e., relativized to a set of observed frequencies of properties in a class, and a set of asserted properties of events) Example: Suppose a corpus of Knowledge at a level of acceptance. Contained in this corpus are statements, e is a T1 and e is a T2. The observed frequency of P among T1 is .9. The observed frequency of P among T2 is .4. What is the probability that e is a P? Here, there are two conflicting reference classes, so the probability is either , or some interval combining the .4 and .9, which sometimes is just (but often a different conclusion will be warranted). Adding the knowledge All T1's are T2's now makes T1 the most specific relevant reference class and a dominator of all interfering reference classes. With this universal statement of class inclusion, the probability is , by direct inference from T1. Kyburg's rules apply to conflict and subsumption in complicated partial orders. Acceptance and principles of rational belief Kyburg's inferences are always relativized to a level of acceptance that defines a corpus of morally certain statements. This is like a level of confidence, except that Neyman–Pearson theory is prohibited from retrospective calculation and post-observational acceptance, while Kyburg's epistemological interpretation of probability licenses both. At a level of acceptance, any statement that is more probable than the level of acceptance can be adopted as if it were a certainty. This can create logical inconsistency, which Kyburg illustrated in his famous lottery paradox. In the example above, the calculation that e is a P with probability .9 permits the acceptance of the statement e is a P categorically, at any level of acceptance lower than .9 (assuming also that the calculation was performed at an acceptance level above .9). The interesting tension is that very high levels of acceptance contain few evidentiary statements. They do not even include raw observations of the senses if those senses have often been fooled in the past. Similarly, if a measurement device reports within an interval of error at a rate of .95, then no measurable statements are acceptable at a level above .95, unless the interval of error is widened. Meanwhile, at lower levels of acceptance, so many contradictory statements are acceptable that nothing useful can be derived without inconsistency. Kyburg's treatment of universally quantified sentences is to add them to the Ur-corpus or meaning postulates of the language. There, a statement like F = ma or preference is transitive provides additional inferences at all acceptance levels. In some cases, the addition of an axiom produces predictions that are not refuted by experience. These are the adoptable theoretical postulates (and they must still be ordered by some kind of simplicity). In other cases, the theoretical postulate is in conflict with the evidence and measurement-based observations, so the postulate must be rejected. In this way, Kyburg provides a probability-mediated model of predictive power, scientific theory-formation, the Web of Belief, and linguistic variation. The theory of acceptance mediates the tension between linguistic categorical assertion and probability-based epistemology. References ^ "Henry e. Kyburg - John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation". Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2009-08-15. External links Official Obituary Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Norway France BnF data Catalonia Italy Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Australia Croatia Netherlands Academics CiNii MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project People Trove Other IdRef

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Kyburg Jr. (1928–2007) was Gideon Burbank Professor of Moral Philosophy and Professor of Computer Science at the University of Rochester, New York, and Pace Eminent Scholar at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, Florida. His first faculty posts were at Rockefeller Institute, University of Denver, Wesleyan College, and Wayne State University.Kyburg worked in probability and logic, and is known for his Lottery Paradox (1961). Kyburg also edited Studies in Subjective Probability (1964) with Howard Smokler. Because of this collection's relation to Bayesian probability, Kyburg is often misunderstood to be a Bayesian. His own theory of probability is outlined in Logical Foundations of Statistical Inference (1974), a theory that first found form in his 1961 book Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief (in turn, a work closely related to his doctoral thesis). Kyburg describes his theory as Keynesian and Fisherian (see John Maynard Keynes and Ronald Fisher), a delivery on the promises of Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach for a logical probability based on reference classes, a reaction to Neyman–Pearson statistics (see Jerzy Neyman, Karl Pearson, and Neyman–Pearson lemma), and neutral with respect to Bayesian confirmational conditionalization. On the latter subject, Kyburg had extended discussion in the literature with lifelong friend and colleague Isaac Levi.Kyburg's later major works include Epistemology and Inference (1983), a collection of essays; Theory and Measurement (1984), a response to Krantz–Luce–Suppes–Tversky's Foundations of Measurement; and Science and Reason (1990), which seeks to allay Karl Popper's and Bruno de Finetti's concerns that empirical data could not confirm a universally quantified scientific axiom (e.g., F = ma).Kyburg was Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1982), Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Science (1995), Fellow of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (2002), and recipient of the Butler Medal for Philosophy in Silver from Columbia University, where he received his PhD with Ernest Nagel as his advisor. Kyburg was also a graduate of Yale University and a 1980 Guggenheim Fellow.[1]Kyburg owned a farm in Lyons, New York where he raised Angus cattle with his wife, Sarah, and promoted wind turbine systems for energy-independent farmers.","title":"Henry E. Kyburg Jr."},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Daniel Dennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Dennett"},{"link_name":"Robert Stalnaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stalnaker"},{"link_name":"Ronald Loui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Loui"},{"link_name":"Gregory Wheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Wheeler"}],"text":"Several full professors of philosophy today were once undergraduates of Henry Kyburg, including Daniel Dennett, Robert Stalnaker, Rich Thomason, Teddy Seidenfeld, and William L. Harper.His AI dissertation students were Ronald Loui, Bulent Murtezaoglu, and Choh Man Teng, and postdoctoral visitor Fahiem Bacchus. His philosophy students included daughter Alice Kyburg, Mariam Thalos, Gregory Wheeler, William Harper, Abhaya Nayak, Prashanta Bandyopadhaya, in addition to those listed above.","title":"Philosophical relatives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dempster–Shafer theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dempster%E2%80%93Shafer_theory"},{"link_name":"defeasible reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeasible_reasoning"},{"link_name":"John L. Pollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Pollock"},{"link_name":"bounded rationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality"},{"link_name":"Harold Jeffreys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys"},{"link_name":"E.T. Jaynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.T._Jaynes"},{"link_name":"Principle of Indifference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_Indifference"},{"link_name":"Isaac Levi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Levi"}],"text":"Several ideas distinguish Kyburg's Kyburgian or epistemological interpretation of probability:Probability is measured by an interval (some mistake this as an affinity to Dempster–Shafer theory, but Kyburg firmly rejects their rule of combination; his work remained closer to confidence intervals, and was often interpreted by Bayesians as a commitment to a set of distributions, which Kyburg did not repudiate)\nAll probability statements can be traced to direct inference of frequency in a reference class (there can be Bayes-rule calculations upon direct-inference conclusions, but there is nothing like a prior distribution in Kyburg's theory)\nThe reference class is the most specific class with suitable frequency knowledge (this is the Reichenbach rule, which Kyburg made precise; his framework was later reinterpreted as a defeasible reasoning system by John L. Pollock, but Kyburg never intended the calculation of objective probabilities to be shortcut by bounded rationality due to computational imperfection)\nAll probability inferences are based on knowledge of frequencies and properties, not ignorance of frequencies; however, randomness is essentially the lack of knowledge of bias (Kyburg especially rejects the maximum entropist methods of Harold Jeffreys, E.T. Jaynes and other uses of the Principle of Indifference here; and Kyburg disagrees here with Isaac Levi who believes that chance must be positively asserted upon knowledge of relevant physical symmetries)\nThere is no disagreement over the probability once there is agreement on the relevant knowledge; this is an objectivism relativized to an evidential state (i.e., relativized to a set of observed frequencies of properties in a class, and a set of asserted properties of events)Example: Suppose a corpus of Knowledge at a level of acceptance. Contained in this corpus are statements,e is a T1 and e is a T2.The observedfrequency of P among T1 is .9.The observedfrequency of P among T2 is .4.What is the probability that e is a P?Here, there are two conflicting reference classes, so the probability is either [0, 1], or some interval combining the .4 and .9, which sometimes is just [.4, .9] (but often a different conclusion will be warranted). Adding the knowledgeAll T1's are T2'snow makes T1 the most specific relevant reference class and a dominator of all interfering reference classes. With this universal statement of class inclusion,the probability is [.9, .9], by direct inference from T1.Kyburg's rules apply to conflict and subsumption in complicated partial orders.","title":"Theory of probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lottery paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_paradox"},{"link_name":"meaning postulates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_postulate"},{"link_name":"predictive power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_power"}],"text":"Kyburg's inferences are always relativized to a level of acceptance that defines a corpus of morally certain statements. This is like a level of confidence, except that Neyman–Pearson theory is prohibited from retrospective calculation and post-observational acceptance, while Kyburg's epistemological interpretation of probability licenses both. At a level of acceptance, any statement that is more probable than the level of acceptance can be adopted as if it were a certainty. This can create logical inconsistency, which Kyburg illustrated in his famous lottery paradox.In the example above, the calculation that e is a P with probability .9 permits the acceptance of the statement e is a P categorically, at any level of acceptance lower than .9 (assuming also that the calculation was performed at an acceptance level above .9). The interesting tension is that very high levels of acceptance contain few evidentiary statements. They do not even include raw observations of the senses if those senses have often been fooled in the past. Similarly, if a measurement device reports within an interval of error at a rate of .95, then no measurable statements are acceptable at a level above .95, unless the interval of error is widened. Meanwhile, at lower levels of acceptance, so many contradictory statements are acceptable that nothing useful can be derived without inconsistency.Kyburg's treatment of universally quantified sentences is to add them to the Ur-corpus or meaning postulates of the language. There, a statement like F = ma or preference is transitive provides additional inferences at all acceptance levels. In some cases, the addition of an axiom produces predictions that are not refuted by experience. These are the adoptable theoretical postulates (and they must still be ordered by some kind of simplicity). In other cases, the theoretical postulate is in conflict with the evidence and measurement-based observations, so the postulate must be rejected. In this way, Kyburg provides a probability-mediated model of predictive power, scientific theory-formation, the Web of Belief, and linguistic variation. The theory of acceptance mediates the tension between linguistic categorical assertion and probability-based epistemology.","title":"Acceptance and principles of rational belief"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenik%C9%99nd,_Siazan

Yenikənd, Siazan

["1 References"]

Coordinates: 41°09′54″N 49°05′12″E / 41.16500°N 49.08667°E / 41.16500; 49.08667Municipality in Siazan, AzerbaijanYenikəndMunicipalityYenikəndCoordinates: 41°09′54″N 49°05′12″E / 41.16500°N 49.08667°E / 41.16500; 49.08667Country AzerbaijanRayonSiazanPopulation • Total2,899Time zoneUTC+4 (AZT) • Summer (DST)UTC+5 (AZT) Yenikənd (also, Yenikend) is a village and the most populous municipality, except for the capital Siyəzən, in the Siazan Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 2,899. The municipality consists of the villages of Yenikənd and Kolanı. The Long Wall of Apzut Kawat, a 20-kilometer long Sassanid defensive wall, passes through the village. References ^ "Belediyye Informasiya Sistemi" (in Azerbaijani). Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. Yenikənd, Siazan at GEOnet Names Server vteSiyazan DistrictCapital: Siyazan Agasibeyli Ağbash Allahyarlı Ashaga Fyndygan Balaca Həmyə Beşdam Böyük Həmyə Çarxana Cəndəhar Dağ Quşçu Daşlı Çalğan Dərə Zarat Əlixanlı Əlməkolu Ərziküş Eynibulaq Giləzi Gilgilçay Güneşlı Hacışəkər Hişgədərə Keş Köhnə Quşçu Kolanı Künövşə Məşrif Müşkülqazma Nardaran Orta Çalğan Palkhash Qalaaltı Qalaşıxı Qaragöz Qərəh Qozağacı Sağolcan Sədan Siyəzən Takyaliakty Tuğay Xəndək Yanıq Ələz Yenikənd Yuxarı Ələz Zarat This Siazan Rayon location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Crest

Sandia Crest

["1 Etymology","2 Description","3 History","4 Geology","5 Ecology","6 Climate","7 Climbing","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°12′36.41″N 106°26′55.14″W / 35.2101139°N 106.4486500°W / 35.2101139; -106.4486500Highpoint of the Sandia-Manzano Mountains in New Mexico, United States "Sandia Peak" redirects here. For other uses, see Sandia Peak (disambiguation). This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Sandia CrestCloseup of Sandia Crest from the west, July 2007Highest pointElevation10,679 ft (3,255 m)Prominence4,098 ft (1,249 m)Coordinates35°12′36.41″N 106°26′55.14″W / 35.2101139°N 106.4486500°W / 35.2101139; -106.4486500DimensionsLength5 mi (8 km) N-SNamingEtymologyWatermelon (Spanish)NicknameSandia Peak, the CrestNative namePosu gai hoo-oo (Southern Tiwa)English translation"Where water slides down arroyo"Defining authoritySandia PuebloGeographyCountryUnited StatesStateNew MexicoCountyBernalilloNearest cityAlbuquerqueParent rangeSandia–Manzano MountainsBiomeHudsonian ZoneGeologyFormed byRio Grande riftOrogenyLaramidianAge of rock300 MaMountain typeTilted fault-blockType of rockSedimentaryClimbingEasiest routeGrand Enchantment TrailNormal routeLa Luz TrailAccessAlbuquerque, Sandia Pueblo Sandia Crest, also known locally as Sandia Peak or simply as the Crest, is a mountain ridge that, at 10,679 feet (3,255 m), is the highpoint of the Sandia–Manzano Mountains, and is located in the Sandia Mountains of Bernalillo County, New Mexico, United States. Instead of a true summit or topographic peak, this range climbs to a long ridge line. To the east, the range slopes down from the Crest and merges into the plains below. On the west side of the Crest is a cliff; the range dramatically drops over 4,000 feet (1,000 metres) in elevation over 2 miles (3 kilometres) of horizontal distance to the Rio Grande Valley and city of Albuquerque below. It is within the Sandia Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest. The Crest features a viewing area with a shop and visitor center, telecommunications transmitters, the popular La Luz Trail, the Sandia Mountain Wilderness, and the summit of Sandia Peak Ski Area and the Sandia Peak Tramway, which is the longest aerial tramway in the Americas. Etymology Sandia Crest is named for its host range, the Sandia Mountains. Sandía means "watermelon" in Spanish, and is popularly believed to be a reference to the reddish color of the mountains at sunset. Also, when viewed from the west, the profile of the mountains is a long ridge, with a thin zone of green conifers near the top, suggesting the "rind" of the watermelon. However, as Robert Julyan notes: "the most likely explanation is the one believed by the Sandia Puebloans: the Spaniards, when they encountered the Pueblo in 1540, called it Sandia, because they thought the squash gourds growing there were watermelons, and the name Sandia soon was transferred to the mountains east of the pueblo.", The earliest recorded use of "Sandia Peak" seems to have been from local retired lawyer and skier Robert Nordhaus, who founded La Madera Ski Area in the mountains in 1936. Nordhaus installed the first chairlift to the Crest in 1962, and for the '62–63 ski season, he opened the resort as Sandia Peak Ski Area and applied the name to the summit, a southern spur of the Crest. When Nordhaus opened the tram in 1966, the tram also took the name of "Sandia Peak". Description Part of the parking lot to the viewing area and radio transmitters on Sandia Crest, September 2008 Sandia Crest is a long ridgeline at the highpoint of the Sandia Mountains. The Crest is heavily forested, mostly with spruce and fir. There are communication radio antennae of various radio and television stations situated at the top. Located on the Crest at the western terminus of Sandia Crest Rd (NM 536) is a scenic viewing area, the Sandia Crest House, which includes a gift shop, café, visitor center, plaza, parking lot, restrooms, and informational plaques. Located at the southern spur of the Crest is the summit of Sandia Peak Ski Area. The ski summit is dubbed "Sandia Peak", and features a fine-dining restaurant, TEN 3 (stylized as 10|3), named for the elevation it is situated at, "ten-three" (10,300 feet (3,140 m)). Chairlifts #1-3 service the Crest. View from Sandia Crest on the city of Albuquerque and Sandia Peak Tramway The ski resort also features the Sandia Peak Tramway which takes riders on a 15 minute "flight" from the eastern edge of Albuquerque to Sandia Peak. It is the longest aerial tramway in the Americas, and was the longest in the world from 1966 to 2010. It features the worlds third-longest single span. The Kiwanis Cabin, the ruins of the cabin of the Kiwanis Group of the Civilian Conservation Corps, is located on the Crest between the Sandia Crest House and the ski resort, and is a popular site with hikers. The La Luz Trail connects the Crest to the city, and the Grand Enchantment Trail traverses the crest from north to south. History In 1819, then Governor of Santa Fe de Nuevo México Facundo Melgares established a land grant in the mountains, including the town of San Miguel de Carnuel and the San Antonio Pueblo. The land grant used Sandia Crest as its western boundary. In 1927, the US Forest Service completed a dirt road to Sandia Crest. The roadway was paved in 1960 to improve access to La Madera Ski Area, built in 1936 by Robert Nordhaus (a retired lawyer and father of Nobel Prize-winning economist William Nordhaus) and famous balloonist Ben Abruzzo. The new road turned "several hours of potholes and mud to an easy 45 minute drive" to the resort. In 1962 Nordhaus changed the name of the resort to Sandia Peak Ski Area, the first recorded use of "Sandia Peak". Kiwanis cabin, August 2012 In 1930, the Kiwanis Group of the Civilian Conservation Corps built a stone cabin on the crest in pueblo-style architecture, overlooking the Rio Grande Valley. The ruins of the cabin are today a popular site with hikers. in 1962, regional forester Fred H. Kennedy drafted a recreational use plan that would have dramatically developed the Sandia Mountain Wilderness for primarily recreational use. Included with the plan was Skyline Drive, a scenic highway that would have run for about 8 miles (13 kilometres) from La Madera Ski Area in the south, along the crest line to U.S. Route 85 west of Placitas, a stretch now served by New Mexico State Road 165 via Capulin Canyon. The Albuquerque Wildlife and Conservation Association, the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, and the New Mexico Mountain Club had all registered their opposition by to the plan in 1965. "These organizations felt that the road might have a detrimental effect on the habitat of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. As a result, the project was postponed." Also included with the plan were roadside recreation areas and three aerial tramways. The routing for Skyline Drive was adjusted twice at an August 8, 1966 public meeting, and by autumn of 1969, 5 miles (8 kilometres) of forest along the crest was cleared for the new road. Alarmed locals started a campaign which included postcards and petitions, and successfully halted construction. Author James A. Morris wrote of the construction of the road: "The road clearing, though scarring the mountainside, had its greatest impact upon the minds and sensibilities of many people . . . the ragged swath, nearly two hundred feet wide, zigzagged among the trees down the eastern slope. The soil was exposed, rocks were tumbled about, and stumps with their roots upturned appeared to beseech the Sandia deities for mercy. The mountains themselves would eventually reclaim the land and mend the wound in their flank, but the road would not survive the aroused reaction that opposed the construction of any skyline drive." The scar from the road clearing is still visible on the ground and in satellite images as of 2021. In 1964, Nordhaus was inspired to build an aerial tramway from Albuquerque to the Crest after seeing other trams during a trip to Europe. Bell Engineering of Lucerne, Switzerland, was contracted to design and construct the tramway. Construction lasted two years, and was aided by over 5,000 helicopter trips. Testing took an additional 60 days. It entered service on May 7, 1966. In 2006, the city of Albuquerque celebrated its tricentennial, and installed a display of 300 high-power LED lamps atop the Crest. The display remained on the Crest for 18 months, from April 23, 2005 to October 6, 2006. In 2017, the US Forest Service adopted plans outlined in the Sandia Peak Ski Co.'s 2016 master plan for a "Four Seasons Activity Area" at the Crest, including a food service yurt, two ziplines, and a mountain coaster (a type of tracked sled ride), to be built in the summer of 2022. When finished, it will provide additional year-around recreation at the ski resort. The coaster would have had a station near the tramway terminal on the Crest. It would have been the first mountain coaster in New Mexico and the southernmost in the US at the time. Due to intense local opposition and the high costs expected for evaluating the environmental impact on the mountain, the project was canceled. Sandia Crest above the clouds with Albuquerque in the foreground in 2018 Geology Main article: Rio Grande rift Hudsonian Life Zone Forest along the Crest. The thin white line to the right is the cables of the Sandia Peak Tramway, August 2012. The Sandia Mountains are a fault block range, on the eastern edge of the Rio Grande rift Valley. The Sandias were uplifted in the last ten million years as part of the formation of the Rio Grande rift. They form the eastern boundary of the Albuquerque Basin. The tilting of the block is most obvious from the Crest since it slopes down gently to the east and drops of dramatically to the west. The Great Unconformity is highly visible. The Crest consists mainly of an outcrop of limestone overlaying the Sandia granite, with a radiometric age of 300±12 Ma. Ecology Sandia Crest is located in the Cibola National Forest's Sandia Ranger District. Hudsonian Life Zone coniferous forest dominates the flora present at the Crest. Tree species present on the crest include Engelmann spruce, white fir, and ponderosa pine. Fauna that frequent the crest include elk, mule deer, New Mexico black bears, raccoons, ring-tailed cats, bobcats, and various species of squirrel. Birds present include bald eagles, Steller's jays, pinyon jays, various finches, and canyon wrens Climate Climate data for Sandia Crest 35.2153 N, 106.4521 W, Elevation: 10,433 ft (3,180 m) (1991–2020 normals) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 35.0(1.7) 36.7(2.6) 43.2(6.2) 49.7(9.8) 59.6(15.3) 70.4(21.3) 71.8(22.1) 69.5(20.8) 63.3(17.4) 55.0(12.8) 44.9(7.2) 35.7(2.1) 52.9(11.6) Daily mean °F (°C) 27.0(−2.8) 27.8(−2.3) 33.8(1.0) 36.4(2.4) 45.8(7.7) 55.9(13.3) 58.3(14.6) 56.6(13.7) 50.9(10.5) 42.2(5.7) 36.2(2.3) 27.2(−2.7) 41.5(5.3) Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 18.9(−7.3) 18.8(−7.3) 24.4(−4.2) 23.2(−4.9) 32.0(0.0) 41.4(5.2) 44.8(7.1) 43.8(6.6) 38.4(3.6) 29.4(−1.4) 27.5(−2.5) 18.8(−7.3) 30.1(−1.0) Average precipitation inches (mm) 2.47(63) 2.01(51) 2.48(63) 1.30(33) 0.95(24) 1.08(27) 3.27(83) 3.04(77) 2.42(61) 1.78(45) 1.67(42) 2.14(54) 24.61(623) Source: PRISM Climate Group Climate data for Sandia Crest, New Mexico (1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °F (°C) 48(9) 49(9) 56(13) 60(16) 72(22) 82(28) 84(29) 80(27) 79(26) 71(22) 62(17) 59(15) 84(29) Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 26.8(−2.9) 28.3(−2.1) 32.6(0.3) 42.2(5.7) 53.2(11.8) 63.9(17.7) 66.3(19.1) 62.9(17.2) 57.1(13.9) 47.8(8.8) 36.6(2.6) 29.5(−1.4) 45.6(7.6) Daily mean °F (°C) 20.0(−6.7) 21.2(−6.0) 24.9(−3.9) 33.5(0.8) 43.6(6.4) 53.5(11.9) 56.9(13.8) 54.2(12.3) 48.9(9.4) 40.2(4.6) 29.4(−1.4) 22.5(−5.3) 37.4(3.0) Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 13.1(−10.5) 14.1(−9.9) 17.3(−8.2) 24.7(−4.1) 33.9(1.1) 43.1(6.2) 47.4(8.6) 45.6(7.6) 40.7(4.8) 32.5(0.3) 22.2(−5.4) 15.5(−9.2) 29.2(−1.6) Record low °F (°C) −20(−29) −12(−24) −10(−23) −2(−19) 8(−13) 22(−6) 29(−2) 24(−4) 19(−7) −2(−19) −10(−23) −19(−28) −20(−29) Average precipitation inches (mm) 1.96(50) 1.91(49) 2.34(59) 1.26(32) 0.91(23) 0.95(24) 3.19(81) 3.38(86) 1.82(46) 1.83(46) 1.39(35) 2.01(51) 22.95(582) Average snowfall inches (cm) 19.3(49) 23.0(58) 23.3(59) 10.7(27) 3.8(9.7) 0.1(0.25) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) 0.1(0.25) 5.3(13) 10.0(25) 20.7(53) 116.3(294.2) Source: WRCC Climbing This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2021) Sandia Crest is a popular rock climbing destination. Named climbing structures include the Shield, the Needle, and the Thumb. See also Mountains portal List of mountain peaks of New Mexico Sandia Mountains Manzano Mountains References ^ a b "Popular belief holds that the striped appearance of the rocks or the pinkish reflections of the surfaces at sunset led to the name "watermelon mountains" in Spanish." Pearce, T. M. (1965) "Sandia" New Mexico place names; a geographical dictionary University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM, p. 142, OCLC 420847 ^ a b c "Sandia Mountains". Summit Post. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ Pearce, T. M. (1965) "Sandia" New Mexico place names; a geographical dictionary University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM, p. 143, OCLC 420847 ^ "sandía - Diccionario Inglés-Español WordReference.com". www.wordreference.com. Retrieved 15 April 2018. ^ Julyan, Robert, The Place Names of New Mexico, (revised edition), Albuquerque, NM: UNM Press, 1998. ^ a b c "History of SPSP". Sandia Peak Ski Patrol. Retrieved March 4, 2021. ^ a b "History and Construction". Sandia Peak Tramway. Retrieved March 4, 2021. ^ "Sandia Crest House". Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "An Elevated Dining Experience". TEN 3. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ a b "Kiwanis Cabin Interpretive Site". USDA. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "A History of the Center". Sandia Mountains Natural History Center. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ Davenport, Coral (2014-05-10). "Brothers Battle Climate Change on Two Fronts". The New York Times. ^ a b Smith, Michael Farrell. "Road Warriors". East Mountain Directory. Archived from the original on Apr 21, 2021. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "Skyline Drive". Google Maps. Retrieved March 14, 2021. ^ http://sandiapeak.com/index.php?page=history-technology ^ "Tricentennial Celebration Wraps Up Tonight". KOAT Action 7 News. October 6, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "Albuquerque Tricentennial". Albuquerque Historical Society. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "Sandia Peak Ski Area Mountain Coaster". United States Forest Service. Retrieved March 4, 2021. ^ "Sandia Peak Ski Area 2016 Master Plan" (PDF). US Forest Service. Retrieved March 11, 2021. ^ "Sandia Peak Pumps the Brakes on mountain coaster idea". KOB4 News. August 17, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022. ^ Grambling, Tyler A.; Karlstrom, Karl E.; Holland, Mark E.; Grambling, Nadine L. (2016). "Proterozoic magmatism and regional contact metamorphism in the Sandia-Manzano Mountains, New Mexico, USA" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 67: 169–175. Retrieved 27 May 2020. ^ Grambling et al. 2016, pp. 172–173. ^ "Sandia Mountain Wilderness". Sangres. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University". PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University. Retrieved November 13, 2023. To find the table data on the PRISM website, start by clicking Coordinates (under Location); copy Latitude and Longitude figures from top of table; click Zoom to location; click Precipitation, Minimum temp, Mean temp, Maximum temp; click 30-year normals, 1991-2020; click 800m; click Retrieve Time Series button. ^ Sandia Crest, New Mexico Period of Record General Climate Summary (WRCC) https://wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?nmsanc External links Media related to Sandia Crest at Wikimedia Commons vteMountains of New MexicoBig Burro Mountains Soldiers Farewell Hill Big Hatchet Mountains Big Hatchet Peak Zeller Peak Black Range Black Mountain (Catron County) McKnight Mountain Chuska Mountains Beautiful Mountain Cookes Range Massacre Peak Fra Cristobal Range Fra Cristoblal Mountain Jemez Mountains Cerro Grande Chicoma Mountain Redondo Peak Magdalena Mountains South Baldy Mogollon Mountains Mogollon Baldy Whitewater Baldy Organ Mountains Organ Needle Oscura Mountains Oscura Peak North Oscura Peak Peloncillo Mountains Steins Peak Pyramid Mountains Pyramid Peak Raton-Clayton Volcanic Field Capulin Volcano Sierra Grande Sacramento Mountains Cathey Peak San Andres Mountains Salinas Peak San Augustin Mountains San Mateo Mountains(Cibola County) Mount Taylor West Blue Mountain Sandia–Manzano MountainsManzano Mountains Manzano Peak Sandia Mountains Sandia Crest Sangre de Cristo MountainsCimarron Range Baldy Mountain (Colfax County) Mount Phillips Taos Mountains Gold Hill Ute Mountain Vallecito Mountain Venado Peak Wheeler Peak Others Baldy Mountain (Taos County) Hermit Peak Santa Fe Baldy Truchas Peak Mount Walter Zuñi Mountains Haystack Mountain Mount Sedgwick Others Aden Crater Alamo Hueco Mountains Animas Mountains Brazos Mountains Caballo Mountains Canjilón Mountain Canyon Creek Mountains Capitan Mountains Capulin Peak Cedar Mountain Range Datil Mountains Dirty Point Doña Ana Mountains Eagle Peak East Potrillo Mountains Elephant Butte (Hidalgo County) Elephant Butte (Sierra County) Fajada Butte Florida Mountains Franklin Mountains Granite Peak Guadalupe Mountains Guadalupe Mountains (Hidalgo County) Hosta Butte Hueco Mountains Huérfano Mountain Jicarilla Mountains Jornada del Muerto Volcano Ladron Peak Little Burro Mountains Little Hatchet Mountains Little San Pascual Mountain Luera Mountains Sierra Nacimiento Ocate Peak Ortiz Mountains Picacho Mountain Robledo Mountains San Antonio Mountain San Mateo Mountains (Socorro County) Sierra Aguilada Sierra Blanca Sierra de las Uvas West Potrillo Mountains

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sandia Peak (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Summit_Post-2"},{"link_name":"mountain ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_ridge"},{"link_name":"Sandia–Manzano Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia%E2%80%93Manzano_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Sandia Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Bernalillo County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernalillo_County"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande_Valley_(New_Mexico)"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque"},{"link_name":"Cibola National Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cibola_National_Forest"},{"link_name":"La Luz Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Luz_Trail"},{"link_name":"Sandia Mountain Wilderness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Mountain_Wilderness"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Ski Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Ski_Area"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Tramway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Tramway"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Highpoint of the Sandia-Manzano Mountains in New Mexico, United States\"Sandia Peak\" redirects here. For other uses, see Sandia Peak (disambiguation).Sandia Crest, also known locally as Sandia Peak or simply as the Crest,[2] is a mountain ridge that, at 10,679 feet (3,255 m), is the highpoint of the Sandia–Manzano Mountains, and is located in the Sandia Mountains of Bernalillo County, New Mexico, United States. Instead of a true summit or topographic peak, this range climbs to a long ridge line. To the east, the range slopes down from the Crest and merges into the plains below. On the west side of the Crest is a cliff; the range dramatically drops over 4,000 feet (1,000 metres) in elevation over 2 miles (3 kilometres) of horizontal distance to the Rio Grande Valley and city of Albuquerque below. It is within the Sandia Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest. The Crest features a viewing area with a shop and visitor center, telecommunications transmitters, the popular La Luz Trail, the Sandia Mountain Wilderness, and the summit of Sandia Peak Ski Area and the Sandia Peak Tramway, which is the longest aerial tramway in the Americas.[citation needed]","title":"Sandia Crest"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sandia Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Mountains"},{"link_name":"watermelon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermelon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCLC_420847-1"},{"link_name":"conifers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer"},{"link_name":"Sandia Puebloans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Pueblo"},{"link_name":"squash gourds growing there","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbita_foetidissima"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Ski Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Ski_Area"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPSP_History-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tram_History-7"}],"text":"Sandia Crest is named for its host range, the Sandia Mountains. Sandía means \"watermelon\" in Spanish,[4] and is popularly believed to be a reference to the reddish color of the mountains at sunset.[1] Also, when viewed from the west, the profile of the mountains is a long ridge, with a thin zone of green conifers near the top, suggesting the \"rind\" of the watermelon. However, as Robert Julyan notes: \"the most likely explanation is the one believed by the Sandia Puebloans: the Spaniards, when they encountered the Pueblo in 1540, called it Sandia, because they thought the squash gourds growing there were watermelons, and the name Sandia soon was transferred to the mountains east of the pueblo.\",[5]The earliest recorded use of \"Sandia Peak\" seems to have been from local retired lawyer and skier Robert Nordhaus, who founded La Madera Ski Area in the mountains in 1936. Nordhaus installed the first chairlift to the Crest in 1962, and for the '62–63 ski season, he opened the resort as Sandia Peak Ski Area and applied the name to the summit, a southern spur of the Crest.[6] When Nordhaus opened the tram in 1966, the tram also took the name of \"Sandia Peak\".[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandia_Crest.jpg"},{"link_name":"NM 536","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_536"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sandia_Crest_House-8"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Ski Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Ski_Area"},{"link_name":"Chairlifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairlift"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tram_to_Sandia_Peak,_Albuquerque,_New_Mexico,_USA.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Tramway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Tramway"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Civilian Conservation Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCC-10"},{"link_name":"La Luz Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Luz_Trail"},{"link_name":"Grand Enchantment Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Enchantment_Trail"}],"text":"Part of the parking lot to the viewing area and radio transmitters on Sandia Crest, September 2008Sandia Crest is a long ridgeline at the highpoint of the Sandia Mountains. The Crest is heavily forested, mostly with spruce and fir. There are communication radio antennae of various radio and television stations situated at the top.Located on the Crest at the western terminus of Sandia Crest Rd (NM 536) is a scenic viewing area, the Sandia Crest House, which includes a gift shop, café, visitor center, plaza, parking lot, restrooms, and informational plaques.[8]Located at the southern spur of the Crest is the summit of Sandia Peak Ski Area. The ski summit is dubbed \"Sandia Peak\", and features a fine-dining restaurant, TEN 3 (stylized as 10|3), named for the elevation it is situated at, \"ten-three\" (10,300 feet (3,140 m)). Chairlifts #1-3 service the Crest.[9]View from Sandia Crest on the city of Albuquerque and Sandia Peak TramwayThe ski resort also features the Sandia Peak Tramway which takes riders on a 15 minute \"flight\" from the eastern edge of Albuquerque to Sandia Peak. It is the longest aerial tramway in the Americas, and was the longest in the world from 1966 to 2010. It features the worlds third-longest single span.[citation needed]The Kiwanis Cabin, the ruins of the cabin of the Kiwanis Group of the Civilian Conservation Corps, is located on the Crest between the Sandia Crest House and the ski resort, and is a popular site with hikers.[10] The La Luz Trail connects the Crest to the city, and the Grand Enchantment Trail traverses the crest from north to south.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santa Fe de Nuevo México","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico"},{"link_name":"San Miguel de Carnuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Carnuel"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Centro_Historio-11"},{"link_name":"US Forest Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Forest_Service"},{"link_name":"William Nordhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nordhaus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ben Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPSP_History-6"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Ski Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Ski_Area"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPSP_History-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kiwanis_Cabin_-_Sandia_Crest.JPG"},{"link_name":"pueblo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande_Valley_(New_Mexico)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCC-10"},{"link_name":"Sandia Mountain Wilderness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Mountain_Wilderness"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_85"},{"link_name":"Placitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placitas,_Sandoval_County,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"New Mexico State Road 165","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_165"},{"link_name":"New Mexico Department of Game and Fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_Department_of_Game_and_Fish"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Road_Warriors-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Road_Warriors-13"},{"link_name":"satellite images","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_image"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"aerial tramway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_tramway"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"link_name":"helicopter trips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_crane"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tram_History-7"},{"link_name":"LED lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"US Forest Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Forest_Service"},{"link_name":"yurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurt"},{"link_name":"ziplines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziplines"},{"link_name":"mountain coaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_coaster"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USFS_Coaster-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2016_plan-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pumping_brakes_on_mountain_coaster-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandia_Crest_above_the_clouds.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque"}],"text":"In 1819, then Governor of Santa Fe de Nuevo México Facundo Melgares established a land grant in the mountains, including the town of San Miguel de Carnuel and the San Antonio Pueblo. The land grant used Sandia Crest as its western boundary.[11]In 1927, the US Forest Service completed a dirt road to Sandia Crest. The roadway was paved in 1960 to improve access to La Madera Ski Area, built in 1936 by Robert Nordhaus (a retired lawyer and father of Nobel Prize-winning economist William Nordhaus[12]) and famous balloonist Ben Abruzzo. The new road turned \"several hours of potholes and mud to an easy 45 minute drive\" to the resort.[6] In 1962 Nordhaus changed the name of the resort to Sandia Peak Ski Area, the first recorded use of \"Sandia Peak\".[6]Kiwanis cabin, August 2012In 1930, the Kiwanis Group of the Civilian Conservation Corps built a stone cabin on the crest in pueblo-style architecture, overlooking the Rio Grande Valley. The ruins of the cabin are today a popular site with hikers.[10]in 1962, regional forester Fred H. Kennedy drafted a recreational use plan that would have dramatically developed the Sandia Mountain Wilderness for primarily recreational use. Included with the plan was Skyline Drive, a scenic highway that would have run for about 8 miles (13 kilometres) from La Madera Ski Area in the south, along the crest line to U.S. Route 85 west of Placitas, a stretch now served by New Mexico State Road 165 via Capulin Canyon. The Albuquerque Wildlife and Conservation Association, the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, and the New Mexico Mountain Club had all registered their opposition by to the plan in 1965.\"These organizations felt that the road might have a detrimental effect on the habitat of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. As a result, the project was postponed.\"[13]Also included with the plan were roadside recreation areas and three aerial tramways. The routing for Skyline Drive was adjusted twice at an August 8, 1966 public meeting, and by autumn of 1969, 5 miles (8 kilometres) of forest along the crest was cleared for the new road. Alarmed locals started a campaign which included postcards and petitions, and successfully halted construction. Author James A. Morris wrote of the construction of the road:\"The road clearing, though scarring the mountainside, had its greatest impact upon the minds and sensibilities of many people . . . the ragged swath, nearly two hundred feet wide, zigzagged among the trees down the eastern slope. The soil was exposed, rocks were tumbled about, and stumps with their roots upturned appeared to beseech the Sandia deities for mercy. The mountains themselves would eventually reclaim the land and mend the wound in their flank, but the road would not survive the aroused reaction that opposed the construction of any skyline drive.\"[13]The scar from the road clearing is still visible on the ground and in satellite images as of 2021.[14]In 1964, Nordhaus was inspired to build an aerial tramway from Albuquerque to the Crest after seeing other trams during a trip to Europe.[15] Bell Engineering of Lucerne, Switzerland, was contracted to design and construct the tramway. Construction lasted two years, and was aided by over 5,000 helicopter trips. Testing took an additional 60 days. It entered service on May 7, 1966.[7]In 2006, the city of Albuquerque celebrated its tricentennial, and installed a display of 300 high-power LED lamps atop the Crest.[16] The display remained on the Crest for 18 months, from April 23, 2005 to October 6, 2006.[17]In 2017, the US Forest Service adopted plans outlined in the Sandia Peak Ski Co.'s 2016 master plan for a \"Four Seasons Activity Area\" at the Crest, including a food service yurt, two ziplines, and a mountain coaster (a type of tracked sled ride), to be built in the summer of 2022. When finished, it will provide additional year-around recreation at the ski resort. The coaster would have had a station near the tramway terminal on the Crest. It would have been the first mountain coaster in New Mexico and the southernmost in the US at the time.[18][19] Due to intense local opposition and the high costs expected for evaluating the environmental impact on the mountain, the project was canceled.[20]Sandia Crest above the clouds with Albuquerque in the foreground in 2018","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandia_Crest_-_Looking_East.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sandia Peak Tramway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Peak_Tramway"},{"link_name":"fault block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_block"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande rift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande_rift"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque_Basin"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grambling-etal-2016-21"},{"link_name":"Great Unconformity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Unconformity"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"Sandia granite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_granite"},{"link_name":"Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myr"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGramblingKarlstromHollandGrambling2016172%E2%80%93173-22"}],"text":"Hudsonian Life Zone Forest along the Crest. The thin white line to the right is the cables of the Sandia Peak Tramway, August 2012.The Sandia Mountains are a fault block range, on the eastern edge of the Rio Grande rift Valley. The Sandias were uplifted in the last ten million years as part of the formation of the Rio Grande rift. They form the eastern boundary of the Albuquerque Basin.[21] The tilting of the block is most obvious from the Crest since it slopes down gently to the east and drops of dramatically to the west. The Great Unconformity is highly visible. The Crest consists mainly of an outcrop of limestone overlaying the Sandia granite, with a radiometric age of 300±12 Ma.[22]","title":"Geology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cibola National Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cibola_National_Forest"},{"link_name":"Hudsonian Life Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_zone"},{"link_name":"coniferous forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniferous_forest"},{"link_name":"Engelmann spruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelmann_spruce"},{"link_name":"white fir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_fir"},{"link_name":"ponderosa pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponderosa_pine"},{"link_name":"elk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elk"},{"link_name":"mule deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mule_deer"},{"link_name":"New Mexico black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_black_bear"},{"link_name":"raccoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raccoon"},{"link_name":"ring-tailed cats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring-tailed_cat"},{"link_name":"bobcats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobcat"},{"link_name":"squirrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel"},{"link_name":"bald eagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald_eagle"},{"link_name":"Steller's jays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steller%27s_jay"},{"link_name":"pinyon jays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyon_jay"},{"link_name":"finches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finch"},{"link_name":"canyon wrens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyon_wren"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sangres-23"}],"text":"Sandia Crest is located in the Cibola National Forest's Sandia Ranger District. Hudsonian Life Zone coniferous forest dominates the flora present at the Crest. Tree species present on the crest include Engelmann spruce, white fir, and ponderosa pine.Fauna that frequent the crest include elk, mule deer, New Mexico black bears, raccoons, ring-tailed cats, bobcats, and various species of squirrel. Birds present include bald eagles, Steller's jays, pinyon jays, various finches, and canyon wrens[23]","title":"Ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Climate data for Sandia Crest 35.2153 N, 106.4521 W, Elevation: 10,433 ft (3,180 m) (1991–2020 normals)\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nMean daily maximum °F (°C)\n\n35.0(1.7)\n\n36.7(2.6)\n\n43.2(6.2)\n\n49.7(9.8)\n\n59.6(15.3)\n\n70.4(21.3)\n\n71.8(22.1)\n\n69.5(20.8)\n\n63.3(17.4)\n\n55.0(12.8)\n\n44.9(7.2)\n\n35.7(2.1)\n\n52.9(11.6)\n\n\nDaily mean °F (°C)\n\n27.0(−2.8)\n\n27.8(−2.3)\n\n33.8(1.0)\n\n36.4(2.4)\n\n45.8(7.7)\n\n55.9(13.3)\n\n58.3(14.6)\n\n56.6(13.7)\n\n50.9(10.5)\n\n42.2(5.7)\n\n36.2(2.3)\n\n27.2(−2.7)\n\n41.5(5.3)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °F (°C)\n\n18.9(−7.3)\n\n18.8(−7.3)\n\n24.4(−4.2)\n\n23.2(−4.9)\n\n32.0(0.0)\n\n41.4(5.2)\n\n44.8(7.1)\n\n43.8(6.6)\n\n38.4(3.6)\n\n29.4(−1.4)\n\n27.5(−2.5)\n\n18.8(−7.3)\n\n30.1(−1.0)\n\n\nAverage precipitation inches (mm)\n\n2.47(63)\n\n2.01(51)\n\n2.48(63)\n\n1.30(33)\n\n0.95(24)\n\n1.08(27)\n\n3.27(83)\n\n3.04(77)\n\n2.42(61)\n\n1.78(45)\n\n1.67(42)\n\n2.14(54)\n\n24.61(623)\n\n\nSource: PRISM Climate Group[24]Climate data for Sandia Crest, New Mexico (1981–2010)\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nRecord high °F (°C)\n\n48(9)\n\n49(9)\n\n56(13)\n\n60(16)\n\n72(22)\n\n82(28)\n\n84(29)\n\n80(27)\n\n79(26)\n\n71(22)\n\n62(17)\n\n59(15)\n\n84(29)\n\n\nMean daily maximum °F (°C)\n\n26.8(−2.9)\n\n28.3(−2.1)\n\n32.6(0.3)\n\n42.2(5.7)\n\n53.2(11.8)\n\n63.9(17.7)\n\n66.3(19.1)\n\n62.9(17.2)\n\n57.1(13.9)\n\n47.8(8.8)\n\n36.6(2.6)\n\n29.5(−1.4)\n\n45.6(7.6)\n\n\nDaily mean °F (°C)\n\n20.0(−6.7)\n\n21.2(−6.0)\n\n24.9(−3.9)\n\n33.5(0.8)\n\n43.6(6.4)\n\n53.5(11.9)\n\n56.9(13.8)\n\n54.2(12.3)\n\n48.9(9.4)\n\n40.2(4.6)\n\n29.4(−1.4)\n\n22.5(−5.3)\n\n37.4(3.0)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °F (°C)\n\n13.1(−10.5)\n\n14.1(−9.9)\n\n17.3(−8.2)\n\n24.7(−4.1)\n\n33.9(1.1)\n\n43.1(6.2)\n\n47.4(8.6)\n\n45.6(7.6)\n\n40.7(4.8)\n\n32.5(0.3)\n\n22.2(−5.4)\n\n15.5(−9.2)\n\n29.2(−1.6)\n\n\nRecord low °F (°C)\n\n−20(−29)\n\n−12(−24)\n\n−10(−23)\n\n−2(−19)\n\n8(−13)\n\n22(−6)\n\n29(−2)\n\n24(−4)\n\n19(−7)\n\n−2(−19)\n\n−10(−23)\n\n−19(−28)\n\n−20(−29)\n\n\nAverage precipitation inches (mm)\n\n1.96(50)\n\n1.91(49)\n\n2.34(59)\n\n1.26(32)\n\n0.91(23)\n\n0.95(24)\n\n3.19(81)\n\n3.38(86)\n\n1.82(46)\n\n1.83(46)\n\n1.39(35)\n\n2.01(51)\n\n22.95(582)\n\n\nAverage snowfall inches (cm)\n\n19.3(49)\n\n23.0(58)\n\n23.3(59)\n\n10.7(27)\n\n3.8(9.7)\n\n0.1(0.25)\n\n0.0(0.0)\n\n0.0(0.0)\n\n0.1(0.25)\n\n5.3(13)\n\n10.0(25)\n\n20.7(53)\n\n116.3(294.2)\n\n\nSource: WRCC[25]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rock climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_climbing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Summit_Post-2"}],"text":"Sandia Crest is a popular rock climbing destination. Named climbing structures include the Shield, the Needle, and the Thumb.[2]","title":"Climbing"}]

[{"image_text":"Part of the parking lot to the viewing area and radio transmitters on Sandia Crest, September 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Sandia_Crest.jpg/220px-Sandia_Crest.jpg"},{"image_text":"View from Sandia Crest on the city of Albuquerque and Sandia Peak Tramway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tram_to_Sandia_Peak%2C_Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%2C_USA.jpg/220px-Tram_to_Sandia_Peak%2C_Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%2C_USA.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kiwanis cabin, August 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Kiwanis_Cabin_-_Sandia_Crest.JPG/220px-Kiwanis_Cabin_-_Sandia_Crest.JPG"},{"image_text":"Sandia Crest above the clouds with Albuquerque in the foreground in 2018","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Sandia_Crest_above_the_clouds.jpg/800px-Sandia_Crest_above_the_clouds.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hudsonian Life Zone Forest along the Crest. The thin white line to the right is the cables of the Sandia Peak Tramway, August 2012.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Sandia_Crest_-_Looking_East.JPG/220px-Sandia_Crest_-_Looking_East.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Mountains portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mountains"},{"title":"List of mountain peaks of New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_New_Mexico"},{"title":"Sandia Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_Mountains"},{"title":"Manzano Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzano_Mountains"}]

[{"reference":"\"Sandia Mountains\". Summit Post. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.summitpost.org/sandia-mountains/415737","url_text":"\"Sandia Mountains\""}]},{"reference":"\"sandía - Diccionario Inglés-Español WordReference.com\". www.wordreference.com. Retrieved 15 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wordreference.com/es/en/translation.asp?spen=sand%C3%ADa+&v=js","url_text":"\"sandía - Diccionario Inglés-Español WordReference.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of SPSP\". Sandia Peak Ski Patrol. Retrieved March 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sandiapeakskipatrol.org/history/index.php","url_text":"\"History of SPSP\""}]},{"reference":"\"History and Construction\". Sandia Peak Tramway. Retrieved March 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://sandiapeak.com/history-construction/","url_text":"\"History and Construction\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sandia Crest House\". Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sandiacresthouse.com/","url_text":"\"Sandia Crest House\""}]},{"reference":"\"An Elevated Dining Experience\". TEN 3. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://ten3tram.com/","url_text":"\"An Elevated Dining Experience\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kiwanis Cabin Interpretive Site\". USDA. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/cibola/recarea/?recid=64314","url_text":"\"Kiwanis Cabin Interpretive Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"A History of the Center\". Sandia Mountains Natural History Center. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://sites.google.com/a/aps.edu/smnhc/about-the-smnhc/history-of-the-center","url_text":"\"A History of the Center\""}]},{"reference":"Davenport, Coral (2014-05-10). \"Brothers Battle Climate Change on Two Fronts\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/11/us/brothers-work-different-angles-in-taking-on-climate-change.html","url_text":"\"Brothers Battle Climate Change on Two Fronts\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Michael Farrell. \"Road Warriors\". East Mountain Directory. Archived from the original on Apr 21, 2021. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210421131405/https://www.eastmountaindirectory.com/publishing/Turquoise-Tails/236-Road-Warriors.html","url_text":"\"Road Warriors\""},{"url":"https://www.eastmountaindirectory.com/publishing/Turquoise-Tails/236-Road-Warriors.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Skyline Drive\". Google Maps. Retrieved March 14, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.google.com/maps/place/Cedar+Crest,+NM+87008/@35.2404671,-106.4508231,914m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x87189c73d888eff9:0xf4ec187a08f985d6!8m2!3d35.240925!4d-106.4484866?hl=en-106.4508231,914m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x87189c73d888eff9:0xf4ec187a08f985d6!8m2!3d35.240925!4d-106.4484866?hl=en","url_text":"\"Skyline Drive\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tricentennial Celebration Wraps Up Tonight\". KOAT Action 7 News. October 6, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.koat.com/article/tricentennial-celebration-wraps-up-tonight/5023257","url_text":"\"Tricentennial Celebration Wraps Up Tonight\""}]},{"reference":"\"Albuquerque Tricentennial\". Albuquerque Historical Society. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.albuqhistsoc.org/albuquerque-tricentennial/","url_text":"\"Albuquerque Tricentennial\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sandia Peak Ski Area Mountain Coaster\". United States Forest Service. Retrieved March 4, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fs.usda.gov/project/?project=56985","url_text":"\"Sandia Peak Ski Area Mountain Coaster\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sandia Peak Ski Area 2016 Master Plan\" (PDF). US Forest Service. Retrieved March 11, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd588724.pdf","url_text":"\"Sandia Peak Ski Area 2016 Master Plan\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sandia Peak Pumps the Brakes on mountain coaster idea\". KOB4 News. August 17, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kob.com/new-mexico/sandia-peak-pumps-the-brakes-on-mountain-coaster-idea/","url_text":"\"Sandia Peak Pumps the Brakes on mountain coaster idea\""}]},{"reference":"Grambling, Tyler A.; Karlstrom, Karl E.; Holland, Mark E.; Grambling, Nadine L. (2016). \"Proterozoic magmatism and regional contact metamorphism in the Sandia-Manzano Mountains, New Mexico, USA\" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 67: 169–175. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/downloads/67/67_p0169_p0175.pdf","url_text":"\"Proterozoic magmatism and regional contact metamorphism in the Sandia-Manzano Mountains, New Mexico, USA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sandia Mountain Wilderness\". Sangres. Retrieved March 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sangres.com/newmexico/wilderness/sandia.htm","url_text":"\"Sandia Mountain Wilderness\""}]},{"reference":"\"PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University\". PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University. Retrieved November 13, 2023. To find the table data on the PRISM website, start by clicking Coordinates (under Location); copy Latitude and Longitude figures from top of table; click Zoom to location; click Precipitation, Minimum temp, Mean temp, Maximum temp; click 30-year normals, 1991-2020; click 800m; click Retrieve Time Series button.","urls":[{"url":"http://prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/","url_text":"\"PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex_method

Simplex algorithm

["1 History","2 Overview","3 Standard form","4 Simplex tableau","5 Pivot operations","6 Algorithm","6.1 Entering variable selection","6.2 Leaving variable selection","6.3 Example","7 Finding an initial canonical tableau","7.1 Example","8 Advanced topics","8.1 Implementation","8.2 Degeneracy: stalling and cycling","8.3 Efficiency in the worst case","8.4 Efficiency in practice","9 Other algorithms","10 Linear-fractional programming","11 See also","12 Notes","13 References","14 Further reading","15 External links"]

Algorithm for linear programming This article is about the linear programming algorithm. For the non-linear optimization heuristic, see Nelder–Mead method. In mathematical optimization, Dantzig's simplex algorithm (or simplex method) is a popular algorithm for linear programming. The name of the algorithm is derived from the concept of a simplex and was suggested by T. S. Motzkin. Simplices are not actually used in the method, but one interpretation of it is that it operates on simplicial cones, and these become proper simplices with an additional constraint. The simplicial cones in question are the corners (i.e., the neighborhoods of the vertices) of a geometric object called a polytope. The shape of this polytope is defined by the constraints applied to the objective function. History George Dantzig worked on planning methods for the US Army Air Force during World War II using a desk calculator. During 1946, his colleague challenged him to mechanize the planning process to distract him from taking another job. Dantzig formulated the problem as linear inequalities inspired by the work of Wassily Leontief, however, at that time he didn't include an objective as part of his formulation. Without an objective, a vast number of solutions can be feasible, and therefore to find the "best" feasible solution, military-specified "ground rules" must be used that describe how goals can be achieved as opposed to specifying a goal itself. Dantzig's core insight was to realize that most such ground rules can be translated into a linear objective function that needs to be maximized. Development of the simplex method was evolutionary and happened over a period of about a year. After Dantzig included an objective function as part of his formulation during mid-1947, the problem was mathematically more tractable. Dantzig realized that one of the unsolved problems that he had mistaken as homework in his professor Jerzy Neyman's class (and actually later solved), was applicable to finding an algorithm for linear programs. This problem involved finding the existence of Lagrange multipliers for general linear programs over a continuum of variables, each bounded between zero and one, and satisfying linear constraints expressed in the form of Lebesgue integrals. Dantzig later published his "homework" as a thesis to earn his doctorate. The column geometry used in this thesis gave Dantzig insight that made him believe that the Simplex method would be very efficient. Overview Further information: Linear programming A system of linear inequalities defines a polytope as a feasible region. The simplex algorithm begins at a starting vertex and moves along the edges of the polytope until it reaches the vertex of the optimal solution. Polyhedron of simplex algorithm in 3D The simplex algorithm operates on linear programs in the canonical form maximize c T x {\textstyle \mathbf {c^{T}} \mathbf {x} } subject to A x ≤ b {\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} \leq \mathbf {b} } and x ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \geq 0} with c = ( c 1 , … , c n ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {c} =(c_{1},\,\dots ,\,c_{n})} the coefficients of the objective function, ( ⋅ ) T {\displaystyle (\cdot )^{\mathrm {T} }} is the matrix transpose, and x = ( x 1 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(x_{1},\,\dots ,\,x_{n})} are the variables of the problem, A {\displaystyle A} is a p×n matrix, and b = ( b 1 , … , b p ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {b} =(b_{1},\,\dots ,\,b_{p})} . There is a straightforward process to convert any linear program into one in standard form, so using this form of linear programs results in no loss of generality. In geometric terms, the feasible region defined by all values of x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } such that A x ≤ b {\textstyle A\mathbf {x} \leq \mathbf {b} } and ∀ i , x i ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \forall i,x_{i}\geq 0} is a (possibly unbounded) convex polytope. An extreme point or vertex of this polytope is known as basic feasible solution (BFS). It can be shown that for a linear program in standard form, if the objective function has a maximum value on the feasible region, then it has this value on (at least) one of the extreme points. This in itself reduces the problem to a finite computation since there is a finite number of extreme points, but the number of extreme points is unmanageably large for all but the smallest linear programs. It can also be shown that, if an extreme point is not a maximum point of the objective function, then there is an edge containing the point so that the value of the objective function is strictly increasing on the edge moving away from the point. If the edge is finite, then the edge connects to another extreme point where the objective function has a greater value, otherwise the objective function is unbounded above on the edge and the linear program has no solution. The simplex algorithm applies this insight by walking along edges of the polytope to extreme points with greater and greater objective values. This continues until the maximum value is reached, or an unbounded edge is visited (concluding that the problem has no solution). The algorithm always terminates because the number of vertices in the polytope is finite; moreover since we jump between vertices always in the same direction (that of the objective function), we hope that the number of vertices visited will be small. The solution of a linear program is accomplished in two steps. In the first step, known as Phase I, a starting extreme point is found. Depending on the nature of the program this may be trivial, but in general it can be solved by applying the simplex algorithm to a modified version of the original program. The possible results of Phase I are either that a basic feasible solution is found or that the feasible region is empty. In the latter case the linear program is called infeasible. In the second step, Phase II, the simplex algorithm is applied using the basic feasible solution found in Phase I as a starting point. The possible results from Phase II are either an optimum basic feasible solution or an infinite edge on which the objective function is unbounded above. Standard form The transformation of a linear program to one in standard form may be accomplished as follows. First, for each variable with a lower bound other than 0, a new variable is introduced representing the difference between the variable and bound. The original variable can then be eliminated by substitution. For example, given the constraint x 1 ≥ 5 {\displaystyle x_{1}\geq 5} a new variable, y 1 {\displaystyle y_{1}} , is introduced with y 1 = x 1 − 5 x 1 = y 1 + 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y_{1}=x_{1}-5\\x_{1}=y_{1}+5\end{aligned}}} The second equation may be used to eliminate x 1 {\displaystyle x_{1}} from the linear program. In this way, all lower bound constraints may be changed to non-negativity restrictions. Second, for each remaining inequality constraint, a new variable, called a slack variable, is introduced to change the constraint to an equality constraint. This variable represents the difference between the two sides of the inequality and is assumed to be non-negative. For example, the inequalities x 2 + 2 x 3 ≤ 3 − x 4 + 3 x 5 ≥ 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x_{2}+2x_{3}&\leq 3\\-x_{4}+3x_{5}&\geq 2\end{aligned}}} are replaced with x 2 + 2 x 3 + s 1 = 3 − x 4 + 3 x 5 − s 2 = 2 s 1 , s 2 ≥ 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x_{2}+2x_{3}+s_{1}&=3\\-x_{4}+3x_{5}-s_{2}&=2\\s_{1},\,s_{2}&\geq 0\end{aligned}}} It is much easier to perform algebraic manipulation on inequalities in this form. In inequalities where ≥ appears such as the second one, some authors refer to the variable introduced as a surplus variable. Third, each unrestricted variable is eliminated from the linear program. This can be done in two ways, one is by solving for the variable in one of the equations in which it appears and then eliminating the variable by substitution. The other is to replace the variable with the difference of two restricted variables. For example, if z 1 {\displaystyle z_{1}} is unrestricted then write z 1 = z 1 + − z 1 − z 1 + , z 1 − ≥ 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&z_{1}=z_{1}^{+}-z_{1}^{-}\\&z_{1}^{+},\,z_{1}^{-}\geq 0\end{aligned}}} The equation may be used to eliminate z 1 {\displaystyle z_{1}} from the linear program. When this process is complete the feasible region will be in the form A x = b , ∀   x i ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} =\mathbf {b} ,\,\forall \ x_{i}\geq 0} It is also useful to assume that the rank of A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } is the number of rows. This results in no loss of generality since otherwise either the system A x = b {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} =\mathbf {b} } has redundant equations which can be dropped, or the system is inconsistent and the linear program has no solution. Simplex tableau A linear program in standard form can be represented as a tableau of the form [ 1 − c T 0 0 A b ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&-\mathbf {c} ^{T}&0\\0&\mathbf {A} &\mathbf {b} \end{bmatrix}}} The first row defines the objective function and the remaining rows specify the constraints. The zero in the first column represents the zero vector of the same dimension as vector b (different authors use different conventions as to the exact layout). If the columns of A can be rearranged so that it contains the identity matrix of order p (the number of rows in A) then the tableau is said to be in canonical form. The variables corresponding to the columns of the identity matrix are called basic variables while the remaining variables are called nonbasic or free variables. If the values of the nonbasic variables are set to 0, then the values of the basic variables are easily obtained as entries in b and this solution is a basic feasible solution. The algebraic interpretation here is that the coefficients of the linear equation represented by each row are either 0 {\displaystyle 0} , 1 {\displaystyle 1} , or some other number. Each row will have 1 {\displaystyle 1} column with value 1 {\displaystyle 1} , p − 1 {\displaystyle p-1} columns with coefficients 0 {\displaystyle 0} , and the remaining columns with some other coefficients (these other variables represent our non-basic variables). By setting the values of the non-basic variables to zero we ensure in each row that the value of the variable represented by a 1 {\displaystyle 1} in its column is equal to the b {\displaystyle b} value at that row. Conversely, given a basic feasible solution, the columns corresponding to the nonzero variables can be expanded to a nonsingular matrix. If the corresponding tableau is multiplied by the inverse of this matrix then the result is a tableau in canonical form. Let [ 1 − c B T − c D T 0 0 I D b ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&-\mathbf {c} _{B}^{T}&-\mathbf {c} _{D}^{T}&0\\0&I&\mathbf {D} &\mathbf {b} \end{bmatrix}}} be a tableau in canonical form. Additional row-addition transformations can be applied to remove the coefficients cTB  from the objective function. This process is called pricing out and results in a canonical tableau [ 1 0 − c ¯ D T z B 0 I D b ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-{\bar {\mathbf {c} }}_{D}^{T}&z_{B}\\0&I&\mathbf {D} &\mathbf {b} \end{bmatrix}}} where zB is the value of the objective function at the corresponding basic feasible solution. The updated coefficients, also known as relative cost coefficients, are the rates of change of the objective function with respect to the nonbasic variables. Pivot operations The geometrical operation of moving from a basic feasible solution to an adjacent basic feasible solution is implemented as a pivot operation. First, a nonzero pivot element is selected in a nonbasic column. The row containing this element is multiplied by its reciprocal to change this element to 1, and then multiples of the row are added to the other rows to change the other entries in the column to 0. The result is that, if the pivot element is in a row r, then the column becomes the r-th column of the identity matrix. The variable for this column is now a basic variable, replacing the variable which corresponded to the r-th column of the identity matrix before the operation. In effect, the variable corresponding to the pivot column enters the set of basic variables and is called the entering variable, and the variable being replaced leaves the set of basic variables and is called the leaving variable. The tableau is still in canonical form but with the set of basic variables changed by one element. Algorithm Let a linear program be given by a canonical tableau. The simplex algorithm proceeds by performing successive pivot operations each of which give an improved basic feasible solution; the choice of pivot element at each step is largely determined by the requirement that this pivot improves the solution. Entering variable selection Since the entering variable will, in general, increase from 0 to a positive number, the value of the objective function will decrease if the derivative of the objective function with respect to this variable is negative. Equivalently, the value of the objective function is increased if the pivot column is selected so that the corresponding entry in the objective row of the tableau is positive. If there is more than one column so that the entry in the objective row is positive then the choice of which one to add to the set of basic variables is somewhat arbitrary and several entering variable choice rules such as Devex algorithm have been developed. If all the entries in the objective row are less than or equal to 0 then no choice of entering variable can be made and the solution is in fact optimal. It is easily seen to be optimal since the objective row now corresponds to an equation of the form z ( x ) = z B + non-positive terms corresponding to non-basic variables {\displaystyle z(\mathbf {x} )=z_{B}+{\text{non-positive terms corresponding to non-basic variables}}} By changing the entering variable choice rule so that it selects a column where the entry in the objective row is negative, the algorithm is changed so that it finds the minimum of the objective function rather than the maximum. Leaving variable selection Once the pivot column has been selected, the choice of pivot row is largely determined by the requirement that the resulting solution be feasible. First, only positive entries in the pivot column are considered since this guarantees that the value of the entering variable will be nonnegative. If there are no positive entries in the pivot column then the entering variable can take any non-negative value with the solution remaining feasible. In this case the objective function is unbounded below and there is no minimum. Next, the pivot row must be selected so that all the other basic variables remain positive. A calculation shows that this occurs when the resulting value of the entering variable is at a minimum. In other words, if the pivot column is c, then the pivot row r is chosen so that b r / a r c {\displaystyle b_{r}/a_{rc}\,} is the minimum over all r so that arc > 0. This is called the minimum ratio test. If there is more than one row for which the minimum is achieved then a dropping variable choice rule can be used to make the determination. Example See also: Revised simplex algorithm § Numerical example Consider the linear program Minimize Z = − 2 x − 3 y − 4 z {\displaystyle Z=-2x-3y-4z\,} Subject to 3 x + 2 y + z ≤ 10 2 x + 5 y + 3 z ≤ 15 x , y , z ≥ 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}3x+2y+z&\leq 10\\2x+5y+3z&\leq 15\\x,\,y,\,z&\geq 0\end{aligned}}} With the addition of slack variables s and t, this is represented by the canonical tableau [ 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 1 0 10 0 2 5 3 0 1 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\0&2&5&3&0&1&15\end{bmatrix}}} where columns 5 and 6 represent the basic variables s and t and the corresponding basic feasible solution is x = y = z = 0 , s = 10 , t = 15. {\displaystyle x=y=z=0,\,s=10,\,t=15.} Columns 2, 3, and 4 can be selected as pivot columns, for this example column 4 is selected. The values of z resulting from the choice of rows 2 and 3 as pivot rows are 10/1 = 10 and 15/3 = 5 respectively. Of these the minimum is 5, so row 3 must be the pivot row. Performing the pivot produces [ 3 − 2 − 11 0 0 − 4 − 60 0 7 1 0 3 − 1 15 0 2 5 3 0 1 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}3&-2&-11&0&0&-4&-60\\0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\0&2&5&3&0&1&15\end{bmatrix}}} Now columns 4 and 5 represent the basic variables z and s and the corresponding basic feasible solution is x = y = t = 0 , z = 5 , s = 5. {\displaystyle x=y=t=0,\,z=5,\,s=5.} For the next step, there are no positive entries in the objective row and in fact Z = − 60 + 2 x + 11 y + 4 t 3 = − 20 + 2 x + 11 y + 4 t 3 {\displaystyle Z={\frac {-60+2x+11y+4t}{3}}=-20+{\frac {2x+11y+4t}{3}}} so the minimum value of Z is −20. Finding an initial canonical tableau In general, a linear program will not be given in the canonical form and an equivalent canonical tableau must be found before the simplex algorithm can start. This can be accomplished by the introduction of artificial variables. Columns of the identity matrix are added as column vectors for these variables. If the b value for a constraint equation is negative, the equation is negated before adding the identity matrix columns. This does not change the set of feasible solutions or the optimal solution, and it ensures that the slack variables will constitute an initial feasible solution. The new tableau is in canonical form but it is not equivalent to the original problem. So a new objective function, equal to the sum of the artificial variables, is introduced and the simplex algorithm is applied to find the minimum; the modified linear program is called the Phase I problem. The simplex algorithm applied to the Phase I problem must terminate with a minimum value for the new objective function since, being the sum of nonnegative variables, its value is bounded below by 0. If the minimum is 0 then the artificial variables can be eliminated from the resulting canonical tableau producing a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem. The simplex algorithm can then be applied to find the solution; this step is called Phase II. If the minimum is positive then there is no feasible solution for the Phase I problem where the artificial variables are all zero. This implies that the feasible region for the original problem is empty, and so the original problem has no solution. Example Consider the linear program Minimize Z = − 2 a − 3 b − 4 c {\displaystyle Z=-2a-3b-4c\,} Subject to 3 x + 2 y + z = 10 2 x + 5 y + 3 z = 15 x , y , z ≥ 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}3x+2y+z&=10\\2x+5y+3z&=15\\x,\,y,\,z&\geq 0\end{aligned}}} This is represented by the (non-canonical) tableau [ 1 2 3 4 0 0 3 2 1 10 0 2 5 3 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&2&3&4&0\\0&3&2&1&10\\0&2&5&3&15\end{bmatrix}}} Introduce artificial variables u and v and objective function W = u + v, giving a new tableau [ 1 0 0 0 0 − 1 − 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 1 0 10 0 0 2 5 3 0 1 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&-1&-1&0\\0&1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\0&0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\end{bmatrix}}} The equation defining the original objective function is retained in anticipation of Phase II. By construction, u and v are both basic variables since they are part of the initial identity matrix. However, the objective function W currently assumes that u and v are both 0. In order to adjust the objective function to be the correct value where u = 10 and v = 15, add the third and fourth rows to the first row giving [ 1 0 5 7 4 0 0 25 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 1 0 10 0 0 2 5 3 0 1 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&5&7&4&0&0&25\\0&1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\0&0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\end{bmatrix}}} Select column 5 as a pivot column, so the pivot row must be row 4, and the updated tableau is [ 3 0 7 1 0 0 − 4 15 0 3 − 2 − 11 0 0 − 4 − 60 0 0 7 1 0 3 − 1 15 0 0 2 5 3 0 1 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}3&0&7&1&0&0&-4&15\\0&3&-2&-11&0&0&-4&-60\\0&0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\end{bmatrix}}} Now select column 3 as a pivot column, for which row 3 must be the pivot row, to get [ 7 0 0 0 0 − 7 − 7 0 0 7 0 − 25 0 2 − 10 − 130 0 0 7 1 0 3 − 1 15 0 0 0 11 7 − 2 3 25 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}7&0&0&0&0&-7&-7&0\\0&7&0&-25&0&2&-10&-130\\0&0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\0&0&0&11&7&-2&3&25\end{bmatrix}}} The artificial variables are now 0 and they may be dropped giving a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem: [ 7 0 − 25 0 − 130 0 7 1 0 15 0 0 11 7 25 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}7&0&-25&0&-130\\0&7&1&0&15\\0&0&11&7&25\end{bmatrix}}} This is, fortuitously, already optimal and the optimum value for the original linear program is −130/7. Advanced topics Implementation Main article: Revised simplex algorithm The tableau form used above to describe the algorithm lends itself to an immediate implementation in which the tableau is maintained as a rectangular (m + 1)-by-(m + n + 1) array. It is straightforward to avoid storing the m explicit columns of the identity matrix that will occur within the tableau by virtue of B being a subset of the columns of . This implementation is referred to as the "standard simplex algorithm". The storage and computation overhead is such that the standard simplex method is a prohibitively expensive approach to solving large linear programming problems. In each simplex iteration, the only data required are the first row of the tableau, the (pivotal) column of the tableau corresponding to the entering variable and the right-hand-side. The latter can be updated using the pivotal column and the first row of the tableau can be updated using the (pivotal) row corresponding to the leaving variable. Both the pivotal column and pivotal row may be computed directly using the solutions of linear systems of equations involving the matrix B and a matrix-vector product using A. These observations motivate the "revised simplex algorithm", for which implementations are distinguished by their invertible representation of B. In large linear-programming problems A is typically a sparse matrix and, when the resulting sparsity of B is exploited when maintaining its invertible representation, the revised simplex algorithm is much more efficient than the standard simplex method. Commercial simplex solvers are based on the revised simplex algorithm. Degeneracy: stalling and cycling If the values of all basic variables are strictly positive, then a pivot must result in an improvement in the objective value. When this is always the case no set of basic variables occurs twice and the simplex algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps. Basic feasible solutions where at least one of the basic variables is zero are called degenerate and may result in pivots for which there is no improvement in the objective value. In this case there is no actual change in the solution but only a change in the set of basic variables. When several such pivots occur in succession, there is no improvement; in large industrial applications, degeneracy is common and such "stalling" is notable. Worse than stalling is the possibility the same set of basic variables occurs twice, in which case, the deterministic pivoting rules of the simplex algorithm will produce an infinite loop, or "cycle". While degeneracy is the rule in practice and stalling is common, cycling is rare in practice. A discussion of an example of practical cycling occurs in Padberg. Bland's rule prevents cycling and thus guarantees that the simplex algorithm always terminates. Another pivoting algorithm, the criss-cross algorithm never cycles on linear programs. History-based pivot rules such as Zadeh's rule and Cunningham's rule also try to circumvent the issue of stalling and cycling by keeping track of how often particular variables are being used and then favor such variables that have been used least often. Efficiency in the worst case The simplex method is remarkably efficient in practice and was a great improvement over earlier methods such as Fourier–Motzkin elimination. However, in 1972, Klee and Minty gave an example, the Klee–Minty cube, showing that the worst-case complexity of simplex method as formulated by Dantzig is exponential time. Since then, for almost every variation on the method, it has been shown that there is a family of linear programs for which it performs badly. It is an open question if there is a variation with polynomial time, although sub-exponential pivot rules are known. In 2014, it was proved that a particular variant of the simplex method is NP-mighty, i.e., it can be used to solve, with polynomial overhead, any problem in NP implicitly during the algorithm's execution. Moreover, deciding whether a given variable ever enters the basis during the algorithm's execution on a given input, and determining the number of iterations needed for solving a given problem, are both NP-hard problems. At about the same time it was shown that there exists an artificial pivot rule for which computing its output is PSPACE-complete. In 2015, this was strengthened to show that computing the output of Dantzig's pivot rule is PSPACE-complete. Efficiency in practice Analyzing and quantifying the observation that the simplex algorithm is efficient in practice despite its exponential worst-case complexity has led to the development of other measures of complexity. The simplex algorithm has polynomial-time average-case complexity under various probability distributions, with the precise average-case performance of the simplex algorithm depending on the choice of a probability distribution for the random matrices. Another approach to studying "typical phenomena" uses Baire category theory from general topology, and to show that (topologically) "most" matrices can be solved by the simplex algorithm in a polynomial number of steps. Another method to analyze the performance of the simplex algorithm studies the behavior of worst-case scenarios under small perturbation – are worst-case scenarios stable under a small change (in the sense of structural stability), or do they become tractable? This area of research, called smoothed analysis, was introduced specifically to study the simplex method. Indeed, the running time of the simplex method on input with noise is polynomial in the number of variables and the magnitude of the perturbations. Other algorithms Other algorithms for solving linear-programming problems are described in the linear-programming article. Another basis-exchange pivoting algorithm is the criss-cross algorithm. There are polynomial-time algorithms for linear programming that use interior point methods: these include Khachiyan's ellipsoidal algorithm, Karmarkar's projective algorithm, and path-following algorithms. The Big-M method is an alternative strategy for solving a linear program, using a single-phase simplex. Linear-fractional programming Main article: Linear-fractional programming Linear–fractional programming (LFP) is a generalization of linear programming (LP). In LP the objective function is a linear function, while the objective function of a linear–fractional program is a ratio of two linear functions. In other words, a linear program is a fractional–linear program in which the denominator is the constant function having the value one everywhere. A linear–fractional program can be solved by a variant of the simplex algorithm or by the criss-cross algorithm. See also Criss-cross algorithm Cutting-plane method Devex algorithm Fourier–Motzkin elimination Gradient descent Karmarkar's algorithm Nelder–Mead simplicial heuristic Pivoting rule of Bland, which avoids cycling Notes ^ Murty, Katta G. (2000). Linear programming. John Wiley & Sons. ^ Murty (1983, Comment 2.2) ^ Murty (1983, Note 3.9) ^ Stone, Richard E.; Tovey, Craig A. (1991). "The simplex and projective scaling algorithms as iteratively reweighted least squares methods". SIAM Review. 33 (2): 220–237. doi:10.1137/1033049. JSTOR 2031142. 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Vol. 1. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. xii+268. ISBN 978-3-540-17096-9. MR 0868467. ^ Spielman, Daniel; Teng, Shang-Hua (2001). "Smoothed analysis of algorithms: why the simplex algorithm usually takes polynomial time". Proceedings of the Thirty-Third Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing. ACM. pp. 296–305. arXiv:cs/0111050. doi:10.1145/380752.380813. ISBN 978-1-58113-349-3. S2CID 1471. ^ Dadush, Daniel; Huiberts, Sophie (2020-01-01). "A Friendly Smoothed Analysis of the Simplex Method". SIAM Journal on Computing. 49 (5): STOC18–449. arXiv:1711.05667. doi:10.1137/18M1197205. ISSN 0097-5397. S2CID 226351624. ^ Terlaky, Tamás; Zhang, Shu Zhong (1993). "Pivot rules for linear programming: A Survey on recent theoretical developments". Annals of Operations Research. 46–47 (1): 203–233. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.36.7658. doi:10.1007/BF02096264. ISSN 0254-5330. MR 1260019. S2CID 6058077. ^ Fukuda, Komei; Terlaky, Tamás (1997). Thomas M. Liebling; Dominique de Werra (eds.). "Criss-cross methods: A fresh view on pivot algorithms". Mathematical Programming, Series B. 79 (1–3). Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing: 369–395. doi:10.1007/BF02614325. MR 1464775. S2CID 2794181. ^ Murty (1983, Chapter 3.20 (pp. 160–164) and pp. 168 and 179) ^ Chapter five: Craven, B. D. (1988). Fractional programming. Sigma Series in Applied Mathematics. Vol. 4. Berlin: Heldermann Verlag. p. 145. ISBN 978-3-88538-404-5. MR 0949209. ^ Kruk, Serge; Wolkowicz, Henry (1999). "Pseudolinear programming". SIAM Review. 41 (4): 795–805. Bibcode:1999SIAMR..41..795K. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.53.7355. doi:10.1137/S0036144598335259. JSTOR 2653207. MR 1723002. ^ Mathis, Frank H.; Mathis, Lenora Jane (1995). "A nonlinear programming algorithm for hospital management". SIAM Review. 37 (2): 230–234. doi:10.1137/1037046. JSTOR 2132826. MR 1343214. S2CID 120626738. ^ Illés, Tibor; Szirmai, Ákos; Terlaky, Tamás (1999). "The finite criss-cross method for hyperbolic programming". European Journal of Operational Research. 114 (1): 198–214. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.36.7090. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(98)00049-6. ISSN 0377-2217. References Murty, Katta G. (1983). Linear programming. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. xix+482. ISBN 978-0-471-09725-9. MR 0720547. Further reading These introductions are written for students of computer science and operations research: Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 29.3: The simplex algorithm, pp. 790–804. Frederick S. Hillier and Gerald J. Lieberman: Introduction to Operations Research, 8th edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-123828-X Rardin, Ronald L. (1997). Optimization in operations research. Prentice Hall. p. 919. ISBN 978-0-02-398415-0. External links The Wikibook Operations Research has a page on the topic of: The Simplex Method An Introduction to Linear Programming and the Simplex Algorithm by Spyros Reveliotis of the Georgia Institute of Technology. Greenberg, Harvey J., Klee–Minty Polytope Shows Exponential Time Complexity of Simplex Method the University of Colorado at Denver (1997) PDF download Simplex Method A tutorial for Simplex Method with examples (also two-phase and M-method). Mathstools Simplex Calculator from www.mathstools.com Example of Simplex Procedure for a Standard Linear Programming Problem by Thomas McFarland of the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater. PHPSimplex: online tool to solve Linear Programming Problems by Daniel Izquierdo and Juan José Ruiz of the University of Málaga (UMA, Spain) simplex-m Online Simplex Solver vteOptimization: Algorithms, methods, and heuristicsUnconstrained nonlinearFunctions Golden-section search Powell's method Line search Nelder–Mead method Successive parabolic interpolation GradientsConvergence Trust region Wolfe conditions Quasi–Newton Berndt–Hall–Hall–Hausman Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno and L-BFGS Davidon–Fletcher–Powell Symmetric rank-one (SR1) Other methods Conjugate gradient Gauss–Newton Gradient Mirror Levenberg–Marquardt Powell's dog leg method Truncated Newton Hessians Newton's method Optimization computes maxima and minima.Constrained nonlinearGeneral Barrier methods Penalty methods Differentiable Augmented Lagrangian methods Sequential quadratic programming Successive linear programming Convex optimizationConvex minimization Cutting-plane method Reduced gradient (Frank–Wolfe) Subgradient method Linear andquadraticInterior point Affine scaling Ellipsoid algorithm of Khachiyan Projective algorithm of Karmarkar Basis-exchange Simplex algorithm of Dantzig Revised simplex algorithm Criss-cross algorithm Principal pivoting algorithm of Lemke CombinatorialParadigms Approximation algorithm Dynamic programming Greedy algorithm Integer programming Branch and bound/cut Graph algorithmsMinimum spanning tree Borůvka Prim Kruskal Shortest path Bellman–Ford SPFA Dijkstra Floyd–Warshall Network flows Dinic Edmonds–Karp Ford–Fulkerson Push–relabel maximum flow Metaheuristics Evolutionary algorithm Hill climbing Local search Parallel metaheuristics Simulated annealing Spiral optimization algorithm Tabu search Software vte Complementarity problems and algorithmsComplementarity Problems Linear programming (LP) Quadratic programming (QP) Linear complementarity problem (LCP) Mixed linear (MLCP) Mixed (MCP) Nonlinear (NCP) Basis-exchange algorithms Simplex (Dantzig) Revised simplex Criss-cross Lemke Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nelder–Mead method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelder%E2%80%93Mead_method"},{"link_name":"mathematical optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimization_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Dantzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dantzig"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty-1"},{"link_name":"simplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex"},{"link_name":"T. S. Motzkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Motzkin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty22-2"},{"link_name":"cones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty39-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StoneTovey-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strang-6"},{"link_name":"polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope"},{"link_name":"constraints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_inequalities"}],"text":"This article is about the linear programming algorithm. For the non-linear optimization heuristic, see Nelder–Mead method.In mathematical optimization, Dantzig's simplex algorithm (or simplex method) is a popular algorithm for linear programming.[1]The name of the algorithm is derived from the concept of a simplex and was suggested by T. S. Motzkin.[2] Simplices are not actually used in the method, but one interpretation of it is that it operates on simplicial cones, and these become proper simplices with an additional constraint.[3][4][5][6] The simplicial cones in question are the corners (i.e., the neighborhoods of the vertices) of a geometric object called a polytope. The shape of this polytope is defined by the constraints applied to the objective function.","title":"Simplex algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Dantzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dantzig"},{"link_name":"desk calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculator#1900s_to_1970s"},{"link_name":"Wassily Leontief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Leontief"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"he had mistaken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dantzig#Education"},{"link_name":"Jerzy Neyman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman"},{"link_name":"Lagrange multipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_multipliers"},{"link_name":"Lebesgue integrals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebesgue_integral"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"George Dantzig worked on planning methods for the US Army Air Force during World War II using a desk calculator. During 1946, his colleague challenged him to mechanize the planning process to distract him from taking another job. Dantzig formulated the problem as linear inequalities inspired by the work of Wassily Leontief, however, at that time he didn't include an objective as part of his formulation. Without an objective, a vast number of solutions can be feasible, and therefore to find the \"best\" feasible solution, military-specified \"ground rules\" must be used that describe how goals can be achieved as opposed to specifying a goal itself. Dantzig's core insight was to realize that most such ground rules can be translated into a linear objective function that needs to be maximized.[7] Development of the simplex method was evolutionary and happened over a period of about a year.[8]After Dantzig included an objective function as part of his formulation during mid-1947, the problem was mathematically more tractable. Dantzig realized that one of the unsolved problems that he had mistaken as homework in his professor Jerzy Neyman's class (and actually later solved), was applicable to finding an algorithm for linear programs. This problem involved finding the existence of Lagrange multipliers for general linear programs over a continuum of variables, each bounded between zero and one, and satisfying linear constraints expressed in the form of Lebesgue integrals. Dantzig later published his \"homework\" as a thesis to earn his doctorate. The column geometry used in this thesis gave Dantzig insight that made him believe that the Simplex method would be very efficient.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simplex-description-en.svg"},{"link_name":"system of linear inequalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_inequalities"},{"link_name":"polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope"},{"link_name":"vertex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(geometry)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simplex-method-3-dimensions.png"},{"link_name":"canonical form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form"},{"link_name":"matrix transpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_transpose"},{"link_name":"feasible region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feasible_region"},{"link_name":"convex polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_polytope"},{"link_name":"basic feasible solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_feasible_solution"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty137-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty137-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DantzigThapa1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NeringTucker-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vanderbei-15"}],"text":"Further information: Linear programmingA system of linear inequalities defines a polytope as a feasible region. The simplex algorithm begins at a starting vertex and moves along the edges of the polytope until it reaches the vertex of the optimal solution.Polyhedron of simplex algorithm in 3DThe simplex algorithm operates on linear programs in the canonical formmaximize \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\mathbf {c^{T}} \\mathbf {x} }\n \n\nsubject to \n \n \n \n A\n \n x\n \n ≤\n \n b\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\mathbf {x} \\leq \\mathbf {b} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} \\geq 0}with \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n =\n (\n \n c\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n …\n ,\n \n \n c\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {c} =(c_{1},\\,\\dots ,\\,c_{n})}\n \n the coefficients of the objective function, \n \n \n \n (\n ⋅\n \n )\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\cdot )^{\\mathrm {T} }}\n \n is the matrix transpose, and \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n =\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n …\n ,\n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} =(x_{1},\\,\\dots ,\\,x_{n})}\n \n are the variables of the problem, \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n is a p×n matrix, and \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n =\n (\n \n b\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n …\n ,\n \n \n b\n \n p\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {b} =(b_{1},\\,\\dots ,\\,b_{p})}\n \n. There is a straightforward process to convert any linear program into one in standard form, so using this form of linear programs results in no loss of generality.In geometric terms, the feasible region defined by all values of \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n such that \n \n \n \n A\n \n x\n \n ≤\n \n b\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle A\\mathbf {x} \\leq \\mathbf {b} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n ∀\n i\n ,\n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall i,x_{i}\\geq 0}\n \n is a (possibly unbounded) convex polytope. An extreme point or vertex of this polytope is known as basic feasible solution (BFS).It can be shown that for a linear program in standard form, if the objective function has a maximum value on the feasible region, then it has this value on (at least) one of the extreme points.[10] This in itself reduces the problem to a finite computation since there is a finite number of extreme points, but the number of extreme points is unmanageably large for all but the smallest linear programs.[11]It can also be shown that, if an extreme point is not a maximum point of the objective function, then there is an edge containing the point so that the value of the objective function is strictly increasing on the edge moving away from the point.[12] If the edge is finite, then the edge connects to another extreme point where the objective function has a greater value, otherwise the objective function is unbounded above on the edge and the linear program has no solution. The simplex algorithm applies this insight by walking along edges of the polytope to extreme points with greater and greater objective values. This continues until the maximum value is reached, or an unbounded edge is visited (concluding that the problem has no solution). The algorithm always terminates because the number of vertices in the polytope is finite; moreover since we jump between vertices always in the same direction (that of the objective function), we hope that the number of vertices visited will be small.[12]The solution of a linear program is accomplished in two steps. In the first step, known as Phase I, a starting extreme point is found. Depending on the nature of the program this may be trivial, but in general it can be solved by applying the simplex algorithm to a modified version of the original program. The possible results of Phase I are either that a basic feasible solution is found or that the feasible region is empty. In the latter case the linear program is called infeasible. In the second step, Phase II, the simplex algorithm is applied using the basic feasible solution found in Phase I as a starting point. The possible results from Phase II are either an optimum basic feasible solution or an infinite edge on which the objective function is unbounded above.[13][14][15]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"slack variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_variable"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The transformation of a linear program to one in standard form may be accomplished as follows.[16] First, for each variable with a lower bound other than 0, a new variable is introduced representing the difference between the variable and bound. The original variable can then be eliminated by substitution. For example, given the constraintx\n \n 1\n \n \n ≥\n 5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}\\geq 5}a new variable, \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y_{1}}\n \n, is introduced withy\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}y_{1}=x_{1}-5\\\\x_{1}=y_{1}+5\\end{aligned}}}The second equation may be used to eliminate \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}}\n \n from the linear program. In this way, all lower bound constraints may be changed to non-negativity restrictions.Second, for each remaining inequality constraint, a new variable, called a slack variable, is introduced to change the constraint to an equality constraint. This variable represents the difference between the two sides of the inequality and is assumed to be non-negative. For example, the inequalitiesx\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ≤\n 3\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n 3\n \n x\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n ≥\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x_{2}+2x_{3}&\\leq 3\\\\-x_{4}+3x_{5}&\\geq 2\\end{aligned}}}are replaced withx\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n \n s\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 3\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n 3\n \n x\n \n 5\n \n \n −\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n s\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x_{2}+2x_{3}+s_{1}&=3\\\\-x_{4}+3x_{5}-s_{2}&=2\\\\s_{1},\\,s_{2}&\\geq 0\\end{aligned}}}It is much easier to perform algebraic manipulation on inequalities in this form. In inequalities where ≥ appears such as the second one, some authors refer to the variable introduced as a surplus variable.Third, each unrestricted variable is eliminated from the linear program. This can be done in two ways, one is by solving for the variable in one of the equations in which it appears and then eliminating the variable by substitution. The other is to replace the variable with the difference of two restricted variables. For example, if \n \n \n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle z_{1}}\n \n is unrestricted then writez\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n \n −\n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n \n ,\n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&z_{1}=z_{1}^{+}-z_{1}^{-}\\\\&z_{1}^{+},\\,z_{1}^{-}\\geq 0\\end{aligned}}}The equation may be used to eliminate \n \n \n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle z_{1}}\n \n from the linear program.When this process is complete the feasible region will be in the formA\n \n \n x\n \n =\n \n b\n \n ,\n \n ∀\n  \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {b} ,\\,\\forall \\ x_{i}\\geq 0}It is also useful to assume that the rank of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n is the number of rows. This results in no loss of generality since otherwise either the system \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n =\n \n b\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {b} }\n \n has redundant equations which can be dropped, or the system is inconsistent and the linear program has no solution.[17]","title":"Standard form"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"row-addition transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_matrix#Row-addition_transformations"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NeringTucker-14"}],"text":"A linear program in standard form can be represented as a tableau of the form[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n \n c\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&-\\mathbf {c} ^{T}&0\\\\0&\\mathbf {A} &\\mathbf {b} \\end{bmatrix}}}The first row defines the objective function and the remaining rows specify the constraints. The zero in the first column represents the zero vector of the same dimension as vector b (different authors use different conventions as to the exact layout). If the columns of A can be rearranged so that it contains the identity matrix of order p (the number of rows in A) then the tableau is said to be in canonical form.[18] The variables corresponding to the columns of the identity matrix are called basic variables while the remaining variables are called nonbasic or free variables. If the values of the nonbasic variables are set to 0, then the values of the basic variables are easily obtained as entries in b and this solution is a basic feasible solution. The algebraic interpretation here is that the coefficients of the linear equation represented by each row are either \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n, or some other number. Each row will have \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n column with value \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n, \n \n \n \n p\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p-1}\n \n columns with coefficients \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n, and the remaining columns with some other coefficients (these other variables represent our non-basic variables). By setting the values of the non-basic variables to zero we ensure in each row that the value of the variable represented by a \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n in its column is equal to the \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b}\n \n value at that row.Conversely, given a basic feasible solution, the columns corresponding to the nonzero variables can be expanded to a nonsingular matrix. If the corresponding tableau is multiplied by the inverse of this matrix then the result is a tableau in canonical form.[19]Let[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n \n c\n \n \n B\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n c\n \n \n D\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n I\n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&-\\mathbf {c} _{B}^{T}&-\\mathbf {c} _{D}^{T}&0\\\\0&I&\\mathbf {D} &\\mathbf {b} \\end{bmatrix}}}be a tableau in canonical form. Additional row-addition transformations can be applied to remove the coefficients cTB  from the objective function. This process is called pricing out and results in a canonical tableau[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n z\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n I\n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-{\\bar {\\mathbf {c} }}_{D}^{T}&z_{B}\\\\0&I&\\mathbf {D} &\\mathbf {b} \\end{bmatrix}}}where zB is the value of the objective function at the corresponding basic feasible solution. The updated coefficients, also known as relative cost coefficients, are the rates of change of the objective function with respect to the nonbasic variables.[14]","title":"Simplex tableau"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multiplied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_matrix#Row-multiplying_transformations"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DantzigThapa1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NeringTucker-14"}],"text":"The geometrical operation of moving from a basic feasible solution to an adjacent basic feasible solution is implemented as a pivot operation. First, a nonzero pivot element is selected in a nonbasic column. The row containing this element is multiplied by its reciprocal to change this element to 1, and then multiples of the row are added to the other rows to change the other entries in the column to 0. The result is that, if the pivot element is in a row r, then the column becomes the r-th column of the identity matrix. The variable for this column is now a basic variable, replacing the variable which corresponded to the r-th column of the identity matrix before the operation. In effect, the variable corresponding to the pivot column enters the set of basic variables and is called the entering variable, and the variable being replaced leaves the set of basic variables and is called the leaving variable. The tableau is still in canonical form but with the set of basic variables changed by one element.[13][14]","title":"Pivot operations"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Let a linear program be given by a canonical tableau. The simplex algorithm proceeds by performing successive pivot operations each of which give an improved basic feasible solution; the choice of pivot element at each step is largely determined by the requirement that this pivot improves the solution.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty66-20"},{"link_name":"Devex algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devex_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Entering variable selection","text":"Since the entering variable will, in general, increase from 0 to a positive number, the value of the objective function will decrease if the derivative of the objective function with respect to this variable is negative. Equivalently, the value of the objective function is increased if the pivot column is selected so that the corresponding entry in the objective row of the tableau is positive.If there is more than one column so that the entry in the objective row is positive then the choice of which one to add to the set of basic variables is somewhat arbitrary and several entering variable choice rules[20] such as Devex algorithm[21] have been developed.If all the entries in the objective row are less than or equal to 0 then no choice of entering variable can be made and the solution is in fact optimal. It is easily seen to be optimal since the objective row now corresponds to an equation of the formz\n (\n \n x\n \n )\n =\n \n z\n \n B\n \n \n +\n \n non-positive terms corresponding to non-basic variables\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle z(\\mathbf {x} )=z_{B}+{\\text{non-positive terms corresponding to non-basic variables}}}By changing the entering variable choice rule so that it selects a column where the entry in the objective row is negative, the algorithm is changed so that it finds the minimum of the objective function rather than the maximum.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murty66-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Leaving variable selection","text":"Once the pivot column has been selected, the choice of pivot row is largely determined by the requirement that the resulting solution be feasible. First, only positive entries in the pivot column are considered since this guarantees that the value of the entering variable will be nonnegative. If there are no positive entries in the pivot column then the entering variable can take any non-negative value with the solution remaining feasible. In this case the objective function is unbounded below and there is no minimum.Next, the pivot row must be selected so that all the other basic variables remain positive. A calculation shows that this occurs when the resulting value of the entering variable is at a minimum. In other words, if the pivot column is c, then the pivot row r is chosen so thatb\n \n r\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n a\n \n r\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle b_{r}/a_{rc}\\,}is the minimum over all r so that arc > 0. This is called the minimum ratio test.[20] If there is more than one row for which the minimum is achieved then a dropping variable choice rule[22] can be used to make the determination.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Revised simplex algorithm § Numerical example","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_simplex_algorithm#Numerical_example"}],"sub_title":"Example","text":"See also: Revised simplex algorithm § Numerical exampleConsider the linear programMinimize\n\n \n \n \n Z\n =\n −\n 2\n x\n −\n 3\n y\n −\n 4\n z\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Z=-2x-3y-4z\\,}\n \n\nSubject to\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n x\n +\n 2\n y\n +\n z\n \n \n \n ≤\n 10\n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n 5\n y\n +\n 3\n z\n \n \n \n ≤\n 15\n \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n \n y\n ,\n \n z\n \n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}3x+2y+z&\\leq 10\\\\2x+5y+3z&\\leq 15\\\\x,\\,y,\\,z&\\geq 0\\end{aligned}}}With the addition of slack variables s and t, this is represented by the canonical tableau[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\\\0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\\\0&2&5&3&0&1&15\\end{bmatrix}}}where columns 5 and 6 represent the basic variables s and t and the corresponding basic feasible solution isx\n =\n y\n =\n z\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n s\n =\n 10\n ,\n \n t\n =\n 15.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=y=z=0,\\,s=10,\\,t=15.}Columns 2, 3, and 4 can be selected as pivot columns, for this example column 4 is selected. The values of z resulting from the choice of rows 2 and 3 as pivot rows are 10/1 = 10 and 15/3 = 5 respectively. Of these the minimum is 5, so row 3 must be the pivot row. Performing the pivot produces[\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n −\n 11\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n −\n 60\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}3&-2&-11&0&0&-4&-60\\\\0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\\\0&2&5&3&0&1&15\\end{bmatrix}}}Now columns 4 and 5 represent the basic variables z and s and the corresponding basic feasible solution isx\n =\n y\n =\n t\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n z\n =\n 5\n ,\n \n s\n =\n 5.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=y=t=0,\\,z=5,\\,s=5.}For the next step, there are no positive entries in the objective row and in factZ\n =\n \n \n \n −\n 60\n +\n 2\n x\n +\n 11\n y\n +\n 4\n t\n \n 3\n \n \n =\n −\n 20\n +\n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n 11\n y\n +\n 4\n t\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Z={\\frac {-60+2x+11y+4t}{3}}=-20+{\\frac {2x+11y+4t}{3}}}so the minimum value of Z is −20.","title":"Algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DantzigThapa1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NeringTucker-14"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Padberg-24"}],"text":"In general, a linear program will not be given in the canonical form and an equivalent canonical tableau must be found before the simplex algorithm can start. This can be accomplished by the introduction of artificial variables. Columns of the identity matrix are added as column vectors for these variables. If the b value for a constraint equation is negative, the equation is negated before adding the identity matrix columns. This does not change the set of feasible solutions or the optimal solution, and it ensures that the slack variables will constitute an initial feasible solution. The new tableau is in canonical form but it is not equivalent to the original problem. So a new objective function, equal to the sum of the artificial variables, is introduced and the simplex algorithm is applied to find the minimum; the modified linear program is called the Phase I problem.[23]The simplex algorithm applied to the Phase I problem must terminate with a minimum value for the new objective function since, being the sum of nonnegative variables, its value is bounded below by 0. If the minimum is 0 then the artificial variables can be eliminated from the resulting canonical tableau producing a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem. The simplex algorithm can then be applied to find the solution; this step is called Phase II. If the minimum is positive then there is no feasible solution for the Phase I problem where the artificial variables are all zero. This implies that the feasible region for the original problem is empty, and so the original problem has no solution.[13][14][24]","title":"Finding an initial canonical tableau"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Example","text":"Consider the linear programMinimize\n\n \n \n \n Z\n =\n −\n 2\n a\n −\n 3\n b\n −\n 4\n c\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Z=-2a-3b-4c\\,}Subject to\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n x\n +\n 2\n y\n +\n z\n \n \n \n =\n 10\n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n 5\n y\n +\n 3\n z\n \n \n \n =\n 15\n \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n \n y\n ,\n \n z\n \n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}3x+2y+z&=10\\\\2x+5y+3z&=15\\\\x,\\,y,\\,z&\\geq 0\\end{aligned}}}This is represented by the (non-canonical) tableau[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&2&3&4&0\\\\0&3&2&1&10\\\\0&2&5&3&15\\end{bmatrix}}}Introduce artificial variables u and v and objective function W = u + v, giving a new tableau[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&-1&-1&0\\\\0&1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\\\0&0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\\end{bmatrix}}}The equation defining the original objective function is retained in anticipation of Phase II.By construction, u and v are both basic variables since they are part of the initial identity matrix. However, the objective function W currently assumes that u and v are both 0. In order to adjust the objective function to be the correct value where u = 10 and v = 15, add the third and fourth rows to the first row giving[\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 25\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 4\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&5&7&4&0&0&25\\\\0&1&2&3&4&0&0&0\\\\0&0&3&2&1&1&0&10\\\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\\end{bmatrix}}}Select column 5 as a pivot column, so the pivot row must be row 4, and the updated tableau is[\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n −\n 11\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n −\n 60\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}3&0&7&1&0&0&-4&15\\\\0&3&-2&-11&0&0&-4&-60\\\\0&0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\\\0&0&2&5&3&0&1&15\\end{bmatrix}}}Now select column 3 as a pivot column, for which row 3 must be the pivot row, to get[\n \n \n \n 7\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 7\n \n \n −\n 7\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 25\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 10\n \n \n −\n 130\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 11\n \n \n 7\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 25\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}7&0&0&0&0&-7&-7&0\\\\0&7&0&-25&0&2&-10&-130\\\\0&0&7&1&0&3&-1&15\\\\0&0&0&11&7&-2&3&25\\end{bmatrix}}}The artificial variables are now 0 and they may be dropped giving a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem:[\n \n \n \n 7\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 25\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 130\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 15\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 11\n \n \n 7\n \n \n 25\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}7&0&-25&0&-130\\\\0&7&1&0&15\\\\0&0&11&7&25\\end{bmatrix}}}This is, fortuitously, already optimal and the optimum value for the original linear program is −130/7.","title":"Finding an initial canonical tableau"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Advanced topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"revised simplex algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_simplex_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DantzigThapa2-25"},{"link_name":"sparse matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_matrix"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Padberg-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DantzigThapa2-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarosMitra-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Implementation","text":"The tableau form used above to describe the algorithm lends itself to an immediate implementation in which the tableau is maintained as a rectangular (m + 1)-by-(m + n + 1) array. It is straightforward to avoid storing the m explicit columns of the identity matrix that will occur within the tableau by virtue of B being a subset of the columns of [A, I]. This implementation is referred to as the \"standard simplex algorithm\". The storage and computation overhead is such that the standard simplex method is a prohibitively expensive approach to solving large linear programming problems.In each simplex iteration, the only data required are the first row of the tableau, the (pivotal) column of the tableau corresponding to the entering variable and the right-hand-side. The latter can be updated using the pivotal column and the first row of the tableau can be updated using the (pivotal) row corresponding to the leaving variable. Both the pivotal column and pivotal row may be computed directly using the solutions of linear systems of equations involving the matrix B and a matrix-vector product using A. These observations motivate the \"revised simplex algorithm\", for which implementations are distinguished by their invertible representation of B.[25]In large linear-programming problems A is typically a sparse matrix and, when the resulting sparsity of B is exploited when maintaining its invertible representation, the revised simplex algorithm is much more efficient than the standard simplex method. Commercial simplex solvers are based on the revised simplex algorithm.[24][25][26][27][28]","title":"Advanced topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Padberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_W._Padberg"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Padberg-24"},{"link_name":"Bland's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bland%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Padberg-24"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bland-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"criss-cross algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criss-cross_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Zadeh's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zadeh%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"Cunningham's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunningham%27s_rule"}],"sub_title":"Degeneracy: stalling and cycling","text":"If the values of all basic variables are strictly positive, then a pivot must result in an improvement in the objective value. When this is always the case no set of basic variables occurs twice and the simplex algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps. Basic feasible solutions where at least one of the basic variables is zero are called degenerate and may result in pivots for which there is no improvement in the objective value. In this case there is no actual change in the solution but only a change in the set of basic variables. When several such pivots occur in succession, there is no improvement; in large industrial applications, degeneracy is common and such \"stalling\" is notable. \nWorse than stalling is the possibility the same set of basic variables occurs twice, in which case, the deterministic pivoting rules of the simplex algorithm will produce an infinite loop, or \"cycle\". While degeneracy is the rule in practice and stalling is common, cycling is rare in practice. A discussion of an example of practical cycling occurs in Padberg.[24] Bland's rule prevents cycling and thus guarantees that the simplex algorithm always terminates.[24][29][30] Another pivoting algorithm, the criss-cross algorithm never cycles on linear programs.[31]History-based pivot rules such as Zadeh's rule and Cunningham's rule also try to circumvent the issue of stalling and cycling by keeping track of how often particular variables are being used and then favor such variables that have been used least often.","title":"Advanced topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fourier–Motzkin elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier%E2%80%93Motzkin_elimination"},{"link_name":"Klee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Klee"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KleeMinty-32"},{"link_name":"Klee–Minty cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klee%E2%80%93Minty_cube"},{"link_name":"exponential time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_time"},{"link_name":"polynomial time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_time"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"NP-mighty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NP-mighty&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hardness"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"PSPACE-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSPACE-complete"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"PSPACE-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSPACE-complete"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Efficiency in the worst case","text":"The simplex method is remarkably efficient in practice and was a great improvement over earlier methods such as Fourier–Motzkin elimination. However, in 1972, Klee and Minty[32] gave an example, the Klee–Minty cube, showing that the worst-case complexity of simplex method as formulated by Dantzig is exponential time. Since then, for almost every variation on the method, it has been shown that there is a family of linear programs for which it performs badly. It is an open question if there is a variation with polynomial time, although sub-exponential pivot rules are known.[33]In 2014, it was proved[citation needed] that a particular variant of the simplex method is NP-mighty, i.e., it can be used to solve, with polynomial overhead, any problem in NP implicitly during the algorithm's execution. Moreover, deciding whether a given variable ever enters the basis during the algorithm's execution on a given input, and determining the number of iterations needed for solving a given problem, are both NP-hard problems.[34] At about the same time it was shown that there exists an artificial pivot rule for which computing its output is PSPACE-complete.[35] In 2015, this was strengthened to show that computing the output of Dantzig's pivot rule is PSPACE-complete.[36]","title":"Advanced topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"average-case complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best,_worst_and_average_case"},{"link_name":"probability distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"random matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_matrix"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schrijver-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Borgwardt-38"},{"link_name":"typical phenomena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porous_set"},{"link_name":"Baire category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baire_category_theory"},{"link_name":"general topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_topology"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"structural stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_stability"},{"link_name":"smoothed analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothed_analysis"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Efficiency in practice","text":"Analyzing and quantifying the observation that the simplex algorithm is efficient in practice despite its exponential worst-case complexity has led to the development of other measures of complexity. The simplex algorithm has polynomial-time average-case complexity under various probability distributions, with the precise average-case performance of the simplex algorithm depending on the choice of a probability distribution for the random matrices.[37][38] Another approach to studying \"typical phenomena\" uses Baire category theory from general topology, and to show that (topologically) \"most\" matrices can be solved by the simplex algorithm in a polynomial number of steps.[citation needed]Another method to analyze the performance of the simplex algorithm studies the behavior of worst-case scenarios under small perturbation – are worst-case scenarios stable under a small change (in the sense of structural stability), or do they become tractable? This area of research, called smoothed analysis, was introduced specifically to study the simplex method. Indeed, the running time of the simplex method on input with noise is polynomial in the number of variables and the magnitude of the perturbations.[39][40]","title":"Advanced topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linear-programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"criss-cross algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criss-cross_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Khachiyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khachiyan"},{"link_name":"ellipsoidal algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoidal_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Karmarkar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmarkar"},{"link_name":"projective algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmarkar%27s_algorithm"},{"link_name":"path-following algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_point_method"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vanderbei-15"},{"link_name":"Big-M method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_M_method"}],"text":"Other algorithms for solving linear-programming problems are described in the linear-programming article. Another basis-exchange pivoting algorithm is the criss-cross algorithm.[41][42] There are polynomial-time algorithms for linear programming that use interior point methods: these include Khachiyan's ellipsoidal algorithm, Karmarkar's projective algorithm, and path-following algorithms.[15] The Big-M method is an alternative strategy for solving a linear program, using a single-phase simplex.","title":"Other algorithms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linear–fractional programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear-fractional_programming"},{"link_name":"linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"linear function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_functional"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"criss-cross algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criss-cross_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"Linear–fractional programming (LFP) is a generalization of linear programming (LP). In LP the objective function is a linear function, while the objective function of a linear–fractional program is a ratio of two linear functions. In other words, a linear program is a fractional–linear program in which the denominator is the constant function having the value one everywhere. 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programming\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cas.mcmaster.ca/~terlaky/files/dut-twi-96-103.ps.gz"},{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.36.7090","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.36.7090"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S0377-2217(98)00049-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-2217%2898%2900049-6"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0377-2217","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0377-2217"}],"text":"^ Murty, Katta G. (2000). Linear programming. John Wiley & Sons.\n\n^ Murty (1983, Comment 2.2)\n\n^ Murty (1983, Note 3.9)\n\n^ Stone, Richard E.; Tovey, Craig A. (1991). \"The simplex and projective scaling algorithms as iteratively reweighted least squares methods\". SIAM Review. 33 (2): 220–237. doi:10.1137/1033049. JSTOR 2031142. MR 1124362.\n\n^ Stone, Richard E.; Tovey, Craig A. (1991). \"Erratum: The simplex and projective scaling algorithms as iteratively reweighted least squares methods\". SIAM Review. 33 (3): 461. doi:10.1137/1033100. JSTOR 2031443. MR 1124362.\n\n^ Strang, Gilbert (1 June 1987). \"Karmarkar's algorithm and its place in applied mathematics\". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 9 (2): 4–10. doi:10.1007/BF03025891. ISSN 0343-6993. MR 0883185. S2CID 123541868.\n\n^ Dantzig, George B. (April 1982). \"Reminiscences about the origins of linear programming\" (PDF). Operations Research Letters. 1 (2): 43–48. doi:10.1016/0167-6377(82)90043-8. Archived from the original on May 20, 2015.\n\n^ Albers and Reid (1986). \"An Interview with George B. Dantzig: The Father of Linear Programming\". College Mathematics Journal. 17 (4): 292–314. doi:10.1080/07468342.1986.11972971.\n\n^ Dantzig, George (May 1987). \"Origins of the simplex method\" (PDF). In Nash, Stephen G. (ed.). A History of Scientific Computing. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 141–151. doi:10.1145/87252.88081. ISBN 978-0-201-50814-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 29, 2015.\n\n^ Murty (1983, Theorem 3.3)\n\n^ Murty (1983, p. 143, Section 3.13)\n\n^ a b Murty (1983, p. 137, Section 3.8)\n\n^ a b c George B. Dantzig and Mukund N. Thapa. 1997. Linear programming 1: Introduction. Springer-Verlag.\n\n^ a b c d \nEvar D. Nering and Albert W. Tucker, 1993, Linear Programs and Related Problems, Academic Press. (elementary)\n\n^ a b Robert J. Vanderbei, Linear Programming: Foundations and Extensions, 3rd ed., International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, Vol. 114, Springer Verlag, 2008. ISBN 978-0-387-74387-5. \n\n^ Murty (1983, Section 2.2)\n\n^ Murty (1983, p. 173)\n\n^ Murty (1983, section 2.3.2)\n\n^ Murty (1983, section 3.12)\n\n^ a b Murty (1983, p. 66)\n\n^ Harris, Paula MJ. \"Pivot selection methods of the Devex LP code.\" Mathematical programming 5.1 (1973): 1–28\n\n^ Murty (1983, p. 67)\n\n^ Murty (1983, p. 60)\n\n^ a b c d Padberg, M. (1999). Linear Optimization and Extensions (Second ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-65833-5.\n\n^ a b Dantzig, George B.; Thapa, Mukund N. (2003). Linear Programming 2: Theory and Extensions. Springer-Verlag.\n\n^ Alevras, Dmitris; Padberg, Manfred W. (2001). Linear Optimization and Extensions: Problems and Solutions. Universitext. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-41744-3. (Problems from Padberg with solutions.)\n\n^ Maros, István; Mitra, Gautam (1996). \"Simplex algorithms\". In J. E. Beasley (ed.). Advances in linear and integer programming. Oxford Science. pp. 1–46. MR 1438309.\n\n^ Maros, István (2003). Computational techniques of the simplex method. International Series in Operations Research & Management Science. Vol. 61. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. xx+325. ISBN 978-1-4020-7332-8. MR 1960274.\n\n^ \nBland, Robert G. (May 1977). \"New finite pivoting rules for the simplex method\". Mathematics of Operations Research. 2 (2): 103–107. doi:10.1287/moor.2.2.103. JSTOR 3689647. MR 0459599. S2CID 18493293.\n\n^ Murty (1983, p. 79)\n\n^ There are abstract optimization problems, called oriented matroid programs, on which Bland's rule cycles (incorrectly) while the criss-cross algorithm terminates correctly.\n\n^ Klee, Victor; Minty, George J. (1972). \"How good is the simplex algorithm?\". In Shisha, Oved (ed.). Inequalities III (Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Inequalities held at the University of California, Los Angeles, Calif., September 1–9, 1969, dedicated to the memory of Theodore S. Motzkin). New York-London: Academic Press. pp. 159–175. MR 0332165.\n\n^ Hansen, Thomas; Zwick, Uri (2015), \"An Improved Version of the Random-Facet Pivoting Rule for the Simplex Algorithm\", Proceedings of the forty-seventh annual ACM symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 209–218, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.697.2526, doi:10.1145/2746539.2746557, ISBN 9781450335362, S2CID 1980659\n\n^ Disser, Yann; Skutella, Martin (2018-11-01). \"The Simplex Algorithm Is NP-Mighty\". ACM Trans. Algorithms. 15 (1): 5:1–5:19. arXiv:1311.5935. doi:10.1145/3280847. ISSN 1549-6325. S2CID 54445546.\n\n^ Adler, Ilan; Christos, Papadimitriou; Rubinstein, Aviad (2014), \"On Simplex Pivoting Rules and Complexity Theory\", Integer Programming and Combinatorial Optimization, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 17, pp. 13–24, arXiv:1404.3320, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07557-0_2, ISBN 978-3-319-07556-3, S2CID 891022\n\n^ Fearnly, John; Savani, Rahul (2015), \"The Complexity of the Simplex Method\", Proceedings of the forty-seventh annual ACM symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 201–208, arXiv:1404.0605, doi:10.1145/2746539.2746558, ISBN 9781450335362, S2CID 2116116\n\n^ Alexander Schrijver, Theory of Linear and Integer Programming. John Wiley & sons, 1998, ISBN 0-471-98232-6 (mathematical)\n\n^ The simplex algorithm takes on average D steps for a cube. Borgwardt (1987): Borgwardt, Karl-Heinz (1987). The simplex method: A probabilistic analysis. Algorithms and Combinatorics (Study and Research Texts). Vol. 1. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. xii+268. ISBN 978-3-540-17096-9. MR 0868467.\n\n^ Spielman, Daniel; Teng, Shang-Hua (2001). \"Smoothed analysis of algorithms: why the simplex algorithm usually takes polynomial time\". Proceedings of the Thirty-Third Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing. ACM. pp. 296–305. arXiv:cs/0111050. doi:10.1145/380752.380813. ISBN 978-1-58113-349-3. S2CID 1471.\n\n^ Dadush, Daniel; Huiberts, Sophie (2020-01-01). \"A Friendly Smoothed Analysis of the Simplex Method\". SIAM Journal on Computing. 49 (5): STOC18–449. arXiv:1711.05667. doi:10.1137/18M1197205. ISSN 0097-5397. S2CID 226351624.\n\n^ Terlaky, Tamás; Zhang, Shu Zhong (1993). \"Pivot rules for linear programming: A Survey on recent theoretical developments\". Annals of Operations Research. 46–47 (1): 203–233. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.36.7658. doi:10.1007/BF02096264. ISSN 0254-5330. MR 1260019. S2CID 6058077.\n\n^ Fukuda, Komei; Terlaky, Tamás (1997). Thomas M. Liebling; Dominique de Werra (eds.). \"Criss-cross methods: A fresh view on pivot algorithms\". Mathematical Programming, Series B. 79 (1–3). Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing: 369–395. doi:10.1007/BF02614325. MR 1464775. S2CID 2794181.\n\n^ Murty (1983, Chapter 3.20 (pp. 160–164) and pp. 168 and 179)\n\n^ Chapter five: Craven, B. D. (1988). Fractional programming. Sigma Series in Applied Mathematics. Vol. 4. Berlin: Heldermann Verlag. p. 145. ISBN 978-3-88538-404-5. MR 0949209.\n\n^ Kruk, Serge; Wolkowicz, Henry (1999). \"Pseudolinear programming\". SIAM Review. 41 (4): 795–805. Bibcode:1999SIAMR..41..795K. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.53.7355. doi:10.1137/S0036144598335259. JSTOR 2653207. MR 1723002.\n\n^ Mathis, Frank H.; Mathis, Lenora Jane (1995). \"A nonlinear programming algorithm for hospital management\". SIAM Review. 37 (2): 230–234. doi:10.1137/1037046. JSTOR 2132826. MR 1343214. S2CID 120626738.\n\n^ Illés, Tibor; Szirmai, Ákos; Terlaky, Tamás (1999). \"The finite criss-cross method for hyperbolic programming\". European Journal of Operational Research. 114 (1): 198–214. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.36.7090. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(98)00049-6. ISSN 0377-2217.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"operations research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research"},{"link_name":"Thomas H. Cormen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Cormen"},{"link_name":"Charles E. Leiserson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Leiserson"},{"link_name":"Ronald L. Rivest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_L._Rivest"},{"link_name":"Clifford Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Stein"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-03293-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03293-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-123828-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-123828-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-02-398415-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-398415-0"}],"text":"These introductions are written for students of computer science and operations research:Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 29.3: The simplex algorithm, pp. 790–804.\nFrederick S. Hillier and Gerald J. Lieberman: Introduction to Operations Research, 8th edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-123828-X\nRardin, Ronald L. (1997). Optimization in operations research. Prentice Hall. p. 919. ISBN 978-0-02-398415-0.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"A system of linear inequalities defines a polytope as a feasible region. The simplex algorithm begins at a starting vertex and moves along the edges of the polytope until it reaches the vertex of the optimal solution.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Simplex-description-en.svg/240px-Simplex-description-en.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Polyhedron of simplex algorithm in 3D","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simplex-method-3-dimensions.png/240px-Simplex-method-3-dimensions.png"},{"image_text":"Optimization computes maxima and minima.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Max_paraboloid.svg/150px-Max_paraboloid.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Criss-cross algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criss-cross_algorithm"},{"title":"Cutting-plane method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting-plane_method"},{"title":"Devex algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devex_algorithm"},{"title":"Fourier–Motzkin elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier%E2%80%93Motzkin_elimination"},{"title":"Gradient descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient_descent"},{"title":"Karmarkar's algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmarkar%27s_algorithm"},{"title":"Nelder–Mead simplicial heuristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelder%E2%80%93Mead_method"},{"title":"Pivoting rule of Bland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bland%27s_rule"}]

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finite criss-cross method for hyperbolic programming\""},{"Link":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.36.7090","external_links_name":"10.1.1.36.7090"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-2217%2898%2900049-6","external_links_name":"10.1016/S0377-2217(98)00049-6"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0377-2217","external_links_name":"0377-2217"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0720547","external_links_name":"0720547"},{"Link":"http://www.isye.gatech.edu/~spyros/LP/LP.html","external_links_name":"An Introduction to Linear Programming and the Simplex Algorithm"},{"Link":"http://glossary.computing.society.informs.org/notes/Klee-Minty.pdf","external_links_name":"PDF download"},{"Link":"http://www.lokminglui.com/lpch3.pdf","external_links_name":"Simplex 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPECint

SPECint

["1 SPEC INT 2006","2 Background","3 Benchmarks","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Computer benchmark specification for CPU integer processing power This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "SPECint" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) SPEC INT is a computer benchmark specification for CPU integer processing power. It is maintained by the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC). SPEC INT is the integer performance testing component of the SPEC test suite. The first SPEC test suite, CPU92, was announced in 1992. It was followed by CPU95, CPU2000, and CPU2006. The latest standard is SPEC CPU 2017 and consists of SPEC speed and SPEC rate (aka SPECCPU_2017). SPEC INT 2006 CPU2006 is a set of benchmarks designed to test the CPU performance of a modern server computer system. It is split into two components, the first being CINT2006, the other being CFP2006 (SPECfp), for floating point testing. SPEC defines a base runtime for each of the 12 benchmark programs. For SPECint2006, that number ranges from 1000 to 3000 seconds. The timed test is run on the system, and the time of the test system is compared to the reference time, and a ratio is computed. That ratio becomes the SPEC INT score for that test. (This differs from the rating in SPECINT2000, which multiplies the ratio by 100.) As an example for SPECint2006, consider a processor which can run 400.perlbench in 2000 seconds. The time it takes the reference machine to run the benchmark is 9770 seconds. Thus the ratio is 4.885. Each ratio is computed, and then the geometric mean of those ratios is computed to produce an overall value. Background For a fee, SPEC distributes source code files to users wanting to test their systems. These files are written in a standard programming language, which is then compiled for each particular CPU architecture and operating system. Thus, the performance measured is that of the CPU, RAM, and compiler, and does not test I/O, networking, or graphics. Two metrics are reported for a particular benchmark, "base" and "peak". Compiler options account for the difference between the two numbers. As the SPEC benchmarks are distributed as source code, it is up to the party performing the test to compile this code. There is agreement that the benchmarks should be compiled in the same way as a user would compile a program, but there is no consistent method for user compilation, it varies system by system. SPEC, in this case, defines two reference points, "base" and "peak". Base has a more strict set of compilation rules than peak. Less optimization can be done, the compiler flags must be the same for each benchmark, in the same order, and there must be a limited number of flags. Base, then, is closest to how a user would compile a program with standard flags. The 'peak' metric can be performed with maximum compiler optimization, even to the extent of different optimizations for each benchmark. This number represents maximum system performance, achieved by full compiler optimization. SPEC INT tests are carried out on a wide range of hardware, with results typically published for the full range of system-level implementations employing the latest CPUs. For SPECint2006, the CPUs include Intel and AMD x86 & x86-64 processors, Sun SPARC CPUs, IBM Power CPUs, and IA-64 CPUs. This range of capabilities, specifically in this case the number of CPUs, means that the SPEC INT benchmark is usually run on only a single CPU, even if the system has many CPUs. If a single CPU has multiple cores, only a single core is used; hyper-threading is also typically disabled, A more complete system-level benchmark that allows all CPUs to be used is known as SPECint_rate2006, also called "CINT2006 Rate". Benchmarks The SPECint2006 test suite consists of 12 benchmark programs, designed to test exclusively the integer performance of the system. The benchmarks are: Benchmark Language Category Description 400.perlbench C Perl Programming Language Derived from Perl V5.8.7. The workload includes SpamAssassin, MHonArc (an email indexer), and specdiff (SPEC's tool that checks benchmark outputs). 401.bzip2 C Compression Julian Seward's bzip2 version 1.0.3, modified to do most work in memory, rather than doing I/O. 403.gcc C C Compiler Based on gcc Version 3.2, generates code for Opteron. 429.mcf C Combinatorial Optimization Vehicle scheduling. Uses a network simplex algorithm (which is also used in commercial products) to schedule public transport. 445.gobmk C Artificial Intelligence: go playing Plays the game of Go, a simply described but deeply complex game. 456.hmmer C Search Gene Sequence Protein sequence analysis using profile hidden Markov models (profile HMMs) 458.sjeng C Artificial Intelligence: chess playing A highly-ranked chess program that also plays several chess variants. 462.libquantum C Physics: Quantum Computing Simulates a quantum computer, running Shor's polynomial-time factorization algorithm. 464.h264ref C Video Compression A reference implementation of H.264/AVC, encodes a videostream using 2 parameter sets. The H.264/AVC standard is expected to replace MPEG2 471.omnetpp C++ Discrete Event Simulation Uses the OMNet++ discrete event simulator to model a large Ethernet campus network. 473.astar C++ Path-finding Algorithms Pathfinding library for 2D maps, including the well known A* algorithm. 483.xalancbmk C++ XML Processing A modified version of Xalan-C++, which transforms XML documents to other document types. See also N Bench Dhrystone Instructions per second References ^ "The SPEC Benchmarks". 2003-02-03. Retrieved 2008-09-01. ^ "SPEC CINT2006 Benchmarks". External links SPEC Website CINT2006 (Integer Component of SPEC CPU2006) Published results of SPECint2006 Description of each benchmark

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The latest standard is SPEC CPU 2017 and consists of SPEC speed and SPEC rate (aka SPECCPU_2017).","title":"SPECint"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"SPECfp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPECfp"},{"link_name":"reference machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reference_machine&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"geometric mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_mean"}],"text":"CPU2006 is a set of benchmarks designed to test the CPU performance of a modern server computer system. It is split into two components, the first being CINT2006, the other being CFP2006 (SPECfp), for floating point testing.SPEC defines a base runtime for each of the 12 benchmark programs. For SPECint2006, that number ranges from 1000 to 3000 seconds. The timed test is run on the system, and the time of the test system is compared to the reference time, and a ratio is computed. That ratio becomes the SPEC INT score for that test. (This differs from the rating in SPECINT2000, which multiplies the ratio by 100.)As an example for SPECint2006, consider a processor which can run 400.perlbench in 2000 seconds. The time it takes the reference machine to run the benchmark is 9770 seconds.[1] Thus the ratio is 4.885. Each ratio is computed, and then the geometric mean of those ratios is computed to produce an overall value.","title":"SPEC INT 2006"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"I/O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output"},{"link_name":"networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"SPARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Power_microprocessors"},{"link_name":"IA-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IA-64"},{"link_name":"multiple cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor"},{"link_name":"hyper-threading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-threading"}],"text":"For a fee, SPEC distributes source code files to users wanting to test their systems. These files are written in a standard programming language, which is then compiled for each particular CPU architecture and operating system. Thus, the performance measured is that of the CPU, RAM, and compiler, and does not test I/O, networking, or graphics.Two metrics are reported for a particular benchmark, \"base\" and \"peak\". Compiler options account for the difference between the two numbers. As the SPEC benchmarks are distributed as source code, it is up to the party performing the test to compile this code. There is agreement that the benchmarks should be compiled in the same way as a user would compile a program, but there is no consistent method for user compilation, it varies system by system. SPEC, in this case, defines two reference points, \"base\" and \"peak\". Base has a more strict set of compilation rules than peak. Less optimization can be done, the compiler flags must be the same for each benchmark, in the same order, and there must be a limited number of flags. Base, then, is closest to how a user would compile a program with standard flags. The 'peak' metric can be performed with maximum compiler optimization, even to the extent of different optimizations for each benchmark. This number represents maximum system performance, achieved by full compiler optimization.SPEC INT tests are carried out on a wide range of hardware, with results typically published for the full range of system-level implementations employing the latest CPUs. For SPECint2006, the CPUs include Intel and AMD x86 & x86-64 processors, Sun SPARC CPUs, IBM Power CPUs, and IA-64 CPUs. This range of capabilities, specifically in this case the number of CPUs, means that the SPEC INT benchmark is usually run on only a single CPU, even if the system has many CPUs. If a single CPU has multiple cores, only a single core is used; hyper-threading is also typically disabled,A more complete system-level benchmark that allows all CPUs to be used is known as SPECint_rate2006, also called \"CINT2006 Rate\".","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The SPECint2006 test suite consists of 12 benchmark programs, designed to test exclusively the integer performance of the system.The benchmarks are:[2]","title":"Benchmarks"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_Powerlink

Ethernet Powerlink

["1 Overview","2 Standardization","3 Physical layer","4 Data link layer","5 Basic cycle","6 OpenSAFETY","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]

This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Ethernet Powerlink is a real-time protocol for standard Ethernet. It is an open protocol managed by the Ethernet POWERLINK Standardization Group (EPSG). It was introduced by Austrian automation company B&R in 2001. This protocol has nothing to do with power distribution via Ethernet cabling or power over Ethernet (PoE), power line communication, or Bang & Olufsen's PowerLink cable. Overview Ethernet Powerlink expands Ethernet with a mixed polling and timeslicing mechanism. This provides: Guaranteed transfer of time-critical data in very short isochronic cycles with configurable response time Time-synchronisation of all nodes in the network with very high precision of sub-microseconds Transmission of less time-critical data in a reserved asynchronous channel Modern implementations reach cycle-times of under 200 μs and a time-precision (jitter) of less than 1 μs. Standardization Powerlink was standardized by the Ethernet Powerlink Standardization Group (EPSG) and founded in June 2003 as an independent association. Working groups focus on tasks like safety, technology, marketing, certification and end users. The EPSG cooperates with the standardization bodies and associations, like the CAN in Automation (CiA) Group and the IEC. Physical layer The original physical layer specified was 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet. Since the end of 2006, Ethernet Powerlink with Gigabit Ethernet supported a transmission rate ten times higher (1,000 Mbit/s). Repeating hubs instead of switches within the Real-time domain is recommended to minimise delay and jitter. Ethernet Powerlink uses IAONA's Industrial Ethernet Planning and Installation Guide for clean cabling of industrial networks and both industrial Ethernet connectors 8P8C (commonly known as RJ45) and M12 are accepted. Data link layer The standard Ethernet data link layer is extended by an additional bus scheduling mechanism, which secures that at a time only one node is accessing the network. The schedule is divided into an isochronous phase and an asynchronous phase. During the isochronous phase, time-critical data is transferred, while the asynchronous phase provides bandwidth for the transmission of non time-critical data. The Managing Node (MN) grants access to the physical medium via dedicated poll request messages. As a result, only one single node (CN) has access to the network at a time, which avoids collisions, present on older Ethernet hubs before switches. The CSMA/CD mechanism of non-switched Ethernet, which caused non-deterministic Ethernet behaviour, is avoided by the Ethernet Powerlink scheduling mechanism. Basic cycle After system start-up is finished, the Real-Time domain is operating under Real-Time conditions. The scheduling of the basic cycle is controlled by the Managing Node (MN). The overall cycle time depends on the amount of isochronous data, asynchronous data and the number of nodes to be polled during each cycle. The basic cycle consists of the following phases: Start Phase: The Managing Node is sending out a synchronization message to all nodes. The frame is called SoC—Start of Cycle. Isochronous Phase: The Managing Node calls each node to transfer time-critical data for process or motion control by sending the Preq - Poll Request - frame. The addressed node answers with the Pres - Poll Response - frame. Since all other nodes are listening to all data during this phase, the communication system provides a producer-consumer relationship. The time frame which includes Preq-n and Pres-n is called time slot for the addressed node. Asynchronous Phase: The Managing Node grants the right to one particular node for sending ad-hoc data by sending out the SoA—Start of Asynchronous—frame. The addressed node will answer with ASnd. Standard IP-based protocols and addressing can be used during this phase. The quality of the Real-Time behavior depends on the precision of the overall basic cycle time. The length of individual phases can vary as long as the total of all phases remain within the basic cycle time boundaries. Adherence to the basic cycle time is monitored by the Managing Node. The duration of the isochronous and the asynchronous phase can be configured. Picture 1: Frames above the time line are sent by the MN, below the time line by different CNs. Picture 2: Time slots for nodes and the asynchronous time slot Multiplex for Bandwidth Optimization In addition to transferring isochronous data during each basic cycle, some nodes are also able to share transfer slots for better bandwidth utilization. For that reason, the isochronous phase can distinguish between transfer slots dedicated to particular nodes, which have to send their data in every basic cycle, and slots shared by nodes to transfer their data one after the other in different cycles. Therefore, less important yet still time-critical data can be transferred in longer cycles than the basic cycle. Assigning the slots during each cycle is at the discretion of the Managing Node. Picture 3: Time slots in EPL multiplexed mode. Poll response chaining Mode used mainly for robotics applications and large superstructures. Key is lower number of frames and better data distributions. OpenSAFETY Today, machines, plants and safety systems are stuck in a rigid scheme made up of hardware-based safety functions. The consequences of this are cost-intensive cabling and limited diagnostic options. The solution is the integration of safety relevant application data into the standard serial control protocol. OpenSAFETY allows both publish/subscriber and client/server communication. Safety relevant data is transmitted via an embedded data frame inside of standard communication messages. Measures to avoid any undetected failures due to systematic or stochastic errors are an integral part of a functional safety protocol. OpenSAFETY is in conformance with IEC 61508. The protocol fulfills the requirements of SIL 3. Error detection techniques have no impact on existing transport layers. Notes ^ "POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification". 2013: 35. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) References Machine safety Tactical brief (2012), "Machine Safety" (PDF), Automation World, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-07, retrieved 2012-08-23 Humphrey, David (2012), openSAFETY Initiative Aims to Unify Industrial Safety Protocols, USA: ARC Advisory Group, archived from the original on 2012-08-17 "POWERLINK Awarded National Standard in China", Control Engineering Asia, 2012, archived from the original on 2013-01-19 "DDASCA Consortium defines openSAFETY as standard", Automation.com, 2012 Zezulka, F.; Hyncica, o. (2008), "Průmyslový Ethernet VIII: Ethernet Powerlink, Profinet" (PDF), Automa, 5: 62–66 Which Ethernet system is the right one?, Control Engineering Europe, 2009 External links ethernet-powerlink.org Ethernet POWERLINK Standardization Group website sourceforge.net/projects/openpowerlink Open Source Stack Ethernet Powerlink and OpenSafety Forums on LinkedIn Ethernet Powerlink Group OpenSafety Group vteAutomation protocolsProcess automation AS-i BSAP CC-Link Industrial Networks CIP CAN bus CANopen DeviceNet ControlNet DF-1 DirectNET EtherCAT Ethernet Global Data (EGD) Ethernet Powerlink EtherNet/IP Factory Instrumentation Protocol FINS FOUNDATION fieldbus H1 HSE GE SRTP HART Protocol Honeywell SDS HostLink INTERBUS IO-Link MECHATROLINK MelsecNet Modbus Optomux PieP PROFIBUS PROFINET RAPIEnet SERCOS interface SERCOS III Sinec H1 SynqNet TTEthernet Industrial control system MTConnect OPC DA OPC HDA OPC UA Building automation 1-Wire BACnet BatiBUS C-Bus CEBus DALI DSI DyNet EnOcean EHS EIB FIP KNX LonTalk Modbus OpenTherm oBIX VSCP X10 xAP xPL Z-Wave Zigbee Power-system automation IEC 60870 IEC 60870-5 IEC 60870-6 DNP3 Factory Instrumentation Protocol IEC 61850 IEC 62351 Modbus PROFIBUS Automatic meter reading ANSI C12.18 IEC 61107 DLMS/IEC 62056 M-Bus Modbus Zigbee Automobile / Vehicle AFDX ARINC 429 CAN bus ARINC 825 SAE J1939 NMEA 2000 FMS Factory Instrumentation Protocol FlexRay IEBus J1587 J1708 Keyword Protocol 2000 Unified Diagnostic Services LIN MOST SENT (SAE J2716) VAN Cyphal vteEthernet family of local area network technologiesSpeeds 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s 2.5 and 5 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s 25 and 50 Gbit/s 40 and 100 Gbit/s 200, 400, 800 and 1600 Gbit/s General Physical layer Autonegotiation EtherType Flow control Frames Jumbos Organizations IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Alliance Media Twisted pair Coaxial First mile 10G-EPON Historic CSMA/CD StarLAN 10BROAD36 10BASE-FB 10BASE-FL 10BASE5 10BASE2 MAU FOIRL 100BaseVG LattisNet Long Reach Applications Audio Automotive Carrier Data center Energy Efficiency Industrial Metro Power Synchronous Transceivers GBIC SFP/SFP+/QSFP/QSFP+/OSFP XENPAK/X2 XFP CFP Interfaces AUI EAD MDI MII GMII XGMII XAUI Category Commons

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This provides:Guaranteed transfer of time-critical data in very short isochronic cycles with configurable response time\nTime-synchronisation of all nodes in the network with very high precision of sub-microseconds\nTransmission of less time-critical data in a reserved asynchronous channelModern implementations reach cycle-times of under 200 μs and a time-precision (jitter) of less than 1 μs.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CiA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN_in_Automation"}],"text":"Powerlink was standardized by the Ethernet Powerlink Standardization Group (EPSG) and founded in June 2003 as an independent association.\nWorking groups focus on tasks like safety, technology, marketing, certification and end users. The EPSG cooperates with the standardization bodies and associations, like the CAN in Automation (CiA) Group and the IEC.","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fast Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Gigabit Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-POWERLINK_Communication_Profile_Specification_v120-1"},{"link_name":"8P8C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8P8C"}],"text":"The original physical layer specified was 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet. Since the end of 2006, Ethernet Powerlink with Gigabit Ethernet supported a transmission rate ten times higher (1,000 Mbit/s).Repeating hubs instead of switches within the Real-time domain is recommended to minimise delay and jitter.[1] Ethernet Powerlink uses IAONA's Industrial Ethernet Planning and Installation Guide for clean cabling of industrial networks and both industrial Ethernet connectors 8P8C (commonly known as RJ45) and M12 are accepted.","title":"Physical layer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data link layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layer"},{"link_name":"CSMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_Sense_Multiple_Access"}],"text":"The standard Ethernet data link layer is extended by an additional bus scheduling mechanism, which secures that at a time only one node is accessing the network. The schedule is divided into an isochronous phase and an asynchronous phase. During the isochronous phase, time-critical data is transferred, while the asynchronous phase provides bandwidth for the transmission of non time-critical data. The Managing Node (MN) grants access to the physical medium via dedicated poll request messages. As a result, only one single node (CN) has access to the network at a time, which avoids collisions, present on older Ethernet hubs before switches. The CSMA/CD mechanism of non-switched Ethernet, which caused non-deterministic Ethernet behaviour, is avoided by the Ethernet Powerlink scheduling mechanism.","title":"Data link layer"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ethernet_Powerlink_Cycle.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Epl_cycle-2.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Epl_cycle-1.png"}],"text":"After system start-up is finished, the Real-Time domain is operating under Real-Time conditions. The scheduling of the basic cycle is controlled by the Managing Node (MN). The overall cycle time depends on the amount of isochronous data, asynchronous data and the number of nodes to be polled during each cycle.The basic cycle consists of the following phases:Start Phase: The Managing Node is sending out a synchronization message to all nodes. The frame is called SoC—Start of Cycle.\nIsochronous Phase: The Managing Node calls each node to transfer time-critical data for process or motion control by sending the Preq - Poll Request - frame. The addressed node answers with the Pres - Poll Response - frame. Since all other nodes are listening to all data during this phase, the communication system provides a producer-consumer relationship.The time frame which includes Preq-n and Pres-n is called time slot for the addressed node.Asynchronous Phase: The Managing Node grants the right to one particular node for sending ad-hoc data by sending out the SoA—Start of Asynchronous—frame. The addressed node will answer with ASnd. Standard IP-based protocols and addressing can be used during this phase.The quality of the Real-Time behavior depends on the precision of the overall basic cycle time. The length of individual phases can vary as long as the total of all phases remain within the basic cycle time boundaries. Adherence to the basic cycle time is monitored by the Managing Node. The duration of the isochronous and the asynchronous phase can be configured.Picture 1: Frames above the time line are sent by the MN, below the time line by different CNs.Picture 2: Time slots for nodes and the asynchronous time slotMultiplex for Bandwidth OptimizationIn addition to transferring isochronous data during each basic cycle, some nodes are also able to share transfer slots for better bandwidth utilization. For that reason, the isochronous phase can distinguish between transfer slots dedicated to particular nodes, which have to send their data in every basic cycle, and slots shared by nodes to transfer their data one after the other in different cycles. Therefore, less important yet still time-critical data can be transferred in longer cycles than the basic cycle. Assigning the slots during each cycle is at the discretion of the Managing Node.Picture 3: Time slots in EPL multiplexed mode.Poll response chainingMode used mainly for robotics applications and large superstructures. Key is lower number of frames and better data distributions.","title":"Basic cycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenSAFETY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSAFETY"},{"link_name":"functional safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_safety"},{"link_name":"IEC 61508","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61508"},{"link_name":"SIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_Integrity_Level"}],"text":"Today, machines, plants and safety systems are stuck in a rigid scheme made up of hardware-based safety functions. The consequences of this are cost-intensive cabling and limited diagnostic options. The solution is the integration of safety relevant application data into the standard serial control protocol. OpenSAFETY allows both publish/subscriber and client/server communication. Safety relevant data is transmitted via an embedded data frame inside of standard communication messages. Measures to avoid any undetected failures due to systematic or stochastic errors are an integral part of a functional safety protocol. OpenSAFETY is in conformance with IEC 61508. The protocol fulfills the requirements of SIL 3. Error detection techniques have no impact on existing transport layers.","title":"OpenSAFETY"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-POWERLINK_Communication_Profile_Specification_v120_1-0"},{"link_name":"\"POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ethernet-powerlink.org/en/downloads/technical-documents/action/open-download/download/epsg-ds-301-v120-communication-profile-specification/element/5158/?no_cache=1#page=35"},{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"}],"text":"^ \"POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification\". 2013: 35. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"reference":"\"POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification\". 2013: 35.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ethernet-powerlink.org/en/downloads/technical-documents/action/open-download/download/epsg-ds-301-v120-communication-profile-specification/element/5158/?no_cache=1#page=35","url_text":"\"POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification\""}]},{"reference":"Machine safety Tactical brief (2012), \"Machine Safety\" (PDF), Automation World, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-07, retrieved 2012-08-23","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120907063922/http://leadwise.mediadroit.com/files/19528SICKTacticalBrief_v3.pdf","url_text":"\"Machine Safety\""},{"url":"http://leadwise.mediadroit.com/files/19528SICKTacticalBrief_v3.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Humphrey, David (2012), openSAFETY Initiative Aims to Unify Industrial Safety Protocols, USA: ARC Advisory Group, archived from the original on 2012-08-17","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120817070946/http://www.arcweb.com/strategy-reports/2012-04-12/opensafety-initiative-aims-to-unify-industrial-safety-protocols.aspx","url_text":"openSAFETY Initiative Aims to Unify Industrial Safety Protocols"},{"url":"http://www.arcweb.com/strategy-reports/2012-04-12/opensafety-initiative-aims-to-unify-industrial-safety-protocols.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"POWERLINK Awarded National Standard in China\", Control Engineering Asia, 2012, archived from the original on 2013-01-19","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130119162131/http://www.ceasiamag.com/article/powerlink-awarded-national-standard-in-china/8532","url_text":"\"POWERLINK Awarded National Standard in China\""},{"url":"http://www.ceasiamag.com/article/powerlink-awarded-national-standard-in-china/8532","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"DDASCA Consortium defines openSAFETY as standard\", Automation.com, 2012","urls":[{"url":"http://www.automation.com/content/consortium-including-airbus-and-the-french-national-railway-corporation-defines-opensafety-as-standard","url_text":"\"DDASCA Consortium defines openSAFETY as standard\""}]},{"reference":"Zezulka, F.; Hyncica, o. (2008), \"Průmyslový Ethernet VIII: Ethernet Powerlink, Profinet\" (PDF), Automa, 5: 62–66","urls":[{"url":"http://www.odbornecasopisy.cz/res/pdf/37288.pdf","url_text":"\"Průmyslový Ethernet VIII: Ethernet Powerlink, Profinet\""}]},{"reference":"Which Ethernet system is the right one?, Control Engineering Europe, 2009","urls":[{"url":"http://www.controlengeurope.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=22745","url_text":"Which Ethernet system is the right one?"}]}]

[{"Link":"http://www.ethernet-powerlink.org/en/downloads/technical-documents/action/open-download/download/epsg-ds-301-v120-communication-profile-specification/element/5158/?no_cache=1#page=35","external_links_name":"\"POWERLINK Communication Profile Specification\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120907063922/http://leadwise.mediadroit.com/files/19528SICKTacticalBrief_v3.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Machine Safety\""},{"Link":"http://leadwise.mediadroit.com/files/19528SICKTacticalBrief_v3.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120817070946/http://www.arcweb.com/strategy-reports/2012-04-12/opensafety-initiative-aims-to-unify-industrial-safety-protocols.aspx","external_links_name":"openSAFETY Initiative Aims to Unify Industrial Safety Protocols"},{"Link":"http://www.arcweb.com/strategy-reports/2012-04-12/opensafety-initiative-aims-to-unify-industrial-safety-protocols.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130119162131/http://www.ceasiamag.com/article/powerlink-awarded-national-standard-in-china/8532","external_links_name":"\"POWERLINK Awarded National Standard in China\""},{"Link":"http://www.ceasiamag.com/article/powerlink-awarded-national-standard-in-china/8532","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.automation.com/content/consortium-including-airbus-and-the-french-national-railway-corporation-defines-opensafety-as-standard","external_links_name":"\"DDASCA Consortium defines openSAFETY as standard\""},{"Link":"http://www.odbornecasopisy.cz/res/pdf/37288.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Průmyslový Ethernet VIII: Ethernet Powerlink, Profinet\""},{"Link":"http://www.controlengeurope.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=22745","external_links_name":"Which Ethernet system is the right one?"},{"Link":"http://www.ethernet-powerlink.org/","external_links_name":"ethernet-powerlink.org Ethernet POWERLINK Standardization Group website"},{"Link":"http://sourceforge.net/projects/openpowerlink","external_links_name":"sourceforge.net/projects/openpowerlink Open Source Stack"},{"Link":"http://www.linkedin.com/groups?home=&gid=2331103&trk=anet_ug_hm","external_links_name":"Ethernet Powerlink Group"},{"Link":"http://www.linkedin.com/groups?gid=3816766&mostPopular=&trk=tyah","external_links_name":"OpenSafety Group"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_maturity

Sexual maturity

["1 Role of reproductive organs","2 Puberty vs. sexual maturity","3 See also","4 References"]

Portion of a life cycle in which an organism is capable of sexual reproduction This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Sexual maturity" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce. In humans, it is related to both puberty and adulthood. However, puberty is the process of biological sexual maturation, while the concept of adulthood is generally based on broader cultural definitions. Most multicellular organisms are unable to sexually reproduce at birth (animals) or germination (e.g. plants): depending on the species, it may be days, weeks, or years until they have developed enough to be able to do so. Also, certain cues may trigger an organism to become sexually mature. They may be external, such as drought (certain plants), or internal, such as percentage of body fat (certain animals). (Such internal cues are not to be confused with hormones, which directly produce sexual maturity – the production/release of those hormones is triggered by such cues.) Role of reproductive organs Sexual maturity is brought about by a maturing of the reproductive organs and the production of gametes. It may also be accompanied by a growth spurt or other physical changes which distinguish the immature organism from its adult form. In animals these are termed secondary sex characteristics, and often represent an increase in sexual dimorphism. After sexual maturity is achieved, some organisms become infertile, or even change their sex. Some organisms are hermaphrodites and may or may not be able to "completely" mature and/or to produce viable offspring. Also, while in many organisms sexual maturity is strongly linked to age, many other factors are involved, and it is possible for some to display most or all of the characteristics of the adult form without being sexually mature. Conversely it is also possible for the "immature" form of an organism to reproduce. This is called progenesis, in which sexual development occurs faster than other physiological development (in contrast, the term neoteny refers to when non-sexual development is slowed – but the result is the same - the retention of juvenile characteristics into adulthood). Puberty vs. sexual maturity In some animals, there is a difference between puberty and sexual maturity. For example, in bulls, puberty is characterized by the accelerated growth of the genital system, an increase in luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion, and the onset of spermatogenesis. Sexual maturity, however, signifies the attainment of full reproductive capacity, which may take up to 6–9 months after puberty. See also Gonadosomatic index Generation time References ^ a b Thomas Edward McNamara (2004). Evolution, Culture, and Consciousness: The Discovery of the Preconscious Mind. University Press of America. pp. 262–263. ISBN 0-7618-2765-X. ^ Joseph S. Sanfilippo; Eduardo Lara-Torre; D. Keith Edmonds; Claire Templeman (2008). Clinical Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. CRC Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-203-09178-4. The definition of puberty alone can encompass the process of sexual maturation, but a more expansive approach is to think of puberty in combination with the term adolescence. This differentiation prompts the practitioner to consider the psychological, behavioral, and social changes of the adolescent who is experiencing pubertal development. ^ "Veterinary Andrology and Reproductive Techniques: Puberty Vs Sexual maturity". ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in. Archived from the original on 2022-09-21. Retrieved 2022-09-21. Authority control databases: National Germany

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[]

[{"title":"Gonadosomatic index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadosomatic_index"},{"title":"Generation time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_time"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Georg_Church

St. Georg Church

["1 History","2 Architecture","3 Photographs","4 See also","5 References"]

Coordinates: 32°38′17″N 51°39′15″E / 32.63801968°N 51.65426284°E / 32.63801968; 51.65426284Iranian national heritage site Saint George Church of New JulfaReligionAffiliationArmenian Apostolic ChurchRiteArmenianStatusFunctioningLocationLocationNew Julfa, Isfahan, IranShown within IranGeographic coordinates32°38′17″N 51°39′15″E / 32.63801968°N 51.65426284°E / 32.63801968; 51.65426284ArchitectureStyleIsfahaniCompleted1611 Saint George Church of New Julfa or Gharib Church, (Armenian: Նոր Ջուղայի Սուրբ Գէորգ Եկեղեցի, Persian: کلیسای گئورگ مقدس), is an Armenian Apostolic church in New Julfa, Iran. It is the second-oldest church in New Julfa. History Saint George Church was built in 1611. It is a famous place of pilgrimage for Armenians, as 15 pieces of stones were brought here from Etchmiadzin by the order of Shah Abbas I, so that the Armenians would not leave New Julfa and would not return to Armenia.The Safavid king, who tried to keep the Armenians in Isfahan by any means possible, and was aware of their deep religious beliefs, ordered to demolish the Etchmiadzin Cathedral and move its stones to Isfahan and rebuild that church in Julfa. Nevertheless, since this was not practical, only fifteen pieces of stone were removed from the altar and different parts of the church and transferred to Isfahan. The belfry was built in the 1920s and the church was renovated in 1959. Entrance of the church Three pieces of these stones with a carved cross in them were put in front of the altar and the rest were placed in the north courtyard of St. George's Church. Because these stones are sacred to Armenians, since then, St. George's Church has become a shrine for Armenians in Iran. Architecture The church building has a rectangular plan in the east–west direction with dimensions of 26 x 11.6 meters and has three small arched domes. The domes and roof of the church are on arches which rest on three pairs of wide columns attached to the inner walls. All three domes, the largest of which is the eastern dome, have skylights. The bell tower, founded in 1920, is located, on the roof, at the western end of the church. The materials used in the church are brick and clay. The exterior walls of the building are covered with thatch and the interior walls are covered with plaster and on the inner walls, small decorations are drawn in the form of geometric lines. Photographs Inside chapel Inside chapel See also Iranian Armenians List of Armenian churches in Iran Armenian Apostolic Diocese of Isfahan and Southern Iran References ^ "Centuries-old Saint George Church still open in northwestern Iran". Tehran Times. 2020-10-18. Retrieved 2022-11-30. ^ St. Georg Church ^ "Ս. ԳԷՈՐԳ ԵԿԵՂԵՑԻ". خلیفه گری ارامنه اصفهان و جنوب ایران. ^ Saint George Armenian Church ^ St. Georg Church vteIsfahan province, IranCapital Isfahan Countiesand citiesAran va Bidgol County Aran va Bidgol Abuzeydabad Nushabad Sefidshahr Ardestan County Ardestan Mahabad Zavareh Borkhar County Dowlatabad Dastgerd Habibabad Khvorzuq Komeshcheh Shadpurabad Buin va Miandasht County Buin va Miandasht Afus Chadegan County Chadegan Rozveh Dehaqan County Dehaqan Falavarjan County Falavarjan Abrisham Baharan Shahr Imanshahr Kelishad va Sudarjan Pir Bakran Qahderijan Zazeran Faridan County Daran Damaneh Fereydunshahr County Fereydunshahr Barf Anbar Golpayegan County Golpayegan Golshahr Guged Isfahan County Isfahan Baharestan Ezhiyeh Harand Hasanabad Kuhpayeh Mohammadabad Nasrabad Nikabad Sagzi Tudeshk Varzaneh Kashan County Kashan Barzok Jowsheqan va Kamu Meshkat Neyasar Qamsar Khomeyni Shahr County Khomeyni Shahr Dorcheh Piaz Kushk Khur and Biabanak County Khur Jandaq Farrokhi Khvansar County Khvansar Lenjan County Zarrin Shahr Bagh-e Bahadoran Chamgardan Chermahin Fuladshahr Sedeh Lenjan Varnamkhast Zayandeh Rud Mobarakeh County Mobarakeh Dizicheh Karkevand Talkhvoncheh Zibashahr Nain County Nain Anarak Bafran Najafabad County Najafabad Alavicheh Dehaq Goldasht Jowzdan Kahriz Sang Natanz County Natanz Badrud Khaledabad Semirom County Semirom Hana Komeh Noqol Vanak Shahreza County Shahreza Manzariyeh Shahin Shahr and Meymeh County Shahin Shahr Gaz Meymeh Vazvan Tiran and Karvan County Tiran Asgaran Rezvanshahr Sights Abbāsi House Abyaneh Agha Bozorg Mosque Āmeri House Bazaar of Kashan Borujerdi House Chaharbagh Boulevard Chaharbagh School Fin Garden Fire temple of Isfahan Hasht Behesht Jameh Mosque of Ashtarjan Jameh Mosque of Isfahan Khaju Bridge Monar Jonban Naqsh-e Jahan Square New Julfa Si-o-se-pol Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse Tabatabai House Tepe Sialk See also Greater Isfahan Region List of cities, towns and villages List of universities vteAncient, medieval, and historical Armenian churches and monasteriesArmenia Aragatsotn Arshakid Mausoleum Aruchavank Astvatsankal Byurakan Garnahovit Hovhannavank Karbi Karmravor Kasagh Kosh Kristapori Vank Mastara Oshakan (St. Mesrop, Tukh Manuk) Saghmosavank Mughni Talin Tegher Ushi Vahramashen Voskevaz Yeghipatrush Zarinja Ararat Aghjots Vank Artavazik Dvin Khor Virap Armavir Targmanchats Vank Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin, St. Gayane, St. Hripsime, St. Mary, Shoghakat) Zvartnots Gegharkunik Ddmashen Hayravank Kotavank Makenyats Vank Noratus (Cemetery, St. George) Sevanavank Tsovinar Vanevan Yot Verk Kotayk Geghard Gharghavank Havuts Tar Kecharis Makravank Mashtots Hayrapet Mayravank Neghutsi Vank Ptghavank Tejharuyk Yeghvard (St. Mary) Lori Monastery Bardzrakash Haghpat Hnevank Horomayri Khuchap Kobayr Odzun Sanahin Sverdlov Vanadzor (St. Mary) Shirak Gyumri (St. Mary, Holy Saviour) Harichavank Lmbatavank Marmashen Pemzashen Yererouk Syunik Bgheno-Noravank Tatev (Monastery, Tatevi Anapat) Vahanavank Vorotnavank Tavush Goshavank Haghartsin Jukhtak Vank Kirants (Arakelots) Makaravank Matosavank Samsonavank Tsrviz Voskepar Vayots Dzor Areni Gndevank Noravank Spitakavor Tanahat Tsakhats Kar Yerevan Avan (Tsiranavor) Kanaker (St. James) Yerevan (Gethsemane, Katoghike, St. Gregory, St. John, St. Paul and Peter, Zoravor) Azerbaijan (List) Agulis (St. Thomas) Amaras Aprakunis Baku (St. Gregory, St. Mary, St. Thaddeus) Dadivank Gag Gandzasar Gtichavank Hakobavank Jugha (Holy Savour) Katarovank Kish Kusanats Anapat Shusha (Ghazanchetsots, Kanach Zham) Targmanchats Tsar Tsitsernavank Vankasar Yeghishe Arakyal Yerits Mankants Georgia (List) Tbilisi (Vank, Bethlehem, Chugureti, Ejmiatsnetsots, St. George, St. Gregory, Jigrasheni Avetyats, Kamoyants, Karapet, Karapi, Karmir Avetaran, Geghardavank, Mughni, Norashen, Holy Sign, St. Sarkis, St. Stephen, Zrkinyants) Tskhinvali Turkey (List) Adana (St. Mary) Agarak Aghperig Aghtamar Akner Bagnayr Akori Ani (Cathedral, Tigran Honents, Kizkale, Holy Apostles) Aparank Arakelots Vank Arapgir Arkakaghni Arter Bana Barthoghimevos Vank Constantinople (Galata, Kuzguncuk, Fatih, Kartal, Samatya, Taksim, Beyoğlu, Beyoğlu) Drazark Elazig Eskişehir Gaziantep Goms Hogots Horomos Ishkhan Kanzak Karapet Vank Karmravank Kars (Cathedral, St. Mary) Kes Khtzkonk Ktuts Marinos Vank Mren Mush (St. Marine, Holy Sign) Narekavank Por Sivrihisar Skanchelagordz Vank Smyrna Soradir Tekor Tigranakert Trebizond Varagavank Varzahan Yeghegnamor Yeghrdut Yerazgavors Iran (List) Thadei Vank Maghardavank Dzordzori Vank Hovi Darashamb Haftvan Khoy Mahlezan Tabriz (St. Mary, St. Sarkis, Mariam) Mujumbar Sohrol Sarnaq Nor Jugha (Vank, St. Mary, St. George, St. Stephen, St. John, St. Catherine, Bethlehem, St. Nicholas, St. Gregory, St. Sarkis, Isfahan, St. Minas, St. Nerses) Tehran (St. Thaddeus, St. George) Jerusalem (Palestine/Israel) Armenian Quarter Cathedral of St. James Church of St. Toros Church of the Holy Archangels Monastery of St. Saviour Chapel of St. Helena Rest of Asia Syria Aleppo India Chennai Calcutta Chinsura Saidabad Bangladesh Dhaka Israel St. Nicholas Monastery Cyprus Magar Vank Notre Dame de Tyre Ganchvor Singapore Saint Gregory the Illuminator Rest of Europe Crimea Holy Cross Yalta Ukraine Lviv (St. Mary) Russia Nor Nakhichevan (Holy Cross) Sultan-Saly St. Petersburg (St. Catherine) Romania Zamca Italy San Lazzaro degli Armeni Portal: Iran This article about a church building or other Christian place of worship in Iran is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Armenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Armenian Apostolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church"},{"link_name":"New Julfa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Julfa"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Iranian national heritage siteSaint George Church of New Julfa or Gharib Church, (Armenian: Նոր Ջուղայի Սուրբ Գէորգ Եկեղեցի, Persian: کلیسای گئورگ مقدس), is an Armenian Apostolic church in New Julfa, Iran. It is the second-oldest church in New Julfa.[1]","title":"St. Georg Church"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shah Abbas I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Abbas_I"},{"link_name":"Etchmiadzin Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etchmiadzin_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armenian_church_of_Saint_George_in_Isfahan.JPG"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Saint George Church was built in 1611. It is a famous place of pilgrimage for Armenians, as 15 pieces of stones were brought here from Etchmiadzin by the order of Shah Abbas I, so that the Armenians would not leave New Julfa and would not return to Armenia.The Safavid king, who tried to keep the Armenians in Isfahan by any means possible, and was aware of their deep religious beliefs, ordered to demolish the Etchmiadzin Cathedral and move its stones to Isfahan and rebuild that church in Julfa. Nevertheless, since this was not practical, only fifteen pieces of stone were removed from the altar and different parts of the church and transferred to Isfahan.[2] The belfry was built in the 1920s and the church was renovated in 1959.[3]Entrance of the churchThree pieces of these stones with a carved cross in them were put in front of the altar and the rest were placed in the north courtyard of St. George's Church. Because these stones are sacred to Armenians, since then, St. George's Church has become a shrine for Armenians in Iran.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"domes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"skylights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylights"},{"link_name":"bell tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_tower"}],"text":"The church building has a rectangular plan in the east–west direction with dimensions of 26 x 11.6 meters and has three small arched domes. The domes and roof of the church are on arches which rest on three pairs of wide columns attached to the inner walls.[5]All three domes, the largest of which is the eastern dome, have skylights. The bell tower, founded in 1920, is located, on the roof, at the western end of the church.The materials used in the church are brick and clay. The exterior walls of the building are covered with thatch and the interior walls are covered with plaster and on the inner walls, small decorations are drawn in the form of geometric lines.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inside chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131203003637/http://www.vank.ir/fa/images/churches/georg/02%20Georg.JPG"},{"link_name":"Inside chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131202232431/http://www.vank.ir/fa/images/churches/georg/04%20Georg.jpg"}],"text":"Inside chapel\nInside chapel","title":"Photographs"}]

[{"image_text":"Entrance of the church","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Armenian_church_of_Saint_George_in_Isfahan.JPG/200px-Armenian_church_of_Saint_George_in_Isfahan.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Iranian Armenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Armenians"},{"title":"List of Armenian churches in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_churches_in_Iran"},{"title":"Armenian Apostolic Diocese of Isfahan and Southern Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Diocese_of_Isfahan_and_Southern_Iran"}]

[{"reference":"\"Centuries-old Saint George Church still open in northwestern Iran\". Tehran Times. 2020-10-18. Retrieved 2022-11-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/453677/Centuries-old-Saint-George-Church-still-open-in-northwestern","url_text":"\"Centuries-old Saint George Church still open in northwestern Iran\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ս. ԳԷՈՐԳ ԵԿԵՂԵՑԻ\". خلیفه گری ارامنه اصفهان و جنوب ایران.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.norjugha.ir/%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%81-%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80/%D5%A3%D5%A7%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A3-%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%81%D5%AB.html","url_text":"\"Ս. ԳԷՈՐԳ ԵԿԵՂԵՑԻ\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_$100K_Entrepreneurship_Competition

MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition

["1 Process","2 MIT $100K PITCH Contest","3 MIT $100K ACCELERATE Contest","4 MIT $100K LAUNCH - Business Plan Contest","4.1 Winners - Business Plan Contest","5 Notable companies formed through the competition","6 History: MIT $10K/$50K/$100K Entrepreneurial Competition","6.1 Managing Directors","7 Entrepreneurship for Development Competition","7.1 Winners - Entrepreneurship for Development Competition","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Student-managed business plan competition This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition is a student-managed business plan competition, where undergraduates and postgraduates from various programs and all levels at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) organize and enter the competition. Teams must include at least one full-time MIT student, but membership is not limited to the MIT community. The competition is supported by the MIT Entrepreneurship Center at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Every year a total of $300,000 is distributed as non-dilutive grant money. Since 1990, over 160 companies have been started as a result of the competition, generating 4,600 jobs, receiving over $1.3 billion in follow-up venture capital funding and totaling a cumulative market value of over $15 billion. Process Throughout the academic year, the teams take part in a process that includes industry and legal mentorship, multiple live judging rounds, prototyping and pitch workshops, expense accounts for venture development, networking events with sponsors and alumni, and the awarding of roughly US$300,000 in non-dilutive prize money. The competition started in 1990 as the $10K competition and continued to grow throughout the 1990s. In 1996 the $10K evolved into the $50K, with $30K going to the winner and $10K to each of the two runners-up. In 2006, the $50K grant competition also added another aspect to the competition focused on business plans for low-income communities to complement the traditional business venture competition. Subsequently, the competition has rebranded itself with a larger grant amount of $100K and is called the MIT $100K Pitch Contest. MIT $100K PITCH Contest The MIT $100K Pitch Contest is organized yearly by the MIT $100K organizing committee. Intended to provide a way for entrepreneurs with ideas to form teams, it is held in the fall. The contest is a warm-up event for the Executive Summary Contest, held in the winter, and the Business Plan Contest, held in the spring. In the Elevator Pitch Contest, each contestant is given 60 seconds in front of a crowd to give their "elevator pitch," with the winner receiving a cash prize. This contest is open to the public. MIT $100K ACCELERATE Contest The MIT $100K ACCELERATE Contest replaced the MIT $100K Executive Summary Contest in 2011. It is held in the winter of the academic year and is intended to help teams build a robust prototype for their start-up idea. Teams work on creating a demonstration of their idea over December and January, and the best selected are the ACCELERATE Finale Show. MIT $100K provides resources and mentorship to help teams build their demonstrations, which will be reviewed by a panel of judges, with the winner receiving a cash prize. MIT $100K LAUNCH - Business Plan Contest The MIT $100K Launch Contest is the flagship of the MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition. In the spring, semi-finalists are selected from all business plan submissions. LAUNCH is the final contest in the $100K cycle. Participants present full-scale business plans for the chance to win a $100,000 grand prize. Winners - Business Plan Contest Year Winner Track and Description Team Members 2023 Active Surfaces Cleantech, Sustainability, Hardware Shiv Bhakta, Richard Swartwout 2022 Nona+ Desalination Cleantech, Sustainability, Hardware Junghyo Yoon, Bruce Crawford 2021 Osmoses Cleantech, Energy Efficiency Francesco Maria Benedetti, Katherine Mizrahi Rodriguez, Holden Lai 2020 Ocular Technologies Hardware, Health & Wellness Brett Sternfield, Zona Liu, Grayson Armstrong 2019 Amplified industries Artificial Intelligence, IoT Sebastien Mannai, Charles-Henri Clerget, Louis Creteur 2018 Infinite Cooling n/a Maher Damak, Karim Khalil 2017 Lightmatter Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Photonic Computing Nick Harris, Darius, Dr. Yichen Shen, Thomas Graham 2016 Astraeus Technologies Medical Devices (Diagnostics) Joe Azzarelli, Alex Blair, Jay Kumar, Graham Lieberman 2015 Raptor Maps n/a Nikhil Vadhavkar, Forrest Meyen, Edward Obropta 2014 Disease Diagnostic Group n/a 2013 3dim Mobile Track Andrea Colaço, Nan-Wei Gong, Vivek K. Goyal, Ahmed Kirmani, Nate Stewart, and Rahul Tejwani 2012 Filepicker.io Mobile Track Brett Van Zuiden, Anand Dass, David Chang, Thomas G 2011 Sanergy Emerging Markets Track David Auerbach, Lindsay Stradley, Ani Vallabhaneni 2010 C-Crete Products & Services Track Rouzbeh Shahsavari, Natanel Barookhian 2009 Ksplice Web/IT Track Tim Abbott, Jeff Arnold, Waseem Daher, Anders Kaseorg, Nelson Elhage 2008 Diagnostics for All Life Sciences Track Roozbeh Ghaffari, Jon Puz, Hayat Sindi, Gilbert Tang, Carol Waghorne, Krishna Yeshwant 2007 Robopsy Medical Devices (for biopsies) John Harthorne, Conor Walsh, Nevan Hanumara 2006 Semprus BioSciences (formerly SteriCoat) Surface Modifications on Medical Devices Chris Loose, David Lucchino, Joel Moxley, Mike Hencke and Vipin Gupta 2005 Balico Medical Devices Baruch Schori, Harry Lee, Kathleen Sienko, Jimmy Robertsson 2004 Active Joint BraceNow:Myomo Inc. Medical Devices Mira Sahney, Kailas Narendran, John McBean, Joe Jackson, Hocking Chen, Raja Surapanani, 2003 SmartCells Medical Devices Todd C. Zion, Robert Bruch, Martin Curiel, John Hebert, Tsafrir Vanounou 1998 Direct Hit Technologies Internet search engine Mike Cassidy, Gary Culliss, Steven Yang 1992 Toolbox Machine Tool Controller Miles Arnone, Chad Clawson, Dan Berkery 1991 Stylus Innovation Barcode-based remote shopping Krisztina 'Z' Holly, Mike Cassidy, John Barrus Notable companies formed through the competition Since its founding, the $100K Competition has helped launch more than 60 companies with an aggregate value of more than $10.5 billion. Prominent $100K alumni companies include Akamai, net. Genesis, and C-Bridge. Year Competition Result Company Result Exit lue 1991 Grand-Prize Winner Stylus Innovation Acquired - 1996 $12.8M 1995 Finalist Harmonix, Inc. Acquired - 2006 $700M 1995 Finalist Silicon Spice Acquired by Broadcom $1.2 billion 1996 Finalist Webline Communications Acquired by Cisco $325M 1998 Grand-Prize Winner Direct Hit Acquired - 2000 $517M 1998 Runner-up Akamai IPO - 1999 $26.00 per share Current market cap: $12.50 Billion 2003 Finalist Brontes Technologies Acquired by 3M - 2006 $95M 2006 Finalist HubSpot CurrenMarket cap $2.29 Billion 2010 Finalist Pushpins Acquired by Ebates - 2012 $10–17M 2010 Runner-Up Flywire (fka PeerTransfer) IPO - 2021 $250M History: MIT $10K/$50K/$100K Entrepreneurial Competition The competition was founded in the 1989–1990 academic year and was initially intended as a promotional vehicle for the MIT Entrepreneurs Club (now the MIT E-Club.) Club members Richard Durling-Shyduroff and Douglas Ling along with club Founder Peter Mui envisioned a cross-campus event that brought MIT's varied schools together to identify and support innovative ideas on campus. The goal was to create a safe, nurturing, (relatively controlled) sandbox environment where fledgling entrepreneurs could try their wings. The lead alumni donor was George Hatsopoulos of Thermo Electron. with additional generous support from other alumni, the Sloan School (Dean Lester Thurow) and Engineering School (Acting Dean Jack Kerrebrock.) Managing Directors Year Name 2023 Stefan Sayre, Ping King, Santiago Tagle Llamosas 2022 Ezgi Emiroglu, Jimmy Teng, Graziano Gallitto 2021 Claire Beskin, Thierno Sylla, Samuel Lambert 2020 Akhilesh Koppineni, Christian Mirabile, Jennifer Shin 2019 Harry Kainen, Kat Krieger, Cy Schroeder 2018 Jake Guglin, Sandy Corrales 2017 Bar Kafri 2016 Monique Guimond 2015 Marc Chalifoux, Jake Auchincloss 2014 Peri AbouZied, Gino Korolev 2013 Ally Yost, Haya Al Ghanim 2012 Alice Francis, Adam Borelli 2011 Kourosh Kaghazian 2010 Daniel Vannoni 2009 Sombit Mishra, Brian Cantwell 2008 Frederic Kerrest 2007 Jeff Sabados 2006 Karina Drees 2005 Jason Fuller, Lawrence Walmsley 2004 Ian Blakely, Marcus Lopez 2003 Dan Riskin, Matt Richards 2002 Brian Curtis 2001 Michael Parduhn 2000 Elad Gil 1999 Heather Wilding 1998 Scott Blankstein 1997 Sally Shepard 1996 Will Clurman 1995 James Deverell 1994 Joost Bonsen 1993 Joost Bonsen 1992 Doug Ling 1991 Doug Ling 1990 Peter Mui, Doug Ling 1989 Peter Mui, Doug Ling Entrepreneurship for Development Competition The Entrepreneurship for Development Competition is a competition for business plans that are judged on the following criteria: uniqueness of business idea, management strength, path to sustainability and social impact. The competition was added in 2006 as a complement to the Business Venture Competition due to increasing demand and interest in socially conscious ideas. In the spring, semi-finalists are selected from all business plan submissions. Semi-finalists submit more detailed business plans, and 5-6 finalists are then chosen. At the awards ceremony, the top team is awarded the Entrepreneurship for Development grand prize. Winners - Entrepreneurship for Development Competition In 1998, a dual award within the Venture Competition was awarded to a pair of finalists including Volunteer Community Connection. At the time, VCC was a non-traditional entry into the competition and has since served as a motivating example for the genesis of the MIT $100K Developmental Entrepreneurship Competition. As a result, they are listed as a winner and implicitly as an innovator within the Entrepreneurship for Development Competition. Year Winner Description Team Members 2007 Bagazo Alternate Fuels from Agricultural Waste Johan Löfström, Felicita Holsztejn, Jules D. Walter, Gerthy Lahens, Amy Banzaert 2006 CentroMigrante Sustainable Housing for Migrant Communities Illac Diaz, Neil Ruiz, Tina Laforteza, Artessa Salvidar-Sali, Bianca Locsin, Chester Yu 1998 Volunteer Community Connection The Volunteer Community Connection enables the easy and automated sign-up and management of volunteers with non-profit agencies. Michael Bryzek, Jonathan Allen, Oumi Mehrotra, Emily Sandberg, Mark Y. Sun See also Best of Biotech LiquiGlide References ^ "Accelerate". ^ "Ask Jeeves Investor Relations". www.irconnect.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 17 January 2022. ^ "Performance Marketing Brands (A.k.a. Ebates) Buys Grocery Shopping App Pushpins". 20 January 2013. ^ www.americaninno.com https://www.americaninno.com/boston/mit-100k-a-celebration-of-20-years-of-economic-impact/. Retrieved 2021-06-01. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Gardizy, Anissa (May 25, 2021). "Boston payments firm Flywire raises $250 million in IPO". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 2021-06-01. External links Official site A Look at 22 Years of the MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition & 10 Teams Who've Paved the Way vteMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyAcademics School of Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Department of Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Research Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Broad Institute Center for Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab MIT Libraries Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Whitehead Institute People Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Culture Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Campus Building 20 Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building History History of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Round Hill Athletics Engineers Tech Dinghy Notable projects MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"student-managed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_competition"},{"link_name":"business plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_plan"},{"link_name":"MIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT"},{"link_name":"MIT Entrepreneurship Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Entrepreneurship_Center"},{"link_name":"MIT Sloan School of Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Sloan_School_of_Management"},{"link_name":"grant money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant_(money)#United_States"},{"link_name":"venture capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital"}],"text":"The MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition is a student-managed business plan competition, where undergraduates and postgraduates from various programs and all levels at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) organize and enter the competition. Teams must include at least one full-time MIT student, but membership is not limited to the MIT community. The competition is supported by the MIT Entrepreneurship Center at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Every year a total of $300,000 is distributed as non-dilutive grant money. Since 1990, over 160 companies have been started as a result of the competition, generating 4,600 jobs, receiving over $1.3 billion in follow-up venture capital funding and totaling a cumulative market value of over $15 billion.","title":"MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Throughout the academic year, the teams take part in a process that includes industry and legal mentorship, multiple live judging rounds, prototyping and pitch workshops, expense accounts for venture development, networking events with sponsors and alumni, and the awarding of roughly US$300,000 in non-dilutive prize money.The competition started in 1990 as the $10K competition and continued to grow throughout the 1990s. In 1996 the $10K evolved into the $50K, with $30K going to the winner and $10K to each of the two runners-up. In 2006, the $50K grant competition also added another aspect to the competition focused on business plans for low-income communities to complement the traditional business venture competition. Subsequently, the competition has rebranded itself with a larger grant amount of $100K and is called the MIT $100K Pitch Contest.","title":"Process"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The MIT $100K Pitch Contest is organized yearly by the MIT $100K organizing committee. Intended to provide a way for entrepreneurs with ideas to form teams, it is held in the fall. The contest is a warm-up event for the Executive Summary Contest, held in the winter, and the Business Plan Contest, held in the spring. In the Elevator Pitch Contest, each contestant is given 60 seconds in front of a crowd to give their \"elevator pitch,\" with the winner receiving a cash prize. This contest is open to the public.","title":"MIT $100K PITCH Contest"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The MIT $100K ACCELERATE Contest replaced the MIT $100K Executive Summary Contest in 2011. It is held in the winter of the academic year and is intended to help teams build a robust prototype for their start-up idea. Teams work on creating a demonstration of their idea over December and January, and the best selected are the ACCELERATE Finale Show. MIT $100K provides resources and mentorship to help teams build their demonstrations, which will be reviewed by a panel of judges, with the winner receiving a cash prize.[1]","title":"MIT $100K ACCELERATE Contest"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The MIT $100K Launch Contest is the flagship of the MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition. In the spring, semi-finalists are selected from all business plan submissions. LAUNCH is the final contest in the $100K cycle. Participants present full-scale business plans for the chance to win a $100,000 grand prize.","title":"MIT $100K LAUNCH - Business Plan Contest"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Winners - Business Plan Contest","title":"MIT $100K LAUNCH - Business Plan Contest"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Akamai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akamai_Technologies"}],"text":"Since its founding, the $100K Competition has helped launch more than 60 companies with an aggregate value of more than $10.5 billion. Prominent $100K alumni companies include Akamai, net. Genesis, and C-Bridge.","title":"Notable companies formed through the competition"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The competition was founded in the 1989–1990 academic year and was initially intended as a promotional vehicle for the MIT Entrepreneurs Club (now the MIT E-Club.) Club members Richard Durling-Shyduroff and Douglas Ling along with club Founder Peter Mui envisioned a cross-campus event that brought MIT's varied schools together to identify and support innovative ideas on campus. The goal was to create a safe, nurturing, (relatively controlled) sandbox environment where fledgling entrepreneurs could try their wings. The lead alumni donor was George Hatsopoulos of Thermo Electron. with additional generous support from other alumni, the Sloan School (Dean Lester Thurow) and Engineering School (Acting Dean Jack Kerrebrock.)","title":"History: MIT $10K/$50K/$100K Entrepreneurial Competition"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Managing Directors","title":"History: MIT $10K/$50K/$100K Entrepreneurial Competition"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Entrepreneurship for Development Competition is a competition for business plans that are judged on the following criteria: uniqueness of business idea, management strength, path to sustainability and social impact. The competition was added in 2006 as a complement to the Business Venture Competition due to increasing demand and interest in socially conscious ideas. In the spring, semi-finalists are selected from all business plan submissions. Semi-finalists submit more detailed business plans, and 5-6 finalists are then chosen. At the awards ceremony, the top team is awarded the Entrepreneurship for Development grand prize.","title":"Entrepreneurship for Development Competition"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Winners - Entrepreneurship for Development Competition","text":"In 1998, a dual award within the Venture Competition was awarded to a pair of finalists including Volunteer Community Connection. At the time, VCC was a non-traditional entry into the competition and\nhas since served as a motivating example for the genesis of the MIT $100K Developmental Entrepreneurship Competition. As a result, they are listed as a winner and implicitly as an innovator within the Entrepreneurship for Development Competition.","title":"Entrepreneurship for Development Competition"}]

[]

[{"title":"Best of Biotech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_of_Biotech"},{"title":"LiquiGlide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LiquiGlide"}]

[{"reference":"\"Accelerate\".","urls":[{"url":"http://mit100k.org/accelerate/","url_text":"\"Accelerate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ask Jeeves Investor Relations\". www.irconnect.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 17 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060111015321/http://www.irconnect.com/askj/pages/news_releases.html?d=11056","url_text":"\"Ask Jeeves Investor Relations\""},{"url":"http://www.irconnect.com/askj/pages/news_releases.html?d=11056","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Performance Marketing Brands (A.k.a. Ebates) Buys Grocery Shopping App Pushpins\". 20 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/19/performance-marketing-brands-a-k-a-ebates-buys-grocery-shopping-app-pushpins","url_text":"\"Performance Marketing Brands (A.k.a. Ebates) Buys Grocery Shopping App Pushpins\""}]},{"reference":"www.americaninno.com https://www.americaninno.com/boston/mit-100k-a-celebration-of-20-years-of-economic-impact/. Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.americaninno.com/boston/mit-100k-a-celebration-of-20-years-of-economic-impact/","url_text":"https://www.americaninno.com/boston/mit-100k-a-celebration-of-20-years-of-economic-impact/"}]},{"reference":"Gardizy, Anissa (May 25, 2021). \"Boston payments firm Flywire raises $250 million in IPO\". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/05/25/business/boston-payments-firm-flywire-raises-250-million-ipo/","url_text":"\"Boston payments firm Flywire raises $250 million in IPO\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scimago

SCImago Journal Rank

["1 Etymology","2 Rationale","3 Computation","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Metric of scholarly journals "SCImago" redirects here. Not to be confused with SCImago Institutions Rankings. Portal SCImago Journal & Country Rank screenshot Part of a series onCitation metrics Altmetrics Article-level Author-level Eigenfactor G-index H-index Bibliographic coupling Citation Analysis Dynamics Index Graph Co-citation Proximity Analysis Coercive citation Citation cartel I4OC Journal-level CiteScore Impact factor SCImago Kardashian Index vte The SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator is a measure of the prestige of scholarly journals that accounts for both the number of citations received by a journal and the prestige of the journals where the citations come from. Etymology SCImago is not an acronym, although the capitalization of first 3 letters do stand for SCientific Influence. The suffix "mago" appears to be randomly chosen. Rationale Citations are an indicator of popularity of scientific works and can be perceived as endorsement; prestige can be understood as a combination of the number of endorsements and the prestige of the works publishing them. Adopting this view, the SJR indicator assigns different values to citations depending on the perceived prestige of the journals where they come from. However, studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank", contrary to widespread expectations. The calculation of the SJR indicator is similar to the Eigenfactor score, with the former being based on the Scopus database and the latter on the Web of Science database, and there are other differences. Computation A journal's SJR indicator is a numeric value representing the average number of weighted citations received during a selected year per document published in that journal during the previous three years, as indexed by Scopus. Higher SJR indicator values are meant to indicate greater journal prestige. SJR is developed by the Scimago Lab, originated from a research group at the University of Granada. The SJR indicator is a variant of the eigenvector centrality measure used in network theory. Such measures establish the importance of a node in a network based on the principle that connections to high-scoring nodes contribute more to the score of the node. The SJR indicator has been developed to be used in extremely large and heterogeneous journal citation networks. It is a size-independent indicator and its values order journals by their "average prestige per article" and can be used for journal comparisons in science evaluation processes. The SJR indicator is a free journal metric inspired by, and using an algorithm similar to, PageRank. The SJR indicator computation is carried out using an iterative algorithm that distributes prestige values among the journals until a steady-state solution is reached. The SJR algorithm begins by setting an identical amount of prestige to each journal, then using an iterative procedure, this prestige is redistributed in a process where journals transfer their achieved prestige to each other through citations. The process ends up when the difference between journal prestige values in consecutive iterations do not reach a minimum threshold value any more. The process is developed in two phases, (a) the computation of Prestige SJR (PSJR) for each journal: a size-dependent measure that reflects the whole journal prestige, and (b) the normalization of this measure to achieve a size-independent measure of prestige, the SJR indicator. In addition to the network-based SJR indicator, the SJR also provides a more direct alternative to the impact factor (IF), in the form of average citations per document in a 2-year period, abbreviated as Cites per Doc. (2y). See also Journal-level metrics CiteScore Journal Citation Reports Journalology Impact factor References ^ Brembs, Björn (2018). "Prestigious Science Journals Struggle to Reach Even Average Reliability". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 12: 37. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00037. PMC 5826185. PMID 29515380. ^ Triggle, Chris R; MacDonald, Ross; Triggle, David J.; Grierson, Donald (2022-04-03). "Requiem for impact factors and high publication charges". Accountability in Research. 29 (3): 133–164. doi:10.1080/08989621.2021.1909481. PMID 33787413. One might expect, therefore, that a high JIF factor indicates a higher standard of interest, accuracy and reliability of papers published therein. This is sometimes true but unfortunately is certainly not always the case (Brembs 2018, 2019). Thus, Björn Brembs (2019) concluded: "There is a growing body of evidence against our subjective notion of more prestigious journals publishing 'better' science. In fact, the most prestigious journals may be publishing the least reliable science." ^ "SCImago Journal & Country Rank (SJR) as an alternative to Thomson Reuters's Impact Factor and EigenFactor". 21 Aug 2008. Archived from the original on 2013-04-26. Retrieved 20 September 2012. ^ "Network-based Citation Metrics: Eigenfactor vs. SJR". 28 Jul 2015. Archived from the original on 2020-04-26. Retrieved 26 Apr 2020. ^ "Scimago Lab". Scimago Lab Website. Retrieved 22 July 2021. ^ SCImago Journal & Country Rank. "DESCRIPTION OF SCIMAGO JOURNAL RANK INDICATOR" (PDF). SCImago Journal & Country Rank. Retrieved 20 March 2018. ^ Declan Butler (2 January 2008). "Free journal-ranking tool enters citation market". Nature. 451 (6): 6. Bibcode:2008Natur.451....6B. doi:10.1038/451006a. PMID 18172465. ^ Matthew E. Falagas; et al. (2008). "Comparison of SCImago journal rank indicator with journal impact factor". The FASEB Journal. 22 (8): 2623–2628. doi:10.1096/fj.08-107938. PMID 18408168. External links Official website A "description, in plain English" of Network-based Citation Metrics: Eigenfactor vs. SJR. vteAcademic publishingJournals Academic journal Scientific journal Public health Papers Paper Abstract Review article Position paper Literature review Grey literature Working paper White paper Technical report Annual report Pamphlet Essay Lab notes Other publication types Thesis Collection of articles Patent Biological Chemical Book Monograph Chapter Poster session Proceedings Impact and ranking Acknowledgment index Altmetrics Article-level metrics Author-level metrics Bibliometrics Citation impact Citation index Journal ranking Eigenfactor h-index Impact factor SCImago Journal Rank Scientometrics Reform and access Academic journal publishing reform Open access Citation advantage Serials crisis Sci-Hub #ICanHazPDF Versioning Preprint Postprint Version of record Erratum Retraction Indexes and search engines Google Scholar AMiner BASE CORE Semantic Scholar Scopus Web of Science Paperity OpenAlex Related topics Imprint Scientific writing Peer review Scholarly communication Scientific literature Learned society Open research Open scientific data ORCID Electronic publishing Ingelfinger rule Least publishable unit "Publish or perish" Lists Academic journals Scientific journals Open-access journals Academic databases and search engines University presses Copyright policies Preprint policies Style/formatting guides Category:Academic publishing Category:Scientific documents

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Not to be confused with SCImago Institutions Rankings.Portal SCImago Journal & Country Rank screenshotThe SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator is a measure of the prestige of scholarly journals that accounts for both the number of citations received by a journal and the prestige of the journals where the citations come from.","title":"SCImago Journal Rank"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym"}],"text":"SCImago is not an acronym, although the capitalization of first 3 letters do stand for SCientific Influence. 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Adopting this view, the SJR indicator assigns different values to citations depending on the perceived prestige of the journals where they come from.However, studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that \"reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank\",[1] contrary to widespread expectations.[2]The calculation of the SJR indicator is similar to the Eigenfactor score, with the former being based on the Scopus database and the latter on the Web of Science database,[3] and there are other differences.[4]","title":"Rationale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopus"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"University of Granada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Granada"},{"link_name":"eigenvector centrality measure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrality"},{"link_name":"PageRank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"impact factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_factor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"A journal's SJR indicator is a numeric value representing the average number of weighted citations received during a selected year per document published in that journal during the previous three years, as indexed by Scopus. Higher SJR indicator values are meant to indicate greater journal prestige.\nSJR is developed by the Scimago Lab,[5] originated from a research group at the University of Granada.The SJR indicator is a variant of the eigenvector centrality measure used in network theory. Such measures establish the importance of a node in a network based on the principle that connections to high-scoring nodes contribute more to the score of the node. The SJR indicator has been developed to be used in extremely large and heterogeneous journal citation networks. It is a size-independent indicator and its values order journals by their \"average prestige per article\" and can be used for journal comparisons in science evaluation processes. The SJR indicator is a free journal metric inspired by, and using an algorithm similar to, PageRank.The SJR indicator computation is carried out using an iterative algorithm that distributes prestige values among the journals until a steady-state solution is reached. The SJR algorithm begins by setting an identical amount of prestige to each journal, then using an iterative procedure, this prestige is redistributed in a process where journals transfer their achieved prestige to each other through citations. The process ends up when the difference between journal prestige values in consecutive iterations do not reach a minimum threshold value any more. The process is developed in two phases, (a) the computation of Prestige SJR (PSJR) for each journal: a size-dependent measure that reflects the whole journal prestige, and (b) the normalization of this measure to achieve a size-independent measure of prestige, the SJR indicator.[6]In addition to the network-based SJR indicator, the SJR also provides a more direct alternative to the impact factor (IF), in the form of average citations per document in a 2-year period, abbreviated as Cites per Doc. (2y).[7][8]","title":"Computation"}]

[{"image_text":"Portal SCImago Journal & Country Rank screenshot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/PortalSJR.JPG/220px-PortalSJR.JPG"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process

Business process

["1 Overview","2 History","2.1 Adam Smith","2.2 Frederick Winslow Taylor","2.3 Peter Drucker","2.4 Other definitions","3 Related concepts","3.1 Workflow","3.2 Business process re-engineering","3.3 Business process management (BPM)","3.4 Knowledge management","3.5 Total quality management","3.6 Information technology as an enabler for business process management","4 Importance of the process chain","5 Policies, processes and procedures","6 Reporting as an essential base for execution","7 Supporting theories and concepts","7.1 Span of control","7.2 Information management concepts","8 See also","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]

Not to be confused with Business strategy. Systematic collection of tasks within a business Business administration Management of a business Accounting Management accounting Financial accounting Audit Business entity (list) Corporate group Corporation sole Conglomerate (company) Holding company Cooperative Corporation Joint-stock company Limited liability company Partnership Privately held company Sole proprietorship State-owned enterprise Corporate governance Annual general meeting Board of directors Supervisory board Advisory board Audit committee Corporate law Commercial law Constitutional documents Contract Corporate crime Corporate liability Insolvency law International trade law Mergers and acquisitions Corporate title Chairman Chief business officer/Chief brand officer Chief executive officer/Chief operating officer Chief financial officer Chief human resources officer Chief information officer/Chief marketing officer Chief product officer/Chief technology officer Economics Commodity Public economics Labour economics Development economics International economics Mixed economy Planned economy Econometrics Environmental economics Open economy Market economy Knowledge economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Economic development Economic statistics Finance Financial statement Insurance Factoring Cash conversion cycle Insider dealing Capital budgeting Commercial bank Derivative Financial statement analysis Financial risk Public finance Corporate finance Managerial finance International finance Liquidation Stock market Financial market Tax Financial institution Capital management Venture capital Types of management Asset Brand Business intelligence Business development Capacity Capability Change innovation Commercial Marketing Communications Configuration Conflict Content Customer relationship Distributed Earned value Electronic business Enterprise resource planning  management information system Financial Human resource  development Incident Knowledge Legal Materials Network administrator Office Operations  services Performance Power Problem Process Product life-cycle Product Project Property Quality Records Resource Risk  crisis Sales Security Service Strategic Supply chain Systems administrator Talent Technology Organization Architecture Behavior Communication Culture Conflict Development Engineering Hierarchy Patterns Space Structure Trade Business analysis Business ethics Business plan Business judgment rule Consumer behaviour Business operations International business Business model International trade Trade route Business process Business statistics Business and economics portalvte A business process, business method, or business function is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks performed by people or equipment in which a specific sequence produces a service or product (that serves a particular business goal) for a particular customer or customers. Business processes occur at all organizational levels and may or may not be visible to the customers. A business process may often be visualized (modeled) as a flowchart of a sequence of activities with interleaving decision points or as a process matrix of a sequence of activities with relevance rules based on data in the process. The benefits of using business processes include improved customer satisfaction and improved agility for reacting to rapid market change. Process-oriented organizations break down the barriers of structural departments and try to avoid functional silos. Overview A business process begins with a mission objective (an external event) and ends with achievement of the business objective of providing a result that provides customer value. Additionally, a process may be divided into subprocesses (process decomposition), the particular inner functions of the process. Business processes may also have a process owner, a responsible party for ensuring the process runs smoothly from start to finish. Broadly speaking, business processes can be organized into three types, according to von Rosing et al.: Operational processes, which constitute the core business and create the primary value stream, e.g., taking orders from customers, opening an account, and manufacturing a component Management processes, the processes that oversee operational processes, including corporate governance, budgetary oversight, and employee oversight Supporting processes, which support the core operational processes, e.g., accounting, recruitment, call center, technical support, and safety training There are other definitions of the classification of processes proposed by Strategic processes, which are managerial, directive or steering processes. Management has an important role in each of these. This type of process is related to strategic planning, partnerships, etc. Operational processes, which are business processes, are of a productive or "missional" nature. These processes generate a product or service to be delivered to customers. These are considered to be unique or specific to each organisation. Support processes, which are auxiliary in nature, support for operational and strategic processes. These are responsible for providing resources and are presented in most organizations. A business made up of many process may be decomposed into various subprocesses, each of which have their own peculiar aspects but also contribute to achieving the objectives of the business. The business review analyzes processes, that usually include the mapping or modeling of processes and sub-processes down to a group of activities at different levels. Processes can be modeled using a large number of methods and techniques. For instance, the Business Process Modeling Notation is a business process modeling technique that can be used for drawing business processes in a visualized workflow. While decomposing processes into process classifications, categories can be helpful, but care must be taken in doing so as there may be crossover. At last, all processes are part of a largely unified customer-focused result, one of "customer value creation." This goal is expedited with business process management, which aims to analyze, improve, and enact business processes. History Adam Smith An important early (1776) description of processes was that of economist Adam Smith in his famous example of a pin factory. Inspired by an article in Diderot's Encyclopédie, Smith described the production of a pin in the following way: One man draws out the wire; another straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth points it; a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is another ... and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. Smith also first recognized how output could be increased through the use of labor division. Previously, in a society where production was dominated by handcrafted goods, one man would perform all the activities required during the production process, while Smith described how the work was divided into a set of simple tasks which would be performed by specialized workers. The result of labor division in Smith's example resulted in productivity increasing by 24,000 percent (sic), i.e. that the same number of workers made 240 times as many pins as they had been producing before the introduction of labor division. Smith did not advocate labor division at any price or per se. The appropriate level of task division was defined through experimental design of the production process. In contrast to Smith's view which was limited to the same functional domain and comprised activities that are in direct sequence in the manufacturing process, today's process concept includes cross-functionality as an important characteristic. Following his ideas, the division of labor was adopted widely, while the integration of tasks into a functional, or cross-functional, process was not considered as an alternative option until much later. Frederick Winslow Taylor American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor greatly influenced and improved the quality of industrial processes in the early twentieth century. His Principles of Scientific Management focused on standardization of processes, systematic training and clearly defining the roles of management and employees. His methods were widely adopted in the United States, Russia and parts of Europe and led to further developments such as "time and motion study" and visual task optimization techniques, such as Gantt charts. Peter Drucker In the latter part of the twentieth century, management guru Peter Drucker focused much of his work on the simplification and decentralization of processes, which led to the concept of outsourcing. He also coined the concept of the "knowledge worker," as differentiated from manual workers – and how knowledge management would become part of an entity's processes. Other definitions Davenport (1993) defines a (business) process as: a structured, measured set of activities designed to produce a specific output for a particular customer or market. It implies a strong emphasis on how work is done within an organization, in contrast to a product focus's emphasis on what. A process is thus a specific ordering of work activities across time and space, with a beginning and an end, and clearly defined inputs and outputs: a structure for action. ... Taking a process approach implies adopting the customer's point of view. Processes are the structure by which an organization does what is necessary to produce value for its customers. This definition contains certain characteristics that a process must possess. These characteristics are achieved by focusing on the business logic of the process (how work is done) instead of taking a product perspective (what is done). Following Davenport's definition of a process, we can conclude that a process must have clearly defined boundaries, input and output, consist of smaller parts and activities which are ordered in time and space, that there must be a receiver of the process outcome—a customer – and that the transformation taking place within the process must add customer value. Hammer & Champy's (1993) definition can be considered as a subset of Davenport's. They define a process as: a collection of activities that takes one or more kinds of input and creates an output that is of value to the customer. As we can note, Hammer & Champy have a more transformation-oriented perception and put less emphasis on the structural component – process boundaries and the order of activities in time and space. Rummler & Brache (1995) use a definition that clearly encompasses a focus on the organization's external customers, when stating that a business process is a series of steps designed to produce a product or service. Most processes (...) are cross-functional, spanning the 'white space' between the boxes on the organization chart. Some processes result in a product or service that is received by an organization's external customer. We call these primary processes. Other processes produce products that are invisible to the external customer but essential to the effective management of the business. We call these support processes. The above definition distinguishes two types of processes, primary and support processes, depending on whether a process is directly involved in the creation of customer value or concerned with the organization's internal activities. In this sense, Rummler and Brache's definition follows Porter's value chain model, which also builds on a division of primary and secondary activities. According to Rummler and Brache, a typical characteristic of a successful process-based organization is the absence of secondary activities in the primary value flow that is created in the customer oriented primary processes. The characteristic of processes as spanning the white space on the organization chart indicates that processes are embedded in some form of organizational structure. Also, a process can be cross-functional, i.e. it ranges over several business functions. Johansson et al. (1993). define a process as: a set of linked activities that take an input and transform it to create an output. Ideally, the transformation that occurs in the process should add value to the input and create an output that is more useful and effective to the recipient either upstream or downstream. This definition also emphasizes the constitution of links between activities and the transformation that takes place within the process. Johansson et al. also include the upstream part of the value chain as a possible recipient of the process output. Summarizing the four definitions above, we can compile the following list of characteristics for a business process: Definability: It must have clearly defined boundaries, input and output. Order: It must consist of activities that are ordered according to their position in time and space (a sequence). Customer: There must be a recipient of the process' outcome, a customer. Value-adding: The transformation taking place within the process must add value to the recipient, either upstream or downstream. Embeddedness: A process cannot exist in itself, it must be embedded in an organizational structure. Cross-functionality: A process regularly can, but not necessarily must, span several functions. Frequently, identifying a process owner (i.e., the person responsible for the continuous improvement of the process) is considered as a prerequisite. Sometimes the process owner is the same person who is performing the process. Related concepts Workflow Workflow is the procedural movement of information, material, and tasks from one participant to another. Workflow includes the procedures, people and tools involved in each step of a business process. A single workflow may either be sequential, with each step contingent upon completion of the previous one, or parallel, with multiple steps occurring simultaneously. Multiple combinations of single workflows may be connected to achieve a resulting overall process. Business process re-engineering Main article: Business process re-engineering Business process re-engineering (BPR) was originally conceptualized by Hammer and Davenport as a means to improve organizational effectiveness and productivity. It can involve starting from a "blank slate" and completely recreating major business processes, or it can involve comparing the "as-is" process and the "to-be" process and mapping the path for change from one to the other. Often BPR will involve the use of information technology to secure significant performance improvement. The term unfortunately became associated with corporate "downsizing" in the mid-1990s. Business process management (BPM) Though the term has been used contextually to mixed effect, "business process management" (BPM) can generally be defined as a discipline involving a combination of a wide variety of business activity flows (e.g., business process automation, modeling, and optimization) that strives to support the goals of an enterprise within and beyond multiple boundaries, involving many people, from employees to customers and external partners. A major part of BPM's enterprise support involves the continuous evaluation of existing processes and the identification of ways to improve upon it, resulting in a cycle of overall organizational improvement. Knowledge management Knowledge management is the definition of the knowledge that employees and systems use to perform their functions and maintaining it in a format that can be accessed by others. Duhon and the Gartner Group have defined it as "a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets. These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers." Customer Service Customer Service is a key component to an effective business business plan. Customer service in the 21st century is always evolving, and it is important to grow with your customer base. Not only does a social media presence matter, but also clear communication, clear expectation setting, speed, and accuracy. If the customer service provided by a business is not effective, it can be detrimental to the business success. Total quality management Total quality management (TQM) emerged in the early 1980s as organizations sought to improve the quality of their products and services. It was followed by the Six Sigma methodology in the mid-1980s, first introduced by Motorola. Six Sigma consists of statistical methods to improve business processes and thus reduce defects in outputs. The "lean approach" to quality management was introduced by the Toyota Motor Company in the 1990s and focused on customer needs and reducing of wastage. Creating a Strong Brand Presence through Social Media Creating a strong brand presence through social media is an important component to running a successful business. Companies can market, gain consumer insights, and advertise through social media. "According to a Salesforce survey, 85% of consumers conduct research before they make a purchase online, and among the most used channels for research are websites (74%) and social media (38%). Consequently, businesses need to have an effective online strategy to increase brand awareness and grow." (Paun, 2020) Customers engage and interact through social media and businesses who are effectively part of social media drive more successful businesses. The most common social media sites that are used for business are Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Businesses with the strongest brand recognition and consumer engagement build social presences on all these platforms. Resources: Paun, Goran (2020). Building A Brand: Why A Strong Digital Presence Matters. Forbes. Sourced from Information technology as an enabler for business process management Advances in information technology over the years have changed business processes within and between business enterprises. In the 1960s, operating systems had limited functionality, and any workflow management systems that were in use were tailor-made for the specific organization. The 1970s and 1980s saw the development of data-driven approaches as data storage and retrieval technologies improved. Data modeling, rather than process modeling was the starting point for building an information system. Business processes had to adapt to information technology because process modeling was neglected. The shift towards process-oriented management occurred in the 1990s. Enterprise resource planning software with workflow management components such as SAP, Baan, PeopleSoft, Oracle and JD Edwards emerged, as did business process management systems (BPMS) later. The world of e-business created a need to automate business processes across organizations, which in turn raised the need for standardized protocols and web services composition languages that can be understood across the industry. The Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) and Business Motivation Model (BMM) are widely used standards for business modeling. The Business Modeling and Integration Domain Task Force (BMI DTF) is a consortium of vendors and user companies that continues to work together to develop standards and specifications to promote collaboration and integration of people, systems, processes and information within and across enterprises. The most recent trends in BPM are influenced by the emergence of cloud technology, the prevalence of social media and mobile technology, and the development of analytical techniques. Cloud-based technologies allow companies to purchase resources quickly and as required, independent of their location. Social media, websites and smart phones are the newest channels through which organizations reach and support their customers. The abundance of customer data collected through these channels as well as through call center interactions, emails, voice calls, and customer surveys has led to a huge growth in data analytics which in turn is utilized for performance management and improving the ways in which the company services its customers. Importance of the process chain Business processes comprise a set of sequential sub-processes or tasks with alternative paths, depending on certain conditions as applicable, performed to achieve a given objective or produce given outputs. Each process has one or more needed inputs. The inputs and outputs may be received from, or sent to other business processes, other organizational units, or internal or external stakeholders. Business processes are designed to be operated by one or more business functional units, and emphasize the importance of the "process chain" rather than the individual units. In general, the various tasks of a business process can be performed in one of two ways: manually by means of business data processing systems such as ERP systems Typically, some process tasks will be manual, while some will be computer-based, and these tasks may be sequenced in many ways. In other words, the data and information that are being handled through the process may pass through manual or computer tasks in any given order. Policies, processes and procedures The above improvement areas are equally applicable to policies, processes, detailed procedures (sub-processes/tasks) and work instructions. There is a cascading effect of improvements made at a higher level on those made at a lower level. For example, if a recommendation to replace a given policy with a better one is made with proper justification and accepted in principle by business process owners, then corresponding changes in the consequent processes and procedures will follow naturally in order to enable implementation of the policies. Reporting as an essential base for execution Business processes must include up-to-date and accurate reports to ensure effective action. An example of this is the availability of purchase order status reports for supplier delivery follow-up as described in the section on effectiveness above. There are numerous examples of this in every possible business process. Another example from production is the process of analyzing line rejections occurring on the shop floor. This process should include systematic periodical analysis of rejections by reason and present the results in a suitable information report that pinpoints the major reasons and trends in these reasons for management to take corrective actions to control rejections and keep them within acceptable limits. Such a process of analysis and summarisation of line rejection events is clearly superior to a process which merely inquires into each individual rejection as it occurs. Business process owners and operatives should realise that process improvement often occurs with introduction of appropriate transaction, operational, highlight, exception or M.I.S. reports, provided these are consciously used for day-to-day or periodical decision-making. With this understanding would hopefully come the willingness to invest time and other resources in business process improvement by introduction of useful and relevant reporting systems. Supporting theories and concepts Span of control The span of control is the number of subordinates a supervisor manages within a structural organization. Introducing a business process concept has a considerable impact on the structural elements of the organization and, thus also on the span of control. Large organizations that are not organized as markets need to be organized in smaller units, or departments – which can be defined according to different principles. Information management concepts Information management and the organization's infrastructure strategies related to it, are a theoretical cornerstone of the business process concept, requiring "a framework for measuring the level of IT support for business processes." See also Business functions Business method patent Business process automation Business Process Definition Metamodel Business process mapping Business process outsourcing References ^ a b c d e Weske, M. (2012). "Chapter 1: Introduction". 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What we understand by TQM probably depends on which of the thought leaders, (often referred to as 'gurus') we have come across. ^ Creech, Bill (1994), The Five Pillars of TQM: How to Make Total Quality Management Work for You, New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton, p. 4, ISBN 9780525937258, OCLC 28508067, In fact, the term TQM has become so widely used that it has become the number one buzzphrase to describe a new type of quality-oriented management. Thus, the name TQM now covers a very broad tent encompassing all sorts of management practices. In my management advisory activities I run into scores of these different programs all parading under the same name. Few are alike, and those varied programs have a wide variety of features—a mixture of the old and the new—with, in more cases than not, very little of the new. ... However, I have forewarned you there are almost as many different TQM programs as there are companies that have started them because that creates confusion about what to do in your own case. ^ Paun, Goran. "Council Post: Building A Brand: Why A Strong Digital Presence Matters". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-08-22. ^ Palmer, N. (2015). "iBPM - Intelligent Business Process Management". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 349–361. ISBN 9780127999593. ^ "Business Modeling & Integration DTF". Object Management Group. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ Ross, M. (July–August 2013). "Analytics & Business Process Management". Analytics. Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ Rohde, K.R. (October 2009). "Chapter 7: Communicating Your Process Through Effective Policies, Procedures, and Job Aides". Effective Process Management: Improving Your Healthcare Delivery. HC Pro. pp. 105–128. ISBN 9781601466549. ^ von Rosing, M.; Foldager, U.; Hove, M.; et al. (2015). "Working with the Business Process Management (BPM) Life Cycle". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 265–341. ISBN 9780127999593. ^ Sezenias, E.; Farmakis, A.; Karagiannis, G.; et al. (2012). "A Holistic Business Performance Measurement Framework". In Glykas, M. (ed.). Business Process Management: Theory and Applications. Springer. pp. 75–98. ISBN 9783642284090. ^ Sidorova, A.; Torres, R.; Al Beayeyz, A. (2014). "The Role of Information Technology in Business Process Management". In vom Brocke, J.; Rosemann, M. (eds.). Handbook on Business Process Management 1. International Handbooks on Information Systems. Springer. pp. 421–444. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45100-3_18. ISBN 9783642451003. Further reading Paul's Harmon (2007). Business Process Change: 2nd Ed, A Guide for Business Managers and BPM and Six Sigma Professionals. Morgan Kaufmann E. Obeng and S. Crainer S (1993). Making Re-engineering Happen. Financial Times Prentice Hall Howard Smith and Peter Fingar (2003). Business Process Management. The Third Wave, MK Press Slack et al., edited by: David Barnes (2000) The Open University, Understanding Business: Processes Malakooti, B. (2013). Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives. John Wiley & Sons. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Business process. Media related to Business process at Wikimedia Commons

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Business strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_strategy"},{"link_name":"tasks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_(project_management)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness12-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonScheelPhase114-3"},{"link_name":"flowchart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowchart"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonScheelPhase114-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChenBusiness12-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChandBusiness12-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness12-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"functional silos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_silo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonRosingProcess14-6"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Business strategy.Systematic collection of tasks within a businessA business process, business method, or business function is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks performed by people or equipment in which a specific sequence produces a service or product (that serves a particular business goal) for a particular customer or customers. Business processes occur at all organizational levels and may or may not be visible to the customers.[1][2][3] A business process may often be visualized (modeled) as a flowchart of a sequence of activities with interleaving decision points or as a process matrix of a sequence of activities with relevance rules based on data in the process.[2][3][4][5] The benefits of using business processes include improved customer satisfaction and improved agility for reacting to rapid market change.[1][2] Process-oriented organizations break down the barriers of structural departments and try to avoid functional silos.[6]","title":"Business process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonRosingProcess14-6"},{"link_name":"core business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_business"},{"link_name":"Management processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_process"},{"link_name":"corporate governance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_governance"},{"link_name":"accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting"},{"link_name":"recruitment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recruitment"},{"link_name":"call center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_center"},{"link_name":"technical support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_support"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Business Process Modeling Notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Process_Modeling_Notation"},{"link_name":"business process modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_modeling"},{"link_name":"workflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workflow"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness12-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChenBusiness12-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonRosingProcess14-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonRosingProcess14-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"}],"text":"A business process begins with a mission objective (an external event) and ends with achievement of the business objective of providing a result that provides customer value. Additionally, a process may be divided into subprocesses (process decomposition), the particular inner functions of the process. Business processes may also have a process owner, a responsible party for ensuring the process runs smoothly from start to finish.[2]Broadly speaking, business processes can be organized into three types, according to von Rosing et al.:[6]Operational processes, which constitute the core business and create the primary value stream, e.g., taking orders from customers, opening an account, and manufacturing a component\nManagement processes, the processes that oversee operational processes, including corporate governance, budgetary oversight, and employee oversight\nSupporting processes, which support the core operational processes, e.g., accounting, recruitment, call center, technical support, and safety trainingThere are other definitions of the classification of processes proposed by [7]Strategic processes, which are managerial, directive or steering processes. Management has an important role in each of these. This type of process is related to strategic planning, partnerships, etc.\nOperational processes, which are business processes, are of a productive or \"missional\" nature. These processes generate a product or service to be delivered to customers. These are considered to be unique or specific to each organisation.\nSupport processes, which are auxiliary in nature, support for operational and strategic processes. These are responsible for providing resources and are presented in most organizations.A business made up of many process may be decomposed into various subprocesses, each of which have their own peculiar aspects but also contribute to achieving the objectives of the business. The business review analyzes processes, that usually include the mapping or modeling of processes and sub-processes down to a group of activities at different levels. Processes can be modeled using a large number of methods and techniques. For instance, the Business Process Modeling Notation is a business process modeling technique that can be used for drawing business processes in a visualized workflow.[1][2][4][6] While decomposing processes into process classifications, categories can be helpful, but care must be taken in doing so as there may be crossover. At last, all processes are part of a largely unified customer-focused result, one of \"customer value creation.\"[6] This goal is expedited with business process management, which aims to analyze, improve, and enact business processes.[2]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adam Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith"},{"link_name":"pin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_(device)"},{"link_name":"Diderot's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diderot"},{"link_name":"Encyclopédie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithAnInquiry27-8"},{"link_name":"labor division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_labor"},{"link_name":"handcrafted goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonScheelPhase114-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithAnInquiry27-8"},{"link_name":"per se","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/per_se"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithAnInquiry27-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GiaglisItsTime12-9"}],"sub_title":"Adam Smith","text":"An important early (1776) description of processes was that of economist Adam Smith in his famous example of a pin factory. Inspired by an article in Diderot's Encyclopédie, Smith described the production of a pin in the following way:[8]One man draws out the wire; another straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth points it; a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is another ... and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them.Smith also first recognized how output could be increased through the use of labor division. Previously, in a society where production was dominated by handcrafted goods, one man would perform all the activities required during the production process, while Smith described how the work was divided into a set of simple tasks which would be performed by specialized workers.[3] The result of labor division in Smith's example resulted in productivity increasing by 24,000 percent (sic), i.e. that the same number of workers made 240 times as many pins as they had been producing before the introduction of labor division.[8]Smith did not advocate labor division at any price or per se. The appropriate level of task division was defined through experimental design of the production process. In contrast to Smith's view which was limited to the same functional domain and comprised activities that are in direct sequence in the manufacturing process,[8] today's process concept includes cross-functionality as an important characteristic. Following his ideas, the division of labor was adopted widely, while the integration of tasks into a functional, or cross-functional, process was not considered as an alternative option until much later.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frederick Winslow Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor"},{"link_name":"industrial processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_processes"},{"link_name":"Principles of Scientific Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Scientific_Management"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonScheelPhase114-3"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Gantt charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gantt_charts"}],"sub_title":"Frederick Winslow Taylor","text":"American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor greatly influenced and improved the quality of industrial processes in the early twentieth century. His Principles of Scientific Management focused on standardization of processes, systematic training and clearly defining the roles of management and employees.[3] His methods were widely adopted in the United States, Russia and parts of Europe and led to further developments such as \"time and motion study\" and visual task optimization techniques, such as Gantt charts.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Drucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drucker"},{"link_name":"outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing"},{"link_name":"knowledge worker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_worker"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DruckerTheAge17-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DruckerManagement07-11"}],"sub_title":"Peter Drucker","text":"In the latter part of the twentieth century, management guru Peter Drucker focused much of his work on the simplification and decentralization of processes, which led to the concept of outsourcing. He also coined the concept of the \"knowledge worker,\" as differentiated from manual workers – and how knowledge management would become part of an entity's processes.[10][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"value chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_chain"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"process owner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Process_owner&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Other definitions","text":"Davenport (1993)[12] defines a (business) process as:a structured, measured set of activities designed to produce a specific output for a particular customer or market. It implies a strong emphasis on how work is done within an organization, in contrast to a product focus's emphasis on what. A process is thus a specific ordering of work activities across time and space, with a beginning and an end, and clearly defined inputs and outputs: a structure for action. ... Taking a process approach implies adopting the customer's point of view. Processes are the structure by which an organization does what is necessary to produce value for its customers.This definition contains certain characteristics that a process must possess. These characteristics are achieved by focusing on the business logic of the process (how work is done) instead of taking a product perspective (what is done). Following Davenport's definition of a process, we can conclude that a process must have clearly defined boundaries, input and output, consist of smaller parts and activities which are ordered in time and space, that there must be a receiver of the process outcome—a customer – and that the transformation taking place within the process must add customer value.Hammer & Champy's (1993)[13] definition can be considered as a subset of Davenport's. They define a process as:a collection of activities that takes one or more kinds of input and creates an output that is of value to the customer.As we can note, Hammer & Champy have a more transformation-oriented perception and put less emphasis on the structural component – process boundaries and the order of activities in time and space.Rummler & Brache (1995)[14] use a definition that clearly encompasses a focus on the organization's external customers, when stating thata business process is a series of steps designed to produce a product or service. Most processes (...) are cross-functional, spanning the 'white space' between the boxes on the organization chart. Some processes result in a product or service that is received by an organization's external customer. We call these primary processes. Other processes produce products that are invisible to the external customer but essential to the effective management of the business. We call these support processes.The above definition distinguishes two types of processes, primary and support processes, depending on whether a process is directly involved in the creation of customer value or concerned with the organization's internal activities. In this sense, Rummler and Brache's definition follows Porter's value chain model, which also builds on a division of primary and secondary activities. According to Rummler and Brache, a typical characteristic of a successful process-based organization is the absence of secondary activities in the primary value flow that is created in the customer oriented primary processes. The characteristic of processes as spanning the white space on the organization chart indicates that processes are embedded in some form of organizational structure. Also, a process can be cross-functional, i.e. it ranges over several business functions.Johansson et al. (1993).[15] define a process as:a set of linked activities that take an input and transform it to create an output. Ideally, the transformation that occurs in the process should add value to the input and create an output that is more useful and effective to the recipient either upstream or downstream.This definition also emphasizes the constitution of links between activities and the transformation that takes place within the process. Johansson et al. also include the upstream part of the value chain as a possible recipient of the process output. Summarizing the four definitions above, we can compile the following list of characteristics for a business process:Definability: It must have clearly defined boundaries, input and output.\nOrder: It must consist of activities that are ordered according to their position in time and space (a sequence).\nCustomer: There must be a recipient of the process' outcome, a customer.\nValue-adding: The transformation taking place within the process must add value to the recipient, either upstream or downstream.\nEmbeddedness: A process cannot exist in itself, it must be embedded in an organizational structure.\nCross-functionality: A process regularly can, but not necessarily must, span several functions.Frequently, identifying a process owner (i.e., the person responsible for the continuous improvement of the process) is considered as a prerequisite. Sometimes the process owner is the same person who is performing the process.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Workflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workflow"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness2_12-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness2_12-16"}],"sub_title":"Workflow","text":"Workflow is the procedural movement of information, material, and tasks from one participant to another.[16] Workflow includes the procedures, people and tools involved in each step of a business process. A single workflow may either be sequential, with each step contingent upon completion of the previous one, or parallel, with multiple steps occurring simultaneously. Multiple combinations of single workflows may be connected to achieve a resulting overall process.[16]","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Business process re-engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_re-engineering"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KockProcess99-18"}],"sub_title":"Business process re-engineering","text":"Business process re-engineering (BPR) was originally conceptualized by Hammer and Davenport as a means to improve organizational effectiveness and productivity. It can involve starting from a \"blank slate\" and completely recreating major business processes, or it can involve comparing the \"as-is\" process and the \"to-be\" process and mapping the path for change from one to the other.[17] Often BPR will involve the use of information technology to secure significant performance improvement. The term unfortunately became associated with corporate \"downsizing\" in the mid-1990s.[18]","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"business process management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_management"},{"link_name":"business process automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_automation"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SwensonPhase4_14-19"}],"sub_title":"Business process management (BPM)","text":"Though the term has been used contextually to mixed effect, \"business process management\" (BPM) can generally be defined as a discipline involving a combination of a wide variety of business activity flows (e.g., business process automation, modeling, and optimization) that strives to support the goals of an enterprise within and beyond multiple boundaries, involving many people, from employees to customers and external partners.[19] A major part of BPM's enterprise support involves the continuous evaluation of existing processes and the identification of ways to improve upon it, resulting in a cycle of overall organizational improvement.","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knowledge management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nikoli%C4%87Contemp13-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Knowledge management","text":"Knowledge management is the definition of the knowledge that employees and systems use to perform their functions and maintaining it in a format that can be accessed by others. Duhon and the Gartner Group have defined it as \"a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets. These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers.\"[20] \nCustomer Service\nCustomer Service is a key component to an effective business business plan. Customer service in the 21st century is always evolving, and it is important to grow with your customer base. Not only does a social media presence matter, but also clear communication, clear expectation setting, speed, and accuracy. If the customer service provided by a business is not effective, it can be detrimental to the business success.[21]","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Total quality management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_quality_management"},{"link_name":"Six Sigma methodology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Sigma"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Juran-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holmes-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"websites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Total quality management","text":"Total quality management (TQM) emerged in the early 1980s as organizations sought to improve the quality of their products and services. It was followed by the Six Sigma methodology in the mid-1980s, first introduced by Motorola. Six Sigma consists of statistical methods to improve business processes and thus reduce defects in outputs. The \"lean approach\" to quality management was introduced by the Toyota Motor Company in the 1990s and focused on customer needs and reducing of wastage.[22][23][24]Creating a Strong Brand Presence through Social MediaCreating a strong brand presence through social media is an important component to running a successful business. Companies can market, gain consumer insights, and advertise through social media. \"According to a Salesforce survey, 85% of consumers conduct research before they make a purchase online, and among the most used channels for research are websites (74%) and social media (38%). Consequently, businesses need to have an effective online strategy to increase brand awareness and grow.\" (Paun, 2020)\nCustomers engage and interact through social media and businesses who are effectively part of social media drive more successful businesses. The most common social media sites that are used for business are Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Businesses with the strongest brand recognition and consumer engagement build social presences on all these platforms.Resources: \nPaun, Goran (2020). Building A Brand: Why A Strong Digital Presence Matters. Forbes. Sourced from[25]","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PeopleSoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeopleSoft"},{"link_name":"JD Edwards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JD_Edwards"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PalmeriBPM_14-26"},{"link_name":"Business Process Modeling Notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Process_Modeling_Notation"},{"link_name":"Business Motivation Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Motivation_Model"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KirchmerHigh17-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonScheelPhase114-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChenBusiness12-4"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OMGBusiness-27"},{"link_name":"cloud technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_technology"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RossSMAC13-28"}],"sub_title":"Information technology as an enabler for business process management","text":"Advances in information technology over the years have changed business processes within and between business enterprises. In the 1960s, operating systems had limited functionality, and any workflow management systems that were in use were tailor-made for the specific organization. The 1970s and 1980s saw the development of data-driven approaches as data storage and retrieval technologies improved. Data modeling, rather than process modeling was the starting point for building an information system. Business processes had to adapt to information technology because process modeling was neglected. The shift towards process-oriented management occurred in the 1990s. Enterprise resource planning software with workflow management components such as SAP, Baan, PeopleSoft, Oracle and JD Edwards emerged, as did business process management systems (BPMS) later.[26]The world of e-business created a need to automate business processes across organizations, which in turn raised the need for standardized protocols and web services composition languages that can be understood across the industry. The Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) and Business Motivation Model (BMM) are widely used standards for business modeling.[2][3][4] The Business Modeling and Integration Domain Task Force (BMI DTF) is a consortium of vendors and user companies that continues to work together to develop standards and specifications to promote collaboration and integration of people, systems, processes and information within and across enterprises.[27]The most recent trends in BPM are influenced by the emergence of cloud technology, the prevalence of social media and mobile technology, and the development of analytical techniques. Cloud-based technologies allow companies to purchase resources quickly and as required, independent of their location. Social media, websites and smart phones are the newest channels through which organizations reach and support their customers. The abundance of customer data collected through these channels as well as through call center interactions, emails, voice calls, and customer surveys has led to a huge growth in data analytics which in turn is utilized for performance management and improving the ways in which the company services its customers.[28]","title":"Related concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organizational units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departmentalization"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness12-1"},{"link_name":"process chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Process_chain&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeskeBusiness12-1"},{"link_name":"data processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_processing"},{"link_name":"ERP systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERP_system"}],"text":"Business processes comprise a set of sequential sub-processes or tasks with alternative paths, depending on certain conditions as applicable, performed to achieve a given objective or produce given outputs. Each process has one or more needed inputs. The inputs and outputs may be received from, or sent to other business processes, other organizational units, or internal or external stakeholders.[1]Business processes are designed to be operated by one or more business functional units, and emphasize the importance of the \"process chain\" rather than the individual units.In general, the various tasks of a business process can be performed in one of two ways:[1]manually\nby means of business data processing systems such as ERP systemsTypically, some process tasks will be manual, while some will be computer-based, and these tasks may be sequenced in many ways. In other words, the data and information that are being handled through the process may pass through manual or computer tasks in any given order.","title":"Importance of the process chain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"detailed procedures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedure_(business)"},{"link_name":"work instructions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Work_instruction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RohdeEffective09-29"}],"text":"The above improvement areas are equally applicable to policies, processes, detailed procedures (sub-processes/tasks) and work instructions. There is a cascading effect of improvements made at a higher level on those made at a lower level.[29]For example, if a recommendation to replace a given policy with a better one is made with proper justification and accepted in principle by business process owners, then corresponding changes in the consequent processes and procedures will follow naturally in order to enable implementation of the policies.","title":"Policies, processes and procedures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_reporting"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RosingWorking_14-30"},{"link_name":"purchase order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchase_order"},{"link_name":"rejections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reject"},{"link_name":"corrective actions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_action"},{"link_name":"process owners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Process_owner&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"M.I.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system"}],"text":"Business processes must include up-to-date and accurate reports to ensure effective action.[30] An example of this is the availability of purchase order status reports for supplier delivery follow-up as described in the section on effectiveness above. There are numerous examples of this in every possible business process.Another example from production is the process of analyzing line rejections occurring on the shop floor. This process should include systematic periodical analysis of rejections by reason and present the results in a suitable information report that pinpoints the major reasons and trends in these reasons for management to take corrective actions to control rejections and keep them within acceptable limits. Such a process of analysis and summarisation of line rejection events is clearly superior to a process which merely inquires into each individual rejection as it occurs.Business process owners and operatives should realise that process improvement often occurs with introduction of appropriate transaction, operational, highlight, exception or M.I.S. reports, provided these are consciously used for day-to-day or periodical decision-making. With this understanding would hopefully come the willingness to invest time and other resources in business process improvement by introduction of useful and relevant reporting systems.","title":"Reporting as an essential base for execution"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Supporting theories and concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"span of control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span_of_control"},{"link_name":"organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GlykasBusiness12-31"},{"link_name":"departments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departmentalization"}],"sub_title":"Span of control","text":"The span of control is the number of subordinates a supervisor manages within a structural organization. Introducing a business process concept has a considerable impact on the structural elements of the organization and, thus also on the span of control.[31]Large organizations that are not organized as markets need to be organized in smaller units, or departments – which can be defined according to different principles.","title":"Supporting theories and concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Information management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_management"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SidorovaTheRole14-32"}],"sub_title":"Information management concepts","text":"Information management and the organization's infrastructure strategies related to it, are a theoretical cornerstone of the business process concept, requiring \"a framework for measuring the level of IT support for business processes.\"[32]","title":"Supporting theories and concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Six Sigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Sigma"},{"link_name":"Re-engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_reengineering"},{"link_name":"Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tvc8AgAAQBAJ"}],"text":"Paul's Harmon (2007). Business Process Change: 2nd Ed, A Guide for Business Managers and BPM and Six Sigma Professionals. Morgan Kaufmann\nE. Obeng and S. Crainer S (1993). Making Re-engineering Happen. Financial Times Prentice Hall\nHoward Smith and Peter Fingar (2003). Business Process Management. The Third Wave, MK Press\nSlack et al., edited by: David Barnes (2000) The Open University, Understanding Business: Processes\nMalakooti, B. (2013). Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives. John Wiley & Sons.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Business functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_functions"},{"title":"Business method patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_method_patent"},{"title":"Business process automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_automation"},{"title":"Business Process Definition Metamodel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Process_Definition_Metamodel"},{"title":"Business process mapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_mapping"},{"title":"Business process outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing"}]

[{"reference":"Weske, M. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Business Process Management: Concepts, Languages, Architectures. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–24. ISBN 9783642286162.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-D5tpT5Xz8oC&pg=PA5","url_text":"\"Chapter 1: Introduction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642286162","url_text":"9783642286162"}]},{"reference":"Kirchmer, M. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Business Process Management: What Is It and Why Do You Need It?\". High Performance Through Business Process Management: Strategy Execution in a Digital World. Springer. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9783319512594.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz1RDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3","url_text":"\"Chapter 1: Business Process Management: What Is It and Why Do You Need It?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319512594","url_text":"9783319512594"}]},{"reference":"von Scheel, H.; von Rosing, M.; Fonseca, M.; et al. (2014). \"Phase 1: Process Concept Evolution\". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780128004722.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RT7LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1","url_text":"The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128004722","url_text":"9780128004722"}]},{"reference":"Chen, M. (2012). \"Chapter 8: BPR Methodologies: Methods and Tools\". In Elzinga, D.J.; Gulledge, T.R.; Lee, C.-Y. (eds.). Business Process Engineering: Advancing the State of the Art. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 187–212. ISBN 9781461550914.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HX3gBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198","url_text":"\"Chapter 8: BPR Methodologies: Methods and Tools\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461550914","url_text":"9781461550914"}]},{"reference":"Chand, D.R.; Chircu, A.M. (2012). \"Chapter 3: Business Process Modeling\". In Elzinga, D.J.; Gulledge, T.R.; Lee, C.-Y. (eds.). Business Enterprise, Process, and Technology Management: Models and Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 187–212. ISBN 9781466602502.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6oVVBNemLRMC&pg=PA36","url_text":"\"Chapter 3: Business Process Modeling\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466602502","url_text":"9781466602502"}]},{"reference":"von Rosing, M.; Kemp, N.; Hove, M.; Ross, J.W. (2014). \"Process Tagging - A Process Classification and Categorization Concept\". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 123–172. ISBN 9780128004722.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RT7LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162","url_text":"\"Process Tagging - A Process Classification and Categorization Concept\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128004722","url_text":"9780128004722"}]},{"reference":"Pardo Álvarez, José Manuel. Gestión por procesos y riesgo operacional. ISBN 9788481439489.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788481439489","url_text":"9788481439489"}]},{"reference":"Smith, A. (1827). \"Book I. Of the Causes of Improvement in the Productive Powers of Labour, and of the Order According to Which Its Produce Is Naturally Distributed among the Different Ranks of the People\". An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. University Press; Thomas Nelson and Peter Brown.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rpMuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3","url_text":"\"Book I. Of the Causes of Improvement in the Productive Powers of Labour, and of the Order According to Which Its Produce Is Naturally Distributed among the Different Ranks of the People\""}]},{"reference":"Giaglis, G.M.; Paul, R.J. (2012). \"It's Time to Engineer Re-engineering: Investigating the Potential of Simulation Modelling for Business Process Redesign\". In Scholz-Reiter, B.; Stickel, E. (eds.). Business Process Modelling. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 313–329. ISBN 9783642803178.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P2DmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA315","url_text":"\"It's Time to Engineer Re-engineering: Investigating the Potential of Simulation Modelling for Business Process Redesign\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642803178","url_text":"9783642803178"}]},{"reference":"Drucker, P.F. (2017). The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines for Our Changing Society. Routledge. p. 420. ISBN 9781560006183.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Bx0uDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines for Our Changing Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781560006183","url_text":"9781560006183"}]},{"reference":"Drucker, P.F. (2007). Management Challenges for the 21st Century. Routledge. p. 208. ISBN 9781136386312.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1YN3kc31nqAC","url_text":"Management Challenges for the 21st Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136386312","url_text":"9781136386312"}]},{"reference":"Weske, M. (2012). \"Chapter 2: Evolution of Enterprise Systems Architecture\". Business Process Management: Concepts, Languages, Architectures. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 25–72. ISBN 9783642286162.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-D5tpT5Xz8oC&pg=PA50","url_text":"\"Chapter 2: Evolution of Enterprise Systems Architecture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642286162","url_text":"9783642286162"}]},{"reference":"Kock, N.F. (1999). \"Chapter 2: What Is a Process?\". Process Improvement and Organizational Learning: The Role of Collaboration Technologies. Idea Group Publishing. pp. 17–28. ISBN 9781878289582.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2MWwin1QSYC&pg=PA18","url_text":"\"Chapter 2: What Is a Process?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781878289582","url_text":"9781878289582"}]},{"reference":"Swenson, K.D.; von Rosing, M. (2015). \"Phase 4: What Is Business Process Management?\". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 79–88. ISBN 9780127999593.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RT7LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79","url_text":"\"Phase 4: What Is Business Process Management?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780127999593","url_text":"9780127999593"}]},{"reference":"Nikolić, B.; Dakić, J.; Ružić-Dimitrijević, L. (2013). \"Contemporary management in a higher education institution in Serbia\" (PDF). Online Journal of Applied Knowledge Management. 1 (1): 72–81.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iiakm.org/ojakm/articles/2013/volume1_1/OJAKM_Volume1_1pp72-81.pdf","url_text":"\"Contemporary management in a higher education institution in Serbia\""}]},{"reference":"Plumlee, Daniel (3 January 2020). \"Council Post: The Importance Of Evolving Customer Service And Communication Strategies\". Forbes. Retrieved 9 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2020/01/03/the-importance-of-evolving-customer-service-and-communication-strategies/?sh=3a9b616c4449","url_text":"\"Council Post: The Importance Of Evolving Customer Service And Communication Strategies\""}]},{"reference":"Juran, Joseph M. (1995), A History of Managing for Quality: The Evolution, Trends, and Future Directions of Managing for Quality, Milwaukee, Wisconsin: ASQC Quality Press, p. 596, ISBN 9780873893411, OCLC 32394752, retrieved 2013-10-20","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran","url_text":"Juran, Joseph M."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmanagin0000unse/page/596","url_text":"A History of Managing for Quality: The Evolution, Trends, and Future Directions of Managing for Quality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee","url_text":"Milwaukee, Wisconsin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_for_Quality","url_text":"ASQC Quality Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmanagin0000unse/page/596","url_text":"596"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780873893411","url_text":"9780873893411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32394752","url_text":"32394752"}]},{"reference":"Holmes, Ken (1992), Total Quality Management, Leatherhead, United Kingdom: Pira International, Ltd., p. 10, ISBN 9781858020112, OCLC 27644834, Ask ten people what TQM is and you will hear ten different answers. There is no specification or standard for it, or certification programme to proclaim that you have it. What we understand by TQM probably depends on which of the thought leaders, (often referred to as 'gurus') we have come across.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leatherhead","url_text":"Leatherhead, United Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781858020112","url_text":"9781858020112"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27644834","url_text":"27644834"}]},{"reference":"Creech, Bill (1994), The Five Pillars of TQM: How to Make Total Quality Management Work for You, New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton, p. 4, ISBN 9780525937258, OCLC 28508067, In fact, the term TQM has become so widely used that it has become the number one buzzphrase to describe a new type of quality-oriented management. Thus, the name TQM now covers a very broad tent encompassing all sorts of management practices. In my management advisory activities I run into scores of these different programs all parading under the same name. Few are alike, and those varied programs have a wide variety of features—a mixture of the old and the new—with, in more cases than not, very little of the new. ... However, I have forewarned you there are almost as many different TQM programs as there are companies that have started them because that creates confusion about what to do in your own case.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_L._Creech","url_text":"Creech, Bill"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fivepillarsoftqm00cree","url_text":"The Five Pillars of TQM: How to Make Total Quality Management Work for You"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780525937258","url_text":"9780525937258"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28508067","url_text":"28508067"}]},{"reference":"Paun, Goran. \"Council Post: Building A Brand: Why A Strong Digital Presence Matters\". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2020/07/02/building-a-brand-why-a-strong-digital-presence-matters/","url_text":"\"Council Post: Building A Brand: Why A Strong Digital Presence Matters\""}]},{"reference":"Palmer, N. (2015). \"iBPM - Intelligent Business Process Management\". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 349–361. ISBN 9780127999593.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780127999593","url_text":"9780127999593"}]},{"reference":"\"Business Modeling & Integration DTF\". Object Management Group. Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.omg.org/bmi/","url_text":"\"Business Modeling & Integration DTF\""}]},{"reference":"Ross, M. (July–August 2013). \"Analytics & Business Process Management\". Analytics. Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://analytics-magazine.org/analytics-and-business-process-management/","url_text":"\"Analytics & Business Process Management\""}]},{"reference":"Rohde, K.R. (October 2009). \"Chapter 7: Communicating Your Process Through Effective Policies, Procedures, and Job Aides\". Effective Process Management: Improving Your Healthcare Delivery. HC Pro. pp. 105–128. ISBN 9781601466549.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ymOtDqFjMwYC&pg=PA105","url_text":"\"Chapter 7: Communicating Your Process Through Effective Policies, Procedures, and Job Aides\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781601466549","url_text":"9781601466549"}]},{"reference":"von Rosing, M.; Foldager, U.; Hove, M.; et al. (2015). \"Working with the Business Process Management (BPM) Life Cycle\". In von Rosing, M.; Scheer, A.-W.; von Scheel, H. (eds.). The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 265–341. ISBN 9780127999593.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780127999593","url_text":"9780127999593"}]},{"reference":"Sezenias, E.; Farmakis, A.; Karagiannis, G.; et al. (2012). \"A Holistic Business Performance Measurement Framework\". In Glykas, M. (ed.). Business Process Management: Theory and Applications. Springer. pp. 75–98. ISBN 9783642284090.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642284090","url_text":"9783642284090"}]},{"reference":"Sidorova, A.; Torres, R.; Al Beayeyz, A. (2014). \"The Role of Information Technology in Business Process Management\". In vom Brocke, J.; Rosemann, M. (eds.). Handbook on Business Process Management 1. International Handbooks on Information Systems. Springer. pp. 421–444. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45100-3_18. ISBN 9783642451003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-45100-3_18","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-45100-3_18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642451003","url_text":"9783642451003"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxx_International

Voxx International

["1 History","2 Brands","3 Product types","3.1 Electronics","4 Restatements","5 References","6 External links"]

American electronics company "AudioVox" redirects here. For the 1930's company, see Paul Tutmarc. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Voxx International" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) VOXX International CorporationCompany typePublicTraded asNasdaq: VOXX (Class A)Russell Microcap Index componentFounded1960FounderJohn J. ShalamHeadquarters2351 J. Lawson Blvd.Orlando, FloridaKey peopleJohn J. Shalam (Chairman)Patrick M. Lavelle (CEO) Charles M. Stoehr (CFO)ProductsConsumer electronicsMobile electronicsAccessoriesPremium High End AudioRevenueUS$464.8M (FY 2019)Operating incomeUS$-41.2M (FY 2019)Net incomeUS$-46.1M (FY 2019)Total assetsUS$508.8M (FY 2019)Total equityUS$395.1M (FY 2019)Number of employees885 (FY 2019) Websitewww.voxxintl.com Voxx International is an American consumer electronics company founded as Audiovox Corporation in 1960, and renamed Voxx in 2012. It is headquartered in Orlando, Florida. The company specializes in four areas: OEM and after-market automotive electronics, consumer electronics accessories, and consumer and commercial audio equipment. Over the years, Voxx International has purchased a number of recognizable brandnames when the original companies were no longer viable as independent specialty shops, including Acoustic Research, Advent, Code Alarm, Invision, Jensen, Klipsch, Prestige, RCA, 808 Audio, and Terk, among others. Its international brands include Audiovox, Hirschmann, Heco, Incaar, Oehlbach, Mac Audio, Magnat, Schwaiger, and others. In addition, the company licenses the Energizer brand. History In 2020, Voxx International Corporation announced the change of name Klipsch Holding, LLC, which became Premium Audio Company, LLC. Premium Audio Company, LLC consists of two subsidiaries: Klipsch Group, Inc (brands: Klipsch, Jamo, Energy, ProMedia) and 11 Trading Company, LLC. In May 2021, Voxx International and Sharp Corporation began negotiations with Onkyo to purchase its home audiovisual division. Voxx's subsidiary Premium Audio Company (PAC) entered a joint venture with Sharp to acquire the business, which includes the Onkyo and Integra brands, for $30.8 million. PAC would own 75% of the joint venture and Sharp 25%. PAC would manage all product development, engineering, sales, marketing, and distribution while Sharp would be responsible for manufacturing and supply chain management of Onkyo products. The acquisition was completed in September 2021. Brands Voxx International markets its products under several brand names, including: 808 Audio Acoustic Research Advent Astrostart Audiovox Automate Autostart Avital CarLink Champ Chipmunks Clifford Code-Alarm Directed Electronics FlashLogic Hirschmann Incaar InVision Technologies Jamo Jensen Electronics Klipsch Magnat Onkyo Pioneer Electronics Prestige Pursuit PursuiTrak Python RCA SmartStart Surface Clean Terk UTStarcom Viper Zentral Home Command Product types Electronics In 2013, Audiovox developed the app for a new accessory device called Shutterball. Cellcom Communications holds the exclusive rights to the device. Around 2010, Audiovox developed various wireless communication products, some of them were walkie-talkies and cordless phones. Audiovox GMRS-1525 Audiovox walkie-talkie Audiovox GMRS-1582CH Audiovox wireless phone Audiovox RTM-8000 GSM/GPRS CompactFlash modem card Restatements On March 14, 2003, Audiovox said it planned to restate results for the first three quarters of fiscal 2002, following a review of the effect of the FASB's Emerging Issues Task Force regulations on its statements. The restatement would lower revenue by about $462,000, and increase income by $36,000. On April 15, 2003, Audiovox announced to restate results for fiscal years 2000, 2001, and the first three quarters of fiscal 2002. References ^ a b c d e f g h i "VOXX FY2019 Annual Report". SEC.gov. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. ^ Mitchell, Brian (2021-06-30). "VOXX International Acquires Onkyo for $30.8 million". ecoustics.com. Retrieved 2022-05-18. ^ Hirashima, Kento (2021-05-02). "Audio brand Onkyo weighs last-ditch sale of core business". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2022-05-18. ^ Nichols, Andrew (2021-06-28). "VOXX, Sharp Acquire Onkyo and Integra for $30.8M". CEPRO. Retrieved 2022-05-18. ^ Knott, Jason (2021-09-09). "VOXX, Sharp Complete Acquisition of Onkyo, Integra". CEPRO. Retrieved 2022-05-18. ^ Roy Furchgott (5 November 2013). "Taking a Better Selfie With an Audiovox App". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 November 2014. ^ "Voxx international - Search results for "Audiovox GMRS"". ^ "Audiovox to Restate Results for Fiscal 2000, 2001 and the First Three Quarters of 2002". External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Audiovox. Official website

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Tutmarc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tutmarc"},{"link_name":"consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"Orlando, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando,_Florida"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"after-market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermarket_(automotive)"},{"link_name":"automotive electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_electronics"},{"link_name":"consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"audio equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_equipment"},{"link_name":"Acoustic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_Research"},{"link_name":"Advent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kloss#Advent_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Invision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InVision_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Jensen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jensen_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Klipsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klipsch"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"Energizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energizer"}],"text":"\"AudioVox\" redirects here. For the 1930's company, see Paul Tutmarc.Voxx International is an American consumer electronics company founded as Audiovox Corporation in 1960, and renamed Voxx in 2012. It is headquartered in Orlando, Florida. The company specializes in four areas: OEM and after-market automotive electronics, consumer electronics accessories, and consumer and commercial audio equipment.Over the years, Voxx International has purchased a number of recognizable brandnames when the original companies were no longer viable as independent specialty shops, including Acoustic Research, Advent, Code Alarm, Invision, Jensen, Klipsch, Prestige, RCA, 808 Audio, and Terk, among others. Its international brands include Audiovox, Hirschmann, Heco, Incaar, Oehlbach, Mac Audio, Magnat, Schwaiger, and others. In addition, the company licenses the Energizer brand.","title":"Voxx International"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sharp Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Onkyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onkyo"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Integra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integra_Home_Theater"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In 2020, Voxx International Corporation announced the change of name Klipsch Holding, LLC, which became Premium Audio Company, LLC. Premium Audio Company, LLC consists of two subsidiaries: Klipsch Group, Inc (brands: Klipsch, Jamo, Energy, ProMedia) and 11 Trading Company, LLC.[2]In May 2021, Voxx International and Sharp Corporation began negotiations with Onkyo to purchase its home audiovisual division.[3] Voxx's subsidiary Premium Audio Company (PAC) entered a joint venture with Sharp to acquire the business, which includes the Onkyo and Integra brands, for $30.8 million. PAC would own 75% of the joint venture and Sharp 25%. PAC would manage all product development, engineering, sales, marketing, and distribution while Sharp would be responsible for manufacturing and supply chain management of Onkyo products. The acquisition was completed in September 2021.[4][5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acoustic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_Research"},{"link_name":"InVision Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InVision_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Jamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamo_(company)"},{"link_name":"Jensen Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jensen_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Klipsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klipsch"},{"link_name":"Onkyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onkyo"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"UTStarcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTStarcom"}],"text":"Voxx International markets its products under several brand names, including:808 Audio\nAcoustic Research\nAdvent\nAstrostart\nAudiovox\nAutomate\nAutostart\nAvital\nCarLink\nChamp\nChipmunks\nClifford\nCode-Alarm\nDirected Electronics\nFlashLogic\nHirschmann\nIncaar\nInVision Technologies\nJamo\nJensen Electronics\nKlipsch\nMagnat\nOnkyo\nPioneer Electronics\nPrestige\nPursuit\nPursuiTrak\nPython\nRCA\nSmartStart\nSurface Clean\nTerk\nUTStarcom\nViper\nZentral Home Command","title":"Brands"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Product types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Cellcom Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellcom_Communications"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audiovox_GMRS-1525.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audiovox_walkie-talkie.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audivox_GMRS-1582CH.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audiovox_telefono.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audiovox_RTM-8000_manual.jpg"},{"link_name":"GPRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS"},{"link_name":"CompactFlash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactFlash"}],"sub_title":"Electronics","text":"In 2013, Audiovox developed the app for a new accessory device called Shutterball.[6] Cellcom Communications holds the exclusive rights to the device.Around 2010, Audiovox developed various wireless communication products, some of them were walkie-talkies and cordless phones.\n[7]Audiovox GMRS-1525\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAudiovox walkie-talkie\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAudiovox GMRS-1582CH\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAudiovox wireless phone\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAudiovox RTM-8000 GSM/GPRS CompactFlash modem card","title":"Product types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FASB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Accounting_Standards_Board"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"On March 14, 2003, Audiovox said it planned to restate results for the first three quarters of fiscal 2002, following a review of the effect of the FASB's Emerging Issues Task Force regulations on its statements. The restatement would lower revenue by about $462,000, and increase income by $36,000.[8] On April 15, 2003, Audiovox announced to restate results for fiscal years 2000, 2001, and the first three quarters of fiscal 2002.","title":"Restatements"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_(computer_memory)

Memory bank

["1 In caching","2 See also","3 Further reading","4 References"]

Logical unit of storage in computer architecture Not to be confused with Page (computer memory) or Block (computer memory). A memory bank is a logical unit of storage in electronics, which is hardware-dependent. In a computer, the memory bank may be determined by the memory controller along with physical organization of the hardware memory slots. In a typical synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) or double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), a bank consists of multiple rows and columns of storage units, and is usually spread out across several chips. In a single read or write operation, only one bank is accessed, therefore the number of bits in a column or a row, per bank and per chip, equals the memory bus width in bits (single channel). The size of a bank is further determined by the number of bits in a column and a row, per chip, multiplied by the number of chips in a bank. Some computers have several identical memory banks of RAM, and use bank switching to switch between them. Harvard architecture computers have (at least) two very different banks of memory, one for program storage and another for data storage. In caching A memory bank is a part of cache memory that is addressed consecutively in the total set of memory banks, i.e., when data item a(n) is stored in bank b, data item a(n + 1) is stored in bank b + 1. Cache memory is divided in banks to evade the effects of the bank cycle time (see above) . When data is stored or retrieved consecutively each bank has enough time to recover before the next request for that bank arrives. The number of memory modules needed to have the same number of data bits as the bus. A bank can consist of one or more memory modules. See also Electronics portal Bank switching Interleaved memory Memory rank Memory geometry Memory organisation Further reading "2.3.3 Data Random Access Memory". MCS-4 Assembly Language Programming Manual - The INTELLEC 4 Microcomputer System Programming Manual (PDF) (Preliminary ed.). Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. December 1973. pp. 2-5–2-6. MCS-030-1273-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2020-03-02. References ^ "Glossary". Overview of Recent Supercomputers. Retrieved 26 August 2011.

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_1000CX

HP 200LX

["1 Description","2 Model variants","2.1 HP 100LX","2.2 HP Palmtop FX","2.3 HP 200LX AIA","2.4 HP 1000CX","2.5 HP OmniGo 700LX","3 Related models","3.1 HP 95LX","3.2 HP OmniGo 100","4 Current usage","5 Common problems","6 Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility","7 Other notes","8 Easter eggs","8.1 Hidden gallery","8.2 Self-test poem 1","8.3 Self-test poem 2","8.4 Self-test poem 3","8.5 Hidden development aid in 'More Applications'","8.6 Hidden hex calculator","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]

Personal digital assistant manufactured by Hewlett-Packard This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (November 2023) Hewlett-Packard 200LXCase openManufacturerHewlett-PackardTypePalmtop PCRelease dateAugust 1994; 29 years ago (August 1994)DiscontinuedDecember 1999Operating systemHewlett-Packard MS-DOS 5.0CPU80186-compatible "Hornet" @ 7.91 MHzMemory1/2/4 MB RAMRemovable storageSRAM, ATA Flash, Compact Flash. Up to 2 GB using third-party driver.GraphicsCGA 640×200 (2 colors)Power2× AA-size removable batteries, 1× CR2032 coin cell backup, optional AC adapterDimensions16 × 8.64 × 2.54 cm (6.3" × 3.4" × 1")PredecessorHP 100LX Case closed The HP 200LX Palmtop PC (F1060A, F1061A, F1216A), also known as project Felix, is a personal digital assistant introduced by Hewlett-Packard in August 1994. It was often called a Palmtop PC, and it was notable that it was, with some minor exceptions, a DOS-compatible computer in a palmtop format, complete with a monochrome graphic display, QWERTY keyboard, serial port, and PCMCIA expansion slot. The abbreviation "LX" stood for "Lotus Expandable". Description This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhone Input is accomplished via a small QWERTY-keyboard with a numeric keypad, enclosed in a clamshell-style case, less than about 25% of the size of a standard notebook computer. The palmtop runs for about 30–40 hours on two size AA alkaline or Ni-Cd rechargeable cells and can charge batteries (both Ni-Cd and NiMH) via a 12 V DC wall adapter. The HP 200LX has an Intel 80186 compatible embedded central processing unit named "Hornet", which runs at ~7.91 megahertz (which can be upgraded or overclocked to up to 15.8 MHz) and 1, 2 or 4 MB of memory, of which 640 KB is RAM and the rest can be used for expanded memory (EMS) or memory-based storage space. After-market updates can bring the memory chips to up to 64 MB, which frees the PCMCIA slot for modem or Ethernet card use. The Silicom, Accton 2212/2216, Netgear FA411, and Sohoware ND5120 network cards were compatible. Being IBM PC/XT compatible and running MS-DOS 5.0 from ROM, the HP 200LX can run virtually any program that would run on a full-size PC compatible computer as long as the code is written for the Intel 8086, 8088 or 80186 CPU and can run using CGA graphics. It can also run programs written for the 80286 CPU, provided they do not require the use of protected mode. It has a 16-bit PCMCIA Type II expansion slot that supports 5 V at 150 mA maximum, a SIR compatible infrared port and a full serial port (but with a proprietary mini connector for space constraint reasons). The built-in software suite runs from ROM and includes the Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4 spreadsheet, a calendar, a phone book, a terminal, Lotus cc:Mail and a scientific/business calculator (among other applications). With a large CompactFlash storage card and a serial mouse, Microsoft Windows 3.0 can be run on the palmtop. Running Windows was limited by the hardware, and the maximum version that can be run is Windows 3.0 in Real Mode. However, Word 1.x and Excel 2.x for Windows will run (since they can run in Real Mode), allowing for the authoring of MS Office format-compatible files. The 640×200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade gray-scale LCD screen has no back light. An electroluminescent back light installation is available from a third party since 2004, but keen eyesight is still required to use the small palmtop effectively without resorting to using its 2× and 4× zoom modes. While true CGA displays do not allow for redefinable fonts in text mode and support a hardware code page 437, the HP 95LX supports code page 850 instead. Starting with the HP 100LX, the LX series supports user-switchable text mode ROM fonts for both code page 437 and 850 as well as software-definable RAM fonts (for codepages 437G, 437T, 852, 866 via KEYBEZ). Lotus 1-2-3 internally uses the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes. Model variants HP 100LX The HP 100LX Palmtop PC (F1020A for the 1 MB, F1022A for the 2 MB model), also known as project Cougar, is the direct predecessor of the 200LX. It was released in 1993 and available in International English, U.S. English, French, German and Spanish variants with localized keyboard and messages. It is almost the same, including the Hornet CPU and MS-DOS 5.0, but with earlier built-in application versions. HP Palmtop FX The HP Palmtop FX is a variant of the HP 100LX with up to 2 MB flashable memory in 1993. FAT flash disk images could be created and written to drive F: by a special FLASHDSK.EXE utility. According to one source, it was developed for a Korean insurance company. HP 200LX AIA The HP 200LX AIA is a 2 MB double-speed variant of the HP 200LX manufactured for the insurance company American International Assurance (AIA). HP 1000CX The HP 1000CX Palmtop PC (F1203A for the 1 MB in March 1995, F1222A for the 2 MB model in February 1997), also known as project Puma, is an economy version of the 200LX but without any built-in software except the MS-DOS 5.0 operating system in ROM. It was in widespread use among, for example, Coca-Cola warehouse managers, who loaded their own logistics software onto the machine. It has a black clamshell, while the 200LX has a dark green casing. HP OmniGo 700LX The HP OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus (F1206A), codenamed Columbia, was a project of the HP calculator branch in Singapore. The HP OmniGo 700LX is a 2 MB HP 200LX redesigned to piggyback a Nokia 2110 GSM mobile telephone for wireless mobility. The HP 200LX motherboard was factory-modified to support a second PCMCIA slot for a Nokia Data Card. Owing to the relatively large size of the Nokia telephone, the HP OmniGo 700LX has a large, pebble-shaped casing, making it a handheld with a phone attached. It was announced in late 1995 as part of plans for a collaboration between HP and Nokia, with shipment started in March 1996. The production of the HP OmniGo 700LX ceased after the Nokia 2110 mobile telephone was rendered obsolete by later telephones. The device can be seen as a forerunner to the first smartphone, Nokia's Communicator 9000. Related models HP 95LX Main article: HP 95LX The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A for the 512 KB, F1010A for the 1 MB model) introduced the basic design in April 1991. It was known internally as project Jaguar. It has a NEC V20 CPU (an enhanced Intel 8088 clone with Intel 80186 instruction set compatibility and an additional Intel 8080 emulation mode) running at 5.37 MHz, but is hampered in running PC applications because of its quarter-CGA resolution LCD screen and MDA-compatible (instead of CGA) graphics chip. The HP 95LX for the most part only displayed graphics in a special LX graphics mode. It runs MS-DOS 3.22 and has Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in. It also includes a CR2032 battery for memory backup when the AA batteries run out. HP OmniGo 100 HP OmniGo 100 The HP OmniGo 100 Organizer Plus (F1305A/F1310A) was designed as a more sophisticated successor to the LX series, and incorporated the HP-12C calculator functionality. It was GUI based, controlled by pen input or keyboard. However, it lacked the versatility of running unmodified DOS programs. The normal operation mode was with DOS-based PEN/GEOS 2.1 and Graffiti handwriting recognition running on Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22. It was not widely accepted as a calculator replacement, and Palm and Pocket PCs became acceptable as PDAs. Equipped with 1 MB of RAM, it was based on the Vadem VG230/V5H, a highly integrated system controller with 16 MHz NEC V30HL CPU, instruction set compatible with the Intel 80186. Current usage Although this product line was discontinued by HP in order to introduce their Windows CE product line (starting with the HP 300LX), a strong interest in this hardware continued. It was the last palmtop from HP which ran the MS-DOS operating system, for which there is much software from desktop PCs, and it came with a useful bundle of software including 1-2-3 and Quicken. Compared to machines with Windows-based operating systems such as CE, DOS programs are more compact and efficient and, with programs such as Software Carousel, many applications programs could be loaded at once. Third-party upgrades, repairs and renovations are available to maintain and extend the device. Because of its small size, the HP 200LX was very popular in Japan, so much so that its demise prompted an open-source initiative led by a group named Morphy One  to design and market an AMD Élan SC400-based replacement to fill its place in 2001. However, only one prototype was ever built before the company responsible for the project filed for bankruptcy in 2003. Some argue it was a scam as hundreds of people lost deposits they placed on the new palmtop in advance. The project leaders argued that key electronic components were unavailable due to strong demand from the mobile phone manufacturing industry. Common problems A common problem with the HP 200LX case is related to the injected-molded case top. The right hinge to case blend had poor flow in the process, resulting in the formation of a crack which propagates across the hinge under stress, causing failure. This can be reinforced and repaired using super glue, among other methods (industrial super glue advised). One can also use a small thin rectangular piece of metal and epoxy it to the upper right hand corner of the clam shell where the crack occurs. This offers additional support to the area and prevents and/or repairs this problem. Another weakness of the design is the failure of the case opening latch. This problem can easily be repaired by placing a thin slice cut from rubber eraser, left over silicone kit, or 'super sponge' within the latch as a "spring". Only high quality AA rechargeable batteries should be used in the HP 200LX, as battery leaks can destroy the LCD's flat video cable. Aging models may lose pixel columns from the display. This is caused by detachment of one or more pins of one of the SMD (Surface Mounted Device) chips in the display itself. In many cases this may be repaired by reflowing (resoldering) of the pins on the offending chip, either with an SMD reflow tool, or a soldering iron with a very fine (0.2 mm) tip. Under heavy use, the space bar and enter bar can become detached. This requires keyboard replacement. Under heavy use from opening and closing, the long flex strip connector between the screen and the motherboard can become torn as it tends to rub against internal components in the housing. Typically, the only way to fix this once torn is to replace the flex strip. Fixing unresponsive keyboard keys. Inside the HP 200LX, the keyboard connects to the main board via a "ribbon" that has graphite pads which make physical contact to gold pads plated onto the main board. Unresponsive keys occur when this connection grows weak. This can be fixed by applying conductive silver paint (such as from a circuitwriter pen) to each graphite pad on the "ribbon". One can also use copper tape cut out to small circles. This tape adheres nicely to the graphite pad and actually gives a more definitive long lasting connection than silver paint, although both work fine. This is delicate work, and putting the HP 200LX back together after disassembly may be problematic for those who have little experience with electronics repair. However, the conductive silver paint will fully fix the problem if applied with care. An alternate cause can be corrosion of the motherboard pads to which the graphite pad connects. This can be solved by polishing the pads with fine steel wool. Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility The HP 100LX/HP 200LX's digital-to-analog converter cannot play audio tones; instead, it monitors battery life and charging. The device does not provide the BIOS service (INT 13h) for reading from a hard disk. Drivers have been partially written for this purpose (to boot MINIX 2.0). Other notes The HP 200LX was used on board the NASA Discovery OV103 Mission STS-95 (the last mission of Senator John Glenn) in an Electronic Nose (E-Nose) experiment (the device was developed jointly by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)). The experiment, as managed by Dan Karmon of JPL, was successful. The HP 200LX can play video, and sound files using software from Stefan Peichl in relatively low quality. It is also capable of sound recording, though this is, again, in relatively low quality. There is no known compatible PCMCIA sound card for the HP 200LX. However, a Yamaha MU10 MIDI sound generator (a.o.) works through the serial port using Voyetra or GSPlay MIDI programs, and Terrence Vergauwen uses a PCMCIA parallel port card plus an OPL3LPT (Adlib compatible sounds card thru parallel port) for gaming. Software and hardware is available which will allow the HP 200LX to surf the Internet. The serial numbers printed on the HP machines 100LX, 200LX, 1000CX and OmniGo 700LX have the following meaning: XXYWWNNNNN XX = the country of manufacturing (e.g., SG = Singapore etc) Y = the year of manufacturing; last digit (e.g., 6 = 1996) WW = the week of the year of manufacturing NNNNN = the number of the specific unit manufactured in specified week Easter eggs There are many easter eggs built into the HP 200LX. The known ones are listed as follows: Hidden gallery This easter egg is on the HP 200LX in the built in game, "Lair of Squid". During the startup screen of the game, if the user types the word "gallery" ("gallerie" on a French palmtop; "siegergalerie" on a German palmtop; "galeria" on a Spanish palmtop) they are placed in a "part" of the maze that contains photographs of the primary software developers that worked on the HP 200LX. The user may exit from this gallery by exiting through the door at the end of the corridor. The software developers in the photographs are listed starting from left to right, then left to right and so on as follows: Andy Gryc Pat Megowan Everett Kaser Bill Johnson Lynn Winter Susan Wechsler Eric Evett The last panel on the right of the corridor contains a thank you message: Very special thanks to all the people in HP and all the companies that made this palm-top possible. The Felix S/W team The photographs of the developers have been described as "a-maze-ing". Self-test poem 1 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing ↵ Enter 14 times, to step through the various screens, the user comes to a screen of example text in the form of a limerick poem. The poem is as follows: There once was this thing from HP That fit in your pocket, you see. A caveman would stare And pull out his hair And wonder, 'What could this thing be?' Self-test poem 2 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ALT while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to a cryptic poem, relating to business issues faced by the software development team. The poem is as follows: Felis Concolor A funny thing happened on the way to the Forum When I encountered a group in search of a quorum. They came from a city, The Burg On The Wire. If I tried to describe it you'd call me a liar. They wanted to charge me a really quite large fee For the dubious pleasure of sharing their treasure. "I'm a very Good man (Mark my words if you can)," "But, the Dickens, I say, I simply won't pay!" And with poetry, then, I proceeded to bore 'em Then proceeded myself on my way to the Forum. Self-test poem 3 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ⇧ Shift while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to an allegorical poem about the history and future of the HP LX palmtops. The poem is as follows (note that the project names for the HP 95LX, the HP 100LX and the HP 200LX are 'Jaguar', 'Cougar' and 'Felix' respectively, and that 'Felix' was the first LX to include Quicken): Nine lives has a Cat, and each Cat a name, All of them different, none are the same. Jaguar was first, it made quite a roar. Cougar was next, oh, how it did soar. Felix is third, my heart it does quicken, Who knows what comes next, the clock is a tickin'. Hidden development aid in 'More Applications' This easter egg is in the built in System Manager of the HP 200LX. This 'easter egg' is probably more of a development tool than an easter egg, but, in any case, the user may display the function by first pressing the blue &... key to start 'More Applications'. The user may then hold down ALT while pressing F9 four times, followed by F10 once. As long as the ALT key is held down, the user will observe columns of data about System Manager compliant (.EXM) programs registered with the System Manager, along with other arcane program information. Hidden hex calculator The HP 200LX includes an undocumented calculator application named HEXCALC, written by Andrew Gryc. It provides arithmetical and logical operations in binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal system. The utility can be added to the applications menu by an entry with the following fields: Name: He&x Calc Path: D:\BIN\HEXCALC.EXM See also HP 110 / HP 110 Plus DIP Pocket PC / Atari PC Folio / Atari Portfolio Poqet PC Poqet PC Prime Poqet PC Plus ZEOS Pocket PC Ben NanoNote Sub-notebook (HP OmniBook) Netbook Palmtop PC Ultra-mobile PC References ^ Barr, Christopher (1994-11-08). "HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account". PC Magazine. Vol. 13, no. 19. p. 56. ^ Hall, Rich (1994). "NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken". The HP Palmtop Paper. Thaddeus Computing. Archived from the original on 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-04-30. ^ "History of the HP 95LX computer". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ Lee, Yvonne (1993-05-03). "HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 18. p. 27. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Marshall, Patrick (1993-08-23). "Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 34. p. 96. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ "Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Archived from the original on 2016-11-27. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 . pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display If your HP 95LX cannot display or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer). ^ HP 200LX User's Guide (PDF) (1 ed.). Singapore: Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited, Asia-Pacific Personal Computer Division. October 1996. pp. 21-6–21-7, 25-9–25-13, 26-14–26-18, C-1–C-4, D-1–D-10. 1216-90001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-29. Your palmtop supports code pages 850 and 437. The built-in applications (except 1-2-3) and System Manager-compliant applications use code page 850. 1-2-3 uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not included will not display on the palmtop. Any DOS application you load and run will by default use code page 437. If an application requires code page 850, you can select it using the Setup utility. ^ a b Hall, Rich (1993). "HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Thaddeus Computing. Retrieved 2015-08-29. ^ Schmuhl, Edward H.; Sherman, Allan P.; Waisnor, Jon D. (June 1996). "HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 47 (3): 64–69. ^ 200LX 어플 자료실 (in Korean). 2008-11-17. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. ^ "The Other Models". The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. ^ Auw, Jimmy (2012-06-19). "Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX". Jimmy's Junkyard. ^ a b Hall, Rich. "HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus". HP Palmtop Paper Online. ^ Marshall, Patrick (1991-12-16). Nash, Siobhan; Rupley, Sebastian (eds.). "Computing in the palm of you hand". InfoWorld. Vol. 13, no. 50. pp. 69–81. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). "Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Goldstein, Hal. "User to User: The HP OmniGo 100". HP Palmtop Paper Online. ^ Hermocom.com helps with self-repair advice Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ Thaddeus Computing offers professional repair service in USA. ^ Michel Bel can help with repairs in the Netherlands. ^ Tamiya, Maya (2000-05-04). "Beyond free software in Japan". LWN.net. Retrieved 2021-05-16. ^ ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了 (in Japanese). Mynavi News. 2001-05-07. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2013-10-11. ^ モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く . ASCII.jp (in Japanese). 2002-06-28. Retrieved 2013-10-11. ^ "Minix for the HP200LX". Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2005-03-12. Further reading Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). "The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). "The First Real Palmtop". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). "The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24. The HP 200LX: A Review by Rob Tillotson. Sy's HP 200LX review Articles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment "Off-the-Shelf" 200LX used by "Shade Tree Engineer" The Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array: Results From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment HP 200LX Old-Computers.com Museum External links 200LX Software S.U.P.E.R. software mirror, over 1500 programs and 200 databases for the 200LX HP Palmtop Paper Online (Thaddeus Computing; Buy-Sell-Repair) HP Palmtop Ring Homepage Skolob's Hewlett Packard 95LX Palmtop Page (Information and FAQ on HP 95LX) Compatibility of the Sohoware ND5120 network card. vteHewlett-Packard HP Inc. Hewlett Packard Enterprise Founders Bill Hewlett David Packard Directors Marc Andreessen Mohamed M. Atalla Shumeet Banerji Raj Gupta Raymond J. Lane Ann Livermore Gary M. Reiner Patricia F. Russo (Chairwoman) Jim Skinner Executive officers Meg Whitman Todd Bradley Dave Donatelli Martin Fink Henry Gomez John Hinshaw Marty Homlish George Kadifa Tracy Keogh Cathie Lesjak Mike Nefkens Antonio Neri John F. Schultz Bill Veghte Computer hardware productsHPEServers BladeSystem Integrity Superdome ProLiant NonStop Storage HPE Storage HPE XP HPE 3PAR HP Inc.Business laptops ProBook EliteBook ZBook Business desktops ProDesk EliteDesk Z workstations Consumer PCs OmniBook Pavilion Spectre ENVY OMEN Stream HP Chromebox Essential laptops Consumer electronicsand accessories Aruba Networks Calculators Teradici HyperX Plantronics Photography and printing Deskjet LaserJet Scitex Photosmart Other divisions Colorado Memory Systems Indigo Digital Press Scitex Systems Insight Manager HPE Networking Software HyperSpace OS HP-UX HP Data Protector NonStop OS NonStop SQL DiscontinuedproductsCompaq line HP Compaq HP Compaq Elite TC Presario Evo iPAQ AlphaServer Software Domain/OS LightScribe MPE OpenVMS (sold) HP QuickPlay Tru64 UNIX WebOS (sold) Services HP Cloud HP CloudSystem HPE Helion Hardware Jornada OmniGo iPod+HP VoodooPC TouchPad Internet Advisor Vectra Brio Mini Slate TouchSmart Sprout NetServer Kayak Closed divisions VoodooPC ProCurve Sold: Palm Snapfish HP CEOs List of HP executives Co-founders Bill Hewlett and David Packard John A. Young Lewis E. Platt Carly Fiorina Mark Hurd Léo Apotheker Meg Whitman Assets HP Garage HP Labs HP Atalla See also Acquisitions HP spying scandal HP Inc. assets Products Mission: SPACE Steve Wozniak

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hp200lx,_closed.jpg"},{"link_name":"personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barr_1994-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1994-2"},{"link_name":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"PCMCIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMCIA_card"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_2012-3"}],"text":"Case closedThe HP 200LX Palmtop PC (F1060A, F1061A, F1216A), also known as project Felix, is a personal digital assistant introduced by Hewlett-Packard in August 1994.[1][2] It was often called a Palmtop PC, and it was notable that it was, with some minor exceptions, a DOS-compatible computer in a palmtop format, complete with a monochrome graphic display, QWERTY keyboard, serial port, and PCMCIA expansion slot. The abbreviation \"LX\" stood for \"Lotus Expandable\".[3]","title":"HP 200LX"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP-200LX.jpg"},{"link_name":"QWERTY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTY"},{"link_name":"clamshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_(form)"},{"link_name":"notebook computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook_Computer"},{"link_name":"size AA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AA_battery"},{"link_name":"Ni-Cd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni-Cd"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"megahertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"overclocked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overclocking"},{"link_name":"MB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"expanded memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanded_memory"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"IBM PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer"},{"link_name":"XT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.0"},{"link_name":"Intel 8086","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086"},{"link_name":"8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"PCMCIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_card"},{"link_name":"SIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Data_Association"},{"link_name":"infrared port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_port"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3_Release_2.4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee_1993-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marshall_1993-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HPPP-6"},{"link_name":"Lotus cc:Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_cc:Mail"},{"link_name":"CompactFlash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactFlash"},{"link_name":"mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows_3.0"},{"link_name":"CGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter"},{"link_name":"electroluminescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroluminescent"},{"link_name":"hardware code page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_code_page"},{"link_name":"437","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437"},{"link_name":"HP 95LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#95LX"},{"link_name":"code page 850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-7"},{"link_name":"437G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_page_437G&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"437T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_page_437T&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"852","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_852"},{"link_name":"866","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_866"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1996_200LXUG-8"},{"link_name":"Lotus International Character Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set"}],"text":"Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhoneInput is accomplished via a small QWERTY-keyboard with a numeric keypad, enclosed in a clamshell-style case, less than about 25% of the size of a standard notebook computer. The palmtop runs for about 30–40 hours on two size AA alkaline or Ni-Cd rechargeable cells and can charge batteries (both Ni-Cd and NiMH) via a 12 V DC wall adapter.The HP 200LX has an Intel 80186 compatible embedded central processing unit named \"Hornet\", which runs at ~7.91 megahertz (which can be upgraded or overclocked to up to 15.8 MHz) and 1, 2 or 4 MB of memory, of which 640 KB is RAM and the rest can be used for expanded memory (EMS) or memory-based storage space. After-market updates can bring the memory chips to up to 64 MB, which frees the PCMCIA slot for modem or Ethernet card use. The Silicom, Accton 2212/2216, Netgear FA411, and Sohoware ND5120 network cards were compatible. Being IBM PC/XT compatible and running MS-DOS 5.0 from ROM, the HP 200LX can run virtually any program that would run on a full-size PC compatible computer as long as the code is written for the Intel 8086, 8088 or 80186 CPU and can run using CGA graphics. It can also run programs written for the 80286 CPU, provided they do not require the use of protected mode. It has a 16-bit PCMCIA Type II expansion slot that supports 5 V at 150 mA maximum, a SIR compatible infrared port and a full serial port (but with a proprietary mini connector for space constraint reasons).The built-in software suite runs from ROM and includes the Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4 spreadsheet,[4][5][6] a calendar, a phone book, a terminal, Lotus cc:Mail and a scientific/business calculator (among other applications). With a large CompactFlash storage card and a serial mouse, Microsoft Windows 3.0 can be run on the palmtop. Running Windows was limited by the hardware, and the maximum version that can be run is Windows 3.0 in Real Mode. However, Word 1.x and Excel 2.x for Windows will run (since they can run in Real Mode), allowing for the authoring of MS Office format-compatible files. The 640×200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade gray-scale LCD screen has no back light. An electroluminescent back light installation is available from a third party since 2004, but keen eyesight is still required to use the small palmtop effectively without resorting to using its 2× and 4× zoom modes.While true CGA displays do not allow for redefinable fonts in text mode and support a hardware code page 437, the HP 95LX supports code page 850 instead.[7] Starting with the HP 100LX, the LX series supports user-switchable text mode ROM fonts for both code page 437 and 850 as well as software-definable RAM fonts (for codepages 437G, 437T, 852, 866 via KEYBEZ).[8] Lotus 1-2-3 internally uses the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1993-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1993-9"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.0"}],"sub_title":"HP 100LX","text":"The HP 100LX Palmtop PC (F1020A for the 1 MB, F1022A for the 2 MB model),[9] also known as project Cougar, is the direct predecessor of the 200LX. It was released in 1993 and available in International English, U.S. English, French, German and Spanish variants with localized keyboard and messages.[9] It is almost the same, including the Hornet CPU and MS-DOS 5.0, but with earlier built-in application versions.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schmuhl-Sherman-Waisnor_1996-10"},{"link_name":"FAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT_filesystem"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oilman_2008-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HPmuseum-12"}],"sub_title":"HP Palmtop FX","text":"The HP Palmtop FX is a variant of the HP 100LX with up to 2 MB flashable memory in 1993.[10] FAT flash disk images could be created and written to drive F: by a special FLASHDSK.EXE utility.[11] According to one source, it was developed for a Korean insurance company.[12]","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American International Assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_International_Assurance"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Auw_2012-13"}],"sub_title":"HP 200LX AIA","text":"The HP 200LX AIA is a 2 MB double-speed variant of the HP 200LX manufactured for the insurance company American International Assurance (AIA).[13]","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"}],"sub_title":"HP 1000CX","text":"The HP 1000CX Palmtop PC (F1203A for the 1 MB in March 1995, F1222A for the 2 MB model in February 1997), also known as project Puma, is an economy version of the 200LX but without any built-in software except the MS-DOS 5.0 operating system in ROM. It was in widespread use among, for example, Coca-Cola warehouse managers, who loaded their own logistics software onto the machine. It has a black clamshell, while the 200LX has a dark green casing.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"piggyback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggy-back_(transportation)"},{"link_name":"Nokia 2110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_2110"},{"link_name":"GSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"},{"link_name":"mobile telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephone"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_700LX-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_700LX-14"},{"link_name":"smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Nokia's Communicator 9000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_9000_Communicator"}],"sub_title":"HP OmniGo 700LX","text":"The HP OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus (F1206A), codenamed Columbia, was a project of the HP calculator branch in Singapore. The HP OmniGo 700LX is a 2 MB HP 200LX redesigned to piggyback a Nokia 2110 GSM mobile telephone for wireless mobility. The HP 200LX motherboard was factory-modified to support a second PCMCIA slot for a Nokia Data Card. Owing to the relatively large size of the Nokia telephone, the HP OmniGo 700LX has a large, pebble-shaped casing, making it a handheld with a phone attached. It was announced in late 1995 as part of plans for a collaboration between HP and Nokia,[14] with shipment started in March 1996.[14] The production of the HP OmniGo 700LX ceased after the Nokia 2110 mobile telephone was rendered obsolete by later telephones. The device can be seen as a forerunner to the first smartphone, Nokia's Communicator 9000.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NEC V20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20"},{"link_name":"Intel 8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 3.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3_Release_2.2"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marshall_1991-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matzkin_1991-16"}],"sub_title":"HP 95LX","text":"The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A for the 512 KB, F1010A for the 1 MB model) introduced the basic design in April 1991. It was known internally as project Jaguar. It has a NEC V20 CPU (an enhanced Intel 8088 clone with Intel 80186 instruction set compatibility and an additional Intel 8080 emulation mode) running at 5.37 MHz, but is hampered in running PC applications because of its quarter-CGA resolution LCD screen and MDA-compatible (instead of CGA) graphics chip. The HP 95LX for the most part only displayed graphics in a special LX graphics mode. It runs MS-DOS 3.22 and has Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in.[15][16] It also includes a CR2032 battery for memory backup when the AA batteries run out.","title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP_OmniGo_100_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"HP-12C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-12C"},{"link_name":"PEN/GEOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEN/GEOS"},{"link_name":"Graffiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffiti_(Palm_OS)"},{"link_name":"Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datalight_ROM-DOS_6.22"},{"link_name":"Vadem VG230","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadem_VG230"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldstein-17"},{"link_name":"NEC V30HL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V30"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"}],"sub_title":"HP OmniGo 100","text":"HP OmniGo 100The HP OmniGo 100 Organizer Plus (F1305A/F1310A) was designed as a more sophisticated successor to the LX series, and incorporated the HP-12C calculator functionality. It was GUI based, controlled by pen input or keyboard. However, it lacked the versatility of running unmodified DOS programs. The normal operation mode was with DOS-based PEN/GEOS 2.1 and Graffiti handwriting recognition running on Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22. It was not widely accepted as a calculator replacement, and Palm and Pocket PCs became acceptable as PDAs. Equipped with 1 MB of RAM, it was based on the Vadem VG230/V5H,[17] a highly integrated system controller with 16 MHz NEC V30HL CPU, instruction set compatible with the Intel 80186.","title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CE"},{"link_name":"HP 300LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_300LX"},{"link_name":"Quicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicken"},{"link_name":"Software Carousel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Software_Carousel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hermocon-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Repair-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bel-20"},{"link_name":"Morphy One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphy_One&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphy_One"},{"link_name":"AMD Élan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_%C3%89lan"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tamiya_2000-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mynavi_2001-22"},{"link_name":"scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scam"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASCII_2002-23"}],"text":"Although this product line was discontinued by HP in order to introduce their Windows CE product line (starting with the HP 300LX), a strong interest in this hardware continued. It was the last palmtop from HP which ran the MS-DOS operating system, for which there is much software from desktop PCs, and it came with a useful bundle of software including 1-2-3 and Quicken. Compared to machines with Windows-based operating systems such as CE, DOS programs are more compact and efficient and, with programs such as Software Carousel, many applications programs could be loaded at once.Third-party upgrades, repairs and renovations are available to maintain and extend the device.[18][19][20]Because of its small size, the HP 200LX was very popular in Japan, so much so that its demise prompted an open-source initiative led by a group named Morphy One [ja] to design and market an AMD Élan SC400-based replacement to fill its place in 2001.[21] However, only one prototype was ever built[22] before the company responsible for the project filed for bankruptcy in 2003. Some argue it was a scam as hundreds of people lost deposits they placed on the new palmtop in advance. The project leaders argued that key electronic components were unavailable due to strong demand from the mobile phone manufacturing industry.[23]","title":"Current usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"super glue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_glue"}],"text":"A common problem with the HP 200LX case is related to the injected-molded case top. The right hinge to case blend had poor flow in the process, resulting in the formation of a crack which propagates across the hinge under stress, causing failure. This can be reinforced and repaired using super glue, among other methods (industrial super glue advised). One can also use a small thin rectangular piece of metal and epoxy it to the upper right hand corner of the clam shell where the crack occurs. This offers additional support to the area and prevents and/or repairs this problem.\nAnother weakness of the design is the failure of the case opening latch. This problem can easily be repaired by placing a thin slice cut from rubber eraser, left over silicone kit, or 'super sponge' within the latch as a \"spring\".\nOnly high quality AA rechargeable batteries should be used in the HP 200LX, as battery leaks can destroy the LCD's flat video cable.\nAging models may lose pixel columns from the display. This is caused by detachment of one or more pins of one of the SMD (Surface Mounted Device) chips in the display itself. In many cases this may be repaired by reflowing (resoldering) of the pins on the offending chip, either with an SMD reflow tool, or a soldering iron with a very fine (0.2 mm) tip.\nUnder heavy use, the space bar and enter bar can become detached. This requires keyboard replacement.\nUnder heavy use from opening and closing, the long flex strip connector between the screen and the motherboard can become torn as it tends to rub against internal components in the housing. Typically, the only way to fix this once torn is to replace the flex strip.\nFixing unresponsive keyboard keys. Inside the HP 200LX, the keyboard connects to the main board via a \"ribbon\" that has graphite pads which make physical contact to gold pads plated onto the main board. Unresponsive keys occur when this connection grows weak. This can be fixed by applying conductive silver paint (such as from a circuitwriter pen) to each graphite pad on the \"ribbon\". One can also use copper tape cut out to small circles. This tape adheres nicely to the graphite pad and actually gives a more definitive long lasting connection than silver paint, although both work fine. This is delicate work, and putting the HP 200LX back together after disassembly may be problematic for those who have little experience with electronics repair. However, the conductive silver paint will fully fix the problem if applied with care. An alternate cause can be corrosion of the motherboard pads to which the graphite pad connects. This can be solved by polishing the pads with fine steel wool.","title":"Common problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital-to-analog converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital-to-analog_converter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"INT 13h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INT_13h"},{"link_name":"hard disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk"},{"link_name":"Drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"MINIX 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MINIX_2.0"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minix-24"}],"text":"The HP 100LX/HP 200LX's digital-to-analog converter cannot play audio tones; instead, it monitors battery life and charging[citation needed].\nThe device does not provide the BIOS service (INT 13h) for reading from a hard disk. Drivers have been partially written for this purpose (to boot MINIX 2.0).[24]","title":"Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STS-95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-95"},{"link_name":"John Glenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn"},{"link_name":"Electronic Nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_nose"},{"link_name":"JPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPL"},{"link_name":"Caltech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltech"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"}],"text":"The HP 200LX was used on board the NASA Discovery OV103 Mission STS-95 (the last mission of Senator John Glenn) in an Electronic Nose (E-Nose) experiment (the device was developed jointly by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)). The experiment, as managed by Dan Karmon of JPL, was successful.\nThe HP 200LX can play video, and sound files using software from Stefan Peichl in relatively low quality. It is also capable of sound recording, though this is, again, in relatively low quality. There is no known compatible PCMCIA sound card for the HP 200LX. However, a Yamaha MU10 MIDI sound generator (a.o.) works through the serial port using Voyetra or GSPlay MIDI programs, and Terrence Vergauwen uses a PCMCIA parallel port card plus an OPL3LPT (Adlib compatible sounds card thru parallel port) for gaming.\nSoftware and hardware is available which will allow the HP 200LX to surf the Internet.\nThe serial numbers printed on the HP machines 100LX, 200LX, 1000CX and OmniGo 700LX have the following meaning:XXYWWNNNNNXX = the country of manufacturing (e.g., SG = Singapore etc)\nY = the year of manufacturing; last digit (e.g., 6 = 1996)\nWW = the week of the year of manufacturing\nNNNNN = the number of the specific unit manufactured in specified week","title":"Other notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"easter eggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(virtual)"}],"text":"There are many easter eggs built into the HP 200LX. The known ones are listed as follows:","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Hidden gallery","text":"This easter egg is on the HP 200LX in the built in game, \"Lair of Squid\". During the startup screen of the game, if the user types the word \"gallery\" (\"gallerie\" on a French palmtop; \"siegergalerie\" on a German palmtop; \"galeria\" on a Spanish palmtop) they are placed in a \"part\" of the maze that contains photographs of the primary software developers that worked on the HP 200LX. The user may exit from this gallery by exiting through the door at the end of the corridor. The software developers in the photographs are listed starting from left to right, then left to right and so on as follows:Andy Gryc\nPat Megowan\nEverett Kaser\nBill Johnson\nLynn Winter\nSusan Wechsler\nEric EvettThe last panel on the right of the corridor contains a thank you message:Very special thanks to all the people in HP and all the companies that made this palm-top possible. The Felix S/W teamThe photographs of the developers have been described as \"a-maze-ing\".[citation needed]","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"limerick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 1","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing ↵ Enter 14 times, to step through the various screens, the user comes to a screen of example text in the form of a limerick poem. The poem is as follows:There once was this thing from HP\nThat fit in your pocket, you see.\nA caveman would stare\nAnd pull out his hair\n\nAnd wonder, 'What could this thing be?'","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A funny thing happened on the way to the Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_funny_thing_happened_on_the_way_to_the_Forum"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 2","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ALT while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to a cryptic poem, relating to business issues faced by the software development team. The poem is as follows:Felis Concolor\nA funny thing happened on the way to the Forum\nWhen I encountered a group in search of a quorum.\nThey came from a city, The Burg On The Wire.\nIf I tried to describe it you'd call me a liar.\nThey wanted to charge me a really quite large fee\nFor the dubious pleasure of sharing their treasure.\n\"I'm a very Good man (Mark my words if you can),\"\n\"But, the Dickens, I say, I simply won't pay!\"\nAnd with poetry, then, I proceeded to bore 'em\n\nThen proceeded myself on my way to the Forum.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicken"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 3","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ⇧ Shift while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to an allegorical poem about the history and future of the HP LX palmtops. The poem is as follows (note that the project names for the HP 95LX, the HP 100LX and the HP 200LX are 'Jaguar', 'Cougar' and 'Felix' respectively, and that 'Felix' was the first LX to include Quicken):Nine lives has a Cat, and each Cat a name,\nAll of them different, none are the same.\nJaguar was first, it made quite a roar.\nCougar was next, oh, how it did soar.\nFelix is third, my heart it does quicken,\n\nWho knows what comes next, the clock is a tickin'.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"System Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Manager_(HP_LX)"}],"sub_title":"Hidden development aid in 'More Applications'","text":"This easter egg is in the built in System Manager of the HP 200LX. This 'easter egg' is probably more of a development tool than an easter egg, but, in any case, the user may display the function by first pressing the blue &... key to start 'More Applications'. The user may then hold down ALT while pressing F9 four times, followed by F10 once. As long as the ALT key is held down, the user will observe columns of data about System Manager compliant (.EXM) programs registered with the System Manager, along with other arcane program information.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Hidden hex calculator","text":"The HP 200LX includes an undocumented calculator application named HEXCALC, written by Andrew Gryc. It provides arithmetical and logical operations in binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal system. The utility can be added to the applications menu by an entry with the following fields:Name: He&x Calc\nPath: D:\\BIN\\HEXCALC.EXM","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"The HP Palmtop Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125005038/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/Articles/evolution.php"},{"link_name":"\"The First Real Palmtop\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"},{"link_name":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231121202746/https://lunduke.locals.com/upost/4897406/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"The HP 200LX: A Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20050609031158/http://www.crypticlife.net/attic/www/hp200lx/lx-rev.htm"},{"link_name":"Sy's HP 200LX review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070927172418/http://jrandomhacker.info/Sy's_hp200lx_review"},{"link_name":"Articles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/51000019.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Off-the-Shelf\" 200LX used by \"Shade Tree Engineer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/5100001a.htm"},{"link_name":"The Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array:","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/51/5100001b.htm"},{"link_name":"Results From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//enose.jpl.nasa.gov/publications/99-0780.pdf"},{"link_name":"HP 200LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=1088"}],"text":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. [1]\nLott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.\nLunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). \"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24. [2]\nThe HP 200LX: A Review by Rob Tillotson.\nSy's HP 200LX review\nArticles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment\n\"Off-the-Shelf\" 200LX used by \"Shade Tree Engineer\"\nThe Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array:\nResults From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment\nHP 200LX Old-Computers.com Museum","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Case closed","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hp200lx%2C_closed.jpg/220px-Hp200lx%2C_closed.jpg"},{"image_text":"Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/HP-200LX.jpg/220px-HP-200LX.jpg"},{"image_text":"HP OmniGo 100","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/HP_OmniGo_100_%281%29.jpg/220px-HP_OmniGo_100_%281%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"HP 110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110"},{"title":"HP 110 Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110_Plus"},{"title":"DIP Pocket PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_Pocket_PC"},{"title":"Atari PC Folio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_PC_Folio"},{"title":"Atari Portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Portfolio"},{"title":"Poqet PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC"},{"title":"Poqet PC Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC_Prime"},{"title":"Poqet PC Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC_Plus"},{"title":"ZEOS Pocket PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZEOS_Pocket_PC"},{"title":"Ben NanoNote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_NanoNote"},{"title":"Sub-notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-notebook"},{"title":"HP OmniBook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_OmniBook"},{"title":"Netbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook"},{"title":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"title":"Ultra-mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC"}]

[{"reference":"Barr, Christopher (1994-11-08). \"HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account\". PC Magazine. Vol. 13, no. 19. p. 56.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=r-5Zq-uW-N8C&pg=PA56","url_text":"\"HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich (1994). \"NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Thaddeus Computing. Archived from the original on 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-04-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/16/pt160007.htm","url_text":"\"NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170430222012/http://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/16/pt160007.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Development_Company,_L.P.","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234753/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Yvonne (1993-05-03). \"HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop\". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 18. p. 27. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QjsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA27","url_text":"\"HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"Marshall, Patrick (1993-08-23). \"Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features\". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 34. p. 96. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rjsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA96","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"\"Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?\". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Archived from the original on 2016-11-27. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/HP200.asp","url_text":"\"Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper_Online","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper Online"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161127020428/http://www.palmtoppaper.com/HP200.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 [March 1991]. pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display […] If your HP 95LX cannot display […] or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character […] if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"HP 95LX User's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Company","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161128202642/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_95LX","url_text":"HP 95LX"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850","url_text":"code page 850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC","url_text":"IBM PC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22","url_text":"MS-DOS 3.22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-page_switching","url_text":"code-page switching"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3","url_text":"1-2-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LICS_(character_set)","url_text":"LICS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set","url_text":"Lotus International Character Set"}]},{"reference":"HP 200LX User's Guide (PDF) (1 ed.). Singapore: Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited, Asia-Pacific Personal Computer Division. October 1996. pp. 21-6–21-7, 25-9–25-13, 26-14–26-18, C-1–C-4, D-1–D-10. 1216-90001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-29. Your palmtop supports code pages 850 and 437. The built-in applications (except 1-2-3) and System Manager-compliant applications […] use code page 850. 1-2-3 uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not included will not display on the palmtop. […] Any DOS application you load and run will by default use code page 437. If an application requires code page 850, you can select it using the Setup utility.","urls":[{"url":"https://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/bpia5259.pdf","url_text":"HP 200LX User's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Singapore_(Private)_Limited","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161130124719/http://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/bpia5259.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850","url_text":"code pages 850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437","url_text":"437"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3","url_text":"1-2-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Manager_(HP_LX)","url_text":"System Manager"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LICS_(character_set)","url_text":"LICS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set","url_text":"Lotus International Character Set"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich (1993). \"HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available\". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Thaddeus Computing. Retrieved 2015-08-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/13/pt13000b.htm","url_text":"\"HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper_Online","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper Online"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing"}]},{"reference":"Schmuhl, Edward H.; Sherman, Allan P.; Waisnor, Jon D. (June 1996). \"HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product\" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 47 (3): 64–69.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1996-06.pdf","url_text":"\"HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product\""}]},{"reference":"200LX 어플 자료실 (in Korean). 2008-11-17. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://oilman.new21.net/zero/zboard.php?id=LXAP&page=3&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=1234","url_text":"200LX 어플 자료실"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231163628/http://oilman.new21.net/zero/zboard.php?id=LXAP&page=3&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=1234","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Other Models\". The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/therest.htm","url_text":"\"The Other Models\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231163912/http://www.hpmuseum.org/therest.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Auw, Jimmy (2012-06-19). \"Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX\". Jimmy's Junkyard.","urls":[{"url":"https://jimmyauw.com/2012/06/19/restoring-vintage-gear-hp-palmtop-200lx/","url_text":"\"Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX\""}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich. \"HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus\". HP Palmtop Paper Online.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/24/pt240021.htm","url_text":"\"HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus\""}]},{"reference":"Marshall, Patrick (1991-12-16). Nash, Siobhan; Rupley, Sebastian (eds.). \"Computing in the palm of you hand\". InfoWorld. Vol. 13, no. 50. pp. 69–81. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA72","url_text":"\"Computing in the palm of you hand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). \"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YfkUKcyI7KIC&pg=PT231","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Hal. \"User to User: The HP OmniGo 100\". HP Palmtop Paper Online.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/24/pt24001e.htm","url_text":"\"User to User: The HP OmniGo 100\""}]},{"reference":"Tamiya, Maya (2000-05-04). \"Beyond free software in Japan\". LWN.net. Retrieved 2021-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://lwn.net/2000/features/ohpa-ost/","url_text":"\"Beyond free software in Japan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LWN.net","url_text":"LWN.net"}]},{"reference":"ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了 [First prototype of the Morphy One open-source mobile terminal showcased] (in Japanese). Mynavi News. 2001-05-07. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2013-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305224210/http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","url_text":"ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了"},{"url":"http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く [Morphy One cancelled? Developers speak out]. ASCII.jp (in Japanese). 2002-06-28. Retrieved 2013-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://ascii.jp/elem/000/000/331/331887/","url_text":"モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_(magazine)","url_text":"ASCII.jp"}]},{"reference":"\"Minix for the HP200LX\". Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2005-03-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060828125731/http://minix.technoir.org/","url_text":"\"Minix for the HP200LX\""},{"url":"http://minix.technoir.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc.","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"\"The First Real Palmtop\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). \"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)

Major general (United States)

["1 Statutory limits","2 Promotion, appointment, and tour length","3 Retirement","4 History","4.1 U.S. Army","4.2 U.S. Marine Corps","4.3 U.S. Air Force","4.4 U.S Space Force","5 See also","6 References","7 Explanatory notes","8 External links"]

Military rank of the United States Major GeneralTwo-star insignia of the rank of major general. Style and method of wear may vary between different uniforms and different service branches. Shoulder boardsCountry United StatesService branchArmyMarine CorpsAir ForceSpace ForceAbbreviationMG (Army)MajGen (Marine Corps)Maj Gen (Air Force, Space Force)RankTwo-starNATO rank codeOF-7Non-NATO rankO-8Next higher rankLieutenant generalNext lower rankBrigadier generalEquivalent ranksRear admiral in the other uniformed services which use naval ranks In the United States Armed Forces, a major general is a two-star general officer in the United States Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Space Force. A major general ranks above a brigadier general and below a lieutenant general. The pay grade of major general is O-8. It is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other United States uniformed services which use naval ranks. It is abbreviated as MG in the Army, MajGen in the Marine Corps, and Maj Gen in the Air Force and Space Force. Major general is the highest permanent peacetime rank that can be conferred upon a commissioned officer in the uniformed services (except when General of the Army & General of the Air Force have been authorized and granted by Congress) as higher ranks are technically temporary and linked to specific positions, although virtually all officers promoted to those ranks are approved to retire at their highest earned rank. A major general typically commands division-sized units of 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers. The Civil Air Patrol also uses the rank of major general, which is its highest rank and is held only by its national commander. Statutory limits The United States Code explicitly limits the total number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army, 62 for the Marine Corps, and 198 for the Air Force. Some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. For example, the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Army is a major general in the Army; the same rank is held by the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Air Force; the Army's Chief of Engineers is also appointed as a major general and thereafter promoted to lieutenant general. The United States Code also limits the total number of general officers that may be on the Reserve Active Status List (RASL) in the Reserve Component, which is defined in the case of general officers as the Army National Guard, Army Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, Air National Guard, and Air Force Reserve. U.S. Major General Rank flags Rank flag of a major general in the United States Army. The flag of a major general of the Army Medical Department has a maroon background; the flag of a chaplain (major general) has a purple background. Flag of a United States Marine Corps major general. Flag of a United States Air Force major general. Flag of a United States Space Force major general. Promotion, appointment, and tour length To be promoted to the permanent grade of major general, officers who are eligible for promotion to this rank are screened by an in-service promotion board composed of other general officers from their branch of service. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank. This list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the president, through the secretary of defense for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the secretary of defense, the service secretary, and if applicable, the service's chief of staff or commandant. Retirement Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers (called flag officers in the Navy and Coast Guard). All major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise, all general officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. History U.S. Army Lafayette in a uniform of a major general of the Continental Army. The Continental Army was established on June 15, 1775, when the Continental Congress commissioned George Washington as a general and placed him in command of the Army of Observation then besieging Boston. The rank of major general was first established two days later on June 17, 1775, when two major generals were commissioned by Congress. Two more major generals were appointed on June 19. Following the disbanding of the Continental Army at the end of 1783 only one major general, Henry Knox, remained in service until his resignation in June 1784. The rank was revived on March 4, 1791, when Arthur St. Clair was appointed as major general in command of the U.S. Army. St. Clair was succeeded by Major General Anthony Wayne who commanded the Army (then named the Legion of the United States) until his death on December 15, 1796. The rank was revived on July 19, 1798, when Alexander Hamilton and Charles C. Pinckney were commissioned as major generals during the Quasi War with France. The expanded Army was demobilized on June 15, 1800, when it was reduced to only four regiments of infantry and two of artillery commanded by a brigadier general. The rank of major general was abolished in the U.S. Army by the Act of March 16, 1802, and restored by the Act of January 11, 1812, as preparations were being made for the War of 1812. Major general has been a rank in the U.S. Army ever since. Until the American Civil War, major general was the highest rank that could be attained by an officer in the U.S. Army, though Winfield Scott had been given the brevet rank of lieutenant general in 1855. This was a consequence of the fact that at his death George Washington was officially listed as holding the rank of lieutenant general, rather than full general, and it was regarded as improper for an officer to hold a rank equal to or superior to Washington's. To address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976. The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to wear three stars according to General Order No. 6 of March 13, 1861. When Ulysses S. Grant was appointed lieutenant general on March 9, 1864, and took command of the Union forces, he used the three-star insignia formerly assigned to that position. U.S. Marine Corps There was no major general in the U.S. Marine Corps until Commandant Charles Heywood was specially promoted by Act of Congress in July 1902. From his retirement on October 3, 1903, brigadier general was again the highest rank in the Marine Corps until May 21, 1908, when the rank held by the commandant was raised to major general. It remained the highest rank in the Marine Corps until January 20, 1942, when the rank held by the commandant was raised to lieutenant general. U.S. Air Force Given that the United States Air Force evolved from its predecessors, the United States Army Air Service, the United States Army Air Corps (1926–1941), and the United States Army Air Forces (1941–1947), the rank of major general in the Air Force coincides with its establishment as an independent service in 1947. U.S Space Force The United States Space Force became independent of the U.S. Air Force on 20 December 2019 and has a similar rank structure which includes the rank of major general. See also List of major generals in the United States Regular Army before July 1, 1920 List of United States military leaders by rank United States Air Force officer rank insignia United States Army officer rank insignia United States Marine Corps officer rank insignia United States Navy officer rank insignia References ^ 10 USC § 526. Authorized strength: general and flag officers on active duty ^ 10 USC 3037 Judge Advocate General, Assistant Judge Advocate General, and general officers of Judge Advocate General's Corps: appointment; duties ^ 10 USC 8037 Judge Advocate General, Deputy Judge Advocate General: appointment; duties ^ 10 USC 3036 Chiefs of branches: appointment; duties ^ 10 USC 611 Convening of selection boards ^ 10 USC 616 Recommendations for promotion by selection boards ^ 10 USC 618 Action on reports of selection boards ^ 10 USC 624 Promotions: how made ^ 10 USC 636 Archived 2009-02-24 at the Wayback Machine Retirement for years of service: regular officers in grades above brigadier general and rear admiral (lower half) ^ 10 USC 1253 Archived 2015-11-01 at the Wayback Machine Age 64: regular commissioned officers in general and flag officer grades; exception ^ "Act of March 16, 1802, ch. 9, 2 Stat. 132". Archived from the original on 2017-06-27. Retrieved 2018-09-14. ^ "Act of January 11, 1812, ch. 14, 2 Stat. 671". Archived from the original on 2017-06-27. Retrieved 2018-09-14. ^ Foote, p 918 ^ General Order No. 6 Archived 2008-02-15 at the Wayback Machine Regulations for the Uniform and Dress of the Army of the United States 1861 ^ Boatner, p 353 Explanatory notes ^ The rank of major general originally began as sergeant major general and was junior to the rank of lieutenant general. Over time, "sergeant" was dropped and by the late 17th/early 18th century it had been shortened to major general. As a result, the rank of lieutenant general continues to be senior to major general, even though the rank of major has always been senior to the rank of lieutenant. External links Media related to Generals of the United States at Wikimedia Commons vteUnited States uniformed services commissioned officer and officer candidate ranks Pay grade / branch of service Officercandidate O-1 O-2 O-3 O-4 O-5 O-6 O-7 O-8 O-9 O-10 Wartimegrade Special grade Insignia Army CDT / OC 2LT 1LT CPT MAJ LTC COL BG MG LTG GEN GA GAS Marine Corps Midn / Cand 2ndLt 1stLt Capt Maj LtCol Col BGen MajGen LtGen Gen Navy MIDN / OC ENS LTJG LT LCDR CDR CAPT RDML RADM VADM ADM FADM Air Force Cdt / OT 2nd Lt 1st Lt Capt Maj Lt Col Col Brig Gen Maj Gen Lt Gen Gen GAF Space Force Cdt / OT 2nd Lt 1st Lt Capt Maj Lt Col Col Brig Gen Maj Gen Lt Gen Gen Coast Guard CDT / OC ENS LTJG LT LCDR CDR CAPT RDML RADM VADM ADM PHS Corps OC ENS LTJG LT LCDR CDR CAPT RDML RADM VADM ADM NOAA Corps OC ENS LTJG LT LCDR CDR CAPT RDML RADM VADM No universal insignia for officer candidate rank No official insignia and not currently listed by the Army as an obtainable rank. John J. Pershing's GAS insignia: (collar) (epaulettes) These ranks are reserved for wartime use only, and are still listed as ranks within their respective services Grade is authorized by the U.S. Code for use but has not been created Grade has never been created or authorized

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The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army, 62 for the Marine Corps, and 198 for the Air Force.[1] Some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. For example, the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Army[2] is a major general in the Army; the same rank is held by the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Air Force;[3] the Army's Chief of Engineers[4] is also appointed as a major general and thereafter promoted to lieutenant general.The United States Code also limits the total number of general officers that may be on the Reserve Active Status List (RASL) in the Reserve Component, which is defined in the case of general officers as the Army National Guard, Army Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, Air National Guard, and Air Force Reserve.U.S. Major General Rank flags\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRank flag of a major general in the United States Army. The flag of a major general of the Army Medical Department has a maroon background; the flag of a chaplain (major general) has a purple background.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFlag of a United States Marine Corps major general.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFlag of a United States Air Force major general.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFlag of a United States Space Force major general.","title":"Statutory limits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"secretary of defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"To be promoted to the permanent grade of major general, officers who are eligible for promotion to this rank are screened by an in-service promotion board composed of other general officers from their branch of service.[5] This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank.[6] This list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the president, through the secretary of defense for consideration.[7] The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the secretary of defense, the service secretary, and if applicable, the service's chief of staff or commandant.[8]","title":"Promotion, appointment, and tour length"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"general officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_officer"},{"link_name":"flag officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_officer"},{"link_name":"Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_or_out"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers (called flag officers in the Navy and Coast Guard). All major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer.[9] Otherwise, all general officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday.[10]","title":"Retirement"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marquis_de_Lafayette_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lafayette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_marquis_de_Lafayette"},{"link_name":"Continental Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Army"},{"link_name":"Continental Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Congress"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"Army of Observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Observation"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Henry Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Knox"},{"link_name":"Arthur St. Clair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair"},{"link_name":"Legion of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Charles C. Pinckney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_C._Pinckney"},{"link_name":"Quasi War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi_War"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Winfield Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Scott"},{"link_name":"brevet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brevet_(military)"},{"link_name":"lieutenant general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"full general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"General of the Armies of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_of_the_Armies"},{"link_name":"Commanding the Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Ulysses S. Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Army","text":"Lafayette in a uniform of a major general of the Continental Army.The Continental Army was established on June 15, 1775, when the Continental Congress commissioned George Washington as a general and placed him in command of the Army of Observation then besieging Boston. The rank of major general was first established two days later on June 17, 1775, when two major generals were commissioned by Congress. Two more major generals were appointed on June 19.Following the disbanding of the Continental Army at the end of 1783 only one major general, Henry Knox, remained in service until his resignation in June 1784. The rank was revived on March 4, 1791, when Arthur St. Clair was appointed as major general in command of the U.S. Army. St. Clair was succeeded by Major General Anthony Wayne who commanded the Army (then named the Legion of the United States) until his death on December 15, 1796. The rank was revived on July 19, 1798, when Alexander Hamilton and Charles C. Pinckney were commissioned as major generals during the Quasi War with France. The expanded Army was demobilized on June 15, 1800, when it was reduced to only four regiments of infantry and two of artillery commanded by a brigadier general.The rank of major general was abolished in the U.S. Army by the Act of March 16, 1802,[11] and restored by the Act of January 11, 1812,[12] as preparations were being made for the War of 1812. Major general has been a rank in the U.S. Army ever since.Until the American Civil War, major general was the highest rank that could be attained by an officer in the U.S. Army, though Winfield Scott had been given the brevet rank of lieutenant general[13] in 1855. This was a consequence of the fact that at his death George Washington was officially listed as holding the rank of lieutenant general, rather than full general, and it was regarded as improper for an officer to hold a rank equal to or superior to Washington's. To address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976.The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to wear three stars according to General Order No. 6 of March 13, 1861.[14] When Ulysses S. Grant was appointed lieutenant general on March 9, 1864,[15] and took command of the Union forces, he used the three-star insignia formerly assigned to that position.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"Commandant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandant_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"Charles Heywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Heywood"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Marine Corps","text":"There was no major general in the U.S. Marine Corps until Commandant Charles Heywood was specially promoted by Act of Congress in July 1902. From his retirement on October 3, 1903, brigadier general was again the highest rank in the Marine Corps until May 21, 1908, when the rank held by the commandant was raised to major general. It remained the highest rank in the Marine Corps until January 20, 1942, when the rank held by the commandant was raised to lieutenant general.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Service"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Air Force","text":"Given that the United States Air Force evolved from its predecessors, the United States Army Air Service, the United States Army Air Corps (1926–1941), and the United States Army Air Forces (1941–1947), the rank of major general in the Air Force coincides with its establishment as an independent service in 1947.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"}],"sub_title":"U.S Space Force","text":"The United States Space Force became independent of the U.S. Air Force on 20 December 2019 and has a similar rank structure which includes the rank of major general.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Note01_1-0"},{"link_name":"sergeant major general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant_Major_General"},{"link_name":"lieutenant general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_(United_States)"}],"text":"^ The rank of major general originally began as sergeant major general and was junior to the rank of lieutenant general. Over time, \"sergeant\" was dropped and by the late 17th/early 18th century it had been shortened to major general. As a result, the rank of lieutenant general continues to be senior to major general, even though the rank of major has always been senior to the rank of lieutenant.","title":"Explanatory notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Lafayette in a uniform of a major general of the Continental Army.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marquis_de_Lafayette_2.jpg/220px-Marquis_de_Lafayette_2.jpg"}]

[{"title":"List of major generals in the United States Regular Army before July 1, 1920","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_major_generals_in_the_United_States_Regular_Army_before_July_1,_1920"},{"title":"List of United States military leaders by rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_leaders_by_rank"},{"title":"United States Air Force officer rank insignia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_officer_rank_insignia"},{"title":"United States Army officer rank insignia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_officer_rank_insignia"},{"title":"United States Marine Corps officer rank insignia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_officer_rank_insignia"},{"title":"United States Navy officer rank insignia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy_officer_rank_insignia"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Farish_(professor)

William Farish (chemist)

["1 Biography","2 Work","2.1 Isometric projection","3 Works","4 References"]

British chemist Portrait of William Farish, 1815. William Farish (1759–1837) was a British scientist who was a professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy at the University of Cambridge, known for the development of the method of isometric projection and development of the first written university examination. Biography Farish was probably born around mid-April, as he was baptized on 21 April 1759. Farish's father was the Reverend James Farish (1714–1783), vicar of Stanwix near Carlisle. Farish himself was educated at Carlisle Grammar School, entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, as a sizar in 1774, and graduated Senior Wrangler and first in Smith's Prize in 1778. As tutor in 1792, Farish developed the concept of grading students' work quantitatively. He was Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge from 1794 to 1813, lecturing on chemistry's practical application. Farish's lectures as professor of chemistry, which were oriented towards natural philosophy while the professor of natural and experimental philosophy F. J. H. Wollaston (1762–1828) gave very chemically oriented lectures. From 1813 to 1837 Farish was Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy. In 1819 Professor Farish became the first president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Farish was also Vicar of St Giles' and St Peter from 1800 to 1837. He extensively remodelled St Giles' Church, Cambridge, increasing the accommodation from 100 to 600 seats. Work At Cambridge University, according to Hilkens (1967), Farish was "the first man to teach the construction of machines as a subject in its own right instead of merely using mechanisms as examples to illustrate the principles of theoretical physics or applied mathematics." He further became "famous for his work in applying chemistry and mechanical science to arts and manufactures". Isometric projection Optimal-grinding engine model (1822), drawn in 30° isometric. In his lectures on the mechanical principles of machinery used in manufacturing industries, Farish often used models to illustrated particular principles. This models were often especially assembled for these lectures and disassembled for storage afterwards. In order to explain how these models were to be assembled he had developed a drawing technique, which he called "Isometrical Perspective". Although the concept of an isometric had existed in a rough way for centuries, William Farish is generally regarded as the first to provide rules for isometric drawing. In the 1822 paper "On Isometrical Perspective" Farish recognized the "need for accurate technical working drawings free of optical distortion. This would lead him to formulate isometry. Isometry means "equal measures" because the same scale is used for height, width, and depth". From the middle of the 19th century, according to Jan Krikke (2006) isometry became an "invaluable tool for engineers, and soon thereafter axonometry and isometry were incorporated in the curriculum of architectural training courses in Europe and the U.S. The popular acceptance of axonometry came in the 1920s, when modernist architects from the Bauhaus and De Stijl embraced it". De Stijl architects like Theo van Doesburg used "axonometry for their architectural designs, which caused a sensation when exhibited in Paris in 1923". Works 1796. A plan of a course of lectures on arts and manufactures : more particularly such as relate to chemistry. 1822. "On Isometrical Perspective". In: Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1 1849. Professor Farish on Isometrical Drawing. J.P. Pirsson. References ^ Patrick Maynard (2005). Drawing distinctions: the varieties of graphic expression. p.25. ^ K Hoskin (1979), The examination, disciplinary power and rational schooling ^ C Stray (2001), The Shift from Oral to Written Examination: Cambridge and Oxford 1700–1900 ^ GF Madaus, LM O'Dwyer (1999), Short History of Performance Assessment: Lessons Learned. ^ "Farish, William (FRS774W)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge. ^ Postman, Neil (1992), Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology, New York City: Alfred A. Knopf, p. 13 ^ Anita McConnell, ‘Farish, William (1759–1837)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, accessed 24 Oct 2008] ^ R. T. Gunter (1937). Early Science in Cambridge. Oxford, 1937. Pages 230-2 ^ Thomas John Norman Hilken (1967). Cambridge University: 1783-1965. p.38. ^ Rollo Appleyard (1933). Charles Parsons: his life and work. Constable & Co., ltd. p.19. ^ William Farish (1822) "On Isometrical Perspective". In: Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. 1 (1822). ^ Snezana Lawrence (2003). "History of Descriptive Geometry in England" In: Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003. ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003. ^ Barclay G. Jones (1986). Protecting historic architecture and museum collections from natural disasters. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-409-90035-4. p.243. ^ a b c d J. Krikke (1996). "A Chinese perspective for cyberspace?". In: International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter, 9, Summer 1996. Academic offices Preceded byIsaac Pennington Professor of Chemistry (1702) 1794–1813 Succeeded bySmithson Tennant Preceded byFrancis Wollaston Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy 1813–1837 Succeeded byRobert Willis vteHolders of the 1702 Chair of Chemistry (University of Cambridge)18th century Giovanni Francisco Vigani (1703–1713) John Waller (1713–1718) John Mickleburgh (1718–1756) John Hadley (1756–1764) Richard Watson (1764–1771) Isaac Pennington (1773–1793) William Farish (1794–1813) 19th century Smithson Tennant (1813–1815) James Cumming (1815–1861) George Downing Liveing (1861–1908) 20th century William Jackson Pope (1908–1939) Alexander Robertus Todd (1944–1971) Ralph Alexander Raphael (1972–1988) Alan Rushton Battersby (1988–1992) Steven V. Ley (1992–2019) 21st century Matthew J. Gaunt (2019–present) Authority control databases International FAST VIAF WorldCat National United States Other SNAC

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Farish.jpg"},{"link_name":"professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor"},{"link_name":"Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"Natural Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"isometric projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_projection"},{"link_name":"examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_(assessment)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Portrait of William Farish, 1815.William Farish (1759–1837) was a British scientist who was a professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy at the University of Cambridge, known for the development of the method of isometric projection and development of the first written university examination.[1][2][3][4]","title":"William Farish (chemist)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_School"},{"link_name":"Magdalene College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdalene_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"sizar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizar"},{"link_name":"Senior Wrangler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_Wrangler"},{"link_name":"Smith's Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"tutor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor"},{"link_name":"concept","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"grading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_in_education"},{"link_name":"students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Professor of Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor_of_Chemistry_(Cambridge_University)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonian_Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Cambridge Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"St Giles'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles%27_Church,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"St Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Church,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"St Giles' Church, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles%27_Church,_Cambridge"}],"text":"Farish was probably born around mid-April, as he was baptized on 21 April 1759. \nFarish's father was the Reverend James Farish (1714–1783), vicar of Stanwix near Carlisle. Farish himself was educated at Carlisle Grammar School, entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, as a sizar in 1774, and graduated Senior Wrangler and first in Smith's Prize in 1778.[5] As tutor in 1792, Farish developed the concept of grading students' work quantitatively.[6]He was Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge from 1794 to 1813, lecturing on chemistry's practical application.[7] Farish's lectures as professor of chemistry, which were oriented towards natural philosophy while the professor of natural and experimental philosophy F. J. H. Wollaston (1762–1828) gave very chemically oriented lectures.[8] From 1813 to 1837 Farish was Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy. In 1819 Professor Farish became the first president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.Farish was also Vicar of St Giles' and St Peter from 1800 to 1837. He extensively remodelled St Giles' Church, Cambridge, increasing the accommodation from 100 to 600 seats.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cambridge University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"At Cambridge University, according to Hilkens (1967), Farish was \"the first man to teach the construction of machines as a subject in its own right instead of merely using mechanisms as examples to illustrate the principles of theoretical physics or applied mathematics.\"[9] He further became \"famous for his work in applying chemistry and mechanical science to arts and manufactures\".[10]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical-grinding_engine_model.jpg"},{"link_name":"isometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_projection"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_model"},{"link_name":"drawing technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"isometric drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_drawing"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kri96-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kri96-14"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"De Stijl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Stijl"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kri96-14"},{"link_name":"Theo van Doesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_van_Doesburg"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kri96-14"}],"sub_title":"Isometric projection","text":"Optimal-grinding engine model (1822), drawn in 30° isometric.[11]In his lectures on the mechanical principles of machinery used in manufacturing industries, Farish often used models to illustrated particular principles. This models were often especially assembled for these lectures and disassembled for storage afterwards. In order to explain how these models were to be assembled he had developed a drawing technique, which he called \"Isometrical Perspective\".[12]Although the concept of an isometric had existed in a rough way for centuries, William Farish is generally regarded as the first to provide rules for isometric drawing.[13] In the 1822 paper \"On Isometrical Perspective\" Farish recognized the \"need for accurate technical working drawings free of optical distortion. This would lead him to formulate isometry. Isometry means \"equal measures\" because the same scale is used for height, width, and depth\".[14]From the middle of the 19th century, according to Jan Krikke (2006)[14] isometry became an \"invaluable tool for engineers, and soon thereafter axonometry and isometry were incorporated in the curriculum of architectural training courses in Europe and the U.S. The popular acceptance of axonometry came in the 1920s, when modernist architects from the Bauhaus and De Stijl embraced it\".[14] De Stijl architects like Theo van Doesburg used \"axonometry for their architectural designs, which caused a sensation when exhibited in Paris in 1923\".[14]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"1796. A plan of a course of lectures on arts and manufactures : more particularly such as relate to chemistry.\n1822. \"On Isometrical Perspective\". In: Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1\n1849. Professor Farish on Isometrical Drawing. J.P. Pirsson.","title":"Works"}]

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[{"reference":"K Hoskin (1979), The examination, disciplinary power and rational schooling","urls":[]},{"reference":"C Stray (2001), The Shift from Oral to Written Examination: Cambridge and Oxford 1700–1900","urls":[]},{"reference":"GF Madaus, LM O'Dwyer (1999), Short History of Performance Assessment: Lessons Learned.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Farish, William (FRS774W)\". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.","urls":[{"url":"http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=FRS774W&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50","url_text":"\"Farish, William (FRS774W)\""}]},{"reference":"Postman, Neil (1992), Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology, New York City: Alfred A. Knopf, p. 13","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postman","url_text":"Postman, Neil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technopoly:_The_Surrender_of_Culture_to_Technology","url_text":"Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York City"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf","url_text":"Alfred A. Knopf"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_government

Government of China

["1 Relationship with the Chinese Communist Party","2 Constitution","3 National People's Congress","4 Leadership","4.1 National leadership","4.2 Paramount leader","4.3 President","4.4 State Council","4.5 Central Military Commission","4.6 National Supervisory Commission","5 Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate","6 Provincial and local government","7 Civil service","8 Policy development","9 State capacity","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","12.1 Citations","12.2 Sources","13 External links"]

This article is about the government of the People's Republic of China. For the government of Taiwan, see Government of the Republic of China. For the governments in Chinese history, see Government of China (disambiguation). For the current State Council, see Li Qiang Government. Government of thePeople's Republic of China中华人民共和国政府National Emblem of the People's Republic of ChinaFormation1 October 1949; 74 years ago (1949-10-01)LegislatureNational People's CongressWebsiteenglish.www.gov.cn 中国政府网.政务Communist PartyPartyChinese Communist PartyGeneral SecretaryXi JinpingGovernmentExecutiveState Council(Li Qiang Government)Paramount leaderXi JinpingPresidentXi JinpingPremierLi QiangCongress ChairmanZhao LejiConference ChairmanWang HuningSupervisory DirectorLiu JinguoChief JusticeZhang JunProcurator GeneralYing YongVice PresidentHan ZhengMilitaryPeople's Liberation ArmyPeople's Armed PoliceMilitiaMilitary ChairmanXi JinpingGovernment of the People's Republic of ChinaTraditional Chinese中華人民共和國政府Simplified Chinese中华人民共和国政府TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinZhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ZhèngfǔGovernment of ChinaTraditional Chinese中國政府Simplified Chinese中国政府TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinZhōngguó Zhèngfǔ Politics of China Leadership Leadership generations Succession of power Hu–Wen Administration (2002–2012) Xi–Li Administration (2012–2017) Xi Administration (since 2017) 4th Leadership Core: Xi Jinping 20th Party Politburo: Xi Jinping 14th State Council: Li Qiang Current state leaders Current provincial leaders National leaders Orders of precedence Paramount leader: Xi Jinping First lady: Peng Liyuan Communist Party leader: Xi Jinping State representative: Xi Jinping Head of government: Li Qiang Congress Chairman: Zhao Leji Conference Chairman: Wang Huning Commander-in-chief: Xi Jinping Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members Related systems Unified power Democratic centralism Collective leadership Organization Department Elections Civil service ConstitutionLaw Constitution Previous constitutions 195419751978 "People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1) Democratic centralism (Article 3) Constitutional oath of office (Article 27) Protection of human rights (Article 33) Freedom of religion (Article 36) Highest state organ of power (Article 57) Chinese legal system Civil law tradition Socialist law tradition Laws Legislation Law List of statutes General Principles of the Civil Law (to 2020) Civil Code (From 2021) Marriage Law Labour law Labour Law Labour Contract Law Property law Property Law Intellectual property law Patent law Administrative law Administrative Procedure Law Criminal law Capital punishment Capital offences Death sentence with reprieve Communist Party History Principal leaders Constitution & ideology Admission Oath (Article 6) Socialism with Chinese characteristics Communism Marxism–Leninism Mao Zedong Thought Deng Xiaoping Theory Primary stage of socialism Four Cardinal Principles Three Represents Scientific Outlook on Development Harmonious Socialist Society Xi Jinping Thought Chinese Dream Four Comprehensives Two Establishes and Two Safeguards Democracy Organization National Party Congress (20th) Central Committee (20th) General Secretary (list) Xi Jinping Central Politburo (20th) Standing Committee (20th) Central Secretariat (20th) Central Military Commission Chairman: Xi Jinping Vice Chairmen: Zhang Youxia, He Weidong National Security Commission Chairman: Xi Jinping Vice-Chairman: Li Qiang, Zhao Leji, Cai Qi Office Chief: Cai Qi Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Directors: Li Qiang, Wang Huning, Cai Qi Secretary-General: Wang Huning Financial & Economic Affairs Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Director: Li Qiang Office Chief: He Lifeng General Office Director: Cai Qi Office of the General Secretary Chief: Cai Qi Central Guard Bureau Central Guard Unit Office of the Central Secrecy Commission Organization Department Head: Li Ganjie Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (20th) Standing Committee (20th) Secretary: Li Xi Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission Secretary: Zhang Shengmin Central Leading Group for Inspection Work Leader: Li Xi Provincial committee Standing committee Secretary Deputy secretaries Party group National People's Congress (14th) Elections Standing Committee (14th) Council of Chairpersons Chairman: Zhao Leji Vice-Chairpersons Top-ranked: Li Hongzhong Secretary-General: Liu Qi Special Committees Ethnic Affairs Constitution and Law Supervisory and Judicial Affairs Financial and Economic Affairs Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Foreign Affairs Overseas Chinese Affairs Environment Protection and Resources Conservation Agriculture and Rural Affairs Social Development Affairs Presidium State representative President (list): Xi Jinping Presidential Office Chief: Cai Qi Vice President: Han Zheng Executive organ State Council (Central People's Government) Li Qiang Cabinet Premier (list): Li Qiang Vice-Premiers (list) Ding XuexiangHe LifengZhang GuoqingLiu Guozhong State Councilors Wang XiaohongWu ZhenglongShen Yiqin Secretary-General: Wu Zhenglong Cabinet-level departments National Development & Reform Commission Central bank National Audit Office General Office Secretary-General Deputy Secretaries-General State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission most Central Enterprises Military organ Central Military Commission (CMC) Chairman (supreme commander): Xi Jinping Vice Chairmen: Zhang YouxiaHe Weidong Members: Liu ZhenliMiao HuaZhang Shengmin Departments: General Office Director: Zhong Shaojun Joint Staff Dept. Chief: Liu Zhenli Political Work Dept. Director: Miao Hua Logistic Support Dept. Director: Zhang Lin Equipment Development Dept. Director: Xu Xueqiang Training and Administration Dept. Director: Wang Peng National Defense Mobilization Dept. Director: Liu Faqing Discipline Inspection Commission Secretary: Zhang Shengmin Politics and Legal Affairs Commission Science and Technology Commission Strategic Planning Office Reform & Organizational Structure Office Int'l Military Cooperation Office Audit Office Offices Administration Agency National armed forces: People's Liberation Army Theater commands People's Armed Police China Coast Guard Militia State Council National Defense Mobilization Commission Chairman: Li Qiang Ministry of National Defense Minister: Dong Jun Ministry of Veterans Affairs State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense Military history Armed conflicts Military modernization Military reform since 2015 CMC Leading Group for Military Reform Leader: Xi Jinping Supervisory organ National Supervisory Commission Director: Liu Jinguo Corruption in China Anti-corruption campaign since 2012 Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong) Commission Against Corruption (Macau) Judicial organs Supreme People's Court President: Zhang Jun People's Courts Judicial Police Supreme People's Procuratorate Prosecutor General: Ying Yong People's Procuratorates Judicial Police Judiciary of Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal Department of Justice Prosecutions Division Law enforcement in Hong Kong Security Bureau Regular Disciplined Services Hong Kong Police Force Judiciary of Macau Court of Final Appeal Public Prosecutions Office Secretariat for Security Macau Security Force Unitary Police Services  Public Security Police Judiciary Police  United front Political Consultative Conference National Committee Chairman: Wang Huning Vice-Chairpersons Top-ranked: Shi Taifeng Secretary-General: Wang Dongfeng Political parties: CCP (ruling) United Front Work Department Head: Shi Taifeng RCCKCDLCNDCACAPDCPWDPCZGPJSTDSL Historical parties: KMTCDSPYCP Federation of Industry and Commerce People's organizations Law enforcement CCP Central Politics and Law Commission Secretary: Chen Wenqing Ministry of Public Security Minister: Wang Xiaohong Public Security Organs People's Police State Immigration Administration Local public security bureaus Ministry of State Security Minister: Chen Yixin State Security Organs People's Police Ministry of Justice Minister: He Rong Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police Bureau of Prison Administration  Office for Safeguarding National Security Urban Management (chengguan) Propaganda Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture Leader: Cai Qi Deputy Leaders: Li Shulei, Shen Yiqin Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization Director: Cai Qi Deputy Director: Li Shulei Central Propaganda Department Head: Li Shulei National Press and Publication Administration China Film Administration State Council Information Office China Daily Ministry of Culture and Tourism National Radio and Television Administration China Media Group China Central Television China Global Television Network China National Radio China Radio International Xinhua News Agency Reference News China News Service People's Daily Global Times China Today Censorship in China Radio jamming Overseas censorship of Chinese issues Media of China Internal media Publishing industry in China Internet in China Internet censorship Great Firewall Great Cannon Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission Director: Cai Qi Cyberspace Administration of China Director: Zhuang Rongwen Hong KongMacau Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Leader: Ding Xuexiang HK & Macau Affairs Office Director: Xia Baolong Hong Kong Liaison Office Macau Liaison Office One country, two systems Special administrative regions Hong Kong Basic Law Chief Executive: John Lee Ka-chiu Hong Kong SAR Government Politics of Hong Kong Pro-Beijing camp Pro-democracy camp Independence movement Mainland & HK CEPA Macao Basic Law Chief Executive: Ho Iat-seng Macau SAR Government Politics of Macau Mainland & Macau CEPA Cross-Strait relations Cross-Strait relations Chinese Civil War One China Political status of Taiwan Republic of China on Taiwan Taiwan Area "Taiwan Province", PRC Taiwan independence movement Anti-Secession Law Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement Chinese unification Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs Leader: Xi Jinping Deputy Leader: Wang Huning Taiwan Affairs Office Director: Song Tao Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits Foreign relations Central Foreign Affairs Commission Director: Xi Jinping Deputy Director: Li Qiang Secretary-General: Wang Yi Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister: Wang Yi Spokespersons Diplomatic missions Diplomatic missions of China / in China Foreign aid from China / to China International Development Cooperation Agency Ministry of Commerce Exim Bank of China China Development Bank Belt and Road Initiative Silk Road Fund Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank BRICS New Development Bank Ministry of National Defense International Military Cooperation Office NPC Foreign Affairs Committee CCP International Department State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs Overseas Chinese Affairs Office Chinese nationality law Chinese passports (Hong Kong; Macau) Visa requirements for Chinese citizens (Hong Kong, Macau) Visa policy of China (Hong Kong; Macau) National Immigration Administration Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence Panda diplomacy Beijing Consensus Community of Common Destiny China and the United Nations China and the World Trade Organization Shanghai Cooperation Organisation China–Africa relations China–Arab relations China–Caribbean relations China–European Union relations China–Latin America relations China–Pacific relations China–Russia relations China–United States relations Related topics Administrative divisions Hukou system Family planning Ethnic minorities China portal Other countries vte The government of the People's Republic of China is based on a system of people's congress within the parameters of a unitary communist state, in which the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) enacts its policies through people's congresses. This system is based on the principle of unified state power, in which the legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is constitutionally enshrined as "the highest state organ of power." As China's political system has no separation of powers, there is only one branch of government which is represented by the legislature. The CCP through the NPC enacts unified leadership, which requires that all state organs, from the Supreme People's Court to the President of the People's Republic of China, are elected by, answerable to, and have no separate powers than those granted to them by the NPC. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in all state bodies through a two-thirds majority in the NPC. The remaining seats are held by nominally independent delegates and eight minor political parties, which are non-oppositional and support the CCP. All government bodies and state-owned enterprises have internal CCP committees that lead the decision-making in these institutions. The NPC meets annually for about two weeks in March to review and approve major new policy directions, and in between those sessions, delegates its powers to the working legislature, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC). This organ adopts most national legislation, interprets the constitution and laws, and conducts constitutional reviews, and is headed by the chairman, one of China's top officials. The president represents China abroad, though since the 1990s, the presidency has always been held by the CCP general secretary. Elected separately by the NPC, the vice president has no power other than what the president bestowed on them but assists the president. The head of the State Council, the NPC's executive organ, is the premier. The CCP general secretary is China's leading official since the CCP is tasked with formulating and setting national policy which the state, after being adopted by the NPC or relevant state organ, is responsible for implementing. The State Council, also referred to as the Central People's Government, consists of, besides the Premier, a variable number of vice premiers, five state councilors (protocol equal of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), the secretary-general, and 26 ministers and other cabinet-level department heads. It consists of ministries and agencies with specific portfolios. The State Council presents most initiatives to the NPCSC for consideration after previous endorsement by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee. China's judicial organs are political organs that perform prosecutorial and court functions. Because of their political nature, China does not have judicial independence. China's courts are supervised by the Supreme People's Court (SPC), which answers to the NPC. The Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP) is responsible for prosecutions and supervises procuracies at the provincial, prefecture, and county levels. At the same administrative ranking as the SPC and SPP, the National Supervisory Commission (NSC) was established in 2018 to investigate corruption within the CCP and state organs. All courts and their personnel are subject to the effective control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Relationship with the Chinese Communist Party The CCP constitution states that the party is the highest force for political leadership. The party's institutions overlap with government institutions and the party has authority over government decisions at both the local and central levels.: 36  Senior government officials throughout the country are appointed by the CCP, and are mostly CCP members. All government departments, state-owned enterprises and public institutes include CCP committees, from the village level to the national level. The CCP committees in government bodies supervise and lead the bodies, with the State Council legally required to implement CCP policies. As outlined by the CCP constitution: "Government, the military, society and schools, north, south, east and west – the party leads them all." Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, there were proposals to increase the separation of the state and the party, especially advocated by more liberal officials such as Zhao Ziyang. The proposals included abolishing CCP committees from some government departments, increasing the influence of the State Council, and having professional managers leader SOEs instead of CCP committees. These proposals were abandoned after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. On the relationship between the government and the CCP, James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy, states that, "he Chinese government is essentially the shadow of the Communist Party, moving as the party does, and consequently government roles matter far less than party ones." According to The Economist, "specially when meeting foreigners, officials may present name cards bearing government titles but stay quiet about party positions which may or may not outrank their state jobs." According to scholar Rush Doshi, "he Party sits above the state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state.": 35  The integration of the CCP and the state has accelerated under Xi Jinping, chairing eight party commissions that direct government bodies. Under Xi, several government and party bodies have also merged, with one party organization having an external state government name under the one institution with two names system, further integrating party and the state. Constitution Main article: Constitution of the People's Republic of China The Constitution of the PRC was first created on 20 September 1954, before which an interim constitution-like document created by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was in force. The second promulgation in 1975 shortened the constitution to just about 30 articles, containing CCP slogans and revolutionary language throughout. The role of courts was slashed, and the Presidency was gone. The 3rd promulgation in 1978 expanded the number of articles, but was still under the influence of the very-recent Cultural Revolution. The current constitution is the PRC's fourth promulgation, declared on 4 December 1982, and has served as a stable constitution for 30 years. The legal power of the CCP is guaranteed by the PRC Constitution and its position as the supreme political authority in the People's Republic of China is put in practice through its comprehensive control of the state, military, and media. National People's Congress Main article: National People's Congress See also: Standing Committee of the National People's Congress The 12th National People's Congress held in 2013 The National People's Congress (NPC) is the national legislature of China. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world. Under China's current Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature, with the power to legislate, to oversee the operations of the government, and to elect the major officials of state. Its delegates are elected for a five-year term through a multi-tiered electoral system. According to the Constitution, the NPC is the highest state institution within China's political system.: 78  The NPC and the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various people's organizations, are the main deliberative bodies of China, and are often referred to as the Two Sessions. Aside from the CCP, eight minor political parties participate, but are non-oppositional and have no real power. They must accept the primacy of the CCP to exist and their members are preapproved by the CCP's United Front Work Department. The NPC, elected for a term of five years, holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in the Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square, Beijing. These annual meetings are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the CPPCC, providing an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation. The NPC generally has a reputation of approving the work of the State Council and not engaging in overmuch drafting of laws itself. However, it and its Standing Committee have occasionally asserted themselves. For example, the State Council and the CCP were unable to secure passage of a fuel tax in 2009 to finance the construction of expressways. Likewise, the Ministry of Finance has sought to institute property taxes since the early 2010s, but opposition from the NPC (as well as local governments) have prevented any property tax proposals from reaching the NPC's legislative agenda.: 60–61  The NPC Standing Committee is more assertive than the NPC itself and has vetoed proposed laws.: 79  Leadership Main article: List of leaders of the People's Republic of China National leadership Main article: List of national leaders of the People's Republic of China Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party Paramount leader and General Secretary Xi Jinping The CCP Politburo Standing Committee consists of the government's top leadership.: 55  Historically it has had five to nine members. As of 2024, it has seven members.: 55  Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to the CCP's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee. The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence. Historically, the general secretary (or party chairman) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the general secretary (also the president), premier, chairman of the NPC Standing Committee, the chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, the secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked secretary of the CCP secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee. Ranked below the party's Politburo Standing Committee are deputy state leaders including the party's chief staff, vice premiers, and the party secretaries of China's most important municipalities and provinces.: 55 Ministers and provincial governors are next in rank, followed by deputy ministers and deputy provincial governors.: 55  Ministry director generals and sub provincial municipality mayors rank below this, followed by ministry deputy director generals and third-tier city mayors.: 55–56  There are five ranks below these which reach to the base of the government and party hierarchies.: 56  Paramount leader Main article: Paramount leader Power is concentrated in the "paramount leader," an informal title currently occupied by Xi Jinping, who heads the four most important political and state offices: He is the general secretary of the CCP Central Committee, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and President of the PRC. Near the end of Hu Jintao's term in office, experts observed growing limitations to the paramount leader's de facto control over the government, but at the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, Xi Jinping's term limits were removed and his powers were expanded. President Main article: President of the People's Republic of China Further information: Vice President of the People's Republic of China Mao ZedongFirst Chairman Li XiannianFirst President Under the PRC's constitution, the President of the People's Republic of China is a largely ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one-party system. The office is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. The current president is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. The office was first established in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi. Liu fell into political disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, but with reduced powers. The official English-language translation of the title was "Chairman"; after 1982, this translation was changed to "President", although the Chinese title remains unchanged. In March 2018, presidential term limits were abolished. State Council Main article: State Council of the People's Republic of China Further information: Premier of the People's Republic of China and Ministries of the People's Republic of China Zhou EnlaiFirst Premier Li QiangCurrent Premier The State Council is the cabinet of China. It is officially appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the premier and includes the heads of each governmental department and agency. The premier is assisted by several vice premiers, currently four, each of them overseeing a certain area of administration. The premier, vice premiers and the State Councilors collectively form the inner cabinet that regularly convenes for the State Council Executive Meeting.: 76–80  The State Council includes 26 constituent ministries, and officially oversees the provincial-level governments throughout China. Central Military Commission Main article: Central Military Commission (China) The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound ("August 1st Building") The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises the supreme command and control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police, and the Militia. It operates within the CCP under the name "Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China", and as the military arm of the central government under the name "Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China". Under the arrangement of "one institution with two names", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both the party and state systems. The commission is headed by the CMC Chairman. National Supervisory Commission Main article: National Supervisory Commission The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest state supervisory (anti-corruption) agency of China. At the same administrative ranking as the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate, it supervises all public officials who exercise public power. It closely operates together with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of the CCP, and effectively acts as the state arm of the CCDI. It replaced the former Ministry of Supervision. Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate Emblem of the People's Courts Emblem of the People's ProcuratorateMain articles: Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate The Supreme People's Court is the judicial organ of the People's Republic of China and is subject to the control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Hong Kong and Macau, as special administrative regions, have separate judicial systems based on British common law traditions and Portuguese civil-law traditions, respectively. The judges of the Supreme People's Court are appointed by the National People's Congress. Provincial and local government Main article: Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China The governors of China's provinces and autonomous regions and mayors of its directly administered municipalities are appointed by the State Council after receiving the nominal consent of the National People's Congress (NPC). The Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions (SARS) have some local autonomy since they have separate governments, legal systems, and basic constitutional laws, but they come under Beijing's control in matters of foreign policy and national security, and their chief executives are effectively handpicked by the CCP Politburo. Below the provincial level, there are prefectures and counties. Counties are divided into townships and villages. While most are run by appointed officials, some lower-level jurisdictions have direct elections. While operating under strict control and supervision by the central government, China's local governments manage relatively high share of fiscal revenues and expenditures. Through the late 1980s and the early 1990s, the municipal government regulatory mechanisms expanded, as did their capacity to regulate peri-urban areas.: 81  The 1994 fiscal reforms resulted in the need of local governments to generate non-tax revenue, which they did in the form of revenues through land development and use fees.: 82  This resulted in their increase in both administrative size and geographic size.: 82  From 2002 to at least 2023, the cost of providing public goods has devolved to local governments from the central government and therefore local governments need to generate fees to provide public services.: 82  Since 2014, the National New-Type Urbanization Plan has resulted in the consolidation of planning processes that were formerly distributed across different bureaucracies, such as urban and rural land use, tourism planning, and environmental planning.: 87  Civil service Main article: Civil service of the People's Republic of China China's civil service is divided into tiers.: 147  The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making.: 147  Policy development After the Chinese economic reform, China has been characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.: 7  The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out.: 7  Academics Sebastian Heilmann and Elizabeth Perry write that policy-making in China is influenced by the Chinese Communist Revolution, resulting in a policy approach that combined centralized leadership with intense mass mobilization, and that this mode of governance is defined by continuous experimentation and improvisation.: 45  According to academics Jérôme Doyon and Chloé Froissart, the adaptive capacity resulting from a heritage of guerrilla warfare has made the CCP adept in dealing with uncertainty and has translated into a capacity to experiment first and then systemize the results.: 2  New policies are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback.: 14  This method of first implementing policy through local pilot testing was also used during the Mao era.: 108  Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.: 71  The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.: 71  State capacity China has a high degree of state capacity.: 49–51  Academic Thomas Heberer attributes China's state capacity to: (1) the legitimacy of its political system as viewed by its citizens, (2) the ability to exercise social control and regulation, (3) coercive resources, (4) the capacity to consult and collaborate with emerging social groups and organizations to balance conflicting interests, and (5) the ability to learn from failures and mistakes.: 50–51  See also Central People's Government (1949–54) Five Yuans of the Republic of China History of political parties in China Political systems of Imperial China Politics of the People's Republic of China Elections in China Orders of precedence in China Notes ^ The "Paramount leader" is not a formal title, that the leader is usually holding the titles of General Secretary of the Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. ^ It is listed as such in the current Constitution; it is thus equivalent to organs such as the State Council, rather than to offices such as that of the premier. ^ In Chinese, the President of the PRC is termed Zhǔxí (主席) while the Presidents of other countries are termed Zǒngtǒng (总统). Furthermore zhǔxí continues to have the meaning of "chairman" in a generic context. References Citations ^ Hao, Mingsong; Ke, Xiwang (5 July 2023). "Personal Networks and Grassroots Election Participation in China: Findings from the Chinese General Social Survey". Journal of Chinese Political Science. 29 (1): 159–184. doi:10.1007/s11366-023-09861-3. ISSN 1080-6954. ^ Natalie Liu (7 October 2022). "View China's Xi as Party Leader, Not President, Scholars Say". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022. But Clarke and other scholars make the point that Xi's real power lies not in his post as president but in his position as general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. ^ "How the Chinese government works". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018. Xi Jinping is the most powerful figure in China's political system, and his influence mainly comes from his position as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. ^ a b Ahl, Björn (2019-05-06). "Judicialization in authoritarian regimes: The expansion of powers of the Chinese Supreme People's Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 17 (1): 252–277. doi:10.1093/icon/moz003. ISSN 1474-2640. ^ a b c d e f g h Li, David Daokui (2024). China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393292398. ^ a b c d e f Ma, Josephine (17 May 2021). "Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023. ^ a b "China passes law granting Communist Party more control over cabinet". Reuters. March 11, 2024. Retrieved March 11, 2024. ^ Zheng, William (2024-03-06). "Xi's dominance in Chinese politics to grow with change to State Council: expert". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2024-03-07. Retrieved 2024-03-10. It includes specific clauses saying the council will closely follow the Communist Party's ideology, leadership and instructions, further defining its role as faithful policy implementer of the ruling party. ^ Lovell, Julia (2019-09-03). Maoism: A Global History. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-525-65605-0. Although the party has long dominated — in theory and practice — the government of China (a dominance enshrined in the seventh paragraph of the preamble to the current constitution), in practice the intensity of its control has oscillated at different moments...in the history of the PRC. ^ James, Palmer (15 March 2023). "China Gets a New Premier". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2023. ^ "What party control means in China". The Economist. March 9, 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 2023-03-11. Retrieved 2023-03-11. ^ Doshi, Rush (2021-09-30). The Long Game: China's Grand Strategy to Displace American Order (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197527917.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-752791-7. OCLC 1256820870. ^ Ralph H. Folsom, John H. Minan, Lee Ann Otto, Law and Politics in the People's Republic of China, West Publishing (St. Paul, 1992), pp. 76–77. ^ "中华人民共和国第十四届全国人民代表大会代表名单". National People's Congress. Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023. ^ a b Šebok, Filip (2023). "China's Political System". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1. ^ Davidson, Helen (2023-03-01). "Explainer: what is China's 'two sessions' gathering, and why does it matter?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2023-03-31. Retrieved 2023-07-15. ^ Friedberg, Aaron L. (2022). Getting China Wrong. Cambridge: Polity Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-509-54512-4. OCLC 1310457810. ^ Liao, Xingmiu; Tsai, Wen-Hsuan (2019). "Clientelistic State Corporatism: The United Front Model of "Pairing-Up" in the Xi Jinping Era". China Review. 19 (1): 31–56. ISSN 1680-2012. JSTOR 26603249. ^ Baptista, Eduardo (2021-06-11). "Are there other political parties in China?". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2022-06-08. Retrieved 2022-12-26. ^ Jia, Hepeng (2009-01-08). "China bites the bullet on fuel tax". Chemistry World. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2023-03-15. ^ "National People's Congress". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2023-03-15. ^ "16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, 2002". China Internet Information Center. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. Retrieved 2017-09-06. ^ "China's Next Leaders: A Guide to What's at Stake". China File. Asia Society. 13 November 2012. Archived from the original on 10 February 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2012. ^ "A simple guide to the Chinese government". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-05-13. Retrieved 2018-05-13. Xi Jinping is the most powerful figure in the Chinese political system. He is the President of China, but his real influence comes from his position as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. ^ Higgins, Andrew (16 January 2011). "Hu's visit spotlights China's two faces". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2011. ^ Buckley, Chris; Bradsher, Keith (25 February 2018). "China Moves to Let Xi Stay in Power by Abolishing Term Limit". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ Wong, Chun Han (2023). Party of One: The Rise of Xi Jinping and China's Superpower Future. Simon & Schuster. p. 24. ISBN 9781982185732. ^ "Does Chinese leader Xi Jinping plan to hang on to power for more than 10 years?". South China Morning Post. 6 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2017. If Xi relinquished the presidency in 2023 but remained party chief and chairman of the Central Military commission (CMC), his successor as president would be nothing more than a symbolic figure... "Once the president is neither the party's general secretary nor the CMC chairman, he or she will be hollowed out, just like a body without a soul." ^ Buckley, Chris; Myers, Steven Lee (2018-03-11). "China's Legislature Blesses Xi's Indefinite Rule. It Was 2,958 to 2". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-10-26. Retrieved 2023-05-27. ^ Zheng, William (28 March 2023). "New work rules for China's State Council put the party firmly in charge". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023. ^ He, Laura (4 March 2023). "Meet the 4 men tapped to run China's economy". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023. ^ Heilmann, Sebastian (2016-12-08). China's Political System. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-7736-6. OCLC 970388499. ^ Cheng, Li; Prytherch, Mallie (7 March 2023). "China's new State Council: What analysts might have missed". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023. ^ Wang, Yongsheng; Li, Yüping (2007). "Lijie Zhonggong Zhongyang Junshi Weiyuanhui de zucheng ji lishi beijing" 历届中共中央军事委员会的组成及历史背景 . Military History (in Chinese (China)) (6): 11–14. ^ Li, Nan (26 February 2018). "Party Congress Reshuffle Strengthens Xi's Hold on Central Military Commission". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2020. Xi Jinping has introduced major institutional changes to strengthen his control of the PLA in his roles as Party leader and chair of the Central Military Commission (CMC)... ^ "People's Republic of China Supervision Law (draft)". China Law Translate. China. 6 November 2017. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2018. ^ Wong, Chun Han; Zhai, Keith (2023-03-29). "China Is Sending Its Corruption Hunters to a Country Near You". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 2023-06-23. Retrieved 2023-06-23. ^ Kadochnikov, Denis V. (29 December 2019). "Fiscal decentralization and regional budgets' changing roles: a comparative case study of Russia and China". Area Development and Policy. 5 (4): 428–446. doi:10.1080/23792949.2019.1705171. ISSN 2379-2949. S2CID 213458903. ^ a b c d e Rodenbiker, Jesse (2023). Ecological States: Politics of Science and Nature in Urbanizing China. Environments of East Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-6900-9. ^ a b Ang, Yuen Yuen (2016). How China Escaped the Poverty Trap. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0020-0. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j. ^ Landry, Pierre F. (2008-08-04). Decentralized Authoritarianism in China: The Communist Party's Control of Local Elites in the Post-Mao Era (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510243. ISBN 978-0-521-88235-4. ^ a b Jin, Keyu (2023). The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-1-9848-7828-1. ^ Li, Jie (2023). Cinematic Guerillas: Propaganda, Projectionists, and Audiences in Socialist China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231206273. ^ Doyon, Jérôme; Froissart, Chloé (2024). "Introduction". In Doyon, Jérôme; Froissart, Chloé (eds.). The Chinese Communist Party: a 100-Year Trajectory. Canberra: ANU Press. doi:10.22459/CCP.2024. ISBN 9781760466244. ^ Heilmann, Sebastian (2018). Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-962-996-827-4. ^ Simpson, Tim (2023). Betting on Macau: Casino Capitalism and China's Consumer Revolution. Globalization and Community series. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-1-5179-0031-1. ^ a b Brussee, Vincent (2023). Social Credit: The Warring States of China's Emerging Data Empire. Singapore: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 9789819921881. ^ a b Meng, Wenting (2024). Developmental Piece: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding. Ibidem. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9783838219073. Sources This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. China: A Country Study. Federal Research Division. Government and Politics. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Government of the Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Government of China (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_China_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"State Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Li Qiang Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qiang_Government"},{"link_name":"system of people's congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_people%27s_congress"},{"link_name":"unitary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_state"},{"link_name":"communist state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"unified state power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_power"},{"link_name":"National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"constitutionally enshrined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"separation of powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"President of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"eight minor political parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China"},{"link_name":"oppositional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_(politics)"},{"link_name":"state-owned enterprises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_China"},{"link_name":"NPC Standing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"constitutional reviews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_review"},{"link_name":"chairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"CCP general secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"vice president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"State Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"vice premiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"state councilors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_councillor"},{"link_name":"secretary-general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_State_Council"},{"link_name":"ministers and other cabinet-level department heads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministries_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Politburo Standing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"judicial independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_independence"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Procuratorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate"},{"link_name":"National Supervisory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supervisory_Commission"},{"link_name":"Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Political_and_Legal_Affairs_Commission"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"}],"text":"This article is about the government of the People's Republic of China. For the government of Taiwan, see Government of the Republic of China. For the governments in Chinese history, see Government of China (disambiguation). For the current State Council, see Li Qiang Government.The government of the People's Republic of China is based on a system of people's congress within the parameters of a unitary communist state, in which the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) enacts its policies through people's congresses. This system is based on the principle of unified state power, in which the legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is constitutionally enshrined as \"the highest state organ of power.\" As China's political system has no separation of powers, there is only one branch of government which is represented by the legislature. The CCP through the NPC enacts unified leadership, which requires that all state organs, from the Supreme People's Court to the President of the People's Republic of China, are elected by, answerable to, and have no separate powers than those granted to them by the NPC. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP.[1] The CCP controls appointments in all state bodies through a two-thirds majority in the NPC. The remaining seats are held by nominally independent delegates and eight minor political parties, which are non-oppositional and support the CCP. All government bodies and state-owned enterprises have internal CCP committees that lead the decision-making in these institutions.The NPC meets annually for about two weeks in March to review and approve major new policy directions, and in between those sessions, delegates its powers to the working legislature, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC). This organ adopts most national legislation, interprets the constitution and laws, and conducts constitutional reviews, and is headed by the chairman, one of China's top officials. The president represents China abroad, though since the 1990s, the presidency has always been held by the CCP general secretary. Elected separately by the NPC, the vice president has no power other than what the president bestowed on them but assists the president. The head of the State Council, the NPC's executive organ, is the premier. The CCP general secretary is China's leading official since the CCP is tasked with formulating and setting national policy which the state, after being adopted by the NPC or relevant state organ, is responsible for implementing.[2][3]The State Council, also referred to as the Central People's Government, consists of, besides the Premier, a variable number of vice premiers, five state councilors (protocol equal of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), the secretary-general, and 26 ministers and other cabinet-level department heads. It consists of ministries and agencies with specific portfolios. The State Council presents most initiatives to the NPCSC for consideration after previous endorsement by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee.China's judicial organs are political organs that perform prosecutorial and court functions. Because of their political nature, China does not have judicial independence. China's courts are supervised by the Supreme People's Court (SPC), which answers to the NPC. The Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP) is responsible for prosecutions and supervises procuracies at the provincial, prefecture, and county levels. At the same administrative ranking as the SPC and SPP, the National Supervisory Commission (NSC) was established in 2018 to investigate corruption within the CCP and state organs. All courts and their personnel are subject to the effective control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission.[4]","title":"Government of China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CCP constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"state-owned enterprises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_China"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"Deng Xiaoping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping"},{"link_name":"Zhao Ziyang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"Foreign Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"The Economist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"one institution with two names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_institution_with_two_names"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"}],"text":"The CCP constitution states that the party is the highest force for political leadership. The party's institutions overlap with government institutions and the party has authority over government decisions at both the local and central levels.[5]: 36  Senior government officials throughout the country are appointed by the CCP, and are mostly CCP members.[6] All government departments, state-owned enterprises and public institutes include CCP committees, from the village level to the national level. The CCP committees in government bodies supervise and lead the bodies, with the State Council legally required to implement CCP policies.[7][8] As outlined by the CCP constitution: \"Government, the military, society and schools, north, south, east and west – the party leads them all.\"[6]Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, there were proposals to increase the separation of the state and the party, especially advocated by more liberal officials such as Zhao Ziyang.[9][6] The proposals included abolishing CCP committees from some government departments, increasing the influence of the State Council, and having professional managers leader SOEs instead of CCP committees. These proposals were abandoned after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.[6]On the relationship between the government and the CCP, James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy, states that, \"[t]he Chinese government is essentially the shadow of the Communist Party, moving as the party does, and consequently government roles matter far less than party ones.\"[10] According to The Economist, \"[e]specially when meeting foreigners, officials may present name cards bearing government titles but stay quiet about party positions which may or may not outrank their state jobs.\"[11] According to scholar Rush Doshi, \"[t]he Party sits above the state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state.\"[12]: 35The integration of the CCP and the state has accelerated under Xi Jinping, chairing eight party commissions that direct government bodies.[6] Under Xi, several government and party bodies have also merged, with one party organization having an external state government name under the one institution with two names system, further integrating party and the state.[6]","title":"Relationship with the Chinese Communist Party"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interim constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_constitution"},{"link_name":"Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference"},{"link_name":"promulgation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promulgation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cultural Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"the PRC Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Constitution of the PRC was first created on 20 September 1954, before which an interim constitution-like document created by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was in force. The second promulgation in 1975 shortened the constitution to just about 30 articles, containing CCP slogans and revolutionary language throughout.[citation needed] The role of courts was slashed, and the Presidency was gone. The 3rd promulgation in 1978 expanded the number of articles, but was still under the influence of the very-recent Cultural Revolution.[citation needed]The current constitution is the PRC's fourth promulgation, declared on 4 December 1982, and has served as a stable constitution for 30 years. The legal power of the CCP is guaranteed by the PRC Constitution and its position as the supreme political authority in the People's Republic of China is put in practice through its comprehensive control of the state, military, and media.[13]","title":"Constitution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standing Committee of the National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_1st_Session_of_the_12th_National_People%27s_Congress_open_20130305.jpg"},{"link_name":"National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-15"},{"link_name":"unicameral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicameralism"},{"link_name":"legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature"},{"link_name":"electoral system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:922-16"},{"link_name":"people's organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_organization"},{"link_name":"deliberative bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_assembly"},{"link_name":"Two Sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Sessions"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"eight minor political parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China"},{"link_name":"oppositional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_(politics)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-19"},{"link_name":"United Front Work Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Front_Work_Department"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"Great Hall of the People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hall_of_the_People"},{"link_name":"Tiananmen Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen_Square"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressways_of_China"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(China)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:922-16"}],"text":"See also: Standing Committee of the National People's CongressThe 12th National People's Congress held in 2013The National People's Congress (NPC) is the national legislature of China. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world.[14] Under China's current Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature, with the power to legislate, to oversee the operations of the government, and to elect the major officials of state. Its delegates are elected for a five-year term through a multi-tiered electoral system. According to the Constitution, the NPC is the highest state institution within China's political system.[15]: 78The NPC and the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various people's organizations, are the main deliberative bodies of China, and are often referred to as the Two Sessions.[16] Aside from the CCP, eight minor political parties participate, but are non-oppositional and have no real power.[17][18] They must accept the primacy of the CCP to exist and their members are preapproved by the CCP's United Front Work Department.[19]The NPC, elected for a term of five years, holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in the Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square, Beijing. These annual meetings are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the CPPCC, providing an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation.The NPC generally has a reputation of approving the work of the State Council and not engaging in overmuch drafting of laws itself. However, it and its Standing Committee have occasionally asserted themselves. For example, the State Council and the CCP were unable to secure passage of a fuel tax in 2009 to finance the construction of expressways.[20][21] Likewise, the Ministry of Finance has sought to institute property taxes since the early 2010s, but opposition from the NPC (as well as local governments) have prevented any property tax proposals from reaching the NPC's legislative agenda.[5]: 60–61  The NPC Standing Committee is more assertive than the NPC itself and has vetoed proposed laws.[15]: 79","title":"National People's Congress"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Danghui.svg"},{"link_name":"Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emblem_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xi_Jinping_March_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"Paramount leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"General Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"CCP Politburo Standing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"protocol sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_precedence_in_China"},{"link_name":"party chairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"chairman of the NPC Standing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference"},{"link_name":"secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection"},{"link_name":"CCP secretariat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CF111312-24"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-6"}],"sub_title":"National leadership","text":"Emblem of the Chinese Communist PartyParamount leader and General Secretary Xi JinpingThe CCP Politburo Standing Committee consists of the government's top leadership.[5]: 55  Historically it has had five to nine members. As of 2024, it has seven members.[5]: 55  Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to the CCP's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee.[22][better source needed]The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence. Historically, the general secretary (or party chairman) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the general secretary (also the president), premier, chairman of the NPC Standing Committee, the chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, the secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked secretary of the CCP secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee.[23]Ranked below the party's Politburo Standing Committee are deputy state leaders including the party's chief staff, vice premiers, and the party secretaries of China's most important municipalities and provinces.[5]: 55 Ministers and provincial governors are next in rank, followed by deputy ministers and deputy provincial governors.[5]: 55  Ministry director generals and sub provincial municipality mayors rank below this, followed by ministry deputy director generals and third-tier city mayors.[5]: 55–56  There are five ranks below these which reach to the base of the government and party hierarchies.[5]: 56","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Central Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"19th Party Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Paramount leader","text":"Power is concentrated in the \"paramount leader,\" an informal title currently occupied by Xi Jinping, who heads the four most important political and state offices: He is the general secretary of the CCP Central Committee, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and President of the PRC.[24] Near the end of Hu Jintao's term in office, experts observed growing limitations to the paramount leader's de facto control over the government,[25] but at the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, Xi Jinping's term limits were removed and his powers were expanded.[26]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vice President of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"ceremonial office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurehead"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Liu Shaoqi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi"},{"link_name":"translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation"},{"link_name":"Chairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_(government_title)"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"President","text":"Further information: Vice President of the People's Republic of ChinaUnder the PRC's constitution, the President of the People's Republic of China is a largely ceremonial office with limited powers.[27] However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one-party system.[28] The office is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative.[note 2] The current president is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013.The office was first established in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi. Liu fell into political disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, but with reduced powers. The official English-language translation of the title was \"Chairman\"; after 1982, this translation was changed to \"President\", although the Chinese title remains unchanged.[note 3] In March 2018, presidential term limits were abolished.[29]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Premier of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Ministries of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministries_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"State Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-8"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:32-33"},{"link_name":"vice premiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"State Councilors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_councillor"},{"link_name":"inner cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qiang_Government"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"provincial-level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_China"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-36"}],"sub_title":"State Council","text":"Further information: Premier of the People's Republic of China and Ministries of the People's Republic of ChinaThe State Council is the cabinet of China. It is officially appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the premier and includes the heads of each governmental department and agency.[7][30] The premier is assisted by several vice premiers, currently four, each of them overseeing a certain area of administration.[31] The premier, vice premiers and the State Councilors collectively form the inner cabinet that regularly convenes for the State Council Executive Meeting.[32]: 76–80  The State Council includes 26 constituent ministries, and officially oversees the provincial-level governments throughout China.[33]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChinaDOD.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ministry of National Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Central Military Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)"},{"link_name":"People's Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"one institution with two names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_institution_with_two_names"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Central Military Commission","text":"The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound (\"August 1st Building\")The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises the supreme command and control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police, and the Militia. It operates within the CCP under the name \"Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China\", and as the military arm of the central government under the name \"Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China\". Under the arrangement of \"one institution with two names\", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both the party and state systems.[34] The commission is headed by the CMC Chairman.[35]","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Supervisory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supervisory_Commission"},{"link_name":"anti-corruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anti-corruption_agencies"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"Supreme People's Procuratorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Central Commission for Discipline Inspection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Supervision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Supervision"}],"sub_title":"National Supervisory Commission","text":"The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest state supervisory (anti-corruption) agency of China. At the same administrative ranking as the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate, it supervises all public officials who exercise public power.[36] It closely operates together with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of the CCP, and effectively acts as the state arm of the CCDI.[37] It replaced the former Ministry of Supervision.","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supreme_People%27s_Court_of_P.R.China%27s_badge.svg"},{"link_name":"People's Courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Court"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate_of_P.R.China%27s_badge_.svg"},{"link_name":"People's Procuratorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Procuratorate"},{"link_name":"Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Political_and_Legal_Affairs_Commission"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Emblem of the People's CourtsEmblem of the People's ProcuratorateThe Supreme People's Court is the judicial organ of the People's Republic of China and is subject to the control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission.[4] Hong Kong and Macau, as special administrative regions, have separate judicial systems based on British common law traditions and Portuguese civil-law traditions, respectively. The judges of the Supreme People's Court are appointed by the National People's Congress.[citation needed]","title":"Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"autonomous regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China"},{"link_name":"directly administered municipalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-administered_municipalities_of_China"},{"link_name":"special administrative regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China"},{"link_name":"foreign policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"prefectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_China"},{"link_name":"townships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townships_of_China"},{"link_name":"villages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villages_of_China"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"peri-urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri-urbanisation"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:032-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:032-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:032-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:032-42"},{"link_name":"National New-Type Urbanization Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_New-Type_Urbanization_Plan"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:032-42"}],"text":"The governors of China's provinces and autonomous regions and mayors of its directly administered municipalities are appointed by the State Council after receiving the nominal consent of the National People's Congress (NPC). The Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions (SARS) have some local autonomy since they have separate governments, legal systems, and basic constitutional laws, but they come under Beijing's control in matters of foreign policy and national security, and their chief executives are effectively handpicked by the CCP Politburo.Below the provincial level, there are prefectures and counties. Counties are divided into townships and villages. While most are run by appointed officials, some lower-level jurisdictions have direct elections.While operating under strict control and supervision by the central government, China's local governments manage relatively high share of fiscal revenues and expenditures.[38]Through the late 1980s and the early 1990s, the municipal government regulatory mechanisms expanded, as did their capacity to regulate peri-urban areas.[39]: 81  The 1994 fiscal reforms resulted in the need of local governments to generate non-tax revenue, which they did in the form of revenues through land development and use fees.[39]: 82  This resulted in their increase in both administrative size and geographic size.[39]: 82  From 2002 to at least 2023, the cost of providing public goods has devolved to local governments from the central government and therefore local governments need to generate fees to provide public services.[39]: 82Since 2014, the National New-Type Urbanization Plan has resulted in the consolidation of planning processes that were formerly distributed across different bureaucracies, such as urban and rural land use, tourism planning, and environmental planning.[39]: 87","title":"Provincial and local government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:26-43"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:26-43"}],"text":"China's civil service is divided into tiers.[40]: 147  The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making.[40]: 147","title":"Civil service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese economic reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-landry-44"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-45"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Heilmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Heilmann"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:33-46"},{"link_name":"guerrilla warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-47"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:132-49"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:44-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:44-50"}],"text":"After the Chinese economic reform, China has been characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.[41][42]: 7  The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out.[42]: 7  Academics Sebastian Heilmann and Elizabeth Perry write that policy-making in China is influenced by the Chinese Communist Revolution, resulting in a policy approach that combined centralized leadership with intense mass mobilization, and that this mode of governance is defined by continuous experimentation and improvisation.[43]: 45  According to academics Jérôme Doyon and Chloé Froissart, the adaptive capacity resulting from a heritage of guerrilla warfare has made the CCP adept in dealing with uncertainty and has translated into a capacity to experiment first and then systemize the results.[44]: 2New policies are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback.[45]: 14  This method of first implementing policy through local pilot testing was also used during the Mao era.[46]: 108  Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.[47]: 71  The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.[47]: 71","title":"Policy development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"state capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_capacity"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-51"},{"link_name":"Thomas Heberer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Heberer"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-51"}],"text":"China has a high degree of state capacity.[48]: 49–51  Academic Thomas Heberer attributes China's state capacity to: (1) the legitimacy of its political system as viewed by its citizens, (2) the ability to exercise social control and regulation, (3) coercive resources, (4) the capacity to consult and collaborate with emerging social groups and organizations to balance conflicting interests, and (5) the ability to learn from failures and mistakes.[48]: 50–51","title":"State capacity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"}],"text":"^ The \"Paramount leader\" is not a formal title, that the leader is usually holding the titles of General Secretary of the Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission.\n\n^ It is listed as such in the current Constitution; it is thus equivalent to organs such as the State Council, rather than to offices such as that of the premier.\n\n^ In Chinese, the President of the PRC is termed Zhǔxí (主席) while the Presidents of other countries are termed Zǒngtǒng (总统). Furthermore zhǔxí continues to have the meaning of \"chairman\" in a generic context.","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"The 12th National People's Congress held in 2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/The_1st_Session_of_the_12th_National_People%27s_Congress_open_20130305.jpg/270px-The_1st_Session_of_the_12th_National_People%27s_Congress_open_20130305.jpg"},{"image_text":"Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Danghui.svg/170px-Danghui.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Paramount leader and General Secretary Xi Jinping","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Xi_Jinping_March_2017.jpg/170px-Xi_Jinping_March_2017.jpg"},{"image_text":"The CMC is housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound (\"August 1st Building\")","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/ChinaDOD.jpg/220px-ChinaDOD.jpg"},{"image_text":"Emblem of the People's Courts","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Supreme_People%27s_Court_of_P.R.China%27s_badge.svg/100px-Supreme_People%27s_Court_of_P.R.China%27s_badge.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Emblem of the People's Procuratorate","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate_of_P.R.China%27s_badge_.svg/100px-Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate_of_P.R.China%27s_badge_.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Central People's Government (1949–54)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_People%27s_Government_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%9354)"},{"title":"Five Yuans of the Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"title":"History of political parties in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_parties_in_China"},{"title":"Political systems of Imperial China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_systems_of_Imperial_China"},{"title":"Politics of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_China"},{"title":"Elections in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_China"},{"title":"Orders of precedence in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_precedence_in_China"}]

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OCLC 970388499.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield","url_text":"Rowman & Littlefield"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7736-6","url_text":"978-1-4422-7736-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/970388499","url_text":"970388499"}]},{"reference":"Cheng, Li; Prytherch, Mallie (7 March 2023). \"China's new State Council: What analysts might have missed\". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. 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Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2020. Xi Jinping has introduced major institutional changes to strengthen his control of the PLA in his roles as Party leader and chair of the Central Military Commission (CMC)...","urls":[{"url":"https://jamestown.org/program/party-congress-reshuffle-strengthens-xis-hold-central-military-commission/","url_text":"\"Party Congress Reshuffle Strengthens Xi's Hold on Central Military Commission\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jamestown_Foundation","url_text":"The Jamestown Foundation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191026020506/https://jamestown.org/program/party-congress-reshuffle-strengthens-xis-hold-central-military-commission/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"People's Republic of China Supervision Law (draft)\". China Law Translate. China. 6 November 2017. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E7%9B%91%E5%AF%9F%E6%B3%95%EF%BC%88%E8%8D%89%E6%A1%88%EF%BC%89/?lang=en","url_text":"\"People's Republic of China Supervision Law (draft)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171112134237/http://www.chinalawtranslate.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E7%9B%91%E5%AF%9F%E6%B3%95%EF%BC%88%E8%8D%89%E6%A1%88%EF%BC%89/?lang=en","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wong, Chun Han; Zhai, Keith (2023-03-29). \"China Is Sending Its Corruption Hunters to a Country Near You\". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 2023-06-23. Retrieved 2023-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-deploys-its-corruption-hunters-abroad-a6484983","url_text":"\"China Is Sending Its Corruption Hunters to a Country Near You\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660","url_text":"0099-9660"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230623175029/https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-deploys-its-corruption-hunters-abroad-a6484983","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kadochnikov, Denis V. (29 December 2019). \"Fiscal decentralization and regional budgets' changing roles: a comparative case study of Russia and China\". Area Development and Policy. 5 (4): 428–446. doi:10.1080/23792949.2019.1705171. ISSN 2379-2949. S2CID 213458903.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23792949.2019.1705171","url_text":"10.1080/23792949.2019.1705171"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2379-2949","url_text":"2379-2949"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213458903","url_text":"213458903"}]},{"reference":"Rodenbiker, Jesse (2023). Ecological States: Politics of Science and Nature in Urbanizing China. Environments of East Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-6900-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University_Press","url_text":"Cornell University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-6900-9","url_text":"978-1-5017-6900-9"}]},{"reference":"Ang, Yuen Yuen (2016). How China Escaped the Poverty Trap. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0020-0. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuen_Yuen_Ang","url_text":"Ang, Yuen Yuen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University_Press","url_text":"Cornell University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-0020-0","url_text":"978-1-5017-0020-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j","url_text":"10.7591/j.ctt1zgwm1j"}]},{"reference":"Landry, Pierre F. (2008-08-04). Decentralized Authoritarianism in China: The Communist Party's Control of Local Elites in the Post-Mao Era (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510243. ISBN 978-0-521-88235-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511510243","url_text":"10.1017/cbo9780511510243"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88235-4","url_text":"978-0-521-88235-4"}]},{"reference":"Jin, Keyu (2023). The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-1-9848-7828-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyu_Jin","url_text":"Jin, Keyu"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-7828-1","url_text":"978-1-9848-7828-1"}]},{"reference":"Li, Jie (2023). Cinematic Guerillas: Propaganda, Projectionists, and Audiences in Socialist China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231206273.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press","url_text":"Columbia University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231206273","url_text":"9780231206273"}]},{"reference":"Doyon, Jérôme; Froissart, Chloé (2024). \"Introduction\". In Doyon, Jérôme; Froissart, Chloé (eds.). The Chinese Communist Party: a 100-Year Trajectory. Canberra: ANU Press. doi:10.22459/CCP.2024. ISBN 9781760466244.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANU_Press","url_text":"ANU Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.22459%2FCCP.2024","url_text":"10.22459/CCP.2024"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781760466244","url_text":"9781760466244"}]},{"reference":"Heilmann, Sebastian (2018). Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unicorn_startup_companies

List of unicorn startup companies

["1 History","2 List","3 Former unicorns","4 References"]

Private startup companies valued at over 1 Billion USD This is an incomplete list of unicorn startup companies. In finance, a unicorn is a privately held startup company with a current valuation of USD 1 billion or more. Notable lists of unicorn companies are maintained by The Wall Street Journal, Fortune Magazine, CNNMoney/CB Insights, TechCrunch, PitchBook/Morningstar, and Tech in Asia. History Historical progress of unicorns # Unicorns Total valuation(US$ billions) Date Reported by 39 Late October/Early November 2013 TechCrunch 82 Late January 2015 Forbes, CB Insights 229 1,300 January 2016 VentureBeat 208 761 December 2016 TechCrunch 224 771.9 April 2017 TechCrunch 193 665 April 2017 Inc magazine 266 861 August 2018 CB Insights 394 1,200 August 2018 CB Insights 495 1,566 November 2020 CB Insights 963 3,140 January 2022 CB Insights 1,170 3,854 June 2022 CB Insights 1,219 3,823 August 2023 CB Insights List Unicorns are concentrated in developed and some developing global regions, including a few dozen countries. As per CB Insights, as of October 7, 2022, the number of unicorn startups in some developed and developing countries were as follows: Table of the number of unicorn startups by country as of October 7, 2022 Country Number of unicorns Number of unicorns per million people  US 702 2.12  China 302 0.21  India 113 0.08  UK 49 0.72  France 34 0.5  Germany 29 0.35  Israel 24 2.77  Canada 20 0.48  Brazil 16 0.07  South Korea 16 0.31  Argentina 14 0.31  Singapore 14 2.39  Japan 12 0.09  Indonesia 8 0.03  Australia 8 0.31  Mexico 8 0.06  Poland 8 0.21  Sweden 8 0.76  Hong Kong 7 1.08  Netherlands 7 0.39  Ireland 6 1.17   Switzerland 6 0.68  UAE 6 0.63  Norway 5 0.91  Turkey 5 0.06  Spain 4 0.08  Vietnam 4 0.04  Russia 3 0.02  Belgium 3 0.26  Thailand 3 0.04  Austria 2 0.33  Denmark 2 0.50  Estonia 10 7.54  Lithuania 2 0.70  Philippines 2 0.02  Bangladesh 2 0.01  Bulgaria 1 0.15  Latvia 1 0.53  Finland 1 0.17 A SpaceX's Falcon 9 lifting off from LC-39A in May 2020, starting Demo-2 Instacart delivery of groceries on a countertop Epic's Fortnite exhibition space at E3 2018 A DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ V3 drone Bird scooters on the sidewalk in San Jose Company Valuation(US$ billions) Valuation date Industry Country/countries Founder(s) SpaceX 175 December 2023 (2023-12) Aerospace United States Elon Musk OpenAI 80-90 September 2023 (2023-09) Artificial intelligence United States Sam Altman, Greg Brockman, Ilya Sutskever Binance 80-90 September 2021 (2021-09) Cryptocurrency United Arab Emirates Changpeng Zhao Shein 66 May 2023 (2023-05) E-commerce China Chris Xu Stripe 50 March 2023 (2023-03) Financial services United States and Ireland Patrick and John Collison Databricks 43 September 2023 (2023-09) Software United States Ali Ghodsi Anthropic 20-30 October 2023 (2023-10) Artificial Intelligence United States Dario Amodei Epic Games 31.5 June 2022 (2022-06) Video games United States Tim Sweeney Telegram 30 January 2021 (2021-01) Internet United Arab Emirates Nikolai and Pavel Durov Fanatics 27 June 2022 (2022-06) E-commerce United States Alan Trager, Mitch Trager, Michael Rubin Chime 25 June 2022 (2022-06) Financial services United States Chris Britt and Ryan King Canva 25 September 2023 (2023-09) Graphic design Australia Melanie Perkins, Clifford Obrecht, Cameron Adams Revolut 17.7 April 2023 (2023-04)< Financial technology United Kingdom Nikolay Storonsky, Vlad Yatsenko Miro 17.5 January 2022 (2022-01) Software United States Andrey Khusid Nature's Fynd Undisclosed July 2021 (2021-07) Consumer packaged goods United States Thomas Jonas, Mark Kozubal, Yuval Avniel, Rich Macur, Daniel Livny, Matthew Strongin Trendyol 16.5 May 2021 (2021-05) E-commerce Turkey Demet Mutlu Yuanfudao 15.5 October 2020 (2020-10) Educational technology China Yong Li Discord 15 September 2021 (2021-09) Software United States Jason Citron, Stanislav Vishnevsky DJI 15 September 2016 (2016-09) Technology China Frank Wang (Wang Tao) GoPuff 15 July 2021 (2021-07) E-commerce United States Yakir Gola, Rafael Ilishayev Scale AI 14 May 2024 Artificial intelligence United States Alexandr Wang, Lucy Guo Xiaohongshu 14 September 2023 (2023-09) E-commerce China Miranda Qu Fang, Charlwin Mao Wenchao Plaid 13.4 April 2021 (2021-04) Financial technology United States Zach Perret, William Hockey Grammarly 13 November 2021 (2021-11) Collaborative software Ukraine/United States Alex Shevchenko, Max Lytvyn, and Dmytro Lider Devoted Health 12.6 October 2021 (2021-10) Healthcare United States Todd Park Faire 12.4 November 2021 (2021-11) E-commerce United States Max Rhodes Brex 12.3 October 2021 Finance United States Henrique Dubugras and Pedro Franceschi Biosplice Therapeutics 12 April 2021 Health United States Osman Kibar Bitmain 12 June 2018 Cryptocurrency China Jihan Wu GoodLeap 12 October 2021 Financial technology United States Hayes Barnard, Jason Walker, Matt Dawson SenseTime 12 January 2021 Artificial intelligence China / Hong Kong Tang Xiao'ouXu Li Getir 12 March 2022 Retail Turkey Nazım Salur Northvolt 11.75 June 2021 Batteries Sweden Peter Carlsson, Paolo Cerrutim, Harald Mix, Carl-Erik Lagercrantz Rippling 11.25 March 2023 Workforce management United States Parker Conrad Airtable 11 December 2021 Collaborative software United States Howie Liu, Andrew Ofstad, Emmett Nicholas Checkout.com 11 December 2022 (2022-12) Financial technology United Kingdom Guillaume Pousaz Celonis 11 June 2021 Software Germany Alex Rinke, Bastian Nominacher, Martin Klenk ZongMu Technology 11 June 2021 Self-driving cars China Tang Rui Bolt Financial 11 January 2022 Financial technology United States Ryan Breslow Alchemy 10.2 January 2022 Blockchain United States Joe Lau and Nikil Viswanathan Swiggy 5.5 January 2022 Food delivery India Nandan Reddy, Sriharsha Majety Aurora 10 December 2020 Self-driving cars United States Chehaoduo 10 July 2021 Marketplace China Digital Currency Group 10 November 2021 Venture capital United States Figma 10 June 2021 Software United States Dylan Field and Evan Wallace Gusto 10 August 2021 Software United States Joshua Reeves and Edward Kim KuCoin 10 May 2022 Cryptocurrency Seychelles Lalamove 10 January 2021 Supply chain management Hong Kong / China Notion Labs 10 October 2021 Productivity software United States Polygon Technology 10 February 2022 Blockchain, Web3 India / Cayman Islands Ripple 10 December 2019 Cryptocurrency United States Talkdesk 10 August 2021 Software as a service Portugal / United States Cristina Fonseca, Tiago Paiva Oyo 9.6 August 2021 Hospitality India Ritesh Agarwal Klaviyo 9.5 May 2021 Marketing United States OutSystems 9.5 February 2021 Software development United States ServiceTitan 9.5 June 2021 Software United States HeyTea 9.3 July 2021 Retail China VAST Data 9 December 2023 (2023-12) Data storage United States Tanium 9 June 2020 Cybersecurity United States David Hindawi, Orion Hindawi Kavak 8.7 October 2021 Marketplace Mexico Rapyd 8.7 August 2021 Financial technology United Kingdom Nuro 8.6 November 2021 Robotics United States Snyk 8.5 September 2021 Application security United Kingdom Assaf Hefetz, Danny Grander Bolt 8.4 January 2022 Transportation Estonia / France Markus Villig Lacework 8.3 November 2021 Cloud security United States Ramp 8.1 March 2022 Financial technology United States Tempus 8.1 December 2020 Health United States Dream11 8 November 2021 Fantasy sports India Harsh Jain, Bhavit Sheth Flexport 8 February 2022 Logistics United States Ryan Petersen StarkWare Industries 8 May 2022 Blockchain Israel Eli Ben-Sasson, Michael Riabzev, Uri Kolodny, Alessandro Chiesa Hopin 7.75 August 2021 Virtual event United Kingdom Dapper Labs 7.6 September 2021 NFT Canada Netskope 7.5 July 2021 Computer security United States Sanjay Beri, Lebin Cheng, Ravi Ithal, Krishna Narayanaswamy Razorpay 7.5 December 2021 Financial technology India Harshil Mathur, Shashank Kumar Carta 7.4 August 2021 Software United States Henry Ward Ola Cabs 7.3 December 2021 Transportation India Bhavish Aggarwal, Ankit Bhati Gong 7.25 June 2021 Artificial intelligence United States TripActions 7.25 October 2021 Travel United States Ariel Cohen and Ilan Twig CoreWeave 7 December 2023 (2023-12) Cloud Computing United States Brannin McBee, Brian Venturo, Michael Intrator Automation Anywhere 6.8 November 2019 Robotic process automation United States 1Password 6.8 July 2021 Password manager Canada WeDoctor 6.8 February 2021 Healthcare China Yanolja 6.7 July 2021 Hospitality South Korea Lee Su-jin Ziroom 6.6 March 2020 Real estate technology China Klarna 6.5 July 2022 Financial technology Sweden Sebastian Siemiatkowski, Niklas Adalberth, Victor Jacobsson Mollie 6.5 June 2021 Financial technology Netherlands CRED 6.4 June 2022 Financial technology India Kunal Shah DataRobot 6.3 July 2021 Artificial intelligence United States Personio 6.3 October 2021 Software Germany Doctolib 6.2 August 2022 Healthcare France Lianjia (Homelink) 6.04 April 2017 Real estate China Wiz 6 October 2021 Cybersecurity Israel Xingsheng Youxuan 6 January 2021 Retail China Back Market 5.8 August 2022 Marketplace France Vice Media 5.7 February 2020 Mass media United States Contentsquare 5.6 August 2022 Software as a service France Fivetran 5.6 September 2021 Data infrastructure United States PharmEasy 5.6 October 2021 Health technology India Siddharth Shah Postman 5.6 August 2021 Software as a service India / United States Airwallex 5.5 November 2021 Financial services Australia / Hong Kong PhonePe 5.5 December 2020 Financial technology India Sameer Nigam, Rahul Chari Viva Republica (Toss) 5.48 June 2021 Financial technology South Korea Pony.ai 5.3 November 2020 Artificial intelligence China / United States James Peng, Tiancheng Lou Trade Republic 5.3 May 2021 Financial technology Germany Rappi 5.25 July 2021 Transportation Colombia Blockchain.com 5.2 March 2021 Cryptocurrency United Kingdom OneTrust 5.1 December 2020 Cybersecurity United Kingdom / United States SambaNova 5.1 April 2021 Artificial intelligence United States Collibra 5+ January 2019 Data governance Belgium Pieter De Leenheer, Felix Van de Maele, Stijn Christiaens Thrasio 5+ October 2021 Holding company United States Josh Silberstein and Carlos Cashman CloudKitchens 5 November 2019 Ghost kitchen United States Hello TransTech 5 March 2021 Transportation China Hopper 5 August 2021 Travel Canada JUUL Labs 5 October 2019 Electronic cigarettes United States OfBusiness 5 December 2021 B2B e-commerce India Bhuvan Gupta, Vasant Sridhar, Ruchi Kalra, Nitin Jain, Asish Mohapatra Ola Electric 5 January 2022 Electric vehicles India Bhavish Aggarwal Qonto 5 August 2022 Finance France Ro 5 March 2021 Health technology United States Royole 5 August 2018 Flexible electronics China / United States UBtech Robotics 5 May 2018 Robotics China GetBlock 4.6 June 2020 Blockchain Georgia Steven Lloyd United Imaging Healthcare 5 September 2017 Healthcare China Zepz 5 August 2021 Financial technology United Kingdom Animoca Brands 5 January 2022 Blockchain gaming Hong Kong Yat Siu Octopus Energy 5 December 2021 Energy supply United Kingdom Meesho 4.9 September 2021 E-commerce India Vidit Aatrey, Sanjeev Barnwal Pleo 4.7 December 2021 Financial technology Denmark Anduril Industries 4.6 June 2021 Defense technology United States Palmer Luckey Checkr 4.6 August 2021 Human resource management United States Dataiku 4.6 August 2021 Artificial intelligence France / United States Sorare 4.6 August 2022 Fantasy sports France Magic Leap 4.5 February 2016 Augmented reality United States Socure 4.5 November 2021 Identity management United States Vinted 4.5 May 2021 Marketplace Lithuania Milda Mitkutė, Justas Janauskas Zenefits 4.5 May 2015 Human resource management United States Meizu 4.4 October 2016 Consumer electronics China Outreach 4.4 June 2021 Sales United States Arctic Wolf Networks 4.3 July 2021 Cybersecurity United States Chainalysis 4.2 June 2021 Blockchain United States Relativity Space 4.2 June 2021 Aerospace United States SSENSE 4.15 June 2021 E-commerce Canada Bitpanda 4.1 August 2021 Cryptocurrency Austria Dataminr 4.1 March 2021 Data analytics United States Yello Mobile 4.05 November 2016 Software industry South Korea Abnormal Security 4 May 2022 Cybersecurity United States Evan Reiser, Sanjay Jeyakumar AlphaSense 4 June 2024 Software United States Jaakko (Jack) Kokko, Raj Neervannan Branch Metrics 4 February 2022 Marketing United States BrowserStack 4 June 2021 Software India Ritesh Arora, Nakul Aggarwal Clubhouse 4 April 2021 Messaging United States Paul Davison and Rohan Seth Houzz 4 June 2017 Interior design United States iCapital Network 4 July 2021 Financial services United States Megvii 4 May 2019 Technology China Melio 4 September 2021 Financial technology Israel Next Insurance 4 March 2021 Insurance United States Olive 4 June 2021 Health technology United States Patreon 4 April 2021 Online membership service United States Jack Conte, Sam Yam PointClickCare 4 January 2021 Software Canada QuintoAndar  4 May 2021 Real estate Brazil Niantic 3.95 January 2019 Video games United States StockX 3.8 April 2021 E-commerce United States Articulate 3.75 July 2021 Educational technology United States Cohesity 3.7 March 2021 Software United States Noom 3.7 May 2021 Healthcare United States Papaya Global 3.7 September 2021 Workforce management Israel / United States ShareChat 3.7 December 2021 Social network India Ankush Sachdeva, Bhanu Pratap Singh, Farid Ahsan WHOOP 3.6 August 2021 Wearable technology United States Shouqi 3.55 December 2016 Transportation China Alchemy 3.5 October 2021 Blockchain United States Coalition 3.5 September 2021 Cybersecurity United States Commure 3.5 September 2021 Health technology United States Digit Insurance 3.5 July 2021 Insurance India Kamesh Goyal Mirakl 3.5 September 2021 Marketplace France N26 3.5 July 2019 Financial services Germany OwnBackup 3.35 August 2021 Data storage United States Preferred Networks 3.33 September 2019 Artificial intelligence Japan CARS24 3.3 December 2021 Marketplace India Vikram Chopra, Mehul Agrawal, Gajendra Jangid and Ruchit Agarwal Kurly 3.3 July 2021 E-commerce South Korea Rubrik 3.3 January 2019 Computer storage United States Bipul Sinha, Arvind Jain, Soham Mazumdar, Arvind Nithrakashyap Scopely 3.3 October 2020 Mobile gaming United States WeRide 3.3 June 2021 Self-driving cars China Youxia Motors 3.3 October 2018 Electric vehicles China MoonPay 3.4 November 2021 Cryptocurrency United States Unacademy 3.4 August 2021 Educational technology India Gaurav Munjal Plus.ai 3.3 May 2021 Self-driving trucks United States Starburst Data 3.3 February 2022 Data analytics United States Thumbtack 3.2 June 2021 Software United States Marco Zappacosta ApplyBoard 3.2 June 2021 Educational technology Canada Martin Basiri, Massi Basiri, Meti Basiri Blockstream 3.2 August 2021 Blockchain Canada ConsenSys 3.2 November 2021 Blockchain United States Cybereason 3.2 July 2021 Cybersecurity Israel / United States Eruditus 3.2 August 2021 Educational technology India PsiQuantum 3.15 July 2021 Quantum computing United States SpotOn 3.15 September 2021 Financial technology United States TiendaNube 3.1 August 2021 E-commerce Argentina SentinelOne 3.1 November 2020 Cybersecurity United States Udaan 3.1 January 2021 B2B e-commerce India Vaibhav Gupta, Amod Malviya, Sujeet Kumar Wildlife 3+ August 2020 Mobile gaming Brazil CMR Surgical 3 January 2021 Robotics United Kingdom Traveloka 3 January 2017 Travel Indonesia ActiveCampaign 3 April 2021 Marketing United States Age of Learning, Inc. 3 June 2021 Education United States Automattic 3 September 2019 Internet United States Matt Mullenweg Calendly 3 January 2021 Software United States Tope Awotona Contentful 3 July 2021 Content management system Germany Forter 3 May 2021 Software Israel / United States Grafana Labs 3 August 2021 Software United States Groww 3 April 2021 Financial technology India Lalit Keshre, Harsh Jain, Ishan Bansal, Neeraj Singh Hinge Health 3 January 2021 Healthcare United States Horizon Robotics 3 February 2018 Semiconductors China Lucid Software 3 June 2021 Software United States MessageBird 3 October 2020 Cloud communications Netherlands Pine Labs 5 February 2022 Financial technology India Lokvir Kapoor, Rajul Garg, Tarun Upaday Seismic 3 August 2021 Software United States Sky Mavis 3 October 2021 Video games Vietnam Souche 3 September 2018 Marketplace China TradingView 3 October 2021 Finance United Kingdom Upstox 3.4 November 2021 Financial technology India Ravi Kumar, Kavitha Subramanian, Shrini Viswanath Verkada 3.2 September 2022 Physical security United States Filip Kailiszan, James Ren, Benjamin Bercowitz, Hans Robertson VANCL 3 February 2014 E-commerce China Veepee 3 August 2022 E-commerce France VIPKID 3 June 2018 Education China Warby Parker 3 August 2020 Retail United States Wefox 3 June 2021 Insurance Germany Yixia Technology 3 November 2016 Internet media China OVO 2.9 March 2019 Financial technology Indonesia Workrise 2.9 May 2021 Workforce management United States DriveWealth 2.85 August 2021 Financial technology United States BharatPe 2.8 August 2021 Financial technology India Ashneer Grover Graphcore 2.8 December 2020 Semiconductors United Kingdom Icertis 2.8 March 2021 Software India / United States Samir Bodas, Monish Darda. OakNorth 2.8 February 2019 Finance United Kingdom UnionPay 2.8 October 2016 Finance China Urban Company 2.8 December 2021 Home improvement India Bird 2.78 October 2019 Transportation United States Convoy 2.75 November 2019 Trucking United States Illumio 2.75 June 2021 Cybersecurity United States MasterClass 2.75 May 2021 Educational technology United States Zipline 2.75 June 2021 Logistics United States Daangn Market 2.7 August 2021 E-commerce South Korea Tridge 2.7 August 2022 Software as a service South Korea Nextiva 2.7 September 2021 Software United States Tradeshift 2.7 March 2021 Financial technology United States Deliverect 1.4 January 2022 Ordering software for POS Belgium Odoo 2.63 July 2021 CRM Belgium AmWINS Group 2.6 October 2016 Insurance United States ManoMano 2.6 July 2021 E-commerce France Pendo 2.6 July 2021 Software United States Sourcegraph 2.6 July 2021 Developer platform United States Jumpcloud 2.56 September 2021 Software United States Cato Networks 2.5 October 2021 Cybersecurity Israel eToro 2.5 December 2020 Financial technology Israel Yoni Assia, Ronen Assia, David Ring Infra.Market 2.5 August 2021 Marketplace India Aaditya Sharda, Souvik Sengupta DriveNets 2.5+ August 2022 Network operating system, Software-defined networking, Software as a service Israel Ido Susan, Hillel Kobrinsky Lenskart 2.5 May 2021 Retail India Peyush Bansal, Amit Chaudhary, Sumeet Kapahi Monzo 2.5 June 2019 Financial services United Kingdom Ualá 2.45 November 2019 Personal finance Argentina HoneyBook 2.4 November 2021 Financial services Israel / United States BitSight 2.4 September 2021 Cybersecurity United States Nagarjuna Venna, Stephen Boyer Exabeam 2.4 June 2021 Cybersecurity United States Paxos 2.4 April 2021 Cryptocurrency United States Mozido 2.39 October 2014 E-commerce United States Wemakeprice 2.33 September 2015 E-commerce South Korea Huh Min Highspot 2.3 February 2021 Sales United States MPL 2.3 September 2021 Mobile gaming India Uptake 2.3 November 2017 Asset performance management United States Algolia 2.25 June 2021 Software France / United States KeepTruckin 2.25 June 2021 Logistics United States Via Transportation 2.25 March 2020 Transportation United States Zume 2.25 November 2018 Food packaging, Logistics United States Alex Garden, Julia Collins Acorns 2.2 May 2021 Financial technology United States Bitso 2.2 May 2021 Cryptocurrency Mexico Gympass 2.2 June 2021 Fitness Brazil / United States Transmit Security 2.2 June 2021 Cybersecurity Israel / United States Addepar 2.17 June 2021 Financial technology United States Eightfold.ai 2.1+ June 2021 Artificial intelligence United States PayFit 2.1 January 2022 (2022-01) Software France Ghislain de Fontenay, Firmin Zoccchetto, Florian Fournier 6sense 2.1 March 2021 Artificial intelligence United States C6 Bank  2.1 December 2020 Financial services Brazil Mambu 2.1 January 2021 Financial technology Germany Moveworks 2.1 June 2021 Artificial intelligence United States Nextdoor 2.1 May 2019 Social network United States Webflow 2.1 January 2021 Web development United States bKash 2+ November 2021 Mobile financial services Bangladesh Kamal Quadir Babylon Health 2+ August 2019 Healthcare United Kingdom Bought By Many 2+ June 2021 Insurance United Kingdom FlixMobility 2+ August 2019 Transportation Germany / France Tipalti 2+ October 2020 Financial technology United States / Israel XtalPi 2+ August 2021 Pharmaceuticals China Figure AI 2 February 2024 Humanoid robotics United States Hive 2 April 2021 Artificial intelligence United States Kevin Guo, Dmitriy Karpman Mural 2 July 2021 Technology Argentina / United States Patricio Jutard Aiven 2 October 2021 Data infrastructure Finland AppsFlyer 2 November 2020 Mobile marketing analytics Israel / United States Beijing Weiying Technology 2 April 2016 E-commerce, movie ticket distributor China BlaBlaCar 2 April 2021 Transportation France Calm 2 December 2020 Digital health United States Michael Acton Smith, Alex Tew Clearco 2 April 2021 Financial services Canada ClickHouse 2 October 2021 Database management United States Clip 2 June 2021 Financial technology Mexico Cockroach Labs 2 January 2021 Database management United States Cognition AI 2 April 2024 Artificial intelligence United States Scott Wu, Steven Hao, Walden Yan Divvy Homes 2 August 2021 Real estate technology United States Druva 2 April 2021 Cloud computing India / United States Exotec 2 August 2022 Robotics France Firstp2p 2 September 2016 Financial services China Formlabs 2 May 2021 3D printing United States Huimin.cn 2 September 2016 B2B e-commerce China Iterable 2 June 2021 Marketing United States Kry 2 April 2021 Healthcare Sweden Meicai.cn 2 June 2016 Agriculture, E-commerce China Mynt 2 November 2021 Financial technology Philippines OPay 2 August 2021 Financial technology Nigeria Oxford Nanopore Technologies 2 November 2012 Nanopore sequencing United Kingdom Sword Health 2 November 2021 Health Portugal / United States Taopiaopiao 2 July 2017 E-commerce, movie ticket distributor China Trendy International Group 2 February 2012 Fashion, Retail China / Hong Kong Unqork 2 October 2020 Software development United States Zerodha 2 May 2021 Financial technology India Zilch 2 November 2021 Financial technology United Kingdom Akulaku 2 February 2022 Financial technology Indonesia Ankorstore 1.98 August 2022 Marketplace France Avant 1.98 September 2015 Consumer finance United States Intarcia Therapeutics 1.95 September 2016 Pharmaceutical United States ThoughtSpot 1.95 August 2019 Analytics United States Yinlong Group 1.95 December 2016 Energy China Sanpower Group 1.93 March 2018 Holding company China ZigBang 1.93 June 2022 Property technology South Korea Bunq 1.9 July 2021 Financial services Netherlands CoinSwitch Kuber 1.9 October 2021 Cryptocurrency India Ashish Singhal, Vimal Sagar Tiwari, Govind Soni Dfinity 1.9 August 2018 Cloud computing Switzerland Prosper Marketplace 1.9 August 2015 Financial technology United States Musinsa 1.89 November 2019 Fashion South Korea Apus Group 1.85 August 2017 Mobile internet China BenevolentAI 1.85 August 2015 Drug discovery United Kingdom MEGAZONE 1.83 Aug 2022 Cloud computing South Korea BillDesk 1.8 November 2018 Financial technology India M.N. Srinivasu, Ajay Kaushal, Karthik Ganapathy Landa Digital Printing 1.8 June 2018 Printing Israel Lightricks 1.8 September 2021 Software development Israel NantOmics 1.8 June 2015 Biotechnology United States Orca Security 1.8 October 2021 Cybersecurity Israel Quora 1.8 April 2017 Social network United States Zocdoc 1.8 August 2015 Healthcare United States L&P Cosmetic 1.78 March 2018 Cosmetics South Korea Creditas  1.75 December 2020 Financial services Brazil Spinny 1.75 November 2021 Marketplace India Niraj Singh, Ramanshu Mahaur, Ganesh Pawar, Mohit Gupta Trulioo 1.75 June 2021 Identity management Canada ADVASA 1.7 January 2023 Software Japan Dragos 1.7 October 2021 Cybersecurity United States dutchie 1.7 March 2021 Cannabis United States GVE 1.7 January 2023 Software Japan Harness 1.7 June 2021 Software United States Jyoti Bansal PAX Labs 1.7 April 2019 Cannabis United States Taihe Music Group 1.7 June 2018 China Vestiaire Collective 1.7 September 2021 Marketplace France Voodoo 1.7 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services France Charles Egly, Geoffroy Guigou Former unicorns These companies were formerly unicorns, but exited the list due to IPO or acquisitions by a company or by a Group of Companies Company Last valuation(US$billions) Valuation date Exit date Exit reason Exit valuation(US$billions) Country Founders Uber 72 August 2018 May 2019 IPO 82.4 United States Travis Kalanick, Garett Camp DiDi 62 July 2019 June 2021 IPO 73 China Cheng Wei Facebook 50 January 2011 May 2012 IPO 104 United States Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Chris Hughes, Dustin Moskovitz Xiaomi 45 April 2015 July 2018 IPO 70 China Lei Jun Alibaba 42 June 2016 September 2014 IPO 238 China Jack Ma Lufax 39.4 March 2019 October 2020 IPO 33 China UiPath 35 February 2021 April 2021 IPO 29 United States / Romania Daniel Dines and Marius Tîrcă Airbnb 31 March 2017 December 2020 IPO 100 United States Brian Chesky, Nathan Blecharczyk, Joe Gebbia Nubank 30 June 2021 December 2021 IPO 45 Brazil David Velez, Edward Wible, Cristina Junqueira Meituan-Dianping 30.0 October 2017 September 2018 IPO 53 China Kuaishou 28 December 2019 January 2021 IPO 60.9 China Su Hua, Cheng Yixiao Instacart 24 March 2022 (2022-03) September 2023 IPO 11 United States Apoorva Mehta, Max Mullen, Brandon Leonardo Flipkart 15.5 May 2015 May 2018 Acquired 22 India Sachin Bansal, Binny Bansal DoorDash 16 June 2020 December 2020 IPO 32.4 United States Tony Xu, Stanley Tang, Andy Fang and Evan Moore CATL 20.0 March 2018 June 2018 IPO 12.3 China Snap Inc 19.3 May 2016 March 2017 IPO 24 United States Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy, Reggie Brown Tencent Music 18 January 2018 December 2018 IPO 21.3 China J&T Express 20 October 2023 October 2023 IPO 20 Indonesia Jet Lee, Tony Chen Paytm 3.2 February 2024 November 2021 IPO 20 India Vijay Shekhar Sharma Lyft 15.1 June 2018 March 2019 IPO 24.0 United States Logan Green, John Zimmer Adyen 15.1 March 2018 June 2018 IPO 8.3 Netherlands Pieter van der Does, Arnout Schuijff Pinduoduo 15 April 2018 July 2018 IPO 60 China Colin Huang Grab 14 March 2019 December 2021 SPAC merger 40 Singapore Anthony Tan, Tan Hooi Ling Pinterest 13.0 July 2018 April 2019 IPO 10.0 United States Ben Silbermann, Paul Sciarra, Evan Sharp Snowflake 12.4 Feb 2020 Dec 2020 IPO 33 United States Benoit Dageville, Thierry Cruanes, Marcin Zukowski Robinhood 11.7 September 2020 July 2021 IPO 26.7 United States Vladimir Tenev, Baiju Bhatt Dropbox 10 January 2014 March 2018 IPO 12 United States Drew Houston, Arash Ferdowsi Squarespace 10 March 2021 May 2021 Direct listing 7.4 United States Anthony Casalena Gojek 10 April 2019 May 2021 Merger to GoTo 10.5 Indonesia Nadiem Makarim, Kevin Aluwi Zynga 9.1 February 2011 December 2011 IPO 7 United States Mark Pincus, Eric Schiermeyer, Justin Waldron, Michael Luxton, Steve Schoettler, and Andrew Trader Coupang 9 November 2018 March 2021 IPO 58 South Korea Bom Kim Spotify 8.53 March 2016 April 2018 Direct listing 30 Sweden Daniel Ek, Martin Lorentzon Skype 8.5 May 2011 September 2015 Acquired 2.6 Sweden Niklas Zennström and Janus Friis Toast 8 November 2020 September 2021 IPO 20 United States Twitter 8 September 2011 November 2013 IPO 14.2 United States Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, Evan Williams Coinbase 8 October 2018 April 2021 IPO 65 United States Brian Armstrong, Fred Ehrsam Argo AI 7.25 July 2020 October 2022 Defunct United States Bryan Salesky and Peter Rander Tokopedia 7 December 2018 May 2021 Merger to GoTo 7.5 Indonesia William Tanuwijaya, Leontinus Alpha Edison Deliveroo 7.0 January 2021 March 2021 IPO 10.5 United Kingdom Will Shu, Greg Orlowski Roivant Sciences 7 November 2018 September 2021 SPAC merger 7.3 Switzerland Slack Technologies 7.0 August 2018 IPO United States Stewart Butterfield, Cal Henderson WeWork 7 November 2019 October 2021 SPAC merger 9 United States Adam Newmann, Miguel McKelvey Compass, Inc. 6.4 July 2019 April 2021 IPO 7.0 United States Gitlab 6 January 2021 October 2021 IPO 17 Ukraine Dmytro Zaporozhets; Sytse "Sid" Sijbrandij Square 6 October 2014 November 2015 IPO 3.6 United States Jack Dorsey, Jim McKelvey SoFi 6 May 2020 May 2021 SPAC merger 8.65 United States Zomato 5.4 February 2021 July 2021 IPO 8.7 India Deepinder Goyal Samsara 5.4 May 2020 December 2021 IPO 11.6 United States Sanjit Biswas, John Bicket Stemcentrx 5 September 2015 April 2016 Acquired 5.8 United States dLocal 5.0 April 2021 June 2021 IPO 6.1 Uruguay Groupon 4.75 December 2010 November 2011 IPO 13 United States Eric Lefkofsky, Brad Keywell, Andrew Mason Krafton 5 August 2021 August 2021 IPO 25 South Korea Confluent 4.5 April 2020 June 2021 IPO 9 United States Jay Kreps, Neha Narkhede, Jun Rao Ucar 4.4 March 2017 July 2016 IPO 5.5 China Zalando 4.03 November 2013 October 2014 IPO 6.7 Germany Amplitude 4 June 2021 September 2021 IPO 5 United States Peloton 4.0 August 2018 September 2019 IPO 8.1 United States Credit Karma 4 March 2018 December 2020 Acquired 8.1 United States Ginkgo Bioworks 4 September 2019 September 2021 SPAC merger 2.5 United States Lending Club 3.8 August 2014 December 2014 IPO 8.5 United States Renaud Laplanche Sea Limited 3.7 March 2016 October 2017 IPO 5.3 Singapore Freshworks 3.5 November 2019 September 2021 IPO 10.13 India / United States Girish Mathrubootham, Shan Krishnasamy Bukalapak 3.5 April 2021 August 2021 IPO 6 Indonesia Achmad Zaky, Fajrin Rasyid, Nugroho Herucahyono Wise 3.5 May 2019 July 2021 Direct listing 11 United Kingdom Zhihu 3.5 August 2019 March 2021 IPO 5.3 China Atlassian 3.3 April 2014 December 2015 IPO 7.02 Australia e-Shang Redwood 3.25 July 2017 October 2019 IPO 6.7 China Udemy 3.25 November 2020 October 2021 IPO 4 United States Oktay Caglar, Gagan Biyani, Eren Bali SmileDirectClub 3.2 October 2018 September 2019 IPO 8.9 United States Zoox 3.2 July 2018 July 2020 Acquired 1.3 United States Tim Kentley-Klay, Jesse Levinson Oscar Health 3.2 March 2018 March 2021 IPO 7.9 United States Cloudflare 3 March 2019 September 2019 IPO 4 United States Matthew Prince, Lee Holloway, and Michelle Zatlyn Delhivery 3 May 2021 May 2022 IPO 4.6 India Pure Storage 3 August 2014 October 2015 IPO 3.1 United States Maoyan 3.0 November 2017 January 2019 IPO 2.2 China Jia.com 3 February 2015 July 2018 IPO 0.74 China Mogu 3 January 2016 December 2018 IPO 1.3 China Paytm Mall 3 July 2019 May 2022 Devaluation 0.013 India Luckin Coffee 2.9 April 2019 May 2019 IPO China Lu Zhengyao, Jenny Qian Zhiya Pivotal 2.8 May 2016 April 2018 IPO 3.9 United States Monday.com 2.7 May 2020 June 2021 IPO 6.8 Israel Roy Mann, Eran Kampf and Eran Zinman Cazoo 2.6 September 2020 August 2021 SPAC merger 8 United Kingdom Woowa Brothers 2.6 March 2018 December 2019 Acquired 4 South Korea Ucommune 2.6 August 2018 November 2020 SPAC merger 0.769 China Coursera 2.5 July 2020 March 2021 IPO 4.3 United States Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller Cambricon 2.5 June 2018 June 2020 IPO China The Hut Group 2.5 August 2017 September 2020 IPO 5.8 United Kingdom Postmates 2.4 September 2019 December 2020 Acquired 2.65 United States Box 2.4 July 2014 January 2015 IPO 1.67 United States Aaron Levie, Dylan Smith, Sam Ghods, Jeff Queisser Mercari 2.4 March 2018 June 2018 IPO 3.7 Japan Kingsoft 2.4 January 2018 May 2020 IPO 3.7 China Sportradar 2.4 July 2018 September 2021 IPO 21 Switzerland PolicyBazaar 2.4 March 2021 November 2021 IPO 6 India Yashish Dahiya, Alok Bansal, Avaneesh Nirjar GoPro 2.25 December 2012 June 2014 IPO 2.96 United States Nick Woodman Babytree 2.19 May 2018 November 2018 IPO 1.47 China Roku, Inc. 2.1 September 2017 September 2017 IPO 2.1 United States Anthony Wood Three Squirrels 2.09 September 2015 July 2019 IPO 0.86 China AppDynamics 2.05 November 2015 January 2017 Acquired 3.7 United States AvidXchange 2 January 2020 October 2021 IPO 4.9 United States Wayfair 2 March 2014 October 2014 IPO 2.4 United States NantHealth 2 January 2016 June 2016 IPO 1.7 United States Meitu 2 December 2014 December 2016 IPO 4.6 China Nutanix 2 September 2016 September 2016 IPO 2.21 United States Uxin 2.0 January 2017 June 2018 IPO China Careem 2 October 2018 March 2019 Acquired 3.1 United Arab Emirates/Pakistan Mudassir Sheikha, Magnus Olsson AppLovin 2 July 2018 April 2021 IPO 28.6 United States ReNew Power 2 February 2017 August 2021 SPAC merger 4.5 India Sumant Sinha Deliverr 2 November 2021 May 2022 Acquired 2.1 United States Harish Abbott, Michael Krakaris Auth0 1.92 July 2020 March 2021 Acquired 6.5 Argentina / United States Mobileye 1.9 July 2013 August 2014 IPO 7.6 Israel WalkMe 1.9 December 2019 June 2021 IPO 2.6 Israel / United States Avito.ru 1.82 February 2014 January 2019 Acquired 1.16 Russia 23andMe 1.75 September 2017 June 2021 SPAC merger 3.5 United States IronSource 1.75 October 2019 June 2021 SPAC merger 11 Israel MedMen 1.65 February 2018 May 2018 Reverse takeover 2.0 United States Better Place 1.6 November 2012 July 2013 Acquired 0.012 United States Loom 1.53 May 2021 Video messaging Acquired 0.975 United States Farfetch 1.5 May 2016 September 2018 IPO 6.2 Portugal / United Kingdom Freshly 1.5 October 2020 October 2020 Acquired 1.5 United States MuleSoft 1.5 May 2015 March 2015 IPO, Acquired 6.5 United States Jet.com 1.5 November 2015 August 2016 Acquired 3.3 United States LivingSocial 1.5 February 2013 October 2016 Acquired United States WhatsApp 1.5 July 2013 February 2014 Acquired 19 United States Brian Acton, Jan Koum Lakala 1.5 June 2015 April 2019 IPO China UCloud 1.5 June 2018 January 2020 IPO 1.9 China One Medical 1.5 August 2018 January 2020 IPO 1.7 United States Quikr 1.5 October 2015 February 2020 Devalued 0.57 India Pranay Chulet Letgo 1.5 August 2018 March 2020 Acquired Spain / United States Ninebot 1.5 October 2017 October 2020 IPO China DouYu 1.5 March 2018 July 2019 IPO 3.73 China Proteus Digital Health 1.5 February 2016 July 2020 Bankruptcy United States Duolingo 1.5 December 2019 July 2021 IPO 3.6 United States Tuandaiwang 1.46 May 2017 April 2019 Bankruptcy China HomeAway 1.4 October 2010 November 2016 Acquired 3.9 United States Hike Messenger 1.4 August 2016 January 2021 Defunct India Kavin Bharti Mittal Deezer 1.4 January 2016 September 2016 Acquired France Jasper 1.35 April 2014 February 2016 Acquired 1.4 United States Paidy 1.32 March 2021 September 2021 Acquired 2.7 Japan eFront 1.3 March 2019 May 2019 Acquired 1.3 France Sonder Corp. 1.3 July 2020 January 2022 SPAC merger 1.9 United States Sunrun 1.3 July 2016 August 2015 IPO 1.4 United States Solstice 1.7 July 2018 December 2009 Acquired 1.3 United States Darktrace 1.25 May 2018 April 2021 IPO 2.37 United Kingdom Okta 1.2 March 2017 April 2017 IPO 2.1 United States Good Technology 1.2 September 2014 September 2015 Acquired 0.425 United States BigBasket 1.2 March 2019 February 2021 Acquired by TATA Group IPO (coming soon by 2024 - 2025 FY) 1.8 India V. S. Sudhakar, Hari Menon, Vipul Parekh, Abhinay Choudhari, V. S. Ramesh Nykaa 1.2 April 2020 November 2021 IPO 7.4 India Falguni Nayar HeadSpin 1.16 February 2020 August 2020 Devalued 0.25 United States Fab 1.15 August 2013 March 2015 Acquired 0.015 United States Gilt Groupe 1.15 February 2015 January 2016 Acquired 0.25 United States Vonage 1.11 August 2014 May 2006 IPO 2.65 United States ShopClues 1.1 January 2016 October 2019 Acquired 0.1 India Sanjay Sethi, Sandeep Aggarwal, Radhika Aggarwal Global Fashion Group 1.1 July 2016 July 2019 IPO Luxembourg TuSimple 1.1 February 2019 April 2021 IPO 8.5 United States Wheels Up 1.1 August 2019 July 2021 SPAC merger 2.1 United States Zulily 1.09 November 2012 October 2015 Acquired 2.4 United States Coupa 1.08 June 2015 October 2016 IPO 1.68 United States LinkedIn 1.06 February 2016 May 2011 IPO 4.3 United States Reid Hoffman, Eric Ly Twilio 1.03 July 2015 June 2016 IPO 1.2 United States Jeff Lawson, John Wolthuis, Evan Cooke SimpliVity 1.03 March 2015 January 2017 Acquired 0.65 United States Coveo 1.1 November 2019 November 2021 IPO 1.7 Canada Kabam 1+ December 2016 February 2017 Acquired 0.8 Canada Rent the Runway 1+ March 2019 October 2021 IPO 1.4 United States Zoom 1 January 2017 April 2019 IPO 9.0 United States Shopify 1 December 2013 May 2015 IPO 1.3 Canada Tobias Lütke, Scott Lake Truecaller 1 July 2015 October 2021 IPO 2 Sweden Alan Mamedi and Nami Zarringhalam Kik 1+ August 2015 October 2019 Acquired Canada AirWatch 1 May 2013 January 2014 Acquired 1.54 United States Lynda.com 1 January 2015 April 2015 Acquired 1.5 United States New Relic 1 April 2014 December 2014 IPO 1.42 United States Quotient Technology 1 April 2016 March 2014 IPO 1.17 United States Shape Security 1 September 2019 December 2019 Acquired 1 United States Futu Holdings 1+ June 2017 March 2019 IPO China Peak Games 1+ May 2020 Acquired 1.8 Turkey Skyscanner 1.6 February 2016 November 2016 Acquired 1.74 United Kingdom Blue Apron 2 January 2015 June 2017 IPO 2 United States Stitch Fix November 2017 IPO 1.5 United States Shazam 1 January 2015 December 2017 Acquired 0.4 United Kingdom Flywire 1+ February 2020 May 2021 IPO 2.4 United States Mobike 3 July 2017 April 2018 Acquired 2.7 China Ele.me 6.0 June 2017 April 2018 Acquired 9.5 China Duo Security 1.17 October 2017 August 2018 Acquired 2.35 United States Bloom Energy 2.83 January 2015 July 2018 IPO 1.6 United States Moderna Therapeutics 7.5 February 2018 December 2018 IPO 7.5 United States Vlocity 1.0 March 2019 February 2020 Acquired 1.33 United States JFrog 1+ October 2018 September 2020 IPO 3.9 Israel / United States Glovo 1+ December 2019 January 2022 Acquired 2.6 Spain Innovent Biologics 1+ April 2018 November 2018 IPO 2.1 China iTutorGroup 1+ August 2016 July 2019 Acquired China 9F 1+ March 2018 August 2019 IPO 2.1 China Fangdd.com 1+ September 2015 November 2019 IPO 1.2 China 36Kr Media 1+ December 2017 November 2019 IPO 0.67 China Fanli 1+ April 2015 March 2020 Direct listing China 17Zuoye 1+ March 2018 December 2020 IPO 2.2 China Zimi 1+ February 2015 March 2021 Acquired 0.4 China QingCloud 1+ June 2017 March 2021 IPO 0.46 China Novogene 1+ November 2016 April 2021 IPO China MissFresh 1+ December 2017 June 2021 IPO 2.5 China Essential Products 1+ August 2017 February 2020 Defunct United States References ^ a b c "The Billion Dollar Startup Club". 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unicorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicorn_(finance)"},{"link_name":"privately held","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privately_held_company"},{"link_name":"startup company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_company"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Fortune Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-2"},{"link_name":"CNNMoney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNNMoney"},{"link_name":"CB Insights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB_Insights"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"TechCrunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Tech in Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_in_Asia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techinasia.com-7"}],"text":"This is an incomplete list of unicorn startup companies.In finance, a unicorn is a privately held startup company with a current valuation of USD 1 billion or more.Notable lists of unicorn companies are maintained by The Wall Street Journal,[1] Fortune Magazine,[2] CNNMoney/CB Insights,[3][4] TechCrunch,[5] PitchBook/Morningstar,[6] and Tech in Asia.[7]","title":"List of unicorn startup companies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpaceX_Demo-2_Launch_(NHQ202005300044)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"LC-39A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A"},{"link_name":"Demo-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demo-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instacart_delivery_on_a_countertop.jpg"},{"link_name":"Instacart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instacart"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fortnite_at_E3_2018_(42781993231).jpg"},{"link_name":"Epic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games"},{"link_name":"Fortnite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortnite"},{"link_name":"E3 2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Entertainment_Expo_2018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DJI_Phantom_2_Vision%2B_V3_hovering_over_Weissfluhjoch_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"DJI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJI_(company)"},{"link_name":"Phantom 2 Vision+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_(UAV)#Vision+"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bird_scooters_on_the_sidewalk_in_San_Jose.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_(company)"},{"link_name":"San Jose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"}],"text":"Unicorns are concentrated in developed and some developing global regions, including a few dozen countries. As per CB Insights, as of October 7, 2022, the number of unicorn startups in some developed and developing countries were as follows:[14]A SpaceX's Falcon 9 lifting off from LC-39A in May 2020, starting Demo-2\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tInstacart delivery of groceries on a countertop\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEpic's Fortnite exhibition space at E3 2018\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ V3 drone\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBird scooters on the sidewalk in San Jose","title":"List"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"}],"text":"These companies were formerly unicorns, but exited the list due to IPO or acquisitions by a company or by a Group of Companies","title":"Former unicorns"}]

[]

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at $17.5B following $400M in new funding\""},{"Link":"https://vegconomist.com/investments-finance/newly-crowned-unicorn-natures-fynd-to-reinvent-the-future-of-food-with-huge-new-facility/","external_links_name":"\"Newly-Crowned Unicorn Nature's Fynd to Reinvent the Future of Food With Huge New Facility - vegconomist - the vegan business magazine\""},{"Link":"https://finance.yahoo.com/news/turkeys-trendyol-raises-1-5-145514592.html","external_links_name":"\"Turkey's Trendyol raises $1.5 billion, valuing it at $16.5 billion\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2020/10/22/chinese-live-tutoring-app-yuanfudao-is-now-worth-15-5-billion/","external_links_name":"\"Chinese live tutoring app Yuanfudao is now worth $15.5 billion\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnbc.com/2021/09/22/discord-doubles-valuation-to-15-billion-in-new-funding-round.html","external_links_name":"\"Discord CEO on social audio app's next big spends after recent $500 million 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing

Huangdi Neijing

["1 Overview","2 Date of composition","3 Wang Bing version","4 Authoritative version","5 English translations","6 Modern Chinese translations and references","7 References","8 Bibliography","9 External links"]

Han dynasty medical treatise "Suwen" and "Su wen" redirect here. For the county in China, see Suwen County. A digitized copy of the Su Wen of the Huangdi Neijing for online reading Huangdi Neijing (simplified Chinese: 黄帝内经; traditional Chinese: 黃帝內經; pinyin: Huángdì Nèijīng), literally the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor or Esoteric Scripture of the Yellow Emperor, is an ancient Chinese medical text or group of texts that has been treated as a fundamental doctrinal source for Chinese medicine for more than two millennia. The work comprises two texts—each of eighty-one chapters or treatises in a question-and-answer format between the mythical Yellow Emperor and six of his equally legendary ministers. The first text, the Suwen (素問), also known as Basic Questions, covers the theoretical foundation of Chinese Medicine and its diagnostic methods. The second and generally less referred-to text, the Lingshu (靈樞; Spiritual Pivot), discusses acupuncture therapy in great detail. Collectively, these two texts are known as the Neijing or Huangdi Neijing. In practice, however, the title Neijing often refers only to the more influential Suwen. Two other texts also carried the prefix Huangdi Neijing in their titles: the Mingtang (明堂; Hall of Light) and the Taisu (太素; Grand Basis), both of which have survived only partially. The book was popular among Taoists. Overview The earliest mention of the Huangdi Neijing was in the bibliographical chapter of the Hanshu 漢書 (or Book of Han, completed in 111 CE), next to a Huangdi Waijing 黃帝外經 ("Outer Canon of the Yellow Emperor") that is now lost. A scholar-physician called Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐 (215–282 CE) was the first to claim that the Huangdi Neijing in 18 juan 卷 (or volumes) that was listed in the Hanshu bibliography corresponded with two different books that circulated in his own time: the Suwen and the Zhenjing 鍼經 ("Needling Canon"), each in 9 juan. Since scholars believe that Zhenjing was one of the Lingshu's earlier titles, they agree that the Han dynasty Huangdi Neijing was made of two different texts that are close in content to the works we know today as the Suwen and the Lingshu. The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic (Huangdi Neijing, 黃帝內經) is the most important ancient text in Chinese medicine as well as a major book of Daoist theory and lifestyle. The text is structured as a dialogue between the Yellow Emperor and one of his ministers or physicians, most commonly Qíbó (岐伯), but also Shàoyú (少俞). One possible reason for using this device was for the (anonymous) authors to avoid attribution and blame. The Neijing departs from the old shamanistic beliefs that disease was caused by "demonic influences" (邪气）which is to be interpreted as any disease causing element, be it virus, bacteria or carcinogen, which can further be categorised by imbalance in diet, lifestyle, emotions, environment and the premature aging, etc. According to the Neijing, the universe can be represented by various symbols and principles, such as yin and yang (--，—）, the wuxing （which must be interpreted as symbols no different than x,y, z or a, b, c in algebra), and qi. These systems of abstraction of natural phenomenon aid our understanding of natural processes of which human health is among. Man is a microcosm that mirrors the larger macrocosm. The principles of yin and yang, the five elements, the environmental factors of wind, damp, hot and cold and so on that are part of the macrocosm equally apply to the human microcosm. Traditional medicine is a way for man to maintain this balance. Date of composition Before archeological discoveries at Mawangdui, Hunan, in the 1970s, the work had been dated to between the Warring States period to as late as the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). However, excavations found medical texts that changed this opinion. Donald Harper, Vivienne Lo and Li Jianmin agree that the systematic medical theory in the Neijing shows significant variance from Mawangdui Silk Texts, which were sealed in a royal tomb in 168 BCE. Because of this, they consider the Neijing to have been compiled after the Mawangdui texts. Historian of science Nathan Sivin (University of Pennsylvania) concluded that the Suwen and Lingshu probably date to the first century BCE, far later than most scholars would have dated it before the discoveries at Mawangdui. Those medical texts also show that it is not one book, "but a collection of diverse writings, many of which disagree and some of which comment on others. He is also of the opinion that (as of 1998) "no available translation is reliable." They therefore challenge earlier arguments. Celestial Lancets (1980, by Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen) states that the consensus of scholarly opinion is that the Suwen belongs to the second century BCE, and cites evidence that the Suwen is earlier than the first of the pharmaceutical natural histories, the 神農本草經 Shennong Bencao Jing (Divine Farmer's Classic of the Materia Medica). So suggestive are parallels with third and fourth century BCE literature that doubt arises as to whether the Suwen might be better ascribed to the third century BCE, implying that certain portions may be of that date. The dominant role the theories of yin/yang and the five elements play in the physiology and pathology indicates that these medical theories are not older than about 320 BCE. The German scholar Paul U. Unschuld says several 20th-century scholars hypothesize that the language and ideas of the Neijing Suwen were composed between 400 BCE and 260 CE, and provides evidence that only a small portion of the received text transmits concepts from before the second century BCE. The work subsequently underwent major editorial changes. Du Fu, a fourteenth-century literary critic, was of the opinion that the Suwen was compiled by several authors over a long period. Its contents were then brought together by Confucian scholars in the Han dynasty era. Wang Bing version In 762 CE, Wang Bing finished his revision of the Suwen after labouring for twelve years. Wang Bing collected the various versions and fragments of the Suwen and reorganized it into the present eighty-one chapters (treatises) format. Treatises seventy-two and seventy-three are lost and only the titles are known. Originally his changes were all done in red ink, but later copyists incorporated some of his additions into the main text. However, the 1053 version discussed below restored almost all of his annotations and they are now written in small characters next to the larger characters that comprise the main or unannotated Suwen text. See Unschuld, pages 40 and 44.) According to Unschuld (pages 39 and 62) Wang Bing's version of the Suwen was based on Quan Yuanqi's (early sixth century) commented version of the Suwen consisting of nine juan (books) and sixty-nine discourses. Wang Bing made corrections, added two "lost" discourses, added seven comprehensive discourses on the five phases and six qi, inserted over 5000 commentaries and reorganized the text into twenty-four juan (books) and eighty-one treatises. In his preface to his version of the Suwen, Wang Bing goes into great detail listing the changes he made. (See Veith, Appendix II and Unschuld pages 41–43.) Not much is known about Wang Bing's life but he authored several books. A note in the preface left by the later editors of the Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen (version compiled by 1053 editorial committee) which was based on an entry in Tang Ren Wu Zhi (Record on Tang Personalities) states that he was an official with the rank of tai pu ling and died after a long life of more than eighty years. Authoritative version The "authoritative version" used today, Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen 重廣補註黃帝內經素問 (Huangdi Neijing Suwen: Again Broadly Corrected Annotated), is the product of the eleventh-century Imperial Editorial Office (beginning in 1053 CE) and was based considerably on Wang Bing's 762 CE version. Some of the leading scholars who worked on this version of the Suwen were 林億 Lin Yi, 孫奇 Sun Qi, 高保衡 Gao Baoheng and 孫兆 Sun Zhao. For images of the Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen printed in the Ming dynasty, (1368–1644 CE) see the external links section below. English translations Sinological Translations Handbooks for Daoist Practice, translated by Louis Komjathy. Ten volume set of pamphlets, where volume three of the set is Yellow Thearch's Basic Questions. Only the first two discourses out of the total eighty-one are translated. Beginning in 2003, the Sinlogists and scholars of Chinese medical history Paul Unschuld, Hermann Tessenow and their team at the Institute for the History of Medicine at Munich University published several volumes of translation and scholarly apparatus. the Neijing Suwen, including an analysis of the historical and structural layers of the Suwen. TCM Style Translations The Medical Classic of the Yellow Emperor, translated by Zhu Ming, Foreign Language Press, Beijing, China, 2001, 302 pages. ISBN 7-119-02664-X. An edited version of the Neijing with the treatises reordered by topic. About a 20–25 percent of the Neijing (both Suwen and Lingshu) is translated. Includes annotations and commentaries by translator. Yellow Empero's Canon of Internal Medicine (stated to be Wang Bing's version, but a quick examination shows it to appear to be identical to the authoritative version, but without the commentary), translated by Nelson Liansheng Wu and Andrew Qi Wu. China Science & Technology Press, Beijing, China, 1999, 831 pages. ISBN 7-5046-2231-1. Complete translation of both Suwen and Lingshu. Contains the Neijing text in simplified Chinese characters, along with alternate variants of Neijing text also in simplified characters. The alternate variants of the Neijing are not translated, only the main version is translated. None of the commentary by Wang Bing is translated. Medical History Translations Huang Di nei jing su wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text, Unschuld, Paul U., 2003. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. ISBN 0-520-23322-0. Analysis and history of the Suwen. Includes significant portions of the Suwen translated into English. The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine, translated by Ilza Veith. University of California Press, December, 2002, 288 pages. ISBN 0-520-22936-3. Translation of: (1) Wang Bing's 762 CE preface, (2) the c. 1053 CE Imperial Office's preface, (3) a historical account of the Huangdi Suwen from chapter 103 of the 四庫全書總目提要 Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries: General Catalog with Abstracts) and (4) the first thirty-four chapters (treatises) of the Suwen. Includes an extensive introductory study with illustrations. The first published English translation of the Suwen. (Originally copyrighted in 1949.) Modern Chinese translations and references 黄帝內经素问校注语译 Huangdi Neijing Suwen Jiao Zhu Yu Yi (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic: Plain Questions – Critically Compared, Annotated and Translated), Guo Aichun, 1999, vi, 1296 pages. Tianjin Kexue Jishu Chubanshe (Tianjin Science and Technology Press), Tianjin, China. ISBN 7-5308-2114-8. Contains Neijing Suwen text in simplified characters, variants, annotations (both by present day author, Wang Bing and other sources) and Modern Chinese translation. Contains comprehensive index (220 pages) of Neijing Suwen terms. All Chinese in simplified characters. 黃帝內經詞典 Huangdi Neijing Cidian (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic Dictionary), Guo Aichun (editor-in-chief), 1991, vi, 1296 pages. Tianjin Kexue Jishu Chubanshe (Tianjin Science and Technology Press), Tianjin, China. ISBN 7-5308-0906-7. Dictionary of Neijing terms in simplified Chinese. 内經素問 Neijing Suwen (Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen version), 王冰 Wang Bing, 林億 Lin Yi, 孫奇 Sun Qi, 高保衡 Gao Boheng, 1965. Series: Sibu Beiyao. Zibu, volumes 409–410. Taibei Shi: Taiwan Zhonghua Shuju Mingguo (Taipei City: Taiwan China Press, Republic of China 54). OCLC control number: 24985568. (Note, this volume is in the zishu (zibu) division of the series. The zibu is one of the four traditional divisions of a Chinese library concerning works related to areas of education, Chinese medicine, agriculture, military strategy, astrology, mathematics and so on.) Contains Suwen, Wang Bing's annotations (in small characters) and annotations by 1053 CE Imperial Editorial Office, also in small characters. The Imperial Editorial Office annotations are proceeded by 新校正 xin jiao zheng (newly compared and corrected). All characters in traditional (complex) form. References ^ a b Title: The Su Wen of the Huangdi Neijing (Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor) ^ Sivin 1993, 197. ^ see pages 8–14 in Unschuld (2003) for an exposition of this. ^ a b Memory of the World: The Treasures That Record our History from 1700 BC to the Present Day (1st ed.). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 2012. p. 35. ISBN 978-92-3-104237-9. ^ Clayre, Alasdair (1985). The Heart of the Dragon (First American ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-395-35336-3. ^ Sivin (1988), p. 53, 68. ^ Needham, Gwei-Djen Lu, Joseph (2002-09-27). Celestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203462256/celestial-lancets-vivienne-lo-gwei-djen-lu-joseph-needham. ISBN 978-0-203-46225-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Unschuld, pp.1–3. ^ Sivin, p. 68. ^ Unschuld (2003), p. 1. ^ Unschuld (2003), pp. 24, 39 46. ^ See Unschuld (2003), page 40. Also Veith, Appendix I for a translation of an abstract from the 四庫全書總目提要 Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao about both the Huangdi Suwen and Wang Bing. ^ Unschuld (2003), pp. 33–66. ^ Unschuld (2003). ^ UnschuldTessenow (2008). ^ UnschuldTessenow (2011). Bibliography Lu, Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham (1980). Celestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa. New York, NY: Routledge/Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1458-8. Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao 四庫全書總目提要 (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries: General Catalog with Abstracts), ed. by Ji Yun 紀昀 (1724–1805), Yong Rong 永瑢 (1744–1790), 1782. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan 上海: 商務印書館, 1933). OCLC 23301089. Sivin, Nathan (1993). "Huang ti nei ching 黃帝內經." In Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, ed. by Michael Loewe. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press: 196–215. Sivin, Nathan (1988). "Science and Medicine in Imperial China—The State of the Field". The Journal of Asian Studies. 47 (1): 41–90. doi:10.2307/2056359. JSTOR 2056359. PMID 11617269. S2CID 26443679. ProQuest 1290553712. Sôma, Mitsuru; Kawabata, Kin-aki; Tanikawa, Kiyotaka (25 October 2004). "Units of Time in Ancient China and Japan". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 56 (5): 887–904. doi:10.1093/pasj/56.5.887. Unschuld, Paul U. (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen : Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text, with an Appendix, the Doctrine of the Five Periods and Six Qi in the Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520233220. ———; Tessenow, Hermann (2008). A Dictionary of the Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen. Berkekely, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520253582. ———; Tessenow, Hermann (2011). Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen : An Annotated Translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic - Basic Questions, Volume II, Chapters 53–71, and 74–81. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520266988. Veith, Ilza; translator (1972). The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine). Revised paperback edition. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02158-4. Wiseman, Nigel and Andy Ellis (1995). Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine: Zhong Yi Xue Ji Chu. Revised edition. Brookline, Mass.: Paradigm Publications. ISBN 0-912111-44-5. External links Online Neijing Suwen text in traditional characters (Big5 encoding). No details about text given, contains no notes or commentary. The Needham Research Institute is a centre for the study of the history of East Asian science, technology and medicine. Images of the Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen printed in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE) by Gu Congde Review of Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: Nature, Knowledge and Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text by Louis Komjathy, Boston University, September 21, 2004. "A brief overview of TCM in history and a chronology of important events and classic texts" Chapter 84. ‘Dreams Caused by the Counterflow Reversal of Yin and Yang’ from the Categorized Classic, the Leijing 类经, which is an annotation to the Huangdi Neijing. vteHan dynasty topicsHistory Chu–Han Contention (Feast at Swan Goose Gate) Lü Clan disturbance Rebellion of the Seven States Han dynasty in Inner Asia Han–Xiongnu War War of the Heavenly Horses Han conquest of Gojoseon Four Commanderies Southward expansion (Han–Minyue War Han conquest of Nanyue Han conquest of Dian First Chinese domination of Vietnam Trung sisters' rebellion Second Chinese domination of Vietnam) Xin dynasty Red Eyebrows and Lulin Chengjia Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions Way of the Five Pecks of Rice Yellow Turban Rebellion End of the Han dynasty Battle of Red Cliffs Society and culture Ban Gu Sima Qian Records of the Grand Historian Book of Han Book of the Later Han Records of the Three Kingdoms Flying Horse of Gansu Huainanzi Eight Immortals of Huainan Mawangdui Silk Texts Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals Yiwu Zhi Old Texts Han poetry Fu Eastern Han Chinese Government and military Ban Chao Ma Yuan Emperor list Family tree Three Lords and Nine Ministers Nine Ministers Three Ducal Ministers Kings Provinces and commanderies Protectorate of the Western Regions (Chief Official) Translation of government titles Economy Coinage Ancient Chinese coinage Silk Road Sino-Roman relations Science and technology Cai Lun Cai Yong Ding Huan Du Shi Hua Tuo Liu An Liu Xiang Liu Xin Luoxia Hong Sima Tan Wang Chong Zhang Heng Zhang Zhongjing Texts Balanced Discourse Book of Origins Book on Numbers and Computation Fangyan Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Huangdi Neijing Shuowen Jiezi Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders Zhoubi Suanjing vteHistory of medicine in ChinaTraditional Chinese medicine Chinese alchemy Meridian Neidan Yin and yang Daoism Qigong Taijiquan Medical texts Baopuzi Beiji qianjin yaofang Bencao gangmu Chifeng sui Huangdi bashiyi nanjing Huangdi neijing (Lingshu jing Taisu) Jingui yaolüe Liu Juanzi Guiyi Fang Maishu Shanghan lun Shennong bencao jing Wushi'er bingfang Xinxiu bencao Yaoxing lun Yinshu Yinyang shiyi mai jiujing Yinshan zhengyao Yuzuan yizong jinjian Zhubing yuanhou lun Zubi shiyi mai jiujing Zhenjiu dacheng Physicians Bian Que (401–310 BCE) Chunyu Yi (2nd-century BCE) Hua Tuo (140–208) Zhang Zhongjing (150–219) Huangfu Mi (215–282) Dong Feng (c. 3rd century) Ge Hong (283–343) Sun Simiao (581–682) Wang Weiyi (987–1067) Tang Shenwei (c. 1056–1093) Liu Wansu (1110–1200) Zhang Yuansu (c. 1151–1234) Zhang Congzheng (1156–1228) Song Ci (1186–1249) Wang Haogu (1200–1264) Wei Yilin (1277–1347) Zhu Zhenheng (1282–1358) Hu Sihui (fl. 1314–1330) Tuệ Tĩnh (1330–c. 1389) Tan Yunxian (1461–1554) Miao Xiyong (1546–1627) Zhang Jiebin (1563–1640) Xu Dachun (1693–1771) Tang Zonghai (1851–1897/1908) Zhang Xichun (1860–1933) Yu Yan (1879–1954) Cheng Dan'an (1899–1957) Portal: China Authority control databases International FAST VIAF National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Other IdRef

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For the county in China, see Suwen County.A digitized copy of the Su Wen of the Huangdi Neijing for online readingHuangdi Neijing (simplified Chinese: 黄帝内经; traditional Chinese: 黃帝內經; pinyin: Huángdì Nèijīng), literally the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor or Esoteric Scripture of the Yellow Emperor, is an ancient Chinese medical text or group of texts that has been treated as a fundamental doctrinal source for Chinese medicine for more than two millennia. The work comprises two texts—each of eighty-one chapters or treatises in a question-and-answer format between the mythical Yellow Emperor and six of his equally legendary ministers.The first text, the Suwen (素問), also known as Basic Questions,[1] covers the theoretical foundation of Chinese Medicine and its diagnostic methods. The second and generally less referred-to text, the Lingshu (靈樞; Spiritual Pivot), discusses acupuncture therapy in great detail. Collectively, these two texts are known as the Neijing or Huangdi Neijing. In practice, however, the title Neijing often refers only to the more influential Suwen.Two other texts also carried the prefix Huangdi Neijing in their titles: the Mingtang (明堂; Hall of Light) and the Taisu (太素; Grand Basis), both of which have survived only partially.The book was popular among Taoists.","title":"Huangdi Neijing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hanshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Huangfu Mi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangfu_Mi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Daoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoist"},{"link_name":"Qíbó","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibo"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"yin and yang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"wuxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The earliest mention of the Huangdi Neijing was in the bibliographical chapter of the Hanshu 漢書 (or Book of Han, completed in 111 CE), next to a Huangdi Waijing 黃帝外經 (\"Outer Canon of the Yellow Emperor\") that is now lost. A scholar-physician called Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐 (215–282 CE) was the first to claim that the Huangdi Neijing in 18 juan 卷 (or volumes) that was listed in the Hanshu bibliography corresponded with two different books that circulated in his own time: the Suwen and the Zhenjing 鍼經 (\"Needling Canon\"), each in 9 juan.[2] Since scholars believe that Zhenjing was one of the Lingshu's earlier titles, they agree that the Han dynasty Huangdi Neijing was made of two different texts that are close in content to the works we know today as the Suwen and the Lingshu.The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic (Huangdi Neijing, 黃帝內經) is the most important ancient text in Chinese medicine as well as a major book of Daoist theory and lifestyle. The text is structured as a dialogue between the Yellow Emperor and one of his ministers or physicians, most commonly Qíbó (岐伯), but also Shàoyú (少俞). One possible reason for using this device was for the (anonymous) authors to avoid attribution and blame.[3]The Neijing departs from the old shamanistic beliefs that disease was caused by \"demonic influences\" (邪气）which is to be interpreted as any disease causing element, be it virus, bacteria or carcinogen, which can further be categorised by imbalance in diet, lifestyle, emotions, environment and the premature aging, etc. According to the Neijing, the universe can be represented by various symbols and principles, such as yin and yang (--，—）,[4] the wuxing （which must be interpreted as symbols no different than x,y, z or a, b, c in algebra),[4] and qi.[5] These systems of abstraction of natural phenomenon aid our understanding of natural processes of which human health is among. Man is a microcosm that mirrors the larger macrocosm. The principles of yin and yang, the five elements, the environmental factors of wind, damp, hot and cold and so on that are part of the macrocosm equally apply to the human microcosm. Traditional medicine is a way for man to maintain this balance.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mawangdui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui"},{"link_name":"Hunan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunan"},{"link_name":"Warring States period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wdl-1"},{"link_name":"Mawangdui Silk Texts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Nathan Sivin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Sivin"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin198853,_68-6"},{"link_name":"Joseph Needham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham"},{"link_name":"Lu Gwei-djen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu_Gwei-djen"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Paul U. Unschuld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_U._Unschuld&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Du Fu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Fu"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuld20031-10"}],"text":"Before archeological discoveries at Mawangdui, Hunan, in the 1970s, the work had been dated to between the Warring States period to as late as the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).[1] However, excavations found medical texts that changed this opinion. Donald Harper, Vivienne Lo and Li Jianmin agree that the systematic medical theory in the Neijing shows significant variance from Mawangdui Silk Texts, which were sealed in a royal tomb in 168 BCE. Because of this, they consider the Neijing to have been compiled after the Mawangdui texts. [citation needed] Historian of science Nathan Sivin (University of Pennsylvania) concluded that the Suwen and Lingshu probably date to the first century BCE, far later than most scholars would have dated it before the discoveries at Mawangdui. Those medical texts also show that it is not one book, \"but a collection of diverse writings, many of which disagree and some of which comment on others. He is also of the opinion that (as of 1998) \"no available translation is reliable.\"[6]They therefore challenge earlier arguments. Celestial Lancets (1980, by Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen)[7] states that the consensus of scholarly opinion is that the Suwen belongs to the second century BCE, and cites evidence that the Suwen is earlier than the first of the pharmaceutical natural histories, the 神農本草經 Shennong Bencao Jing (Divine Farmer's Classic of the Materia Medica). So suggestive are parallels with third and fourth century BCE literature that doubt arises as to whether the Suwen might be better ascribed to the third century BCE, implying that certain portions may be of that date. The dominant role the theories of yin/yang and the five elements play in the physiology and pathology indicates that these medical theories are not older than about 320 BCE.The German scholar Paul U. Unschuld says several 20th-century scholars hypothesize that the language and ideas of the Neijing Suwen were composed between 400 BCE and 260 CE, and provides evidence that only a small portion of the received text transmits concepts from before the second century BCE.[8] The work subsequently underwent major editorial changes.[9]Du Fu, a fourteenth-century literary critic, was of the opinion that the Suwen was compiled by several authors over a long period. Its contents were then brought together by Confucian scholars in the Han dynasty era.[10]","title":"Date of composition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuld200324,_39_46-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"In 762 CE, Wang Bing finished his revision of the Suwen after labouring for twelve years. Wang Bing collected the various versions and fragments of the Suwen and reorganized it into the present eighty-one chapters (treatises) format. Treatises seventy-two and seventy-three are lost and only the titles are known. Originally his changes were all done in red ink, but later copyists incorporated some of his additions into the main text. However, the 1053 version discussed below restored almost all of his annotations and they are now written in small characters next to the larger characters that comprise the main or unannotated Suwen text. See Unschuld, pages 40 and 44.)According to Unschuld (pages 39 and 62) Wang Bing's version of the Suwen was based on Quan Yuanqi's (early sixth century) commented version of the Suwen consisting of nine juan (books) and sixty-nine discourses. Wang Bing made corrections, added two \"lost\" discourses, added seven comprehensive discourses on the five phases and six qi, inserted over 5000 commentaries and reorganized the text into twenty-four juan (books) and eighty-one treatises. [11]In his preface to his version of the Suwen, Wang Bing goes into great detail listing the changes he made. (See Veith, Appendix II and Unschuld pages 41–43.)Not much is known about Wang Bing's life but he authored several books. A note in the preface left by the later editors of the Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen (version compiled by 1053 editorial committee) which was based on an entry in Tang Ren Wu Zhi (Record on Tang [Dynasty] Personalities) states that he was an official with the rank of tai pu ling and died after a long life of more than eighty years.[12]","title":"Wang Bing version"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuld200333%E2%80%9366-13"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"}],"text":"The \"authoritative version\" used today, Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen 重廣補註黃帝內經素問 (Huangdi Neijing Suwen: Again Broadly Corrected [and] Annotated), is the product of the eleventh-century Imperial Editorial Office (beginning in 1053 CE) and was based considerably on Wang Bing's 762 CE version. [13] Some of the leading scholars who worked on this version of the Suwen were 林億 Lin Yi, 孫奇 Sun Qi, 高保衡 Gao Baoheng and 孫兆 Sun Zhao.For images of the Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen printed in the Ming dynasty, (1368–1644 CE) see the external links section below.","title":"Authoritative version"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese medical history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_medicine_history"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuld2003-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuldTessenow2008-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnschuldTessenow2011-16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7-119-02664-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-119-02664-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7-5046-2231-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5046-2231-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-23322-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23322-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-22936-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22936-3"}],"text":"Sinological TranslationsHandbooks for Daoist Practice, translated by Louis Komjathy. Ten volume set of pamphlets, where volume three of the set is Yellow Thearch's Basic Questions. Only the first two discourses out of the total eighty-one are translated.\nBeginning in 2003, the Sinlogists and scholars of Chinese medical history Paul Unschuld, Hermann Tessenow and their team at the Institute for the History of Medicine at Munich University published several volumes of translation and scholarly apparatus. the Neijing Suwen, including an analysis of the historical and structural layers of the Suwen. [14][15][16]TCM Style TranslationsThe Medical Classic of the Yellow Emperor, translated by Zhu Ming, Foreign Language Press, Beijing, China, 2001, 302 pages. ISBN 7-119-02664-X. An edited version of the Neijing with the treatises reordered by topic. About a 20–25 percent of the Neijing (both Suwen and Lingshu) is translated. Includes annotations and commentaries by translator.\nYellow Empero's [sic] Canon of Internal Medicine (stated to be Wang Bing's version, but a quick examination shows it to appear to be identical to the authoritative version, but without the commentary), translated by Nelson Liansheng Wu and Andrew Qi Wu. China Science & Technology Press, Beijing, China, 1999, 831 pages. ISBN 7-5046-2231-1. Complete translation of both Suwen and Lingshu. Contains the Neijing text in simplified Chinese characters, along with alternate variants of Neijing text also in simplified characters. The alternate variants of the Neijing are not translated, only the main version is translated. None of the commentary by Wang Bing is translated.Medical History TranslationsHuang Di nei jing su wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text, Unschuld, Paul U., 2003. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. ISBN 0-520-23322-0. Analysis and history of the Suwen. Includes significant portions of the Suwen translated into English.\nThe Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine, translated by Ilza Veith. University of California Press, December, 2002, 288 pages. ISBN 0-520-22936-3. Translation of: (1) Wang Bing's 762 CE preface, (2) the c. 1053 CE Imperial Office's preface, (3) a historical account of the Huangdi Suwen from chapter 103 of the 四庫全書總目提要 Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries: General Catalog with Abstracts) and (4) the first thirty-four chapters (treatises) of the Suwen. Includes an extensive introductory study with illustrations. The first published English translation of the Suwen. (Originally copyrighted in 1949.)","title":"English translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7-5308-2114-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5308-2114-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7-5308-0906-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5308-0906-7"},{"link_name":"what language is this?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Which_lang"}],"text":"黄帝內经素问校注语译 Huangdi Neijing Suwen Jiao Zhu Yu Yi (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic: Plain Questions – Critically Compared, Annotated and Translated), Guo Aichun, 1999, vi, 1296 pages. Tianjin Kexue Jishu Chubanshe (Tianjin Science and Technology Press), Tianjin, China. ISBN 7-5308-2114-8. Contains Neijing Suwen text in simplified characters, variants, annotations (both by present day author, Wang Bing and other sources) and Modern Chinese translation. Contains comprehensive index (220 pages) of Neijing Suwen terms. All Chinese in simplified characters.\n黃帝內經詞典 Huangdi Neijing Cidian (Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic Dictionary), Guo Aichun (editor-in-chief), 1991, vi, 1296 pages. Tianjin Kexue Jishu Chubanshe (Tianjin Science and Technology Press), Tianjin, China. ISBN 7-5308-0906-7. Dictionary of Neijing terms in simplified Chinese.\n内經素問 Neijing Suwen (Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing Suwen version), 王冰 Wang Bing, 林億 Lin Yi, 孫奇 Sun Qi, 高保衡 Gao Boheng, 1965. Series: Sibu Beiyao. Zibu, volumes 409–410. Taibei Shi: Taiwan Zhonghua Shuju Mingguo (Taipei City: Taiwan China Press, Republic of China 54). OCLC control number: 24985568. (Note, this volume is in the zishu (zibu[what language is this?]) division of the series. The zibu is one of the four traditional divisions of a Chinese library concerning works related to areas of education, Chinese medicine, agriculture, military strategy, astrology, mathematics and so on.) Contains Suwen, Wang Bing's annotations (in small characters) and annotations by 1053 CE Imperial Editorial Office, also in small characters. The Imperial Editorial Office annotations are proceeded by 新校正 xin jiao zheng (newly compared and corrected). All characters in traditional (complex) form.","title":"Modern Chinese translations and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7007-1458-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1458-8"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"23301089","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/23301089"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2056359","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2056359"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2056359","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2056359"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11617269","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11617269"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"26443679","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26443679"},{"link_name":"ProQuest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1290553712","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//search.proquest.com/docview/1290553712"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/pasj/56.5.887","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fpasj%2F56.5.887"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0520233220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520233220"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0520253582","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520253582"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780520266988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520266988"},{"link_name":"Veith, Ilza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilza_Veith"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-02158-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-02158-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-912111-44-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912111-44-5"}],"text":"Lu, Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham (1980). Celestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa. New York, NY: Routledge/Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1458-8.\nSiku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao 四庫全書總目提要 (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries: General Catalog with Abstracts), ed. by Ji Yun 紀昀 (1724–1805), Yong Rong 永瑢 (1744–1790), 1782. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan 上海: 商務印書館, 1933). OCLC 23301089.\nSivin, Nathan (1993). \"Huang ti nei ching 黃帝內經.\" In Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, ed. by Michael Loewe. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press: 196–215.\nSivin, Nathan (1988). \"Science and Medicine in Imperial China—The State of the Field\". The Journal of Asian Studies. 47 (1): 41–90. doi:10.2307/2056359. JSTOR 2056359. PMID 11617269. S2CID 26443679. ProQuest 1290553712.\nSôma, Mitsuru; Kawabata, Kin-aki; Tanikawa, Kiyotaka (25 October 2004). \"Units of Time in Ancient China and Japan\". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 56 (5): 887–904. doi:10.1093/pasj/56.5.887.\nUnschuld, Paul U. (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen : Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text, with an Appendix, the Doctrine of the Five Periods and Six Qi in the Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520233220.\n———; Tessenow, Hermann (2008). A Dictionary of the Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen. Berkekely, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520253582.\n———; Tessenow, Hermann (2011). Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen : An Annotated Translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic - Basic Questions, Volume II, Chapters 53–71, and 74–81. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520266988.\nVeith, Ilza; translator (1972). The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine). Revised paperback edition. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02158-4.\nWiseman, Nigel and Andy Ellis (1995). Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine: Zhong Yi Xue Ji Chu. Revised edition. Brookline, Mass.: Paradigm Publications. ISBN 0-912111-44-5.","title":"Bibliography"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mofetta

Mofetta

["1 See also","2 References"]

Point at which carbon dioxide escapes in a volcano Mofetta with gas bubbles in Soos National Nature Reserve near Skalná, Czech Republic Mofettas on the southeastern shore of the Laacher See, near Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany Mofetta (Italian from Latin mephītis, a pestilential exhalation) is a name applied to a volcanic discharge consisting chiefly of carbon dioxide, often associated with other vapours, representing the final phase of volcanic activity. The Oxford Dictionary of English lists mofetta as an archaic term for the modern word fumarole. The word is used in the plural as mofette, or, following the French fashion, mofettes. The volcanic vents yielding the emanations are themselves called mofette. They are not uncommon in Auvergne and in the Eifel, notably on the shore of the Laacher See; whilst other examples are furnished by the Grotta del Cane, near Pozzuoli, the Valley of Death in Java, the Death Gulch in the Yellowstone Park and the series of mofette in Romania's Harghita and Covasna counties. Depending on the mineral content of the different vapours, mofette may be used for therapeutic purposes as well. As carbon dioxide is heavier than the air, patients can use it as dry spa, if certain safety regulations are complied with. The first known record about mofetta treatment for injuries is from the sixteenth century, by Paracelsus. See also Fumarole References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mofettas.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mofetta". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Authority control databases: National Germany

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_input/output

Programmed input–output

["1 PIO mode in the ATA interface","1.1 PIO Mode 5","2 See also","3 References"]

Method of CPU communication with peripheral devices This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Programmed input–output" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Programmed input–output (also programmable input/output, programmed input/output, programmed I/O, PIO) is a method of data transmission, via input/output (I/O), between a central processing unit (CPU) and a peripheral device, such as a Parallel ATA storage device. Each data item transfer is initiated by an instruction in the program, involving the CPU for every transaction. In contrast, in direct memory access (DMA) operations, the CPU is uninvolved in the data transfer. The term can refer to either memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) or port-mapped I/O (PMIO). PMIO refers to transfers using a special address space outside of normal memory, usually accessed with dedicated instructions, such as IN and OUT in x86 architectures. MMIO refers to transfers to I/O devices that are mapped into the normal address space available to the program. PMIO was very useful for early microprocessors with small address spaces, since the valuable resource was not consumed by the I/O devices. The best known example of a PC device that uses programmed I/O is the Parallel AT Attachment (PATA) interface; however, the AT Attachment interface can also be operated in any of several DMA modes. Many older devices in a PC also use PIO, including legacy serial ports, legacy parallel ports when not in ECP mode, keyboard and mouse PS/2 ports, legacy MIDI and joystick ports, the interval timer, and older network interfaces. PIO mode in the ATA interface The PIO interface is grouped into different modes that correspond to different transfer rates. The electrical signaling among the different modes is similar — only the cycle time between transactions is reduced in order to achieve a higher transfer rate. All ATA devices support the slowest mode — Mode 0. By accessing the information registers (using Mode 0) on an ATA drive, the CPU is able to determine the maximum transfer rate for the device and configure the ATA controller for optimal performance. The PIO modes require a great deal of CPU overhead to configure a data transaction and transfer the data. Because of this inefficiency, the DMA (and eventually Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA) interface was created to increase performance. The simple digital logic needed to implement a PIO transfer still makes this transfer method useful today, especially if high transfer rates are unneeded as in embedded systems, or with field-programmable gate array (FPGA) chips, where PIO mode can be used with no significant performance loss. Two additional advanced timing modes have been defined in the CompactFlash specification 2.0. Those are PIO modes 5 and 6. They are specific to CompactFlash. PIO modes Mode Maximum transfer rate (MB/s) Minimum cycle time Standard where spec is defined Mode 0 3.3 600 ns ATA-1 Mode 1 5.2 383 ns ATA-1 Mode 2 8.3 240 ns ATA-1 Mode 3 11.1 180 ns ATA-2 Mode 4 16.7 120 ns ATA-2 Mode 5 20 100 ns CompactFlash 2.0 Mode 6 25 80 ns CompactFlash 2.0 PIO Mode 5 A PIO Mode 5 was proposed with operation at 22 MB/s, but was never implemented on hard disks because CPUs of the time would have been crippled waiting for the hard disk at the proposed PIO 5 timings, and the DMA standard ultimately obviated it. While no hard disk drive was ever manufactured to support this mode, some motherboard manufacturers preemptively provided BIOS support for it. PIO Mode 5 can be used with CompactFlash cards connected to ATA via CF-to-ATA adapters. See also WDMA (computer) – single/multi-word DMA AT Attachment – ATA specification Input/output Interrupt List of device bandwidths CompactFlash References ^ Hayes, John P. (1978). Computer Architecture and Organization. McGraw-Hill International Book Company. p. 419. ISBN 0-07-027363-4. ^ Stallings, William (2012). Computer Organization and Architecture (9th ed.). Pearson. ^ Chen, Joseph (January 10, 1995). "Proposed 22 MByte/Sec ATA Timing Extension for ATA-3" (PDF). T10.org. Technical Committee T10 (X3T10). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 20, 2010. Retrieved February 19, 2020.

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Each data item transfer is initiated by an instruction in the program, involving the CPU for every transaction. In contrast, in direct memory access (DMA) operations, the CPU is uninvolved in the data transfer.The term can refer to either memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) or port-mapped I/O (PMIO). PMIO refers to transfers using a special address space outside of normal memory, usually accessed with dedicated instructions, such as IN and OUT in x86 architectures. MMIO[2] refers to transfers to I/O devices that are mapped into the normal address space available to the program. PMIO was very useful for early microprocessors with small address spaces, since the valuable resource was not consumed by the I/O devices.The best known example of a PC device that uses programmed I/O is the Parallel AT Attachment (PATA) interface; however, the AT Attachment interface can also be operated in any of several DMA modes. Many older devices in a PC also use PIO, including legacy serial ports, legacy parallel ports when not in ECP mode, keyboard and mouse PS/2 ports, legacy MIDI and joystick ports, the interval timer, and older network interfaces.","title":"Programmed input–output"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"transfer rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_rate"},{"link_name":"electrical signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_signal"},{"link_name":"UDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UDMA"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"field-programmable gate array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array"},{"link_name":"CompactFlash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactFlash"}],"text":"The PIO interface is grouped into different modes that correspond to different transfer rates. The electrical signaling among the different modes is similar — only the cycle time between transactions is reduced in order to achieve a higher transfer rate. All ATA devices support the slowest mode — Mode 0. By accessing the information registers (using Mode 0) on an ATA drive, the CPU is able to determine the maximum transfer rate for the device and configure the ATA controller for optimal performance.The PIO modes require a great deal of CPU overhead to configure a data transaction and transfer the data. Because of this inefficiency, the DMA (and eventually Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA) interface was created to increase performance. The simple digital logic needed to implement a PIO transfer still makes this transfer method useful today, especially if high transfer rates are unneeded as in embedded systems, or with field-programmable gate array (FPGA) chips, where PIO mode can be used with no significant performance loss.Two additional advanced timing modes have been defined in the CompactFlash specification 2.0. Those are PIO modes 5 and 6. They are specific to CompactFlash.","title":"PIO mode in the ATA interface"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATA_Timing_Extension_For_ATA-3-3"},{"link_name":"DMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_memory_access"},{"link_name":"hard disk drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"}],"sub_title":"PIO Mode 5","text":"A PIO Mode 5 was proposed[3] with operation at 22 MB/s, but was never implemented on hard disks because CPUs of the time would have been crippled waiting for the hard disk at the proposed PIO 5 timings, and the DMA standard ultimately obviated it. While no hard disk drive was ever manufactured to support this mode, some motherboard manufacturers preemptively provided BIOS support for it. PIO Mode 5 can be used with CompactFlash cards connected to ATA via CF-to-ATA adapters.","title":"PIO mode in the ATA interface"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleenex

Kleenex

["1 History","2 Trademark","3 Diapers","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

Brand name for a variety of paper-based products This article is about the Kleenex brand. For the band, see Kleenex (band). For the song, see Generation X (album). For the generic item, see Facial tissue. KleenexA box of Kleenex facial tissuesProduct typeFacial TissueOwnerKimberly-ClarkCountryUnited StatesIntroducedJuly 12, 1924; 99 years ago (1924-07-12)MarketsWorldwidePrevious ownersInternational Cellucotton Products CompanyRegistered as a trademark inUSAWebsitehttps://kleenex.com Kleenex is a brand name for a line of paper-based facial tissues. Often used informally as a genericized trademark for facial tissue, it is a registered trademark of Kimberly-Clark, applied to products made in 78 countries and sold in over 196. History Kleenex began during the First World War when the Cellucotton company developed a crepe paper gas mask filter. In the 1920s, the product was modified into the menstrual pad Kotex. A further modification of the original crepe paper made it thinner and softer, and the resultant 1924 product was called "Kleenex" and marketed as a cold cream remover. In line with the company's requirements for their brand names to be short, easy to say, and easy to explain, the name Kleenex was selected as the "Kleen" portion of the name denotes its cleansing purpose with a sensational spelling of the word "clean". The "ex" was added to show that Kleenex was of the family of products that included Kotex. This was the first marketing of a disposable paper-based facial tissue in the western world, and was sold as a substitute for face towels or cotton wool. In 1925, the first Kleenex tissue ad was used in magazines showing "the new secret of keeping a pretty skin as used by famous movie stars". A few years after the introduction of Kleenex, the Cellucotton's head researcher tried to persuade the head of advertising to try to market the tissue for colds and hay fever. The administrator declined the idea but then committed a small amount of ad space to mention of using Kleenex tissue as a handkerchief. By the 1930s, Kleenex was being marketed with the slogan "Don't Carry a Cold in Your Pocket" and its use as a disposable handkerchief replacement became predominant. In 1943, Kleenex began licensing the Little Lulu cartoon character to popularize the brand. An older, retouched version of the Kleenex logo, as used from 1992 to 2007 Trademark Original 1925 Kleenex trademarkThe original Kleenex trademark application at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) was filed in the class of Medical, Beauty, & Agricultural Services by Cellucotton Products Company of Neenah, Wisconsin, on July 12, 1924. The description provided to the USPTO was "absorbent pads or sheets for removing cold cream". In the application, Cellucotton claimed that it had used the drawing and stylized word mark in commerce since June 12, 1924. USPTO granted trademark registration on November 25, 1924. International Cellucotton Products Company officially assigned trademark interest and good will of the business to Kimberly-Clark Corporation on September 30, 1955. Kimberly-Clark Corporation of Neenah, Wisconsin is the current registered owner of the Kleenex trademark. Nationwide marketing of Kleenex (as a means of removing cold cream rather than as a tissue for sneezes) was rolled out in the first week of September 1924 in Chicago with an ad for the Walgreen drug store chain on September 2 and with an offer on September 4 for a free sample in New York City In the U.S., the Kleenex name has become—in common usage but not in law—genericized. The popularity of the product has led to the use of its name to refer to any facial tissue, regardless of the brand. Many dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster and Oxford, now include definitions in their publications defining it as such. Diapers In 1978, Kimberly-Clark introduced Kleenex Super Dry diapers with wetness indicators in the form of a design that fades and lightens as the inside of the diaper becomes wetter. See also Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex References ^ Gordon, Whitson (June 25, 2019). "How a Brand Name Becomes Generic". The New York Times. Retrieved June 1, 2024. ^ "The "Lawyers of Kleenex" are taking a soft approach to the hard realities of genericide". Quartz. November 3, 2022. Retrieved June 1, 2024. ^ "The Kleenex Story". Kleenex Official Site. Archived from the original on October 10, 2020. Retrieved February 14, 2023. ^ "Kleenex Brand Story". Kleenex.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2010. ^ ""Marge and Lulu: The Art of the Deal," Jennifer Gotwals, Hogan's Alley #15, 2007". Archived from the original on May 1, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2013. ^ a b Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office, September 2, 1924, p.40 ("Ser. No. 199,932... Filed July 12, 1924... Claims was since June 12, 1924") ^ "United States Patent and Trademark Office, registration #s 0019194;0022859;0029753;0038458;0408618". June 12, 1924. Archived from the original on December 9, 2002. Retrieved June 25, 2010. ^ Chicago Daily Tribune, September 2, 1924, p.13 ("A soft, velvety tissue for removing cold cream from the face. It is safe, sanitary and inexpensive. Use it once and throw it away.") ^ Daily News (New York City), September 4, 1924, p.21 ("This new way removes cold cream safely... Adopted by famous actresses, advised by beauty doctors and skin experts." ^ "Has kleenex become a generic trademark?". genericides.org. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021. ^ "Kleenex". Archived from the original on October 15, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2018. ^ "Kleenex". Archived from the original on July 9, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2018. Further reading Henrich, Thomas; Batchelor, Bob (2004). Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209769. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kleenex. Official website Kleenex History Timeline Gallery of vintage graphic design featuring Kleenex tissues vtePaper productsContainers Box Carton Cigarette pack Coffee cup sleeve Corrugated box Corrugated fiberboard Envelope Molded pulp Oyster pail Paper bag Paper cup Paperboard Shipping tube Hygiene Facial tissue Napkin Paper towel Toilet paper Wet wipe Stationery Continuous stationery Greeting card Index card Letter Manila folder Notebook Postage stamp Postcard Post-it note Financial Banknote Business card Coupon Passbook Visiting card Decorations Ingrain wallpaper Mat Wallpaper Media Book Magazine Newspaper Newsprint Pamphlet Recreation Confetti Paper craft Paper toys Playing card Quilling Other Drink coaster Filter paper Form Paper model Sandpaper Security paper

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For the generic item, see Facial tissue.Kleenex is a brand name for a line of paper-based facial tissues. Often used informally as a genericized trademark for facial tissue[1][2], it is a registered trademark of Kimberly-Clark, applied to products made in 78 countries and sold in over 196.","title":"Kleenex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"Kotex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotex"},{"link_name":"cold cream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cream"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"sensational spelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensational_spelling"},{"link_name":"facial tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_tissue"},{"link_name":"colds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold"},{"link_name":"hay fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_fever"},{"link_name":"handkerchief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handkerchief"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Little Lulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Lulu"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kleenex_old.svg"}],"text":"Kleenex began during the First World War when the Cellucotton company developed a crepe paper gas mask filter. In the 1920s, the product was modified into the menstrual pad Kotex. A further modification of the original crepe paper made it thinner and softer, and the resultant 1924 product was called \"Kleenex\" and marketed as a cold cream remover.[3] In line with the company's requirements for their brand names to be short, easy to say, and easy to explain, the name Kleenex was selected as the \"Kleen\" portion of the name denotes its cleansing purpose with a sensational spelling of the word \"clean\". The \"ex\" was added to show that Kleenex was of the family of products that included Kotex. This was the first marketing of a disposable paper-based facial tissue in the western world, and was sold as a substitute for face towels or cotton wool. In 1925, the first Kleenex tissue ad was used in magazines showing \"the new secret of keeping a pretty skin as used by famous movie stars\". A few years after the introduction of Kleenex, the Cellucotton's head researcher tried to persuade the head of advertising to try to market the tissue for colds and hay fever. The administrator declined the idea but then committed a small amount of ad space to mention of using Kleenex tissue as a handkerchief. By the 1930s, Kleenex was being marketed with the slogan \"Don't Carry a Cold in Your Pocket\" and its use as a disposable handkerchief replacement became predominant.[4] In 1943, Kleenex began licensing the Little Lulu cartoon character to popularize the brand.[5]An older, retouched version of the Kleenex logo, as used from 1992 to 2007","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Original_Kleenex-mark1925-trademarkia.jpeg"},{"link_name":"United States Patent and Trademark Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office"},{"link_name":"Neenah, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"cold cream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cream"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USPTO9224-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USPTO9224-6"},{"link_name":"Neenah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USPTO_Kleenex-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"genericized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genericized_trademark"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Original 1925 Kleenex trademarkThe original Kleenex trademark application at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) was filed in the class of Medical, Beauty, & Agricultural Services by Cellucotton Products Company of Neenah, Wisconsin, on July 12, 1924. The description provided to the USPTO was \"absorbent pads or sheets for removing cold cream\".[6]In the application, Cellucotton claimed that it had used the drawing and stylized word mark in commerce since June 12, 1924.[6] USPTO granted trademark registration on November 25, 1924. International Cellucotton Products Company officially assigned trademark interest and good will of the business to Kimberly-Clark Corporation on September 30, 1955. Kimberly-Clark Corporation of Neenah, Wisconsin is the current registered owner of the Kleenex trademark.[7]Nationwide marketing of Kleenex (as a means of removing cold cream rather than as a tissue for sneezes) was rolled out in the first week of September 1924 in Chicago with an ad for the Walgreen drug store chain on September 2 [8] and with an offer on September 4 for a free sample in New York City [9]In the U.S., the Kleenex name has become—in common usage but not in law—genericized. The popularity of the product has led to the use of its name to refer to any facial tissue, regardless of the brand.[10] Many dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster and Oxford, now include definitions in their publications defining it as such.[11][12]","title":"Trademark"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wetness indicators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetness_indicator"}],"text":"In 1978, Kimberly-Clark introduced Kleenex Super Dry diapers with wetness indicators in the form of a design that fades and lightens as the inside of the diaper becomes wetter.","title":"Diapers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0814209769","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814209769"}],"text":"Henrich, Thomas; Batchelor, Bob (2004). Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209769.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"An older, retouched version of the Kleenex logo, as used from 1992 to 2007","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Kleenex_old.svg/220px-Kleenex_old.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Original 1925 Kleenex trademark","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Original_Kleenex-mark1925-trademarkia.jpeg/220px-Original_Kleenex-mark1925-trademarkia.jpeg"}]

[{"title":"Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_of_Steel,_Woman_of_Kleenex"}]

[{"reference":"Gordon, Whitson (June 25, 2019). \"How a Brand Name Becomes Generic\". The New York Times. Retrieved June 1, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/smarter-living/how-a-brand-name-becomes-generic.html","url_text":"\"How a Brand Name Becomes Generic\""}]},{"reference":"\"The \"Lawyers of Kleenex\" are taking a soft approach to the hard realities of genericide\". Quartz. November 3, 2022. Retrieved June 1, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://qz.com/the-lawyers-of-kleenex-are-taking-a-soft-approach-to-1849737749","url_text":"\"The \"Lawyers of Kleenex\" are taking a soft approach to the hard realities of genericide\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Kleenex Story\". Kleenex Official Site. Archived from the original on October 10, 2020. Retrieved February 14, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kleenex.co.uk/history/","url_text":"\"The Kleenex Story\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201010082217/https://www.kleenex.co.uk/history/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Kleenex Brand Story\". Kleenex.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100527181048/http://www.kleenex.com/NA/About/Brand-Story.aspx","url_text":"\"Kleenex Brand Story\""},{"url":"http://www.kleenex.com/NA/About/Brand-Story.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Marge and Lulu: The Art of the Deal,\" Jennifer Gotwals, Hogan's Alley #15, 2007\". Archived from the original on May 1, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130501001717/http://cartoonician.com/marge-and-lulu-the-art-of-the-deal","url_text":"\"\"Marge and Lulu: The Art of the Deal,\" Jennifer Gotwals, Hogan's Alley #15, 2007\""},{"url":"http://cartoonician.com/marge-and-lulu-the-art-of-the-deal/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"United States Patent and Trademark Office, registration #s 0019194;0022859;0029753;0038458;0408618\". June 12, 1924. Archived from the original on December 9, 2002. Retrieved June 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://tess2.uspto.gov/","url_text":"\"United States Patent and Trademark Office, registration #s 0019194;0022859;0029753;0038458;0408618\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021209131415/http://tess2.uspto.gov/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Has kleenex become a generic trademark?\". genericides.org. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211020172209/https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kleenex","url_text":"\"Has kleenex become a generic trademark?\""},{"url":"https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kleenex","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Kleenex\". Archived from the original on October 15, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171015162454/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kleenex","url_text":"\"Kleenex\""},{"url":"https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kleenex","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Kleenex\". Archived from the original on July 9, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kleenex/","url_text":"\"Kleenex\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170709062907/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kleenex","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Henrich, Thomas; Batchelor, Bob (2004). Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209769.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814209769","url_text":"0814209769"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://kleenex.com/","external_links_name":"https://kleenex.com"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/smarter-living/how-a-brand-name-becomes-generic.html","external_links_name":"\"How a Brand Name Becomes Generic\""},{"Link":"https://qz.com/the-lawyers-of-kleenex-are-taking-a-soft-approach-to-1849737749","external_links_name":"\"The \"Lawyers of Kleenex\" are taking a soft approach to the hard realities of genericide\""},{"Link":"https://www.kleenex.co.uk/history/","external_links_name":"\"The Kleenex Story\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201010082217/https://www.kleenex.co.uk/history/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100527181048/http://www.kleenex.com/NA/About/Brand-Story.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Kleenex Brand Story\""},{"Link":"http://www.kleenex.com/NA/About/Brand-Story.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130501001717/http://cartoonician.com/marge-and-lulu-the-art-of-the-deal","external_links_name":"\"\"Marge and Lulu: The Art of the Deal,\" Jennifer Gotwals, Hogan's Alley #15, 2007\""},{"Link":"http://cartoonician.com/marge-and-lulu-the-art-of-the-deal/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/books/edition/Official_Gazette_of_the_United_States_Pa/Zjfajqia84kC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Kleenex+1924&pg=PA40&printsec=frontcover","external_links_name":"Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office"},{"Link":"http://tess2.uspto.gov/","external_links_name":"\"United States Patent and Trademark Office, registration #s 0019194;0022859;0029753;0038458;0408618\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021209131415/http://tess2.uspto.gov/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211020172209/https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kleenex","external_links_name":"\"Has kleenex become a generic trademark?\""},{"Link":"https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kleenex","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171015162454/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kleenex","external_links_name":"\"Kleenex\""},{"Link":"https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kleenex","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kleenex/","external_links_name":"\"Kleenex\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170709062907/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kleenex","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.kleenex.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080501162425/http://www.kleenex.com/NA/About/Through-The-Decades.aspx","external_links_name":"Kleenex History Timeline"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045910/http://graphic-design.tjs-labs.com/gallery-view?product=KLEENEX","external_links_name":"Gallery of vintage graphic design featuring Kleenex tissues"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Computational_Sustainability

Institute for Computational Sustainability

["1 Research team","2 Expedition goals","3 NSF support","4 References","5 External links"]

Institute for Computational SustainabilityEstablished2008Field of researchComputational sustainabilityDirectorCarla P. GomesCampusCornell University (primary)Websitecomputational-sustainability.cis.cornell.edu The Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS), founded in 2008 with support from an Expeditions in Computing grant from the National Science Foundation, focuses on the newly emerging field of computational sustainability and aims to apply computational techniques to help solve challenging sustainability problems. Its vision is that "computer scientists can—and should—play a key role in increasing the efficiency and effectiveness in the way we manage and allocate our natural resources, while enriching and transforming Computer Science." The institute, headed by Carla Gomes, is a joint venture involving scientists from Cornell University, Bowdoin College, the Conservation Fund, Howard University, Oregon State University, and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Research team The institute's research team is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together computer scientists, biologists, environmental scientists, biological and environmental engineers, mathematicians, and economists from 7 different colleges, in 12 different departments. The team is led by: Carla P. Gomes, Cornell University (Director ICS) David Shmoys, Cornell University (Associate Director ICS) Thomas Dietterich, Oregon State University (Deputy Director ICS (OSU)) Mary Lou Zeeman, Bowdoin College (Deputy Director ICS (Bowdoin)) Expedition goals The NSF Expeditions in Computing grant supporting ICS has the following goals: To inject Computational Thinking into Sustainability that will provide: new insights into sustainability questions; new challenges and new methodologies in Computer Science (analogous to Computational Biology). To establish a new field, Computational Sustainability: Focused on computational methods for balancing environmental, economic, and societal needs for a sustainable future. To establish the Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS) in order to: Perform and foster research in Computational Sustainability Establish a vibrant research community, reaching far beyond the participating members of this Expedition. NSF support The National Science Foundation announced in 2008 that it has established a five-year program to support research in the field of computational sustainability. Quoting from their Press Release 08-141: August 18, 2008 The Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering (CISE) at the National Science Foundation (NSF) has established four new Expeditions in Computing. Each of these $10 million grants will allow teams of researchers and educators to pursue far-reaching research agendas that promise significant advances in the computing frontier and great benefit to society. ... In the Expedition Computational Sustainability: Computational Methods for a Sustainable Environment, Economy, and Society, Carla Gomes and her colleagues at Cornell University, Bowdoin College, the Conservation Fund, Howard University, Oregon State University and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory will explore the development and application of computational methods to enable a sustainable environment, economy and society. By tackling challenges that have not traditionally been addressed by computational approaches, Gomes and her team hope to create a new field of computational sustainability—much like computational biology has arisen in past decades—that will stimulate new research synergies across the areas of constraint optimization, dynamical systems, and machine learning. The research team is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together computer scientists, applied mathematicians, economists, biologists and environmental scientists. References ^ a b NSF Press Release 08-141, August 18, 2008 ^ Description on the Website of the Institute for Computational Sustainability ^ Nature, October 29, 2008 ^ Cornell Chronicle, September 3, 2008 ^ FirstScience Archived June 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, September 4, 2008 ^ Biofuels Digest Archived January 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, September 9, 2008 ^ Environmental Protection, September 11, 2008 ^ IEEE-USA Today's Engineer, Washington Technology Digest, Oct 2008 ^ Computational Sustainability, Michael Trick's Operations Research Blog], CMU ^ a b ICS Project Summary Archived May 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Sep 2008 External links www.computational-sustainability.org

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Gomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Gomes"},{"link_name":"David Shmoys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Shmoys"},{"link_name":"Thomas Dietterich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Dietterich"},{"link_name":"Mary Lou Zeeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lou_Zeeman"}],"text":"The institute's research team is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together computer scientists, biologists, environmental scientists, biological and environmental engineers, mathematicians, and economists from 7 different colleges, in 12 different departments.[10] The team is led by:Carla P. Gomes, Cornell University (Director ICS)\nDavid Shmoys, Cornell University (Associate Director ICS)\nThomas Dietterich, Oregon State University (Deputy Director ICS (OSU))\nMary Lou Zeeman, Bowdoin College (Deputy Director ICS (Bowdoin))","title":"Research team"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-project-summary-10"}],"text":"The NSF Expeditions in Computing grant supporting ICS has the following goals:[10]To inject Computational Thinking into Sustainability that will provide:\nnew insights into sustainability questions;\nnew challenges and new methodologies in Computer Science (analogous to Computational Biology).\nTo establish a new field, Computational Sustainability:\nFocused on computational methods for balancing environmental, economic, and societal needs for a sustainable future.\nTo establish the Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS) in order to:\nPerform and foster research in Computational Sustainability\nEstablish a vibrant research community, reaching far beyond the participating members of this Expedition.","title":"Expedition goals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsf-press-release-1"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"Bowdoin College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowdoin_College"},{"link_name":"Conservation Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.conservationfund.org"},{"link_name":"Howard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_University"},{"link_name":"Oregon State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_State_University"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"computational biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology"}],"text":"The National Science Foundation announced in 2008 that it has established a five-year program to support research in the field of computational sustainability. Quoting from their Press Release 08-141:[1]August 18, 2008\nThe Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering (CISE) at the National Science Foundation (NSF) has established four new Expeditions in Computing. Each of these $10 million grants will allow teams of researchers and educators to pursue far-reaching research agendas that promise significant advances in the computing frontier and great benefit to society.\n...\nIn the Expedition Computational Sustainability: Computational Methods for a Sustainable Environment, Economy, and Society, Carla Gomes and her colleagues at Cornell University, Bowdoin College, the Conservation Fund, Howard University, Oregon State University and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory will explore the development and application of computational methods to enable a sustainable environment, economy and society. By tackling challenges that have not traditionally been addressed by computational approaches, Gomes and her team hope to create a new field of computational sustainability—much like computational biology has arisen in past decades—that will stimulate new research synergies across the areas of constraint optimization, dynamical systems, and machine learning. The research team is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together computer scientists, applied mathematicians, economists, biologists and environmental scientists.","title":"NSF support"}]

[]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_A.D.

Babylon A.D.

["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","3.1 Development","3.2 Casting","3.3 Filming","3.4 Music","4 Release","5 Reception","6 Home media","7 References","8 External links"]

For the unrelated rock band, see Babylon A.D. (band) and Babylon A.D. (album). 2008 film by Mathieu Kassovitz Babylon A.D.Theatrical release posterDirected byMathieu KassovitzScreenplay by Mathieu Kassovitz Éric Besnard Based onBabylon Babiesby Maurice G. DantecProduced byIlan GoldmanStarring Vin Diesel Michelle Yeoh Mélanie Thierry Lambert Wilson Mark Strong CinematographyThierry ArbogastEdited byBenjamin WeillMusic byAtli ÖrvarssonProductioncompanies StudioCanal MNP Entreprise M6 Films One Race Films Dune Entertainment Distributed by20th Century Fox (International)StudioCanal (France)Release date 29 August 2008 (2008-08-29) Running time 101 minutes (France) 90 minutes (United Kingdom) Countries France United Kingdom United States LanguageEnglishBudget$60–70 millionBox office$72.1 million Babylon A.D. is a 2008 science fiction action film based on the 1999 novel Babylon Babies by Maurice Georges Dantec. The film was directed by Mathieu Kassovitz and stars Vin Diesel in the lead role, Mélanie Thierry, Michelle Yeoh, Lambert Wilson, Mark Strong, Jérôme Le Banner, Charlotte Rampling, and Gérard Depardieu. It was released on 29 August 2008 in the United States. It is an international co-production between France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Plot In a dystopian near-future, Russian mobster Gorsky hires the mercenary Toorop to bring a young woman known only as Aurora from Asia to New York City. Gorsky gives Toorop a variety of weapons and a subdermally implanted UN passport. Toorop, the girl, and, her guardian, Sister Rebeka, travel from the Noelite Convent in Kyrgyzstan to reach New York via Russia. Unlike in the technologically advanced U.S., war and terrorist activity have transformed Russia's cities into dangerous, overpopulated slums. The stress of humanity's situation causes Aurora to act out in strange ways and display clairvoyance abilities. On one such occasion, Aurora, seemingly for no reason, panics and runs from a crowded train station, just before it explodes in a terrorist attack. The protagonists must also evade an unknown group of mercenaries claiming to have been sent by Aurora's supposedly dead father. Later, they board a submarine that carries refugees to Canada. To avoid satellite detection, the Captain of the submarine orders his crew to dive and he shoots some of the refugees still trying to get on board. Aurora, infuriated by the loss of life, operates the 30-year-old submarine without training. Sister Rebeka tells Toorop that Aurora could speak nineteen different languages by the age of two, and always seems to know things she has never learned. Three months before leaving with Toorop, she began acting differently. This occurred after a Noelite doctor administered a pill. The doctor told her to go to New York City and arranged for Toorop to escort them. After arriving in Alaska with help from Toorop's associate, Finn, the protagonists are attacked by weaponized drones. Toorop manages to destroy all the drones, but also gets wounded. These perils cause Finn to betray the group, so Toorop shoots him dead. Once in Harlem, a news broadcast about the bombing of the Kyrgyzstan convent causes the group to realize there is more going on than they know. The Noelites have become a major new salvationist religion, which vast numbers of people cling to as the world spirals out of control. However, in private meetings, it is seen that their High Priestess only desires power and uses invented miracles to court converts. Gorsky, working for the Noelites, had planted a tracking device in Toorop's passport and bombed the convent when he knew they were in the United States. The doctor who earlier saw Aurora examines her again in a hotel room. When he leaves, Aurora reveals (without being told) that she is pregnant with twins despite being a virgin. Looking outside the hotel, Toorop sees Gorsky's men and the Noelite group, heavily armed and waiting for them on the street. The High Priestess calls Toorop and asks him to bring Aurora outside. Just before they take her away, Toorop changes his mind and starts a firefight with the two groups to get the two women to safety. Gorsky's men fire guided missiles at Toorop that track his subdermal passport. Rebeka gets killed defending Aurora, who in turn shoots Toorop, saying, "I need you to live." Toorop's clinical death causes the guided missile to go off target (missing Toorop) and explode near Aurora instead; she inexplicably survives. Dr. Arthur Darquandier revives Toorop using advanced medical techniques, but several of Toorop's body parts are replaced with cybernetics to undo the damage of being dead for over two hours. Darquandier explains that when Aurora was a fetus, he implanted a supercomputer into her brain. It is also implied that the Noelite group had him create Aurora to become pregnant at a certain time to use her as a "virgin birth". After she was born, the Noelites hired Gorsky to kill Darquandier, but he failed. Darquandier remained "dead" until he found his daughter in Russia with Toorop. Darquandier uses a machine to scan Toorop's memory to find out what Aurora said to him before and shortly after shooting him. In Toorop's memory, Aurora tells Toorop to "go home". Toorop and several of Darquandier's men leave the facility. En route to Darquandier's lab, Gorsky calls the High Priestess, demanding payment; during the subsequent videocall the High Priestess kills Gorsky by nuclear missile. The High Priestess confronts and kills Darquandier, but Toorop has already escaped. Toorop goes to his old house in the forest, finds Aurora, and takes her to a hospital, where, six months later, she dies after giving birth. Aurora was "designed to breed", not to live, so her death after childbirth was preprogrammed. Toorop takes care of her two children. In a scene that is only present in the theatrical cut but was removed from the director's cut, the twins are shown to be one that looks like Aurora and the other like Toorop. Cast Vin Diesel as Hugo Toorop, a mercenary and a former Marine (full name is "Hugo Cornelius Toorop" in the Babylon Babies novel). He is a professional smuggler from upstate New York, who has been deported to Eastern Europe where he does mercenary jobs as a smuggler. He's an expert in advanced weaponry, hand-to-hand combat, tactics and culinary. Michelle Yeoh as Sister Rebeka, a nun from an ascetic branch of the Noelites. She's originally from San Francisco. When she was 17-years-old, she joined the Noelites in order to escape an abusive relationship. She ended up in their Mongolian convent where she became Aurora's guardian. Mélanie Thierry as Aurora, a young woman who's been given shelter by the Noelite nuns. Since when she was a child, she showed supernatural knowledge in all kind of fields and by the age of two she was already able to speak 19 languages. She can also sense danger. Gérard Depardieu as Gorsky, a wealthy Russian mobster who hires Toorop to transport Aurora to the United States on behalf of the Noelite Church. He owns a private army and lives inside an APC fitted like a limo, constantly surrounded by a convoy of his soldiers. Charlotte Rampling as the CEO of the Noelite church. She does not really care about the religion, and only seeks power and wealth. She is planning to use science to produce miracles, thus extending the popularity and reach of her church. Mark Strong as Finn, a Russian smuggler who's an old associate of Toorop's. He is ready to help transport Aurora across borders, yet Toorop doesn't entirely trust him. Lambert Wilson as Dr. Arthur Darquandier, Aurora's disabled father who was presumed to be dead. David Belle as Hacker Kid, the leader of Darquandier's henchmen who are following Toorop and Aurora to America. Jérôme Le Banner as Killa, an underground fighter. Production Preparing for the filming in Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic Development Mathieu Kassovitz worked on an English-language film adaptation of Maurice Georges Dantec's French novel Babylon Babies for five years; in June 2005, this project got financing from StudioCanal and Twentieth Century Fox. The adapted screenplay was written by Kassovitz and screenwriter Éric Besnard. Production was initially slated to begin in February 2006 in Canada and Eastern Europe. Casting French actor Vincent Cassel was initially sought to be cast in the lead role. In February 2006, actor Vin Diesel entered negotiations to star in the film, titled Babylon A.D., dropping out of the lead role of Hitman in the process. Filming The shooting schedule was slated to begin in June 2006. By February 2007, filming was slated to wrap in April to release Babylon A.D. in time for the coming Thanksgiving. In February, filming took place at Barrandov Studios. In March 2007, the filming crew, having shot in the Czech Republic, took a two-week hiatus to deal with uncooperative weather, such as the lack of snow, and problems with set construction. Crew members scouted Iceland for locations with snow to shoot six to eight days of footage, which was supposed to be done in February. Filming was also done with the leads Diesel, Michelle Yeoh, and Mélanie Thierry in Ostrava in March. The French visual effects company BUF Compagnie was contracted to develop the film's effects under the supervision of Stephane Ceretti. In April 2007, actor Lambert Wilson was cast into the film. Filming was completed in May 2007. American artist Khem Caigan designed the sigil that appears as a tattoo on the right side of Toorop's neck – an emblem which originally appeared in the Schlangekraft Necronomicon in 1977. Mathieu Kassovitz said that 20th Century Fox interfered throughout production, and he never had a chance to shoot a scene the way it was scripted, or the way he wanted it to be. A French language documentary of the troubled creation of the film entitled Fucking Kassovitz was released in 2011. Music The music of Babylon A.D. was written by Icelandic composer Atli Örvarsson. The music supervisor of the movie was Jérôme Hadey. The musical alliance Achozen, represented by Shavo Odadjian and RZA performed the score for the film. Music producer Hans Zimmer described the intended style: "Musically, our objective was to merge the sounds and energies of hip hop with classical music, seamlessly melting them into an unusual soundscape." Release Babylon A.D. was originally stated to be released in the United States on 29 February 2008, but its release was postponed to 29 August 2008. As of 31 January 2009, the film had grossed $72,105,690 worldwide. In the US the film was placed #2 behind Tropic Thunder with $9,484,627 in 3,390 cinemas with a $2,798 average. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 7% approval rating based on 105 reviews and an average rating of 3.20/10, with the consensus calling it "a poorly constructed, derivative sci-fi stinker with a weak script and poor action sequences." On Metacritic it has a score of 26% based on 15 reviews, indicating "Generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade D+ on scale of A to F. Jordan Mintzer of Variety called it "A noisier, costlier version of "Children of Men," yet lacking that film's social-political significance and jaw-dropping direction." Home media Babylon A.D. was released on Blu-ray and DVD in Europe (Region 2) on 29 December 2008, and in the United States (Region 1) on 6 January 2009. At the same time, the French 101-minute version was released on Blu-ray in the US as Babylon A.D. – Raw and Uncut. References ^ a b c d "Babylon A.D." Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ UniFrance Films: Babylon A.D. Retrieved 2014-07-04 ^ "Babylon A.D. (12A)". British Board of Film Classification. 31 March 2008. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ a b c d "Babylon A.D. (2008)". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2017. ^ a b Alison James (15 March 2007). "'Babylon' gets back on track". Variety. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2020. ^ Babylon A.D. Review. empireonline.com (2 August 2008). Retrieved on 7 September 2020. ^ . variety.com (20 August 2008). Retrieved on 7 June 2022. ^ Anne Thompson. "Babylon A.D.: Kassovitz on Warpath Against Fox - Thompson on Hollywood on Variety.com". Variety. Archived from the original on 14 September 2008. ^ Fleming, Michael (23 June 2005). "Fox beckoned by 'Babylon'". Variety. ^ "Big-Screen Babylon". IGN. 24 June 2005. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ "Vin Diesel to Topline Babylon A.D.". ComingSoon.net. 5 February 2006. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ Alison James (8 February 2006). "Studio Canal eyes English-lingo pix". Variety. Retrieved 4 May 2020. ^ Nicole Laporte; Michael Fleming (17 January 2007). "Olyphant to shoot 'Hit Man'". Variety. Retrieved 4 May 2020. ^ Liza Klaussman (14 May 2006). "Parlez vous anglais?". Variety. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ Alison James (9 February 2007). "Legende plans TV series, touts films". Variety. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ Katja Hofmann (9 February 2007). "Czech movies shine at Berlin". Variety. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ Rebecca Leffler (10 April 2007). "France new star in global effects biz". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2007. ^ "Wilson Boards Babylon CE and Heaven". ComingSoon.net. 29 April 2007. Archived from the original on 2 May 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2007. ^ Alison James (18 May 2007). "Starry pics put Studio Canal back on map". Variety. Retrieved 19 May 2007. ^ Clayton Neuman (25 August 2008). "Masters of Scifi – Babylon A.D. Director Mathieu Kassovitz Describes a Disastrous Production". /Film. Archived from the original on 26 August 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2020. ^ "Fucking Kassovitz : le making of interdit de Babylon A.D. en intégralité". Premiere.fr. 17 September 2015. ^ "Shavo Scores First Feature Film". Ultimate-Guitar.com. 14 December 2007. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 11 March 2008. ^ Peter Sciretta (3 November 2007). "Babylon A.D. Pushed BACK". /Film. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 6 December 2007. ^ "Weekend Results from 8/29 to 8/31". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 9 October 2008. ^ "Babylon A.D. (2008)". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on 30 December 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2023. ^ "Babylon A.D." Metacritic. ^ "Cinemascore". Archived from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2019. ^ Mintzer, Jordan (20 August 2008). "Babylon A.D." Variety. ^ "Amazon UK: Babylon A.D.". Amazon UK. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ "Amazon US: Babylon A.D.". Amazon. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ "MovieFreak: Babylon A.D. – Raw and Uncut". Archived from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2014. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Babylon A.D.. Babylon A.D. at IMDb Babylon A.D. at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films Babylon A.D. at the British Film Institute Babylon A.D. at the British Board of Film Classification Babylon A.D. at AllMovie Babylon A.D. at Box Office Mojo vteFilms directed by Mathieu Kassovitz Fierrot le pou (1990, short) Cauchemar Blanc (1991, short) Métisse / Café au lait (1993) La haine / Hate (1995) Assassin(s) (1997) The Crimson Rivers (2000) Gothika (2003) Babylon A.D. (2008) Rebellion (2011)

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Babylon A.D. (band)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_A.D._(band)"},{"link_name":"Babylon A.D. (album)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_A.D._(album)"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_film"},{"link_name":"action film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_film"},{"link_name":"Babylon Babies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_Babies"},{"link_name":"Maurice Georges Dantec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Georges_Dantec"},{"link_name":"Mathieu Kassovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathieu_Kassovitz"},{"link_name":"Vin Diesel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin_Diesel"},{"link_name":"Mélanie Thierry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanie_Thierry"},{"link_name":"Michelle Yeoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Yeoh"},{"link_name":"Lambert Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Mark Strong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Strong"},{"link_name":"Jérôme Le Banner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Le_Banner"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Rampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Rampling"},{"link_name":"Gérard Depardieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfi-4"}],"text":"For the unrelated rock band, see Babylon A.D. (band) and Babylon A.D. (album).2008 film by Mathieu KassovitzBabylon A.D. is a 2008 science fiction action film based on the 1999 novel Babylon Babies by Maurice Georges Dantec. The film was directed by Mathieu Kassovitz and stars Vin Diesel in the lead role, Mélanie Thierry, Michelle Yeoh, Lambert Wilson, Mark Strong, Jérôme Le Banner, Charlotte Rampling, and Gérard Depardieu. It was released on 29 August 2008 in the United States. It is an international co-production between France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[4]","title":"Babylon A.D."},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dystopian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystopian"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"subdermally implanted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdermal_implant"},{"link_name":"Convent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convent"},{"link_name":"Kyrgyzstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"clairvoyance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyance"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"drones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Harlem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem"},{"link_name":"salvationist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"virgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginity"},{"link_name":"clinical death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_death"},{"link_name":"cybernetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics"},{"link_name":"supercomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"virgin birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraculous_births"},{"link_name":"videocall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotelephony"},{"link_name":"nuclear missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_missile"}],"text":"In a dystopian[6] near-future,[7] Russian mobster Gorsky hires the mercenary Toorop to bring a young woman known only as Aurora from Asia to New York City. Gorsky gives Toorop a variety of weapons and a subdermally implanted UN passport. Toorop, the girl, and, her guardian, Sister Rebeka, travel from the Noelite Convent in Kyrgyzstan to reach New York via Russia.Unlike in the technologically advanced U.S., war and terrorist activity have transformed Russia's cities into dangerous, overpopulated slums. The stress of humanity's situation causes Aurora to act out in strange ways and display clairvoyance abilities. On one such occasion, Aurora, seemingly for no reason, panics and runs from a crowded train station, just before it explodes in a terrorist attack.The protagonists must also evade an unknown group of mercenaries claiming to have been sent by Aurora's supposedly dead father. Later, they board a submarine that carries refugees to Canada. To avoid satellite detection, the Captain of the submarine orders his crew to dive and he shoots some of the refugees still trying to get on board. Aurora, infuriated by the loss of life, operates the 30-year-old submarine without training. Sister Rebeka tells Toorop that Aurora could speak nineteen different languages by the age of two, and always seems to know things she has never learned. Three months before leaving with Toorop, she began acting differently. This occurred after a Noelite doctor administered a pill. The doctor told her to go to New York City and arranged for Toorop to escort them.After arriving in Alaska with help from Toorop's associate, Finn, the protagonists are attacked by weaponized drones. Toorop manages to destroy all the drones, but also gets wounded. These perils cause Finn to betray the group, so Toorop shoots him dead.Once in Harlem, a news broadcast about the bombing of the Kyrgyzstan convent causes the group to realize there is more going on than they know. The Noelites have become a major new salvationist religion, which vast numbers of people cling to as the world spirals out of control. However, in private meetings, it is seen that their High Priestess only desires power and uses invented miracles to court converts. Gorsky, working for the Noelites, had planted a tracking device in Toorop's passport and bombed the convent when he knew they were in the United States. The doctor who earlier saw Aurora examines her again in a hotel room. When he leaves, Aurora reveals (without being told) that she is pregnant with twins despite being a virgin.Looking outside the hotel, Toorop sees Gorsky's men and the Noelite group, heavily armed and waiting for them on the street. The High Priestess calls Toorop and asks him to bring Aurora outside. Just before they take her away, Toorop changes his mind and starts a firefight with the two groups to get the two women to safety. Gorsky's men fire guided missiles at Toorop that track his subdermal passport. Rebeka gets killed defending Aurora, who in turn shoots Toorop, saying, \"I need you to live.\" Toorop's clinical death causes the guided missile to go off target (missing Toorop) and explode near Aurora instead; she inexplicably survives.Dr. Arthur Darquandier revives Toorop using advanced medical techniques, but several of Toorop's body parts are replaced with cybernetics to undo the damage of being dead for over two hours. Darquandier explains that when Aurora was a fetus, he implanted a supercomputer into her brain. It is also implied that the Noelite group had him create Aurora to become pregnant at a certain time to use her as a \"virgin birth\". After she was born, the Noelites hired Gorsky to kill Darquandier, but he failed. Darquandier remained \"dead\" until he found his daughter in Russia with Toorop.Darquandier uses a machine to scan Toorop's memory to find out what Aurora said to him before and shortly after shooting him. In Toorop's memory, Aurora tells Toorop to \"go home\". Toorop and several of Darquandier's men leave the facility. En route to Darquandier's lab, Gorsky calls the High Priestess, demanding payment; during the subsequent videocall the High Priestess kills Gorsky by nuclear missile. The High Priestess confronts and kills Darquandier, but Toorop has already escaped. Toorop goes to his old house in the forest, finds Aurora, and takes her to a hospital, where, six months later, she dies after giving birth. Aurora was \"designed to breed\", not to live, so her death after childbirth was preprogrammed. Toorop takes care of her two children.In a scene that is only present in the theatrical cut but was removed from the director's cut, the twins are shown to be one that looks like Aurora and the other like Toorop.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vin Diesel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin_Diesel"},{"link_name":"mercenary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenary"},{"link_name":"Marine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"Babylon Babies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_Babies"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Michelle Yeoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Yeoh"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Mongolian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"Mélanie Thierry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanie_Thierry"},{"link_name":"Gérard Depardieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu"},{"link_name":"APC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Rampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Rampling"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"Mark Strong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Strong"},{"link_name":"Lambert Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Wilson"},{"link_name":"David Belle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Belle"},{"link_name":"Jérôme Le Banner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Le_Banner"}],"text":"Vin Diesel as Hugo Toorop, a mercenary and a former Marine (full name is \"Hugo Cornelius Toorop\" in the Babylon Babies novel). He is a professional smuggler from upstate New York, who has been deported to Eastern Europe where he does mercenary jobs as a smuggler. He's an expert in advanced weaponry, hand-to-hand combat, tactics and culinary.\nMichelle Yeoh as Sister Rebeka, a nun from an ascetic branch of the Noelites. She's originally from San Francisco. When she was 17-years-old, she joined the Noelites in order to escape an abusive relationship. She ended up in their Mongolian convent where she became Aurora's guardian.\nMélanie Thierry as Aurora, a young woman who's been given shelter by the Noelite nuns. Since when she was a child, she showed supernatural knowledge in all kind of fields and by the age of two she was already able to speak 19 languages. She can also sense danger.\nGérard Depardieu as Gorsky, a wealthy Russian mobster who hires Toorop to transport Aurora to the United States on behalf of the Noelite Church. He owns a private army and lives inside an APC fitted like a limo, constantly surrounded by a convoy of his soldiers.\nCharlotte Rampling as the CEO of the Noelite church. She does not really care about the religion, and only seeks power and wealth. She is planning to use science to produce miracles, thus extending the popularity and reach of her church.\nMark Strong as Finn, a Russian smuggler who's an old associate of Toorop's. He is ready to help transport Aurora across borders, yet Toorop doesn't entirely trust him.\nLambert Wilson as Dr. Arthur Darquandier, Aurora's disabled father who was presumed to be dead.\nDavid Belle as Hacker Kid, the leader of Darquandier's henchmen who are following Toorop and Aurora to America.\nJérôme Le Banner as Killa, an underground fighter.","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ostrava-Poruba.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ostrava-Poruba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrava"}],"text":"Preparing for the filming in Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mathieu Kassovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathieu_Kassovitz"},{"link_name":"Maurice Georges Dantec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Georges_Dantec"},{"link_name":"Babylon Babies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_Babies"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"StudioCanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StudioCanal"},{"link_name":"Twentieth Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"Mathieu Kassovitz worked on an English-language film adaptation of Maurice Georges Dantec's French novel Babylon Babies for five years;[8] in June 2005, this project got financing from StudioCanal and Twentieth Century Fox.[9] The adapted screenplay was written by Kassovitz and screenwriter Éric Besnard. Production was initially slated to begin in February 2006 in Canada and Eastern Europe.[10]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vincent Cassel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Cassel"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Vin Diesel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vin_Diesel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Hitman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitman_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Casting","text":"French actor Vincent Cassel was initially sought to be cast in the lead role.[11] In February 2006, actor Vin Diesel entered negotiations to star in the film, titled Babylon A.D.,[12] dropping out of the lead role of Hitman in the process.[13]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Barrandov Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrandov_Studios"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"Michelle Yeoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Yeoh"},{"link_name":"Mélanie Thierry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanie_Thierry"},{"link_name":"Ostrava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrava"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-track-5"},{"link_name":"BUF Compagnie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BUF_Compagnie"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Lambert Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Wilson"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"sigil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigil_(magic)"},{"link_name":"Necronomicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonomicon"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Mathieu Kassovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathieu_Kassovitz"},{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Filming","text":"The shooting schedule was slated to begin in June 2006.[14] By February 2007, filming was slated to wrap in April to release Babylon A.D. in time for the coming Thanksgiving.[15] In February, filming took place at Barrandov Studios.[16] In March 2007, the filming crew, having shot in the Czech Republic, took a two-week hiatus to deal with uncooperative weather, such as the lack of snow, and problems with set construction. Crew members scouted Iceland for locations with snow to shoot six to eight days of footage, which was supposed to be done in February. Filming was also done with the leads Diesel, Michelle Yeoh, and Mélanie Thierry in Ostrava in March.[5] The French visual effects company BUF Compagnie was contracted to develop the film's effects under the supervision of Stephane Ceretti.[17]In April 2007, actor Lambert Wilson was cast into the film.[18] Filming was completed in May 2007.[19]American artist Khem Caigan designed the sigil that appears as a tattoo on the right side of Toorop's neck – an emblem which originally appeared in the Schlangekraft Necronomicon in 1977.[citation needed]Mathieu Kassovitz said that 20th Century Fox interfered throughout production, and he never had a chance to shoot a scene the way it was scripted, or the way he wanted it to be.[20] A French language documentary of the troubled creation of the film entitled Fucking Kassovitz was released in 2011.[21]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atli Örvarsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atli_%C3%96rvarsson"},{"link_name":"Achozen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achozen"},{"link_name":"Shavo Odadjian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shavo_Odadjian"},{"link_name":"RZA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RZA_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"Hans Zimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Zimmer"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop"},{"link_name":"classical music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Music","text":"The music of Babylon A.D. was written by Icelandic composer Atli Örvarsson. The music supervisor of the movie was Jérôme Hadey. The musical alliance Achozen, represented by Shavo Odadjian and RZA performed the score for the film. Music producer Hans Zimmer described the intended style: \"Musically, our objective was to merge the sounds and energies of hip hop with classical music, seamlessly melting them into an unusual soundscape.\"[22]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mojo-1"},{"link_name":"Tropic Thunder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropic_Thunder"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Babylon A.D. was originally stated to be released in the United States on 29 February 2008, but its release was postponed to 29 August 2008.[23] As of 31 January 2009, the film had grossed $72,105,690 worldwide.[1] In the US the film was placed #2 behind Tropic Thunder with $9,484,627 in 3,390 cinemas with a $2,798 average.[24]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tomatoes-25"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"CinemaScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaScore"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Children of Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Men"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 7% approval rating based on 105 reviews and an average rating of 3.20/10, with the consensus calling it \"a poorly constructed, derivative sci-fi stinker with a weak script and poor action sequences.\"[25] On Metacritic it has a score of 26% based on 15 reviews, indicating \"Generally unfavorable reviews\".[26] Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade D+ on scale of A to F.[27]Jordan Mintzer of Variety called it \"A noisier, costlier version of \"Children of Men,\" yet lacking that film's social-political significance and jaw-dropping direction.\"[28]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD-Video"},{"link_name":"Region 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_region_code#2"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Region 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_region_code#1"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Babylon A.D. was released on Blu-ray and DVD in Europe (Region 2) on 29 December 2008,[29] and in the United States (Region 1) on 6 January 2009.[30] At the same time, the French 101-minute version was released on Blu-ray in the US as Babylon A.D. – Raw and Uncut.[31]","title":"Home media"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Babylon A.D.\" Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 4 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=babylon.htm","url_text":"\"Babylon A.D.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo","url_text":"Box Office Mojo"}]},{"reference":"\"Babylon A.D. (12A)\". British Board of Film Classification. 31 March 2008. Retrieved 4 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/babylon-ad-2008-1","url_text":"\"Babylon A.D. (12A)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Board_of_Film_Classification","url_text":"British Board of Film Classification"}]},{"reference":"\"Babylon A.D. (2008)\". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824234206/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8cb725df/","url_text":"\"Babylon A.D. 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Archived from the original on 14 September 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080914092024/http://weblogs.variety.com/thompsononhollywood/2008/08/babylon-ad-kass.html","url_text":"\"Babylon A.D.: Kassovitz on Warpath Against Fox - Thompson on Hollywood on Variety.com\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"},{"url":"http://weblogs.variety.com/thompsononhollywood/2008/08/babylon-ad-kass.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fleming, Michael (23 June 2005). \"Fox beckoned by 'Babylon'\". Variety.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117924999","url_text":"\"Fox beckoned by 'Babylon'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Big-Screen Babylon\". IGN. 24 June 2005. Retrieved 29 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://movies.ign.com/articles/628/628884p1.html","url_text":"\"Big-Screen Babylon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN","url_text":"IGN"}]},{"reference":"\"Vin Diesel to Topline Babylon A.D.\". ComingSoon.net. 5 February 2006. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=13054","url_text":"\"Vin Diesel to Topline Babylon A.D.\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070410202346/http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=13054","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Alison James (8 February 2006). \"Studio Canal eyes English-lingo pix\". Variety. Retrieved 4 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2006/film/news/studio-canal-eyes-english-lingo-pix-1117937639/","url_text":"\"Studio Canal eyes English-lingo pix\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"Nicole Laporte; Michael Fleming (17 January 2007). \"Olyphant to shoot 'Hit Man'\". Variety. Retrieved 4 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2007/film/markets-festivals/olyphant-to-shoot-hit-man-1117957622/","url_text":"\"Olyphant to shoot 'Hit Man'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"Liza Klaussman (14 May 2006). \"Parlez vous anglais?\". Variety. Retrieved 29 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=features2006&content=jump&jump=story&dept=cannes&nav=FCCannes&articleid=VR1117943063","url_text":"\"Parlez vous anglais?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"Alison James (9 February 2007). \"Legende plans TV series, touts films\". Variety. 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Retrieved 29 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/international/features/e3i7bd8c0c023888c2f598deb1cb8194586?imw=Y","url_text":"\"France new star in global effects biz\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070930200735/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/international/features/e3i7bd8c0c023888c2f598deb1cb8194586?imw=Y","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Wilson Boards Babylon CE and Heaven\". ComingSoon.net. 29 April 2007. Archived from the original on 2 May 2007. 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Retrieved 4 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150407120344/http://www.moviefreak.com/artman/publish/bluray_babylonAD.shtml","url_text":"\"MovieFreak: Babylon A.D. – Raw and Uncut\""},{"url":"http://www.moviefreak.com/artman/publish/bluray_babylonAD.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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(2008)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101230235052/http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/babylon_ad/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.metacritic.com/movie/babylon-ad","external_links_name":"\"Babylon A.D.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181220122629/https://cinemascore.com/publicsearch/index/title/","external_links_name":"\"Cinemascore\""},{"Link":"https://cinemascore.com/publicsearch/index/title/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://variety.com/review/VE1117938029","external_links_name":"\"Babylon A.D.\""},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/Babylon-A-D-1-Disc-Edition-DVD/dp/B001HY4TG4/","external_links_name":"\"Amazon UK: Babylon A.D.\""},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.com/Babylon-D-Vin-Diesel/dp/B001KMB6X2/","external_links_name":"\"Amazon US: Babylon A.D.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150407120344/http://www.moviefreak.com/artman/publish/bluray_babylonAD.shtml","external_links_name":"\"MovieFreak: Babylon A.D. – Raw and Uncut\""},{"Link":"http://www.moviefreak.com/artman/publish/bluray_babylonAD.shtml","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0364970/","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."},{"Link":"https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/64575","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824234206/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8cb725df/","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."},{"Link":"https://www.bbfc.co.uk/AFF247830/","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."},{"Link":"https://www.allmovie.com/movie/v361086","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."},{"Link":"https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=babylon.htm","external_links_name":"Babylon A.D."}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energy

Chemical energy

["1 References"]

Energy released from chemical substances Not to be confused with chemical potential. Chemical energy is the energy of chemical substances that is released when the substances undergo a chemical reaction and transform into other substances. Some examples of storage media of chemical energy include batteries, food, and gasoline (as well as oxygen gas, which is of high chemical energy due to its relatively weak double bond and indispensable for chemical-energy release in gasoline combustion). Breaking and re-making chemical bonds involves energy, which may be either absorbed by or evolved from a chemical system. If reactants with relatively weak electron-pair bonds convert to more strongly bonded products, energy is released. Therefore, relatively weakly bonded and unstable molecules store chemical energy. Energy that can be released or absorbed because of a reaction between chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperature is the same. This change in energy can be estimated from the bond energies of the reactants and products. It can also be calculated from Δ U f ∘ r e a c t a n t s {\displaystyle \Delta {U_{f}^{\circ }}_{\mathrm {reactants} }} , the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules, and Δ U f ∘ p r o d u c t s {\displaystyle \Delta {U_{f}^{\circ }}_{\mathrm {products} }} , the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The internal energy change of a chemical process is equal to the heat exchanged if it is measured under conditions of constant volume and equal initial and final temperature, as in a closed container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is equal to the enthalpy change, in this case the enthalpy of reaction, if initial and final temperatures are equal). A related term is the heat of combustion, which is the energy mostly of the weak double bonds of molecular oxygen released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, the energy released is analogous to the heat of combustion (though assessed differently than for a hydrocarbon fuel—see food energy). Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or interactions between them. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction. For example, when a fuel is burned, the chemical energy of molecular oxygen and the fuel is converted to heat. Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy (mostly of oxygen) through the process of photosynthesis, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy and vice versa through electrochemical reactions. The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle exchange with a reservoir, etc. It is not a form of potential energy itself, but is more closely related to free energy. The confusion in terminology arises from the fact that in other areas of physics not dominated by entropy, all potential energy is available to do useful work and drives the system to spontaneously undergo changes of configuration, and thus there is no distinction between "free" and "non-free" potential energy (hence the one word "potential"). However, in systems of large entropy such as chemical systems, the total amount of energy present (and conserved according to the first law of thermodynamics) of which this chemical potential energy is a part, is separated from the amount of that energy—thermodynamic free energy (from which chemical potential is derived)—which (appears to) drive the system forward spontaneously as the global entropy increases (in accordance with the second law). References ^ Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2018). "How Batteries Store and Release Energy: Explaining Basic Electrochemistry", J. Chem. Educ. 95: 1801-1810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00479 ^ a b McMurry, J.; Fay, R. C. (2001).Chemistry, 3rd edition. Prentice Hall. p. 302. ^ Weiss, H. M. (2008). "Appreciating Oxygen". J. Chem. Educ. 85 (9): 1218–19. Bibcode:2008JChEd..85.1218W. doi:10.1021/ed085p1218. Archived from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2017. ^ a b c Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2015). "Why Combustions Are Always Exothermic, Yielding About 418 kJ per Mole of O2", J. Chem. Educ. 92: 2094-2099. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00333 ^ Moore, J. W; Stanitski, C. L., Jurs, P. C. (2005).Chemistry – The Molecular Science, 2nd edition. Brooks Cole. p. 242. ^ Merckel, R. D.; Labuschagne, F. J. W. J.; Heydenrych, M. D. (2019). "Oxygen consumption as the definitive factor in predicting heat of combustion", Appl. Energy 235: 1041-1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.111 vteEnergy History Index Outline Fundamental concepts Conservation of energy Energetics Energy Units Energy condition Energy level Energy system Energy transformation Energy transition Mass Negative mass Mass–energy equivalence Power Thermodynamics Enthalpy Entropic force Entropy Exergy Free entropy Heat capacity Heat transfer Irreversible process Isolated system Laws of thermodynamics Negentropy Quantum thermodynamics Thermal equilibrium Thermal reservoir Thermodynamic equilibrium Thermodynamic free energy Thermodynamic potential Thermodynamic state Thermodynamic system Thermodynamic temperature Volume (thermodynamics) Work Types Binding Nuclear Chemical Dark Elastic Electric potential energy Electrical Gravitational Binding Interatomic potential Internal Ionization Kinetic Magnetic Mechanical Negative Phantom Potential Quantum chromodynamics binding energy Quantum fluctuation Quantum potential Quintessence Radiant Rest Sound Surface Thermal Vacuum Zero-point Energy carriers Battery Capacitor Electricity Enthalpy Fuel Fossil Oil Heat Latent heat Hydrogen Hydrogen fuel Mechanical wave Radiation Sound wave Work Primary energy Bioenergy Fossil fuel Coal Natural gas Petroleum Geothermal Gravitational Hydropower Marine Nuclear fuel Natural uranium Radiant Solar Wind Energy systemcomponents Biomass Electric power Electricity delivery Energy engineering Fossil fuel power station Cogeneration Integrated gasification combined cycle Geothermal power Hydropower Hydroelectricity Tidal power Wave farm Nuclear power Nuclear power plant Radioisotope thermoelectric generator Oil refinery Solar power Concentrated solar power Photovoltaic system Solar thermal energy Solar furnace Solar power tower Wind power Airborne wind energy Wind farm Use andsupply Efficient energy use Agriculture Computing Transport Energy conservation Energy consumption Energy policy Energy development Energy security Energy storage Renewable energy Sustainable energy World energy supply and consumption Africa Asia Australia Canada Europe Mexico South America United States Misc. Carbon footprint Jevons paradox Category Commons Portal WikiProject Authority control databases: National Germany

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Some examples of storage media of chemical energy include batteries,[1] food, and gasoline (as well as oxygen gas, which is of high chemical energy due to its relatively weak double bond [2] and indispensable for chemical-energy release in gasoline combustion).[3][4] Breaking and re-making chemical bonds involves energy, which may be either absorbed by or evolved from a chemical system. If reactants with relatively weak electron-pair bonds convert to more strongly bonded products, energy is released.[5] Therefore, relatively weakly bonded and unstable molecules store chemical energy.[2]Energy that can be released or absorbed because of a reaction between chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperature is the same. This change in energy can be estimated from the bond energies of the reactants and products. It can also be calculated from \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n \n U\n \n f\n \n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n \n r\n e\n a\n c\n t\n a\n n\n t\n s\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta {U_{f}^{\\circ }}_{\\mathrm {reactants} }}\n \n, the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules, and \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n \n U\n \n f\n \n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n r\n o\n d\n u\n c\n t\n s\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta {U_{f}^{\\circ }}_{\\mathrm {products} }}\n \n, the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The internal energy change of a chemical process is equal to the heat exchanged if it is measured under conditions of constant volume and equal initial and final temperature, as in a closed container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is equal to the enthalpy change, in this case the enthalpy of reaction, if initial and final temperatures are equal).A related term is the heat of combustion, which is the energy mostly of the weak double bonds of molecular oxygen[4] [6] released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, the energy released is analogous to the heat of combustion (though assessed differently than for a hydrocarbon fuel—see food energy).Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or interactions between them. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction. For example, when a fuel is burned, the chemical energy of molecular oxygen and the fuel is converted to heat.[4] Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy (mostly of oxygen) through the process of photosynthesis, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy and vice versa through electrochemical reactions.The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle exchange with a reservoir, etc. It is not a form of potential energy itself, but is more closely related to free energy. The confusion in terminology arises from the fact that in other areas of physics not dominated by entropy, all potential energy is available to do useful work and drives the system to spontaneously undergo changes of configuration, and thus there is no distinction between \"free\" and \"non-free\" potential energy (hence the one word \"potential\"). However, in systems of large entropy such as chemical systems, the total amount of energy present (and conserved according to the first law of thermodynamics) of which this chemical potential energy is a part, is separated from the amount of that energy—thermodynamic free energy (from which chemical potential is derived)—which (appears to) drive the system forward spontaneously as the global entropy increases (in accordance with the second law).","title":"Chemical energy"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuss_(river)

Reuss (river)

["1 Geography","1.1 Course","1.2 Catchment area","1.3 Tributaries","2 History","2.1 Name","2.2 Upper Reuss","2.3 Lower Reuss","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 47°29′27″N 8°13′55″E / 47.4909°N 8.23193°E / 47.4909; 8.23193River in Switzerland For other uses, see Reuss (disambiguation). ReussThe Reuss at LucerneNative nameRüüss (Alemannic German)LocationCountrySwitzerlandCantonsUri, Lucerne, AargauSettlementsAndermatt (UR), Göschenen (UR), Altdorf (UR), Lucerne (LU), Bremgarten (AG)Physical characteristicsSource  • locationFurkareuss, above Furka Pass, Uri • coordinates46°33′48″N 8°25′57″E / 46.56341°N 8.43259°E / 46.56341; 8.43259 • elevation2,640 m (8,660 ft) Mouth  • locationAare at Windisch/Gebenstorf, Aargau • coordinates47°29′27″N 8°13′55″E / 47.4909°N 8.23193°E / 47.4909; 8.23193 • elevation229 m (751 ft)Length164.4 km (102.2 mi)Basin size3,426 km2 (1,323 sq mi)Discharge  • locationMellingen • average140.4 m3/s (4,960 cu ft/s) (MQ 1935-2013) • minimum93 m3/s (3,300 cu ft/s) (MNQ 1935-2013),28.6 m3/s (1,010 cu ft/s) (NNQ, 2006) • maximum179 m3/s (6,300 cu ft/s) (MHQ 1935-2013),854 m3/s (30,200 cu ft/s) (HHQ, 2005) Basin featuresProgressionAare→ Rhine→ North SeaTributaries  • leftGöschener Reuss, Meienreuss, Engelberger Aa (Lake Lucerne), Sarner Aa (Lake Lucerne), Kleine Emme • rightGotthardreuss, Unteralpreuss, Chärstelenbach, Schächen, Muota (Lake Lucerne), Lorze, JonenbachWaterbodiesLake Lucerne, Flachsee The Reuss (German pronunciation: ⓘ; Swiss German: Rüüss) is a river in Switzerland. With a length of 164 kilometres (102 mi) and a drainage basin of 3,426 square kilometres (1,323 sq mi), it is the fourth largest river in Switzerland (after the Rhine, Aare and Rhône). The upper Reuss forms the main valley of the canton of Uri. The course of the lower Reuss runs from Lake Lucerne to the confluence with the Aare at Brugg and Windisch. The Reuss is one of the four major rivers taking their source in the Gotthard region, along with the Rhine, Ticino and Rhône. Geography Course The Furkareuss in the valley Urseren Teufelsbrücke in the Schöllenen Gorge The Reuss near Gurtnellen The Reuss entering Lake Lucerne Rathaus-Steg at Lucerne Needle dam regulating Lake Lucerne at Lucerne Reverse of the Needle dam in Lucerne Bridge of the Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn near Bremgarten Confluence with the Aare at the "Wasserschloss" The Gotthardreuss rises in the Gotthard massif, emerging from Lago di Lucendro (reservoir built in 1947; elevation 2,131 m) in the canton of Ticino and passing into the canton of Uri below the Brigghubel (1,898 m). The Furkareuss rises east of Furka Pass (2,429 m), early joined by the Blaubergbach (sourced by two mountain lakes on 2,649 m) and several other creeks sourced by still existing glaciers, such as Sidelengletscher (3,170 m), Tiefengletscher (3,285 m) in the north, and Muttengletscher (2,908 m) and Witenwassergletscher (2,805 m) in the south, and eventually forms the east–west valley called Urseren, passing Realp at halfway through the valley at 1,540 m in eastern direction until its eastern end at Andermatt. This source is only around 5 km away from, and on the same mountain massif as the source of the Rhône, but will ultimately lead to the opposite side of the continent. Gotthardreuss and Furkareuss join at Hospental (1,446 m). Downstream of Andermatt the Reuss joins at 1,429 m the village creek Unteralpreuss, finally turns to the north, and passes through the 3 km-long narrow and deep Schöllenen Gorge and under the legendary Devil's Bridge (1,120 m). At Göschenen (1,057 m) it is joined by the Göschenerreuss, sourced by the glaciers Dammagletscher (3,430 m) and Flachensteinfirn (3,150 m) besides several others. From here it forms the main valley of the canton of Uri, the Urner Reusstal, passing below Wassen (840 m), Gurtnellen (720 m), Amsteg and Silenen (500 m), and through Erstfeld (460 m), past Attinghausen and Altdorf (440 m), joining the southernmost part of Lake Lucerne (the Urnersee) between Flüelen and Seedorf (434 m). The Reuss leaves Lake Lucerne some 30 km to the north-west, at the city of Lucerne. Notable bridges in Lucerne are the Kapellbrücke, first built 1333, rebuilt 1993 and Spreuerbrücke, built 1408. A needle dam just upstream from the Spreuerbrücke) maintains the water level. It receives the Kleine Emme from Entlebuch at Emmen (432 m). From here, it flows north-east through Buchrain, Root, Gisikon and Honau, and downstream of Honau (402 m) leaves the canton of Lucerne, now forming the border between Aargau and Zug, passing Dietwil (Aargau), Risch-Rotkreuz (Zug), Oberrüti (Aargau) and Sins (Aargau), Hünenberg (Zug) and Mühlau (Aargau). It receives the Lorze from Lake Zug downstream of Maschwanden. Downstream of this confluence, the Reuss forms the border between Aargau and Zürich, passing Merenschwand (Aargau, 389 m) and Ottenbach (Zurich, 384 m), and enters Aargau downstream of Ottenbach. Within Aargau, the Reuss flows past Aristau, Jonen, Rottenschwil, Unterlunkhofen, Hermetschwil-Staffeln, here forming Flachsee (380 m), and onward to Zufikon, Bremgarten (370 m). The Reussbrücke at Bremgarten was first built c. 1270, first mentioned 1281 (wooden bridge rebuilt 1953–1957). From Bremgarten, the Reuss meanders between the villages of Eggenwil, Fischbach-Göslikon, Künten, Niederwil, to Stetten (352 m), flowing past Tägerig, Mellingen (350 m), Birrhard (340 m), Mülligen, Birmenstorf and between Windisch and Gebenstorf, finally joining the Aare just downstream of Brugg, at 327 m. After the confluence the river continues as the Aare, which flows into the Rhine at Koblenz. Catchment area The catchment area of 3,426 km2 (1,323 sq mi) approximately covers Central Switzerland. The catchment area of the upper Reuss includes almost the entire canton of Uri (with the exception of the Urner Boden, and in the uppermost part of the Gotthardreuss a portion of Ticino (Airolo municipality). The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Dammastock, at elevation 3,630 m. The basin of the lower Reuss adds the catchment areas of other tributaries of Lake Lucerne as well as that of the Kleine Emme, including most of Nidwalden and Obwalden, and parts of Schwyz, Lucerne and Zug. Downstream of Lucerne, further tributaries add other parts of Zug as well as parts of Zürich and Aargau. Tributaries Reuss and its tributaries, with length and catchment area, from mouth to source (incomplete): Reuss - 164 km - 3,426 km2 (at Gebenstorf into Aare) Mülibach - 8 km2 (at Mellingen) Jonen - 46 km2 (18 sq mi) Lorze - 390 km2 (150 sq mi) (at Reussspitz, Hünenberg) Haselbach Rigi-Aa - 18.6 km2 (7.2 sq mi) (at Arth into Lake Zug) Hüribach - 12.8 km2 (4.9 sq mi) (into Ägerisee) Sinserbach - 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) (at Sins) Ron - 22.5 km2 (8.7 sq mi) (at Gisikon) Kleine Emme - 58 km - 477 km2 (184 sq mi) (at Emmenbrücke) Ränggbach Rümlig Wigger Fontannen Entlen Grosse Entlen - 16 km Eibach Rotbach Kleine Entlen Headwaters Wiss Emme Waldemme Lake Lucerne - 113.6 km2 (43.9 sq mi) - 2,238 km2 (at Lucerne, outflow Reuss) Würzenbach - 7.7 km - 39 km2 (15 sq mi) (at Lucerne) Sarner Aa/Dreiwässerkanal/Aa/Lauibach - 28 km - 267 km2 (103 sq mi) (at Alpnachstad) Grosse Schliere - 17 km - 28.8 km2 (11.1 sq mi) (above Wichelsee) Grosse Melchaa Melbach - 18 km2 (6.9 sq mi) (at Ennetmoos) Engelberger Aa - 50 km - 230 km2 (89 sq mi) (at Buochs) Muota - 316 km2 (122 sq mi) (at Brunnen) Isitalerbach - 60 km2 (23 sq mi) (near Isleten) Altdorfer Dorfbach (at Altdorf) Upper Reuss - 832 km2 (321 sq mi) (at Flüelen/Seedorf into Lake Lucerne) Schächen - 109 km2 (42 sq mi) (at Attinghausen) Alpbach - 32 km2 (12 sq mi) (at Erstfeld) Kärstelenbach - 116 km2 (45 sq mi) Meienreuss - 71 km2 (27 sq mi) Göschenenalpreuss - 92 km2 (36 sq mi) (at Göschenen) Voralpreuss Unteralpreuss (at Andermatt) Oberalpreuss (above Andermatt) Headwaters at Hospental: Furkareuss - 12 km Witenwasserenreuss Muttenreuss Tiefenbach Sidelenbach Gotthardreuss History Name Ptolemy records the river's pre-Germanic name as Silana (whence the name of Silenen). The Germanic name is attested as Rusa, Rusia from the 9th century (sometimes recorded as Ursa in the Early Modern period, c.f. Urseren), from an early Germanic *Rūsi, oblique *Rūsjō-. Greule (1982) interprets the name as an Old European hydronym, directly cognate with Riß. Because of Ptolemy's record of the pre-Germanic name Silana, it is possible that only part of the river was known as *Rūsi in antiquity; alternatively, *Rūsi has been interpreted as a purely Germanic name introduced with Germanic settlement in the early medieval period, a derivation from OHG rūsa, riusa "fish trap". Upper Reuss Until the 13th century, the Schöllenen Gorge was impassable, separating Urseren from Uri. Urseren was accessible via Furka and Oberalp, and was under the influence of the bishopric of Chur. The main settlement area of Uri was the plain of the Reuss estuary Altdorf (Reussebene). Settlements tended to form on either side of the river, while the river itself was often taken as communal or parish boundary. The Schöllenen Gorge was made passable the 1230s, opening access to the Gotthard Pass. This resulted in an immense increase of the strategic value of the Reuss valley, as reflected in the grant of imperial immediacy to Uri and the wider political backdrop of the foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Reuss was canalised between Attinghausen and Altdorf in 1850–1863, and to the river mouth in 1900–1912, significantly increasing the arable land in the Reuss plain. A small river delta was reconstructed in 1985. After flooding in 1987, improved flood control measures were constructed during 1995–1999. A small hydroelectric plant was built in Schöllenen Gorge for the construction of the Gotthard Tunnel in 1875. Larger hydroelectric plants were built at Amsteg (1922), Wassen (1949) and Göschenen (1962). Lower Reuss The lower Reuss flows along a series of former glacial lakes. Settlements along the river were built on lateral moraines, while the river bed itself was marshy and subject to flooding, and thus unsuitable for settlement. The oldest river crossings are along terminal moraines between the former glacial lakes. The Reuss valley was under Habsburg Austrian rule during the 14th century. In the 15th century, the Reuss became the border between territories of the Swiss Confederacy, in 1429 between Lucerne and Zürich, and later between Zug, Zürich and the Freie Ämter condominium, between Freie Ämter and Baden, and between Baden and Berne. The Reuss downstream of Ottenbach came to lie within Aargau with the creation of this canton in 1803. The Reuss had the status of "imperial road" (freie Reichsstrasse) in the late medieval period. Until 1798, it was the responsibility of cantonal authorities (the Reussherren of Lucerne and Zug) to keep the river navigable. The river was important as waterway for traffic between Lucerne and Zurzach, and via Aare and Rhine to Basel, until the construction of transit roads in the 18th century. River crossings by ferry in the medieval period were at Lunkhofen (mentioned 1160), Windisch, Sins, Mühlau, Oberrüti, and Dietwil. The crossing at Lunkhofen was on the main route from Zürich to Berne. Bridges across the Reuss were in Lucerne, Bremgarten (1230), Mellingen (mentioned 1253) and Gisikon (1432). In 1528, the Catholic cantons blocked the trade routes across the Reuss for Protestant cantons and trade between Zürich and Berne was re-routed through Windisch. Because ferries and bridges were a source of income, the construction of new crossings was opposed during the early modern period, and only one new bridge was built, commissioned by Zug, at Sins (1640). New bridges were built only after the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy, e.g. at Windisch (1799), Ottenbach (1864) and Mühlau (1940). By the end of the 20th century, there were more than a dozen crossings of the lower Reuss, including a number of railway and motorway bridges. Projects for canalisation in 1648 (Hans Conrad Gyger) and 1809 (Johann Gottfried Tulla) were not realised. In 1840, Aargau constructed some canalisation, with limited impact. A large-scale project of river engineering was completed during 1971–1985 (Reusstalsanierung). The hydroelectric plant at Bremgarten-Zufikon was built in 1893 and enlarged in 1975 (Flachsee reservoir). See also Rivers in Switzerland References ^ a b Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, "Topographical catchment areas of Swiss waterbodies 2km2" Sub-catchment area number 94738, Catchment area size 3425.54. ^ Lake's surface area ^ Catchment area at outflow including lake's surface area ^ Reichert (1968): "zur Zeit des P. hatte für die Reuß noch ihr vorgerm. Name, Silana, gegolten (1, 240ff.; 2, 145ff.)." ^ a b H. Reichert, "Riousiaoua" in Hoops (ed.), Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 25 (1968), p. 27. ^ Greule, Albrecht, Riusiava, Riß und Reuß, Blätter für Oberdeutsche Namenforschung, 19 (1982). Albrecht Greule, Deutsches Gewässernamenbuch: Etymologie der Gewässernamen und der zugehörigen Gebiets-, Siedlungs- und Flurnamen, Walter de Gruyter (2014), 434f. ^ a b Anne-Marie Dubler, Hans Stadler: Reuss in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 2011. External links Media related to Reuss River at Wikimedia Commons Current discharge, waterlevels, temperature: (Uri) (1426 m) Seedorf (Uri) (437 m) Lucerne-Geissmattbrücke (431 m) Mühlau (Aargau), Hünenberg (Zug) (389 m) Mellingen (Aargau) (344 m) Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reuss (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuss_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[ʁɔɪ̯s]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/De-Reuss.ogg/De-Reuss.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De-Reuss.ogg"},{"link_name":"Swiss German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_German"},{"link_name":"river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"drainage basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin"},{"link_name":"river in Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Aare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aare"},{"link_name":"Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"canton of Uri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Uri"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Brugg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brugg"},{"link_name":"Windisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windisch,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Gotthard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthard_Massif"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Ticino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticino_(river)"},{"link_name":"Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne"}],"text":"River in SwitzerlandFor other uses, see Reuss (disambiguation).The Reuss (German pronunciation: [ʁɔɪ̯s] ⓘ; Swiss German: Rüüss) is a river in Switzerland. With a length of 164 kilometres (102 mi) and a drainage basin of 3,426 square kilometres (1,323 sq mi), it is the fourth largest river in Switzerland (after the Rhine, Aare and Rhône). The upper Reuss forms the main valley of the canton of Uri. The course of the lower Reuss runs from Lake Lucerne to the confluence with the Aare at Brugg and Windisch.The Reuss is one of the four major rivers taking their source in the Gotthard region, along with the Rhine, Ticino and Rhône.","title":"Reuss (river)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urseren.jpg"},{"link_name":"Urseren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urseren"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picswiss_TI-15-37.jpg"},{"link_name":"Teufelsbrücke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teufelsbr%C3%BCcke"},{"link_name":"Schöllenen Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6llenen_Gorge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SBB_Re_6-6_Re_4-4_Gurtnellen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gurtnellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurtnellen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luftbild_Reussdelta_Uri.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luzern_-_Rathaussteg_II.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luzern_asv2022-10_Nadelwehr_img2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Needle dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_dam"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dam_of_Reuss_river_in_Lucerne.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BDWM_Be_4-8_Reussbr%C3%BCcke_Bremgarten_I.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn"},{"link_name":"Bremgarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremgarten,_Switzerland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aare_-_Reuss_-_Gebenstorf_IMG_6754.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aare"},{"link_name":"Gotthard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthard_Pass"},{"link_name":"Lago di Lucendro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lago_di_Lucendro"},{"link_name":"canton of Ticino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Ticino"},{"link_name":"canton of Uri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Uri"},{"link_name":"Furka Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furka_Pass"},{"link_name":"Urseren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urseren"},{"link_name":"Realp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realp"},{"link_name":"Andermatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andermatt"},{"link_name":"Hospental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospental"},{"link_name":"Schöllenen Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6llenen_Gorge"},{"link_name":"Devil's Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6llenen_Gorge#Devil's_Bridge_legend"},{"link_name":"Göschenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6schenen"},{"link_name":"canton of Uri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Uri"},{"link_name":"Wassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassen"},{"link_name":"Gurtnellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurtnellen"},{"link_name":"Amsteg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsteg"},{"link_name":"Silenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silenen"},{"link_name":"Erstfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erstfeld"},{"link_name":"Attinghausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attinghausen"},{"link_name":"Altdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altdorf,_Uri"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Flüelen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCelen"},{"link_name":"Seedorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedorf,_Uri"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Kapellbrücke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapellbr%C3%BCcke"},{"link_name":"Spreuerbrücke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreuerbr%C3%BCcke"},{"link_name":"needle dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_dam"},{"link_name":"Spreuerbrücke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreuerbr%C3%BCcke"},{"link_name":"Kleine Emme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleine_Emme"},{"link_name":"Entlebuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entlebuch"},{"link_name":"Emmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmen,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Buchrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchrain"},{"link_name":"Root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Gisikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisikon"},{"link_name":"Honau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honau,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"canton of Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Aargau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aargau"},{"link_name":"Zug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Zug"},{"link_name":"Dietwil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietwil"},{"link_name":"Risch-Rotkreuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risch-Rotkreuz"},{"link_name":"Oberrüti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberr%C3%BCti"},{"link_name":"Sins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sins,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Hünenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCnenberg"},{"link_name":"Mühlau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BChlau"},{"link_name":"Lorze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorze"},{"link_name":"Lake Zug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Zug"},{"link_name":"Maschwanden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschwanden"},{"link_name":"Zürich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Z%C3%BCrich"},{"link_name":"Merenschwand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merenschwand"},{"link_name":"Ottenbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottenbach,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Aristau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristau"},{"link_name":"Jonen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonen"},{"link_name":"Rottenschwil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rottenschwil"},{"link_name":"Unterlunkhofen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unterlunkhofen"},{"link_name":"Hermetschwil-Staffeln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetschwil-Staffeln"},{"link_name":"Flachsee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flachsee"},{"link_name":"Zufikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zufikon"},{"link_name":"Bremgarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremgarten,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Eggenwil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggenwil"},{"link_name":"Fischbach-Göslikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischbach-G%C3%B6slikon"},{"link_name":"Künten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCnten"},{"link_name":"Niederwil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niederwil,_Aargau"},{"link_name":"Stetten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stetten,_Aargau"},{"link_name":"Tägerig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4gerig"},{"link_name":"Mellingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellingen"},{"link_name":"Birrhard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birrhard"},{"link_name":"Mülligen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BClligen"},{"link_name":"Birmenstorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmenstorf,_Aargau"},{"link_name":"Windisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windisch,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Gebenstorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebenstorf"},{"link_name":"Aare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aare"},{"link_name":"Brugg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brugg"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Koblenz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koblenz,_Switzerland"}],"sub_title":"Course","text":"The Furkareuss in the valley UrserenTeufelsbrücke in the Schöllenen GorgeThe Reuss near GurtnellenThe Reuss entering Lake LucerneRathaus-Steg at LucerneNeedle dam regulating Lake Lucerne at LucerneReverse of the Needle dam in LucerneBridge of the Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn near BremgartenConfluence with the Aare at the \"Wasserschloss\"The Gotthardreuss rises in the Gotthard massif, emerging from Lago di Lucendro (reservoir built in 1947; elevation 2,131 m) in the canton of Ticino and passing into the canton of Uri below the Brigghubel (1,898 m).The Furkareuss rises east of Furka Pass (2,429 m), early joined by the Blaubergbach (sourced by two mountain lakes on 2,649 m) and several other creeks sourced by still existing glaciers, such as Sidelengletscher (3,170 m), Tiefengletscher (3,285 m) in the north, and Muttengletscher (2,908 m) and Witenwassergletscher (2,805 m) in the south, and eventually forms the east–west valley called Urseren, passing Realp at halfway through the valley at 1,540 m in eastern direction until its eastern end at Andermatt. This source is only around 5 km away from, and on the same mountain massif as the source of the Rhône, but will ultimately lead to the opposite side of the continent.Gotthardreuss and Furkareuss join at Hospental (1,446 m). Downstream of Andermatt the Reuss joins at 1,429 m the village creek Unteralpreuss, finally turns to the north, and passes through the 3 km-long narrow and deep Schöllenen Gorge and under the legendary Devil's Bridge (1,120 m).At Göschenen (1,057 m) it is joined by the Göschenerreuss, sourced by the glaciers Dammagletscher (3,430 m) and Flachensteinfirn (3,150 m) besides several others. From here it forms the main valley of the canton of Uri, the Urner Reusstal, passing below Wassen (840 m), Gurtnellen (720 m), Amsteg and Silenen (500 m), and through Erstfeld (460 m), past Attinghausen and Altdorf (440 m), joining the southernmost part of Lake Lucerne (the Urnersee) between Flüelen and Seedorf (434 m). The Reuss leaves Lake Lucerne some 30 km to the north-west, at the city of Lucerne.Notable bridges in Lucerne are the Kapellbrücke, first built 1333, rebuilt 1993 and Spreuerbrücke, built 1408. A needle dam just upstream from the Spreuerbrücke) maintains the water level.It receives the Kleine Emme from Entlebuch at Emmen (432 m). From here, it flows north-east through Buchrain, Root, Gisikon and Honau, and downstream of Honau (402 m) leaves the canton of Lucerne, now forming the border between Aargau and Zug, passing Dietwil (Aargau), Risch-Rotkreuz (Zug), Oberrüti (Aargau) and Sins (Aargau), Hünenberg (Zug) and Mühlau (Aargau). It receives the Lorze from Lake Zug downstream of Maschwanden.Downstream of this confluence, the Reuss forms the border between Aargau and Zürich, passing Merenschwand (Aargau, 389 m) and Ottenbach (Zurich, 384 m), and enters Aargau downstream of Ottenbach.Within Aargau, the Reuss flows past Aristau, Jonen, Rottenschwil, Unterlunkhofen, Hermetschwil-Staffeln, here forming Flachsee (380 m), and onward to Zufikon, Bremgarten (370 m). The Reussbrücke at Bremgarten was first built c. 1270, first mentioned 1281 (wooden bridge rebuilt 1953–1957).From Bremgarten, the Reuss meanders between the villages of Eggenwil, Fischbach-Göslikon, Künten, Niederwil, to Stetten (352 m), flowing past Tägerig, Mellingen (350 m), Birrhard (340 m), Mülligen, Birmenstorf and between Windisch and Gebenstorf, finally joining the Aare just downstream of Brugg, at 327 m.After the confluence the river continues as the Aare, which flows into the Rhine at Koblenz.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catchment-1"},{"link_name":"Central Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"canton of Uri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Uri"},{"link_name":"Urner Boden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urner_Boden"},{"link_name":"Ticino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticino"},{"link_name":"Airolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airolo"},{"link_name":"drainage basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin"},{"link_name":"Dammastock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dammastock"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Kleine Emme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleine_Emme"},{"link_name":"Nidwalden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidwalden"},{"link_name":"Obwalden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obwalden"},{"link_name":"Schwyz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Schwyz"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Zug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Zug"},{"link_name":"Zürich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Z%C3%BCrich"},{"link_name":"Aargau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aargau"}],"sub_title":"Catchment area","text":"The catchment area of 3,426 km2 (1,323 sq mi)[1] approximately covers Central Switzerland.The catchment area of the upper Reuss includes almost the entire canton of Uri (with the exception of the Urner Boden, and in the uppermost part of the Gotthardreuss a portion of Ticino (Airolo municipality). The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Dammastock, at elevation 3,630 m.The basin of the lower Reuss adds the catchment areas of other tributaries of Lake Lucerne as well as that of the Kleine Emme, including most of Nidwalden and Obwalden, and parts of Schwyz, Lucerne and Zug. Downstream of Lucerne, further tributaries add other parts of Zug as well as parts of Zürich and Aargau.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tributaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributaries"},{"link_name":"Gebenstorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebenstorf"},{"link_name":"Aare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aare"},{"link_name":"Mellingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellingen"},{"link_name":"Lorze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorze"},{"link_name":"Hünenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCnenberg"},{"link_name":"Lake Zug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Zug"},{"link_name":"Ägerisee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84gerisee"},{"link_name":"Sins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sins,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Gisikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisikon"},{"link_name":"Kleine Emme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleine_Emme"},{"link_name":"Emmenbrücke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmenbr%C3%BCcke"},{"link_name":"Lake Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Lucerne"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Lucerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne"},{"link_name":"Sarner Aa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarner_Aa"},{"link_name":"Alpnachstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpnachstad"},{"link_name":"Wichelsee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichelsee"},{"link_name":"Ennetmoos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennetmoos"},{"link_name":"Engelberger Aa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelberger_Aa"},{"link_name":"Buochs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buochs"},{"link_name":"Muota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muota"},{"link_name":"Brunnen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunnen"},{"link_name":"Isleten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isleten"},{"link_name":"Altdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altdorf,_Uri"},{"link_name":"Flüelen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCelen"},{"link_name":"Seedorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedorf,_Uri"},{"link_name":"Schächen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%A4chen"},{"link_name":"Attinghausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attinghausen"},{"link_name":"Erstfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erstfeld"},{"link_name":"Göschenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6schenen"},{"link_name":"Andermatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andermatt"},{"link_name":"Andermatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andermatt"},{"link_name":"Hospental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospental"}],"sub_title":"Tributaries","text":"Reuss and its tributaries, with length and catchment area, from mouth to source (incomplete):Reuss - 164 km - 3,426 km2 (at Gebenstorf into Aare)\nMülibach - 8 km2 (at Mellingen)\nJonen - 46 km2 (18 sq mi)\nLorze - 390 km2 (150 sq mi) (at Reussspitz, Hünenberg)\nHaselbach\nRigi-Aa - 18.6 km2 (7.2 sq mi) (at Arth into Lake Zug)\nHüribach - 12.8 km2 (4.9 sq mi) (into Ägerisee)\nSinserbach - 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) (at Sins)\nRon - 22.5 km2 (8.7 sq mi) (at Gisikon)\nKleine Emme - 58 km - 477 km2 (184 sq mi) (at Emmenbrücke)\nRänggbach\nRümlig\nWigger\nFontannen\nEntlen\nGrosse Entlen - 16 km\nEibach\nRotbach\nKleine Entlen\nHeadwaters\nWiss Emme\nWaldemme\nLake Lucerne - 113.6 km2 (43.9 sq mi)[2] - 2,238 km2[3] (at Lucerne, outflow Reuss)\nWürzenbach - 7.7 km - 39 km2 (15 sq mi) (at Lucerne)\nSarner Aa/Dreiwässerkanal/Aa/Lauibach - 28 km - 267 km2 (103 sq mi) (at Alpnachstad)\nGrosse Schliere - 17 km - 28.8 km2 (11.1 sq mi) (above Wichelsee)\nGrosse Melchaa\nMelbach - 18 km2 (6.9 sq mi) (at Ennetmoos)\nEngelberger Aa - 50 km - 230 km2 (89 sq mi) (at Buochs)\nMuota - 316 km2 (122 sq mi) (at Brunnen)\nIsitalerbach - 60 km2 (23 sq mi) (near Isleten)\nAltdorfer Dorfbach (at Altdorf)\nUpper Reuss - 832 km2 (321 sq mi) (at Flüelen/Seedorf into Lake Lucerne)\nSchächen - 109 km2 (42 sq mi) (at Attinghausen)\nAlpbach - 32 km2 (12 sq mi) (at Erstfeld)\nKärstelenbach - 116 km2 (45 sq mi)\nMeienreuss - 71 km2 (27 sq mi)\nGöschenenalpreuss - 92 km2 (36 sq mi) (at Göschenen)\nVoralpreuss\nUnteralpreuss (at Andermatt)\nOberalpreuss (above Andermatt)\nHeadwaters at Hospental:\nFurkareuss - 12 km\nWitenwasserenreuss\nMuttenreuss\nTiefenbach\nSidelenbach\nGotthardreuss","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Silenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silenen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Urseren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urseren"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reichert-5"},{"link_name":"Old European hydronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_European_hydronym"},{"link_name":"Riß","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riss_(river)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"OHG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German"},{"link_name":"rūsa, riusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reuse"},{"link_name":"fish trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_trap"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reichert-5"}],"sub_title":"Name","text":"Ptolemy records the river's pre-Germanic name as Silana (whence the name of Silenen).[4]\nThe Germanic name is attested as Rusa, Rusia from the 9th century (sometimes recorded as Ursa in the Early Modern period, c.f. Urseren),[5] from an early Germanic *Rūsi, oblique *Rūsjō-.Greule (1982) interprets the name as an Old European hydronym, directly cognate with Riß.[6] Because of Ptolemy's record of the pre-Germanic name Silana, it is possible that only part of the river was known as *Rūsi in antiquity; alternatively, *Rūsi has been interpreted as a purely Germanic name introduced with Germanic settlement in the early medieval period, a derivation from OHG rūsa, riusa \"fish trap\".[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Schöllenen Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6llenen_Gorge"},{"link_name":"Urseren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urseren"},{"link_name":"Furka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furka_Pass"},{"link_name":"Oberalp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberalp_Pass"},{"link_name":"bishopric of Chur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishopric_of_Chur"},{"link_name":"Altdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altdorf,_Uri"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HLS-7"},{"link_name":"Gotthard Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthard_Pass"},{"link_name":"imperial immediacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_immediacy"},{"link_name":"foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy"},{"link_name":"canalised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_engineering"},{"link_name":"flood control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control"},{"link_name":"Gotthard Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthard_Tunnel"}],"sub_title":"Upper Reuss","text":"Until the 13th century, the Schöllenen Gorge was impassable, separating Urseren from Uri. Urseren was accessible via Furka and Oberalp, and was under the influence of the bishopric of Chur.The main settlement area of Uri was the plain of the Reuss estuary Altdorf (Reussebene). Settlements tended to form on either side of the river, while the river itself was often taken as communal or parish boundary.[7]The Schöllenen Gorge was made passable the 1230s, opening access to the Gotthard Pass. This resulted in an immense increase of the strategic value of the Reuss valley, as reflected in the grant of imperial immediacy to Uri and the wider political backdrop of the foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy.The Reuss was canalised between Attinghausen and Altdorf in 1850–1863, and to the river mouth in 1900–1912, significantly increasing the arable land in the Reuss plain. A small river delta was reconstructed in 1985. After flooding in 1987, improved flood control measures were constructed during 1995–1999.A small hydroelectric plant was built in Schöllenen Gorge for the construction of the Gotthard Tunnel in 1875. Larger hydroelectric plants were built at Amsteg (1922), Wassen (1949) and Göschenen (1962).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"moraines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moraine"},{"link_name":"Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Austrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Swiss Confederacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy"},{"link_name":"Freie Ämter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freie_%C3%84mter"},{"link_name":"Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"Ottenbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottenbach"},{"link_name":"Aargau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aargau"},{"link_name":"waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterway"},{"link_name":"Zurzach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurzach"},{"link_name":"Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel"},{"link_name":"Lunkhofen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unterlunkhofen"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HLS-7"},{"link_name":"Hans Conrad Gyger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Conrad_Gyger&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Johann Gottfried Tulla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Tulla"},{"link_name":"Flachsee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flachsee"}],"sub_title":"Lower Reuss","text":"The lower Reuss flows along a series of former glacial lakes. Settlements along the river were built on lateral moraines, while the river bed itself was marshy and subject to flooding, and thus unsuitable for settlement. The oldest river crossings are along terminal moraines between the former glacial lakes.The Reuss valley was under Habsburg Austrian rule during the 14th century.In the 15th century, the Reuss became the border between territories of the Swiss Confederacy, in 1429 between Lucerne and Zürich, and later between Zug, Zürich and the Freie Ämter condominium, between Freie Ämter and Baden, and between Baden and Berne. The Reuss downstream of Ottenbach came to lie within Aargau with the creation of this canton in 1803.The Reuss had the status of \"imperial road\" (freie Reichsstrasse) in the late medieval period. Until 1798, it was the responsibility of cantonal authorities (the Reussherren of Lucerne and Zug) to keep the river navigable. The river was important as waterway for traffic between Lucerne and Zurzach, and via Aare and Rhine to Basel, until the construction of transit roads in the 18th century. River crossings by ferry in the medieval period were at Lunkhofen (mentioned 1160), Windisch, Sins, Mühlau, Oberrüti, and Dietwil. The crossing at Lunkhofen was on the main route from Zürich to Berne. Bridges across the Reuss were in Lucerne, Bremgarten (1230), Mellingen (mentioned 1253) and Gisikon (1432). In 1528, the Catholic cantons blocked the trade routes across the Reuss for Protestant cantons and trade between Zürich and Berne was re-routed through Windisch.[7]Because ferries and bridges were a source of income, the construction of new crossings was opposed during the early modern period, and only one new bridge was built, commissioned by Zug, at Sins (1640). New bridges were built only after the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy, e.g. at Windisch (1799), Ottenbach (1864) and Mühlau (1940).By the end of the 20th century, there were more than a dozen crossings of the lower Reuss, including a number of railway and motorway bridges.Projects for canalisation in 1648 (Hans Conrad Gyger) and 1809 (Johann Gottfried Tulla) were not realised.In 1840, Aargau constructed some canalisation, with limited impact. A large-scale project of river engineering was completed during 1971–1985 (Reusstalsanierung). The hydroelectric plant at Bremgarten-Zufikon was built in 1893 and enlarged in 1975 (Flachsee reservoir).","title":"History"}]

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[{"title":"Rivers in Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers_in_Switzerland"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KISS_principle

KISS principle

["1 Origin","2 Variants","3 Usage","3.1 In film animation","3.2 In software development","3.3 In politics","3.4 In popular culture","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Design principle preferring simplicity "K.I.S.S." redirects here. For other uses, see Kiss (disambiguation). A simple sign of the KISS principle (excluding the last word) KISS, an acronym for "Keep it simple, stupid!", is a design principle first noted by the U.S. Navy in 1960. First seen partly in American English by at least 1938, the KISS principle states that most systems work best if they are kept simple rather than made complicated; therefore, simplicity should be a key goal in design, and unnecessary complexity should be avoided. The phrase has been associated with aircraft engineer Kelly Johnson. The term "KISS principle" was in popular use by 1970. Variations on the phrase (usually as some euphemism for the more churlish "stupid") include "keep it super simple", "keep it simple, silly", "keep it short and simple", "keep it short and sweet", "keep it simple and straightforward", "keep it small and simple", "keep it simple, soldier", "keep it simple, sailor", "keep it simple, sweetie", "keep it stupidly simple", or "keep it sweet and simple". Origin The acronym was reportedly coined by Kelly Johnson, lead engineer at the Lockheed Skunk Works (creators of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird spy planes, among many others). However, the variant "Keep it Short and Simple" is attested from a 1938 issue of the Minneapolis Star. While popular usage has transcribed it for decades as "Keep it simple, stupid", Johnson transcribed it simply as "Keep it simple stupid" (no comma), and this reading is still used by many authors. The principle is best exemplified by the story of Johnson handing a team of design engineers a handful of tools, with the challenge that the jet aircraft they were designing must be repairable by an average mechanic in the field under combat conditions with only these tools. Hence, the "stupid" refers to the relationship between the way things break and the sophistication available to repair them. The acronym has been used by many in the U.S. military, especially the U.S. Navy and United States Air Force, and in the field of software development. Variants The principle most probably finds its origins in similar minimalist concepts, such as: Occam's razor; "Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication"; Shakespeare's "Brevity is the soul of wit"; Mies van der Rohe's "Less is more"; Bjarne Stroustrup's "Make Simple Tasks Simple!"; Dr. Seuss's ode to brevity: "So the writer who breeds more words than he needs, is making a chore for the reader who reads"; Johan Cruyff's "Playing football is very simple but playing simple football is the hardest thing there is"; Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's "It seems that perfection is reached not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away"; Colin Chapman, the founder of Lotus Cars, urged his designers to "Simplify, then add lightness"; Attributed to Albert Einstein, although this may be an editor's paraphrase of a lecture he gave, "Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler"; Steve Jobs's "Simplify, Simplify, Simplify", which simplified Henry David Thoreau's quote "Simplify, simplify, simplify" for emphasis; Northcote Parkinson, British academic and sometimes military officer and military critic, expressed this idea as "Parkinson's Third Law" (c. 1957): "Expansion means complexity and complexity, decay; or to put it even more plainly—the more complex, the sooner dead"; Heath Robinson contraptions and Rube Goldberg's machines, intentionally overly-complex solutions to simple tasks or problems, are humorous examples of "non-KISS" solutions. Usage In film animation Master animator Richard Williams explains the KISS principle in his book The Animator's Survival Kit, and Disney's Nine Old Men write about it in Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life, a considerable work of the genre. The problem faced is that inexperienced animators may "over-animate" in their works, that is, a character may move too much and do too much. Williams urges animators to "KISS". In software development Don't repeat yourself (DRY) Minimalism Unix philosophy Arch Linux Slackware Linux Chartjunk List of software development philosophies Reduced instruction set computing Rule of least power There's more than one way to do it Worse is better (Less is more) You aren't gonna need it (YAGNI) In politics Keep It Simple Solutions, New Brunswick, a minor political party in New Brunswick, Canada Keep It Straight and Simple Party, a minor political party in South Africa In popular culture In the Filipino neo-noir film Segurista, KISS is invoked by Mrs Librada (played by Liza Lorena) as an approach to selling insurance. In the American version of The Office, Michael Scott's advice to Dwight Schrute before making any decision is KISS (Keep it Simple, Stupid). See also BLUF (communication) Concision Elegance The Fox and the Cat (fable) It's the economy, stupid Less is more Mini survival kit – a minimal "bug-out bag" or survival kit Muntzing Occam's razor Perfect is the enemy of good Simple living Simplicity Ultralight backpacking References ^ The Routledge Dictionary of Modern American Slang and Unconventional English, Tom Dalzell, 2009, 1104 pages, p.595, webpage: BGoogle-5F: notes U.S. Navy "Project KISS" of 1960, headed by Rear Admiral Paul D. Stroop, Chicago Daily Tribune, p.43, 4 December 1960. ^ The Concise New Partridge Dictionary of Slang, Eric Partridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor, Psychology Press, 2007, p.384. ^ a b Clarence Leonard (Kelly) Johnson 1910–1990: A Biographical Memoir (PDF), by Ben R. Rich, 1995, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, p. 13. ^ Pit & Quarry, Vol. 63, July 1970, p.172, quote: "as in every other step of the development process, follow the KISS principle — Keep It Simple, Stupid." ^ "Kiss principle definition by MONASH Marketing Dictionary". 1994-11-18. Retrieved 2016-01-24. ^ Officers' Call. Print Media Branch, Command Information Unit, Office, Chief of Public Affairs, HQDA. 1986. LCCN 88655070. Remember the adage KISS; Keep it Simple, Soldier ^ Sunday Post-Crescent (Appleton, WI) on November 4, 1973. ^ "Keep It Short and Simple (1938)". The Minneapolis Star. 1938-12-02. p. 20. Retrieved 2022-08-21. ^ Ram B. Misra (2004), "Global IT Outsourcing: Metrics for Success of All Parties", Journal of Information Technology Cases and Applications, volume 6 issue 3, page 21. Online version. Retrieved 2009-12-19. ^ "Everything Should Be Made as Simple as Possible, But Not Simpler". Quote Investigator. 13 May 2011. ^ "Simplify Simplify Simplify Message on the wall of..." Ramon Vullings - ideaDJ Blog. 18 February 2014. Retrieved 2022-04-03. ^ Makovsky, Ken. "Inside Apple #2". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-04-03. ^ Aguiluz Tikoy (Director) (1996). Segurista (Motion picture) (in Filipino). Philippines: Neo Films. Event occurs at 00:03:39. ^ "The Office (American TV series)", Wikipedia, 2024-06-04, retrieved 2024-06-10 External links Kiss Principle vteEngineering approachesSchool Empathic design Frugal innovation Kansei engineering Keep It Simple Stupid Minimalism Use-centered design User-centered design Concepts Ornament and Crime Overengineering Planned obsolescence Sustainability Theory of constraints Usability Value engineering vteDesign Outline Designer DisciplinesCommunicationdesign Advertising Book design Brand design Exhibit design Film title design Graphic design Motion Postage stamp design Print design Illustration Information design Instructional design News design Photography Retail design Signage / Traffic sign design Typography / Type design Video design Visual merchandising Environmentaldesign Architecture Architectural lighting design Building design Passive solar Ecological design Environmental impact design Garden design Computer-aided Healthy community design Hotel design 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kiss (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Keep_it_Simple.jpg"},{"link_name":"acronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym"},{"link_name":"design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TDal-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EPar-2"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"simplicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicity"},{"link_name":"design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design"},{"link_name":"Kelly Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Johnson_(engineer)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BRich-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pit-4"},{"link_name":"euphemism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-monash-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"\"K.I.S.S.\" redirects here. For other uses, see Kiss (disambiguation).A simple sign of the KISS principle (excluding the last word)KISS, an acronym for \"Keep it simple, stupid!\", is a design principle first noted by the U.S. Navy in 1960.[1][2] First seen partly in American English by at least 1938, the KISS principle states that most systems work best if they are kept simple rather than made complicated; therefore, simplicity should be a key goal in design, and unnecessary complexity should be avoided. The phrase has been associated with aircraft engineer Kelly Johnson.[3] The term \"KISS principle\" was in popular use by 1970.[4] Variations on the phrase (usually as some euphemism for the more churlish \"stupid\") include \"keep it super simple\", \"keep it simple, silly\", \"keep it short and simple\", \"keep it short and sweet\", \"keep it simple and straightforward\",[5] \"keep it small and simple\", \"keep it simple, soldier\",[6] \"keep it simple, sailor\", \"keep it simple, sweetie\",[7] \"keep it stupidly simple\", or \"keep it sweet and simple\".","title":"KISS principle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kelly Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Johnson_(engineer)"},{"link_name":"Lockheed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin"},{"link_name":"Skunk Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skunk_Works"},{"link_name":"Lockheed U-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2"},{"link_name":"SR-71 Blackbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbird"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BRich-3"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_Star"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-misra-9"},{"link_name":"jet aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircraft"},{"link_name":"mechanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanic"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_slang_terms"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._Navy_acronyms_and_expressions"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"software development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"}],"text":"The acronym was reportedly coined by Kelly Johnson, lead engineer at the Lockheed Skunk Works (creators of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird spy planes, among many others).[3] However, the variant \"Keep it Short and Simple\" is attested from a 1938 issue of the Minneapolis Star.[8]While popular usage has transcribed it for decades as \"Keep it simple, stupid\", Johnson transcribed it simply as \"Keep it simple stupid\" (no comma), and this reading is still used by many authors.[9]The principle is best exemplified by the story of Johnson handing a team of design engineers a handful of tools, with the challenge that the jet aircraft they were designing must be repairable by an average mechanic in the field under combat conditions with only these tools. Hence, the \"stupid\" refers to the relationship between the way things break and the sophistication available to repair them.The acronym has been used by many in the U.S. military, especially the U.S. Navy and United States Air Force, and in the field of software development.","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minimalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalism"},{"link_name":"Occam's razor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Less is more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Less_is_more_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Bjarne Stroustrup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bjarne_Stroustrup"},{"link_name":"Dr. Seuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Seuss"},{"link_name":"Johan Cruyff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Cruyff"},{"link_name":"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry"},{"link_name":"Colin Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Chapman"},{"link_name":"Lotus Cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Cars"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Steve Jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Henry David Thoreau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau"},{"link_name":"Northcote Parkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Northcote_Parkinson"},{"link_name":"Heath Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Rube Goldberg's machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rube_Goldberg_machine"}],"text":"The principle most probably finds its origins in similar minimalist concepts, such as:Occam's razor;\n\"Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication\";\nShakespeare's \"Brevity is the soul of wit\";\nMies van der Rohe's \"Less is more\";\nBjarne Stroustrup's \"Make Simple Tasks Simple!\";\nDr. Seuss's ode to brevity: \"So the writer who breeds more words than he needs, is making a chore for the reader who reads\";\nJohan Cruyff's \"Playing football is very simple but playing simple football is the hardest thing there is\";\nAntoine de Saint-Exupéry's \"It seems that perfection is reached not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away\";\nColin Chapman, the founder of Lotus Cars, urged his designers to \"Simplify, then add lightness\";\nAttributed to Albert Einstein, although this may be an editor's paraphrase of a lecture he gave,[10] \"Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler\";\nSteve Jobs's \"Simplify, Simplify, Simplify\",[11][12] which simplified Henry David Thoreau's quote \"Simplify, simplify, simplify\" for emphasis;\nNorthcote Parkinson, British academic and sometimes military officer and military critic, expressed this idea as \"Parkinson's Third Law\" (c. 1957): \"Expansion means complexity and complexity, decay; or to put it even more plainly—the more complex, the sooner dead\";Heath Robinson contraptions and Rube Goldberg's machines, intentionally overly-complex solutions to simple tasks or problems, are humorous examples of \"non-KISS\" solutions.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Williams_(animator)"},{"link_name":"The Animator's Survival Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Animator%27s_Survival_Kit"},{"link_name":"Disney's Nine Old Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Nine_Old_Men"},{"link_name":"Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Animation:_The_Illusion_of_Life"}],"sub_title":"In film animation","text":"Master animator Richard Williams explains the KISS principle in his book The Animator's Survival Kit, and Disney's Nine Old Men write about it in Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life, a considerable work of the genre. The problem faced is that inexperienced animators may \"over-animate\" in their works, that is, a character may move too much and do too much. Williams urges animators to \"KISS\".","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Don't repeat yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_repeat_yourself"},{"link_name":"Minimalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalism_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Unix philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Arch Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_Linux"},{"link_name":"Slackware Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slackware_Linux"},{"link_name":"Chartjunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartjunk"},{"link_name":"List of software development philosophies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_software_development_philosophies"},{"link_name":"Reduced instruction set computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computing"},{"link_name":"Rule of least power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_least_power"},{"link_name":"There's more than one way to do it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27s_more_than_one_way_to_do_it"},{"link_name":"Worse is better","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse_is_better"},{"link_name":"You aren't gonna need it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_aren%27t_gonna_need_it"}],"sub_title":"In software development","text":"Don't repeat yourself (DRY)\nMinimalism\nUnix philosophy\nArch Linux\nSlackware Linux\nChartjunk\nList of software development philosophies\nReduced instruction set computing\nRule of least power\nThere's more than one way to do it\nWorse is better (Less is more)\nYou aren't gonna need it (YAGNI)","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Keep It Simple Solutions, New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KISS_NB"},{"link_name":"minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_party"},{"link_name":"political party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Keep It Straight and Simple Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep_It_Straight_and_Simple_Party"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"}],"sub_title":"In politics","text":"Keep It Simple Solutions, New Brunswick, a minor political party in New Brunswick, Canada\nKeep It Straight and Simple Party, a minor political party in South Africa","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Filipino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_language"},{"link_name":"neo-noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-noir"},{"link_name":"Segurista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sure"},{"link_name":"Liza Lorena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liza_Lorena"},{"link_name":"insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"In popular culture","text":"In the Filipino neo-noir film Segurista, KISS is invoked by Mrs Librada (played by Liza Lorena) as an approach to selling insurance.[13]In the American version of The Office,[14] Michael Scott's advice to Dwight Schrute before making any decision is KISS (Keep it Simple, Stupid).","title":"Usage"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_oxide

Silicon oxide

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Silicon oxide may refer to either of the following: Silicon dioxide or quartz, SiO2, very well characterized Silicon monoxide, SiO, not very well characterized Index of chemical compounds with the same nameThis set index article lists chemical compounds articles associated with the same name.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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[]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wharton_Jones

Thomas Wharton Jones

["1 Biography","2 Awards","3 Selected publications","4 Society Affiliations","5 References"]

Thomas W. JonesBorn(1808-01-09)9 January 1808St Andrews, ScotlandDied7 November 1891(1891-11-07) (aged 83)Ventnor, EnglandNationalityEnglishAlma materUniversity of EdinburghScientific careerFieldsOphthalmologist and physiologistInstitutionsUniversity College, LondonRoyal InstitutionCharing Cross HospitalAcademic advisorsWilliam MackenzieNotable studentsThomas Henry Huxley Thomas Wharton Jones (9 January 1808 – 7 November 1891) was a ophthalmologist and physiologist of the 19th century. Biography Jones's father was Richard Jones, a native of London. Richard Jones had moved north to St. Andrews and was working with Her Majesty's Customs for Scotland when Thomas Wharton Jones was born in January 1808. Jones grew up in Scotland and studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. From 1827 to 1829, he was an assistant to Robert Knox, a lecturer on anatomy at Edinburgh. Around Christmas of 1827, while working for Knox, he purchased a body from William Hare on Knox's behalf, paying £7 10s to Hare. Jones thus became caught up in the scandal surrounding the notorious body-snatchers Burke and Hare, but was cleared by the investigating committee., After this, he went to Glasgow, where he worked with William Mackenzie. Jones contributed the anatomical drawings of sections of the eye that appeared in Mackenzie's classic treatise. Jones travelled to Cork in 1835, and for a time he engaged in medical practice there, devoting himself chiefly to diseases of the eye and ear. In 1835, he made the discovery of the germinal vesicle in the mammalian ovum, and in 1837, described the origin of the chorion. In 1837 he visited the principal universities of the Continent, and settled in London in the following year, where he set up practice as an oculist. In 1847, Jones examined a primitive ophthalmoscope devised by Charles Babbage, but found it of little value. In 1851, Jones was appointed Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery at University College, London. He occupied this post for 30 years until the beginning of 1881, when medical problems forced him to retire to Ventnor. He stayed in Ventnor until his death in 1891. Jones was a Lecturer on Physiology at Charing Cross Hospital, Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution (1851–55), and Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Hospital. In 1872, on behalf of the Camden Society, Jones edited an account of the life and death of Bishop Bedell of Kilmore, who was an ancestral kinsman who died in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Jones disagreed with the Darwinian theory of evolution, regarding it as a "mere conceit unsanctioned by science," and published a book in 1876 propounding this view. Awards 1850: Astley Cooper Prize Essay on State of the Blood and Bloodvessels in Inflammation 1851: Actonian Prize Essay on The Wisdom and Beneficence of the Almighty as displayed in the Sense of Vision; prize of 100 guineas (£105), awarded by the Royal Institution. Selected publications The principles and practice of ophthalmic medicine and surgery, London: John Churchill, 1847; American ed., ed. by Isaac Hays, Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847; 2nd ed., London: John Churchill, 1855; 2nd American ed., ed. by Edward Hartshorne, Philadelphia, Blanchard & Lea, 1856; 3rd and rev. American ed., based on 2nd British ed., ed. Walter F. Atlee, Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1863; 3rd ed., London: John Churchill, 1865. A catechism of the medicine and surgery of the eye and ear, for the clinical use of hospital students, London: John Churchill, 1857. A catechism of the physiology and philosophy of body, sense, and mind: For use in schools and colleges, and in private study, London: John Churchill, 1858. Failure of sight from railway and other injuries of the spine and head; its nature and treatment, with a physiological and pathological disquisition into the influence of the vaso-motor nerves on the circulation of the blood in the extreme vessels, London: Walton, 1869. A true relation of the life and death of the Right Reverend father in God William Bedell, lord bishop of Kilmore in Ireland; edited from a ms. in the Bodleian library, Oxford, and amplified with genealogical and historical chapters, compiled from original sources, with William Bedell, Westminster: Camden Society, 1872. Evolution of the human race from apes, and of apes from lower animals, a doctrine unsanctioned by science, London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1876. Jones also wrote various papers on physiology, published in the Philosophical Transactions and elsewhere. Society Affiliations Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Foreign Member, Medical Society of Vienna Foreign Member, Medical Society of Copenhagen Foreign Member, Société de Biologie of Paris References This article uses text from the Lancet of 28 November 1891. This publication is now in the public domain. ^ Neurotree profile: Thomas Wharton Jones ^ Patron of the Royal Institution: Fullerian Professorships. Johnmadjackfuller.homestead.com. Retrieved on 29 May 2014. ^ Men of the Time: a Dictionary of Contemporaries, rev. and ed. by Thompson Cooper, 9th ed., London: George Routledge and Sons, 1875, entry for Thomas Wharton Jones, pp. 594–595. ^ a b Obituary, Thomas Wharton Jones, F.R.S., The Lancet 138 (#3561), 28 November 1891, pp. 1256–1258. ^ a b Babbage the unfortunate, C. R. Keeler, British Journal of Ophthalmology 88 (2004), pp. 730–732, at p. 731. ^ "Sir William Turner: a chapter in medical history". Retrieved 1 May 2014. Men of the Time: a Dictionary of Contemporaries, Thompson Cooper, 10th ed., George Routledge and Sons, 1879, entry for Thomas Wharton Jones, p. 576. Academic offices Preceded byWilliam Withey Gull Fullerian Professor of Physiology 1851–1855 Succeeded byThomas Henry Huxley Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Australia Netherlands Portugal Vatican Academics CiNii Mathematics Genealogy Project People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef

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Richard Jones had moved north to St. Andrews and was working with Her Majesty's Customs for Scotland when Thomas Wharton Jones was born in January 1808. Jones grew up in Scotland and studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. From 1827 to 1829, he was an assistant to Robert Knox, a lecturer on anatomy at Edinburgh. Around Christmas of 1827, while working for Knox, he purchased a body from William Hare on Knox's behalf, paying £7 10s to Hare. Jones thus became caught up in the scandal surrounding the notorious body-snatchers Burke and Hare, but was cleared by the investigating committee.[3],[4] After this, he went to Glasgow, where he worked with William Mackenzie. Jones contributed the anatomical drawings of sections of the eye that appeared in Mackenzie's classic treatise.[5]Jones travelled to Cork in 1835, and for a time he engaged in medical practice there, devoting himself chiefly to diseases of the eye and ear. In 1835, he made the discovery of the germinal vesicle in the mammalian ovum, and in 1837, described the origin of the chorion.[6] In 1837 he visited the principal universities of the Continent, and settled in London in the following year, where he set up practice as an oculist. In 1847, Jones examined a primitive ophthalmoscope devised by Charles Babbage, but found it of little value.[5] In 1851, Jones was appointed Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery at University College, London. He occupied this post for 30 years until the beginning of 1881, when medical problems forced him to retire to Ventnor. He stayed in Ventnor until his death in 1891.[4]Jones was a Lecturer on Physiology at Charing Cross Hospital, Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution (1851–55), and Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Hospital.In 1872, on behalf of the Camden Society, Jones edited an account of the life and death of Bishop Bedell of Kilmore, who was an ancestral kinsman who died in the Irish Rebellion of 1641.Jones disagreed with the Darwinian theory of evolution, regarding it as a \"mere conceit unsanctioned by science,\" and published a book in 1876 propounding this view.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Actonian Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actonian_Prize"},{"link_name":"guineas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guineas"},{"link_name":"Royal Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution"}],"text":"1850: Astley Cooper Prize Essay on State of the Blood and Bloodvessels in Inflammation\n1851: Actonian Prize Essay on The Wisdom and Beneficence of the Almighty as displayed in the Sense of Vision; prize of 100 guineas (£105), awarded by the Royal Institution.","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"}],"text":"The principles and practice of ophthalmic medicine and surgery, London: John Churchill, 1847; American ed., ed. by Isaac Hays, Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847; 2nd ed., London: John Churchill, 1855; 2nd American ed., ed. by Edward Hartshorne, Philadelphia, Blanchard & Lea, 1856; 3rd and rev. American ed., based on 2nd British ed., ed. Walter F. Atlee, Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1863; 3rd ed., London: John Churchill, 1865.\nA catechism of the medicine and surgery of the eye and ear, for the clinical use of hospital students, London: John Churchill, 1857.\nA catechism of the physiology and philosophy of body, sense, and mind: For use in schools and colleges, and in private study, London: John Churchill, 1858.\nFailure of sight from railway and other injuries of the spine and head; its nature and treatment, with a physiological and pathological disquisition into the influence of the vaso-motor nerves on the circulation of the blood in the extreme vessels, London: Walton, 1869.\nA true relation of the life and death of the Right Reverend father in God William Bedell, lord bishop of Kilmore in Ireland; edited from a ms. in the Bodleian library, Oxford, and amplified with genealogical and historical chapters, compiled from original sources, with William Bedell, Westminster: Camden Society, 1872.\nEvolution of the human race from apes, and of apes from lower animals, a doctrine unsanctioned by science, London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1876.Jones also wrote various papers on physiology, published in the Philosophical Transactions and elsewhere.","title":"Selected publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellowship_of_the_Royal_College_of_Surgeons"}],"text":"Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons\nForeign Member, Medical Society of Vienna\nForeign Member, Medical Society of Copenhagen\nForeign Member, Société de Biologie of Paris","title":"Society Affiliations"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLTK

Natural Language Toolkit

["1 Library highlights","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

Software suite for natural language processing Natural Language ToolkitOriginal author(s)Steven Bird, Edward Loper, Ewan KleinDeveloper(s)Team NLTKInitial release2001; 23 years ago (2001)Stable release3.8.1  / 2 January 2023; 17 months ago (2 January 2023) Repositorygithub.com/nltk/nltk Written inPythonTypeNatural language processingLicenseApache 2.0Websitewww.nltk.org Parse tree generated with NLTK The Natural Language Toolkit, or more commonly NLTK, is a suite of libraries and programs for symbolic and statistical natural language processing (NLP) for English written in the Python programming language. It supports classification, tokenization, stemming, tagging, parsing, and semantic reasoning functionalities. It was developed by Steven Bird and Edward Loper in the Department of Computer and Information Science at the University of Pennsylvania. NLTK includes graphical demonstrations and sample data. It is accompanied by a book that explains the underlying concepts behind the language processing tasks supported by the toolkit, plus a cookbook. NLTK is intended to support research and teaching in NLP or closely related areas, including empirical linguistics, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, information retrieval, and machine learning. NLTK has been used successfully as a teaching tool, as an individual study tool, and as a platform for prototyping and building research systems. There are 32 universities in the US and 25 countries using NLTK in their courses. Library highlights Discourse representation Lexical analysis: Word and text tokenizer n-gram and collocations Part-of-speech tagger Tree model and Text chunker for capturing Named-entity recognition See also Free and open-source software portal SpaCy References ^ "Project site on SourceForge". 9 July 2001. ^ "Release 3.8.1". 2 January 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2023. ^ "NLTK License". NLTK Project. Retrieved 14 February 2015. ^ "NLTK Courses". Google Docs. Retrieved 15 June 2016. ^ "Preface". www.nltk.org. Retrieved 15 June 2016. ^ Bird, Steven; Klein, Ewan; Loper, Edward (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-51649-9. ^ Perkins, Jacob (2010). Python Text Processing with NLTK 2.0 Cookbook. Packt Publishing. ISBN 978-1849513609. ^ Bird, Steven; Klein, Ewan; Loper, Edward; Baldridge, Jason (2008). "Multidisciplinary instruction with the Natural Language Toolkit" (PDF). Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Issues in Teaching Computational Linguistics, ACL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "NLTK :: Sample usage for drt". www.nltk.org. Retrieved 14 July 2022. External links Official website vteNatural language processingGeneral terms AI-complete Bag-of-words n-gram Bigram Trigram Computational linguistics Natural-language understanding Stop words Text processing Text analysis Argument mining Collocation extraction Concept mining Coreference resolution Deep linguistic processing Distant reading Information extraction Named-entity recognition Ontology learning Parsing Semantic parsing Syntactic parsing Part-of-speech tagging Semantic analysis Semantic role labeling Semantic decomposition Semantic similarity Sentiment analysis Terminology extraction Text mining Textual entailment Truecasing Word-sense disambiguation Word-sense induction Text segmentation Compound-term processing Lemmatisation Lexical analysis Text chunking Stemming Sentence segmentation Word segmentation Automatic summarization Multi-document summarization Sentence extraction Text simplification Machine translation Computer-assisted Example-based Rule-based Statistical Transfer-based Neural Distributional semantics models BERT Document-term matrix Explicit semantic analysis fastText GloVe Language model (large) Latent semantic analysis Seq2seq Word embedding Word2vec Language resources,datasets and corporaTypes andstandards Corpus linguistics Lexical resource Linguistic Linked Open Data Machine-readable dictionary Parallel text PropBank Semantic network Simple Knowledge Organization System Speech corpus Text corpus Thesaurus (information retrieval) Treebank Universal Dependencies Data BabelNet Bank of English DBpedia FrameNet Google Ngram Viewer UBY WordNet Wikidata Automatic identificationand data capture Speech recognition Speech segmentation Speech synthesis Natural language generation Optical character recognition Topic model Document classification Latent Dirichlet allocation Pachinko allocation Computer-assistedreviewing Automated essay scoring Concordancer Grammar checker Predictive text Pronunciation assessment Spell checker Natural languageuser interface Chatbot Interactive fiction (c.f. Syntax guessing) Question answering Virtual assistant Voice user interface Related Formal semantics Hallucination Natural Language Toolkit spaCy This programming-language-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphisoft

Graphisoft

["1 History","1.1 Foundation","2 Products","2.1 Graphisoft Archicad","2.2 Graphisoft BIM Server","2.3 Graphisoft MEP Modeler","2.4 Graphisoft EcoDesigner","2.5 Graphisoft BIMcloud","2.6 DDScad","2.7 Archicad Collaborate","2.8 Graphisoft BIMx","3 See also","4 References"]

Software company Graphisoft SECompany typeSocietas EuropaeaIndustryComputer-aided designBuilding Information ModelingSoftwareFoundedBudapest, Hungary (1982)HeadquartersBudapest, HungaryKey peopleGábor Bojár(Founder)Daniel Csillag(CEO)ProductsSee complete products listing.ParentNemetschek SESubsidiariesGraphisoft R&D Zrt.Graphisoft Deutschland GmbHGraphisoft North America Inc.Graphisoft Japan Co. Ltd.Graphisoft UK Ltd.Graphisoft BrazilGraphisoft SingaporeGraphisoft Hong Kong Ltd.Graphisoft Beijing Rep. OfficeGraphisoft MexicoGraphisoft ItalyWebsitewww.graphisoft.com Graphisoft SE is a European multinational corporation that designs software, and is headquartered in Budapest, Hungary. As a subsidiary of Nemetschek, Graphisoft develops Building Information Modeling software products for architects, interior designers and planners. Graphisoft has subsidiaries in Germany, United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Japan and a representative office in Singapore. The company's flagship product is Archicad — an architectural design software developed since 1984 for Windows and Mac platforms. History Foundation In 1982, Graphisoft was established by Gábor Bojár. The Hungarian software developer created terrain modeling software on microcomputers while he was head of a mathematical department at the Geophysical Institute in Budapest. The communist history of Hungary was an important factor in the success of Graphisoft. When private companies had been allowed, Bojár promptly left his job and launched Graphisoft with a competent team. They were all experts in three-dimensional mathematical modeling but had no access to the most modern and efficient computers. This limitation led to the development of 3D modeling software that could be used on low-cost PCs. Then the team provided such software to architects. Since 1984, Graphisoft has been supported by Apple. Steve Jobs was impressed by Graphisoft's capability and the development of the architectural CAD from Bojár in the 2D/3D technology. Therefore, he sent them an Apple computer. This made it possible to create Archicad, the first desktop BIM system and Graphisoft's flagship product. Graphisoft's flagship product, Archicad was introduced in 1987 as the Virtual Building concept, later (2003) regarded as building information modeling (BIM), and allowing architects to draw walls, windows, doors, slabs and roofs — a common feature now of every BIM-based architectural design software. Subsequent Archicad releases introduced other BIM features such as Teamwork, which enabled more architects to work on the same building in parallel, edit functions in three-dimensional model views, and interoperability add-ons to communicate with other applications using IFC — now a de facto standard in data exchange between BIM applications. Graphisoft built a campus north of Budapest, Graphisoft Park. The construction of the technology park began in 1998. Today, it includes the company‘s global headquarters and hosts several technology companies such as Microsoft, SAP and Canon. Graphisoft was introduced to the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in 1998 and the Budapest Stock Exchange in 2000, and was purchased by Nemetschek AG (Germany) in 2007. In 2013, Graphisoft signed a contract with Nikken Sekkei, to create the BIM Competence & Research Center in order to advance BIM in Japan and Southeast Asia. In 2016, Graphisoft partnered with the company Atlas Cloud to provide a cloud-based access to Archicad. In September 2018, Graphisoft Park expanded by 20,000 square-meters in the cause of its 20th anniversary, lifting the park's total area to 75,000sqm. The new buildings are rented to companies under lease. In addition, Graphisoft Park developed an advanced learning center, the Aquincum Institute of Technology (AIT-Budapest). In April 2019, Graphisoft's CEO Viktor Várkonyi started to manage the Planning and Design Division at Graphisoft's mother company Nemetschek. Huw Roberts was appointed the new CEO of Graphisoft. In June 2019, Graphisoft entered a partnership with Epic Games to launch next-generation real-time rendering solution for its customers. Daniel Csillag was named CEO of Graphisoft in February 2024, succeeding Huw Roberts. Products Graphisoft Archicad Archicad is a complex architectural design tool offering 2D and 3D drafting, visualization and documentation functions for architects and planners to create three-dimensional designs and detailed technical documentation, thus enabling architects to use Archicad from the earliest design phases to the technical detail drawings. As of 2023 Archicad is in its 26th generation. Graphisoft BIM Server Graphisoft's second generation collaboration system lets more architects work on the same building simultaneously with Archicad by allowing them to access and manage the building information model database over the internet. Graphisoft BIM Server is shipped with Archicad from version 13. Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware. BIMcloud SaaS allows fast, efficient, and secure access to shared projects in real time Graphisoft MEP Modeler Graphisoft MEP Modeler (Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing) Modeler is an Archicad extension for architects to incorporate duct work and piping into the architectural design. MEP Modeler allows architects to create, edit or import 3D MEP networks and coordinate them with the Building Information Model, facilitating the BIM workflow between engineers and architects. Graphisoft EcoDesigner Graphisoft EcoDesigner helps architects to use virtual building information to evaluate energy performance, thus the sustainability of the building from the very first concept design. EcoDesigner allows architects to analyze their design for energy efficiency, providing feedback on the building's estimated energy performance. Graphisoft BIMcloud BIMcloud offers secure, real-time multi-disciplinary collaboration between all project team members regardless of the size or complexity of the project, the location of the offices, or the speed of the internet connection. Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware. DDScad Graphisoft merged with sister company DDScad in 2021 to add full MEP capabilities to Archicad. DDScad solutions support users with intelligent Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing (MEP) design tools, integrated calculations, and comprehensive documentation of all building systems. Archicad Collaborate Graphisoft announced Archicad Collaborate on March 21, 2023. The subscription-based offering combines Archicad with BIMcloud Software as a Service (SaaS) for the price of an Archicad subscription. “The included software, services, and cloud technology in Archicad Collaborate offer a compelling advantage over rival BIM solutions in the market where such items are often separated into additional to-purchase options.” Graphisoft BIMx BIMx, formerly marketed as Virtual Building Explorer is an interactive BIM model presentation tool, which allows the presentation of entire building models without the need for installing Archicad or other BIM authoring tool. The software combines video game-like navigation with native BIM features, including measurement of real building dimensions, model cut-throughs, and project markups. See also Drawbase Software References ^ Árvay, Alica. "Perspectives in Goulash Valley: the Graphisoft Story". Diplomacy & Trade. Retrieved 25 February 2014. ^ "Graphisoft's new CEO". aecmag.com. Retrieved 2019-10-17. ^ Dyson, Esther (1991-01-01). "Micro Capitalism: Eastern Europe's Computer Future". Harvard Business Review. No. January–February 1991. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2019-10-17. ^ "The GRAPHISOFT Story". www.theb1m.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21. ^ "Memorial statue of Steve Jobs in Graphisoft Park Budapest". www.abudapest.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21. ^ "Graphisoft's new CEO". aecmag.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21. ^ "The GRAPHISOFT Story". www.theb1m.com. Retrieved 2019-10-23. ^ "The exception to the rule: the new reception building in Graphisoft Park". Guiding Architects. 2018-06-26. Retrieved 2019-10-23. ^ "About Graphisoft". Nemetschek AG. ^ "GRAPHISOFT Extends Partnership with Nikken Sekkei for BIM in Asia". www.engineering.com. Retrieved 2019-10-23. ^ "Atlas Cloud supports GRAPHISOFT's ARCHICAD in the cloud". Cloud Solutions & Services Provider. Retrieved 2019-10-25. ^ "Graphisoft Park celebrates 20th anniversary with expansion". Budapest Business Journal. Retrieved 2019-10-25. ^ "Spring up Smart Living in Budapest - Graphisoft park | mindspace". mindspace.hu. Retrieved 2019-10-25. ^ "GRAPHISOFT 2019 Key Client Conference: AECbytes Newsletter". www.aecbytes.com. Retrieved 2019-10-30. ^ "Huw Roberts: the New CEO of GRAPHISOFT". www.engineering.com. Retrieved 2019-10-30. ^ "GRAPHISOFT and Epic Games announce co-marketing agreement to bring next-gen real-time rendering solution to AEC customers". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2019-11-06. ^ "Graphisoft announces new CEO in Daniel Csillag". architosh.com. 2024-02-21. Retrieved 2024-03-08. ^ Lopez], Bob Martens; Herbert Peter. (Transl. from German: Pedro M.) (2004). ArchiCAD : best practice: The Virtual Building revealed. Wien: Springer. ISBN 3211407553.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Germany, Mohd Fairuz Shiratuddin, Tulio Sulbaran, Shane (2010). Introduction to ArchiCAD : a BIM application (1 ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. ISBN 978-1428356641.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "GRAPHISOFT announces release of ARCHICAD 23 | Architosh". architosh.com. Retrieved 2019-11-06. ^ Eastman, Chuck; Liston, Kathleen; Teicholz, Paul; Sacks, Rafael (2013). Bim handbook a guide to building information modeling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors (Unabridged. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 978-1118021699. Retrieved 26 February 2014. ^ Levy, Francois (2013). Bim in small-scale sustainable design (Unabridged. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. pp. 2–6. ISBN 978-1118106822. ^ https://graphisoft.com/solutions/bimcloud ^ Boeykens, Stefan (2013). Unity for Architectural Visualisation. Packt Publishing. ISBN 978-1783559077. Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany

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As a subsidiary of Nemetschek, Graphisoft develops Building Information Modeling software products for architects, interior designers and planners. Graphisoft has subsidiaries in Germany, United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Japan and a representative office in Singapore. The company's flagship product is Archicad[1] — an architectural design software developed since 1984 for Windows and Mac platforms.","title":"Graphisoft"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gábor Bojár","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_Boj%C3%A1r"},{"link_name":"microcomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"history of Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"3D modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_modeling"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"IFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_Foundation_Classes"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_SE"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc."},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Budapest Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Nemetschek AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemetschek"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Nikken Sekkei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikken_Sekkei"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"Nemetschek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemetschek"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Epic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Games"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Foundation","text":"In 1982, Graphisoft was established by Gábor Bojár. The Hungarian software developer created terrain modeling software on microcomputers while he was head of a mathematical department at the Geophysical Institute in Budapest.[2][3] The communist history of Hungary was an important factor in the success of Graphisoft. When private companies had been allowed, Bojár promptly left his job and launched Graphisoft with a competent team. They were all experts in three-dimensional mathematical modeling but had no access to the most modern and efficient computers. This limitation led to the development of 3D modeling software that could be used on low-cost PCs. Then the team provided such software to architects.[4] Since 1984, Graphisoft has been supported by Apple.[5] Steve Jobs was impressed by Graphisoft's capability and the development of the architectural CAD from Bojár in the 2D/3D technology. Therefore, he sent them an Apple computer. This made it possible to create Archicad, the first desktop BIM system and Graphisoft's flagship product.[6]Graphisoft's flagship product, Archicad was introduced in 1987 as the Virtual Building concept, later (2003) regarded as building information modeling (BIM), and allowing architects to draw walls, windows, doors, slabs and roofs — a common feature now of every BIM-based architectural design software. Subsequent Archicad releases introduced other BIM features such as Teamwork, which enabled more architects to work on the same building in parallel, edit functions in three-dimensional model views, and interoperability add-ons to communicate with other applications using IFC — now a de facto standard in data exchange between BIM applications.Graphisoft built a campus north of Budapest, Graphisoft Park. The construction of the technology park began in 1998. Today, it includes the company‘s global headquarters and hosts several technology companies such as Microsoft, SAP and Canon.[7][8] Graphisoft was introduced to the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in 1998 and the Budapest Stock Exchange in 2000, and was purchased by Nemetschek AG (Germany) in 2007.[9]In 2013, Graphisoft signed a contract with Nikken Sekkei, to create the BIM Competence & Research Center in order to advance BIM in Japan and Southeast Asia.[10] In 2016, Graphisoft partnered with the company Atlas Cloud to provide a cloud-based access to Archicad.[11] In September 2018, Graphisoft Park expanded by 20,000 square-meters in the cause of its 20th anniversary, lifting the park's total area to 75,000sqm.[12] The new buildings are rented to companies under lease. In addition, Graphisoft Park developed an advanced learning center, the Aquincum Institute of Technology (AIT-Budapest).[13]In April 2019, Graphisoft's CEO Viktor Várkonyi started to manage the Planning and Design Division at Graphisoft's mother company Nemetschek.[14] Huw Roberts was appointed the new CEO of Graphisoft.[15]In June 2019, Graphisoft entered a partnership with Epic Games to launch next-generation real-time rendering solution for its customers.[16]Daniel Csillag was named CEO of Graphisoft in February 2024, succeeding Huw Roberts.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archicad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archicad"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft Archicad","text":"Archicad is a complex architectural design tool offering 2D and 3D drafting, visualization and documentation functions for architects and planners to create three-dimensional designs and detailed technical documentation, thus enabling architects to use Archicad from the earliest design phases to the technical detail drawings.[18][19] As of 2023 Archicad is in its 26th generation.[20]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graphisoft BIM Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphisoft_BIM_Server"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft BIM Server","text":"Graphisoft's second generation collaboration system lets more architects work on the same building simultaneously with Archicad by allowing them to access and manage the building information model database over the internet. Graphisoft BIM Server is shipped with Archicad from version 13.Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware. BIMcloud SaaS allows fast, efficient, and secure access to shared projects in real time[21]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graphisoft MEP Modeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphisoft_MEP_Modeler"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft MEP Modeler","text":"Graphisoft MEP Modeler (Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing) Modeler is an Archicad extension for architects to incorporate duct work and piping into the architectural design. MEP Modeler allows architects to create, edit or import 3D MEP networks and coordinate them with the Building Information Model, facilitating the BIM workflow between engineers and architects.[citation needed]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graphisoft EcoDesigner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphisoft_EcoDesigner"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft EcoDesigner","text":"Graphisoft EcoDesigner helps architects to use virtual building information to evaluate energy performance, thus the sustainability of the building from the very first concept design. EcoDesigner allows architects to analyze their design for energy efficiency, providing feedback on the building's estimated energy performance.[22]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft BIMcloud","text":"BIMcloud offers secure, real-time multi-disciplinary collaboration between all project team members regardless of the size or complexity of the project, the location of the offices, or the speed of the internet connection. Available in both private and public cloud configurations on standard hardware.[23]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"DDScad","text":"Graphisoft merged with sister company DDScad in 2021 to add full MEP capabilities to Archicad.DDScad solutions support users with intelligent Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing (MEP) design tools, integrated calculations, and comprehensive documentation of all building systems.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Archicad Collaborate","text":"Graphisoft announced Archicad Collaborate on March 21, 2023. The subscription-based offering combines Archicad with BIMcloud Software as a Service (SaaS) for the price of an Archicad subscription. “The included software, services, and cloud technology in Archicad Collaborate offer a compelling advantage over rival BIM solutions in the market where such items are often separated into additional to-purchase options.”","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BIMx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIMx"},{"link_name":"Virtual Building Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Building_Explorer"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Graphisoft BIMx","text":"BIMx, formerly marketed as Virtual Building Explorer is an interactive BIM model presentation tool, which allows the presentation of entire building models without the need for installing Archicad or other BIM authoring tool. The software combines video game-like navigation with native BIM features, including measurement of real building dimensions, model cut-throughs, and project markups.[24]","title":"Products"}]

[]

[{"title":"Drawbase Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawbase_Software"}]

[{"reference":"Árvay, Alica. \"Perspectives in Goulash Valley: the Graphisoft Story\". Diplomacy & Trade. Retrieved 25 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://dteurope.com/business/perspectives-in-goulash-valley-the-graphisoft-story/","url_text":"\"Perspectives in Goulash Valley: the Graphisoft Story\""}]},{"reference":"\"Graphisoft's new CEO\". aecmag.com. Retrieved 2019-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://aecmag.com/technology-mainmenu-35/1807","url_text":"\"Graphisoft's new CEO\""}]},{"reference":"Dyson, Esther (1991-01-01). \"Micro Capitalism: Eastern Europe's Computer Future\". Harvard Business Review. No. January–February 1991. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2019-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/1991/01/micro-capitalism-eastern-europes-computer-future","url_text":"\"Micro Capitalism: Eastern Europe's Computer Future\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8012","url_text":"0017-8012"}]},{"reference":"\"The GRAPHISOFT Story\". www.theb1m.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theb1m.com/video/the-graphisoft-story","url_text":"\"The GRAPHISOFT Story\""}]},{"reference":"\"Memorial statue of Steve Jobs in Graphisoft Park Budapest\". www.abudapest.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abudapest.com/popularnews/memorial_statue_of_steve_jobs_in_graphisoft_park_budapest/","url_text":"\"Memorial statue of Steve Jobs in Graphisoft Park Budapest\""}]},{"reference":"\"Graphisoft's new CEO\". aecmag.com. Retrieved 2019-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://aecmag.com/technology-mainmenu-35/1807-graphisoft-s-new-ceo","url_text":"\"Graphisoft's new CEO\""}]},{"reference":"\"The GRAPHISOFT Story\". www.theb1m.com. Retrieved 2019-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theb1m.com/video/the-graphisoft-story","url_text":"\"The GRAPHISOFT Story\""}]},{"reference":"\"The exception to the rule: the new reception building in Graphisoft Park\". Guiding Architects. 2018-06-26. Retrieved 2019-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.guiding-architects.net/graphisoft-park-budapest/","url_text":"\"The exception to the rule: the new reception building in Graphisoft Park\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Graphisoft\". Nemetschek AG.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.graphisoft.com/info/about_graphisoft/","url_text":"\"About Graphisoft\""}]},{"reference":"\"GRAPHISOFT Extends Partnership with Nikken Sekkei for BIM in Asia\". www.engineering.com. Retrieved 2019-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/16740/GRAPHISOFT-Extends-Partnership-with-Nikken-Sekkei-for-BIM-in-Asia.aspx","url_text":"\"GRAPHISOFT Extends Partnership with Nikken Sekkei for BIM in Asia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Atlas Cloud supports GRAPHISOFT's ARCHICAD in the cloud\". Cloud Solutions & Services Provider. Retrieved 2019-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.atlascloud.co.uk/pr-atlas-cloud-supports-graphisofts-archicad-in-the-cloud/","url_text":"\"Atlas Cloud supports GRAPHISOFT's ARCHICAD in the cloud\""}]},{"reference":"\"Graphisoft Park celebrates 20th anniversary with expansion\". Budapest Business Journal. Retrieved 2019-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://bbj.hu/real-estate/graphisoft-park-celebrates-20th-anniversary-with-expansion_154718","url_text":"\"Graphisoft Park celebrates 20th anniversary with expansion\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spring up Smart Living in Budapest - Graphisoft park | mindspace\". mindspace.hu. Retrieved 2019-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://mindspace.hu/en/cikk/spring-smart-living-budapest-graphisoft-park","url_text":"\"Spring up Smart Living in Budapest - Graphisoft park | mindspace\""}]},{"reference":"\"GRAPHISOFT 2019 Key Client Conference: AECbytes Newsletter\". www.aecbytes.com. Retrieved 2019-10-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aecbytes.com/newsletter/2019/issue_97.html","url_text":"\"GRAPHISOFT 2019 Key Client Conference: AECbytes Newsletter\""}]},{"reference":"\"Huw Roberts: the New CEO of GRAPHISOFT\". www.engineering.com. Retrieved 2019-10-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/19015/Huw-Roberts-the-New-CEO-of-GRAPHISOFT.aspx","url_text":"\"Huw Roberts: the New CEO of GRAPHISOFT\""}]},{"reference":"\"GRAPHISOFT and Epic Games announce co-marketing agreement to bring next-gen real-time rendering solution to AEC customers\". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2019-11-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://finance.yahoo.com/news/graphisoft-epic-games-announce-co-150800334.html","url_text":"\"GRAPHISOFT and Epic Games announce co-marketing agreement to bring next-gen real-time rendering solution to AEC customers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Graphisoft announces new CEO in Daniel Csillag\". architosh.com. 2024-02-21. Retrieved 2024-03-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://architosh.com/2024/02/graphisoft-announces-new-ceo-in-daniel-csillag/","url_text":"\"Graphisoft announces new CEO in Daniel Csillag\""}]},{"reference":"Lopez], Bob Martens; Herbert Peter. (Transl. from German: Pedro M.) (2004). ArchiCAD : best practice: The Virtual Building revealed. Wien: Springer. ISBN 3211407553.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3211407553","url_text":"3211407553"}]},{"reference":"Germany, Mohd Fairuz Shiratuddin, Tulio Sulbaran, Shane (2010). Introduction to ArchiCAD : a BIM application (1 ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. ISBN 978-1428356641.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1428356641","url_text":"978-1428356641"}]},{"reference":"\"GRAPHISOFT announces release of ARCHICAD 23 | Architosh\". architosh.com. Retrieved 2019-11-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://architosh.com/2019/05/graphisoft-announces-release-of-archicad-23/","url_text":"\"GRAPHISOFT announces release of ARCHICAD 23 | Architosh\""}]},{"reference":"Eastman, Chuck; Liston, Kathleen; Teicholz, Paul; Sacks, Rafael (2013). Bim handbook a guide to building information modeling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors (Unabridged. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 978-1118021699. Retrieved 26 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=aCi7Ozwkoj0C&q=bim+server&pg=PT139","url_text":"Bim handbook a guide to building information modeling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118021699","url_text":"978-1118021699"}]},{"reference":"Levy, Francois (2013). Bim in small-scale sustainable design (Unabridged. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. pp. 2–6. ISBN 978-1118106822.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118106822","url_text":"978-1118106822"}]},{"reference":"Boeykens, Stefan (2013). Unity for Architectural Visualisation. Packt Publishing. ISBN 978-1783559077.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zev7AAAAQBAJ&q=bimx&pg=PT46","url_text":"Unity for Architectural Visualisation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1783559077","url_text":"978-1783559077"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_mask

Affinity mask

["1 Windows API","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Affinity mask" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) An affinity mask is a bit mask indicating what processor(s) a thread or process should be run on by the scheduler of an operating system. Setting the affinity mask for certain processes running under Windows can be useful as there are several system processes (especially on domain controllers) that are restricted to the first CPU / Core. So, excluding the first CPU might lead to better application performance. Windows API Thread affinity in Microsoft Windows can be specified with the SetThreadAffinityMask function. Forcing of each OpenMP thread to distinctive cores in Windows can be accomplished by means of the following C code: #include <windows.h> #include <omp.h> // Set OpenMP thread affinity void set_thread_affinity () { #pragma omp parallel default(shared) { DWORD_PTR mask = (DWORD_PTR )1 << omp_get_thread_num(); SetThreadAffinityMask(GetCurrentThread(), mask); } } See also Processor affinity References ^ a b "SetThreadAffinityMask function (winbase.h) - Win32 apps". learn.microsoft.com. January 27, 2022. Retrieved April 7, 2023. External links MSDN article on SetThreadAffinityMask function Taskset, a tool to set the affinity mask on Linux CPU Balancer, a free, open-source utility that distributes Windows XP processes uniformly over logical processors using the affinity mask This operating-system-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[{"title":"Processor affinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_affinity"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_frequency

Natural frequency

["1 Overview","2 See also","3 References","3.1 Sources","4 Further reading"]

Frequency at which systems tend to oscillate Natural frequency, measured in terms of eigenfrequency, is the rate at which an oscillatory system tends to oscillate in the absence of disturbance. A foundational example pertains to simple harmonic oscillators, such as an idealized spring with no energy loss wherein the system exhibits constant-amplitude oscillations with a constant frequency. The phenomenon of resonance occurs when a forced vibration matches a system's natural frequency. Overview Free vibrations of an elastic body, also called natural vibrations, occur at the natural frequency. Natural vibrations are different from forced vibrations which happen at the frequency of an applied force (forced frequency). If the forced frequency is equal to the natural frequency, the vibrations' amplitude increases manyfold. This phenomenon is known as resonance. A system's normal mode is defined by the oscillation of a natural frequency in a sine waveform. In analysis of systems, it is convenient to use the angular frequency ω = 2πf rather than the frequency f, or the complex frequency domain parameter s = σ + ωi. In a mass–spring system, with mass m and spring stiffness k, the natural angular frequency can be calculated as: ω 0 = k m {\displaystyle \omega _{0}={\sqrt {\frac {k}{m}}}} In an electrical network, ω is a natural angular frequency of a response function f(t) if the Laplace transform F(s) of f(t) includes the term Ke−st, where s = σ + ωi for a real σ, and K ≠ 0 is a constant. Natural frequencies depend on network topology and element values but not their input. It can be shown that the set of natural frequencies in a network can be obtained by calculating the poles of all impedance and admittance functions of the network. A pole of the network transfer function is associated with a natural angular frequencies of the corresponding response variable; however there may exist some natural angular frequency that does not correspond to a pole of the network function. These happen at some special initial states. In LC and RLC circuits, its natural angular frequency can be calculated as: ω 0 = 1 L C {\displaystyle \omega _{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {LC}}}} See also Fundamental frequency References ^ Bhatt, p. 122. ^ Desoer 1969, pp. 583–584, 600. ^ Desoer 1969, p. 633. ^ Desoer 1969, p. 635. ^ Desoer 1969, p. 643. ^ Basic Physics 2009, p. 366. Sources Bhatt, P. Maximum Marks Maximum Knowledge in Physics. Allied Publishers. ISBN 9788184244441. Basic Physics. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Limited. 2009. ISBN 9788120337084. Desoer, Charles (1969). Basic circuit theory. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070165750. Further reading College Physics. 2012. Authority control databases: National Germany This classical mechanics–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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Natural vibrations are different from forced vibrations which happen at the frequency of an applied force (forced frequency). If the forced frequency is equal to the natural frequency, the vibrations' amplitude increases manyfold. This phenomenon is known as resonance.[1] A system's normal mode is defined by the oscillation of a natural frequency in a sine waveform.In analysis of systems, it is convenient to use the angular frequency ω = 2πf rather than the frequency f, or the complex frequency domain parameter s = σ + ωi.In a mass–spring system, with mass m and spring stiffness k, the natural angular frequency can be calculated as:ω\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega _{0}={\\sqrt {\\frac {k}{m}}}}In an electrical network, ω is a natural angular frequency of a response function f(t) if the Laplace transform F(s) of f(t) includes the term Ke−st, where s = σ + ωi for a real σ, and K ≠ 0 is a constant.[2] Natural frequencies depend on network topology and element values but not their input.[3] It can be shown that the set of natural frequencies in a network can be obtained by calculating the poles of all impedance and admittance functions of the network.[4] A pole of the network transfer function is associated with a natural angular frequencies of the corresponding response variable; however there may exist some natural angular frequency that does not correspond to a pole of the network function. These happen at some special initial states.[5]In LC and RLC circuits, its natural angular frequency can be calculated as:[6]ω\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n L\n C\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega _{0}={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {LC}}}}","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"College Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=pYpPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA569"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q946764#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4135597-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArealVelocity.svg"},{"link_name":"classical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_frequency&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Classicalmechanics-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Classicalmechanics-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Classicalmechanics-stub"}],"text":"College Physics. 2012.Authority control databases: National \nGermanyThis classical mechanics–related article is a stub. 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[]

[{"title":"Fundamental frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_frequency"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_(disambiguation)

Google (disambiguation)

["1 Google LLC","2 Places","3 Fictional characters","4 See also"]

Look up google or Google in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Google is an American multinational corporation specializing in internet-related services and products. Google, Googal, or Googol may also refer to: Google LLC Google Search, a web search engine Google (verb), using the Google search engine to obtain information on something or somebody on the World Wide Web .google, a Google-operated internet top-level domain goo.gl, a URL shortening service Alphabet Inc., Google's holding company which trades as "GOOG" and "GOOGL" on the Nasdaq List of Google products Places Googal, Devadurga (sometimes spelled Google), a village in India Google, temporary name of Topeka, Kansas, United States Fictional characters Google, monster in The Google Book (1913) by Vincent Cartwright Vickers Google, clown in Circus Days Again (1942) by Enid Blyton Barney Google, in the comic strip Barney Google and Snuffy Smith Google, on Sesame Street See also "Google", a song by Chinna, Sravana Bhargavi and Andrea from the 2012 Indian film Rebel Goggles, a protective eyewear Goggles!, a 1969 children's picture book "Google Google", a song from the 2012 Indian film Thuppakki Gogol (disambiguation) Googly (disambiguation) Googol, the number 10100 (represented by the digit 1 followed by 100 zeroes) All pages with titles containing Google Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Google.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_Interactive

Jurassic Park Interactive

["1 Gameplay","2 Development","3 Reception","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

1994 video gameJurassic Park InteractiveJurassic Park Interactive title screen.Developer(s)Studio 3DOPublisher(s)Universal Interactive StudiosDirector(s)Gregory A. GorsiskiDesigner(s)Gregory A. GorsiskiSeriesJurassic ParkPlatform(s)3DOReleaseNA: May 10, 1994PAL: 1994Genre(s)ActionMode(s)Single player Jurassic Park Interactive is an action video game based on the 1993 movie Jurassic Park. It was released in North America on May 10, 1994 exclusively for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer by Universal Interactive Studios. Jurassic Park Interactive was the first video game released by Universal Interactive Studios. Gameplay The game's interface is a computer screen that allows the player to navigate a map of the island, as well as a collection of five minigames programmed by Dennis Nedry. Players have to locate various guests on the map, then engage in a short first-person action level that either involves outrunning a Tyrannosaurus in a jeep, escaping from a small building containing raptors, or shooting approaching dilophosaurs with a charged electric gun. The end of the game comes once the player successfully relocates all of the island's guests to the helipad dock and locates outside help by breaking through the minigames. Depending on the difficulty level chosen (Normal, Hard, or Expert), more guests are shown on the map to be saved, and less time is allowed in total to break through the minigames. In the minigames the player controls feather-light jeeps and microchips that blast floppy disks that read "DUMP". Development Jurassic Park Interactive had originally been intended as the 3DO pack-in title for the console's October 1993 launch, but delays in development pushed the release date back. Approximately 10 people worked on the game during its 14-month development period, with a budget between $1–2 million. Designer Greg Gorsiski said about the game: "It's the hardest thing I've ever had to do. How do you rewrite a linear story for a non-linear environment and make it better? It's a task that a lot of game designers wouldn't touch with a 10-foot pole." The game was not showcased at Chicago's Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1993, as the developers chose to keep it a "closely-guarded secret" until its release. Jurassic Park Interactive was the first game to be published by MCA's Universal Interactive division. Universal and MCA hoped the game would increase sales of its struggling 3DO Interactive Multiplayer game system. Universal Interactive spent a considerable amount of money to market the game. Jurassic Park Interactive was the only video game adaptation of Jurassic Park to use footage and music from the film. Although footage from the film is included in the opening sequence, actual shots of actors' faces are noticeably edited out. Look-alike actors portray the characters in further game cutscenes and images. MCA had no plans to convert the game for release on other game systems, possibly to promote the 3DO, although Gorsiski also said it would be difficult to rewrite the game for other systems as it took advantage of the 3DO's superior technology. Reception Reviews were mixed, with Famicom Tsūshin scoring the game a 22 out of 40, but Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it a 7.75 out of 10, praising the full motion video sequences, the use of music from the film, the innovation of the main levels, and the nostalgia value of the Nedry minigames. They later rated the game 9 out of 10 in their 1995 Videogame Buyer's Guide. GamePro's review asserted that the music is the game's only good point, lambasting the long load times, substandard graphics, simplistic and boring gameplay, and unvarying video sequences. Bob Strauss of Entertainment Weekly gave the game a "D" and called it "one giant slab of prehistoric cheese." Strauss wrote, "I can say with confidence that the vehicular sequences in Jurassic Park Interactive, with their clumsy controls and grainy visuals, are among the most inept I've seen. The other sequences, sad to say, are also somewhat stingy, lizard-wise-and equally uninteresting to play." Zach Meston of Wired wrote that "the most exciting flick of 1993" had been turned into "a bunch of extremely dull arcade sequences linked together by silly full-motion video clips of people running through jungle scenery." Edge, which previewed the game at the European Computer Trade Show, called it "a decidedly average mixture of Out Run, Op Wolf and Doom." Chris Gore of VideoGames – The Ultimate Gaming Magazine wrote that the game's biggest weakness was its variety of different gameplay genres, stating that once a player becomes truly involved in a certain game genre, "the experience is yanked away; you're literally forced to play a game of a different genre every few minutes." Gore and three editors for the magazine gave the game an overall score of 7 out of 10, with praise for the game's graphics and music. In a retrospective review for AllGame, Shawn Sackenheim rated the game 3 stars out of 5 and praised the "decent 2D animations" of the minigames, but wrote "they're nothing you'd expect to see on a 32-bit system like the 3DO." Sackenheim found the minigames enjoyable but with little replay value, calling them "rehashes" of classic arcade games. In 2018, Zack Zwiezen of Kotaku ranked it among the "worst" Jurassic Park games ever released, calling it "boring and unintentionally hilarious," while criticizing the "poorly designed" minigames and the "laughably bad imitations" of the film's characters. See also Jurassic Park video games References ^ a b c d e Harmon, Amy (May 10, 1994). "MCA Hopes 'Jurassic' Can Keep 3DO From Extinction". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 20, 2016. ^ Matthews, Will (December 2013). "Ahead of its Time: A 3DO Retrospective". Retro Gamer. No. 122. Imagine Publishing. pp. 18–29. ^ "Jurassic Park Interactive". Computer and Video Games. August 1993. p. 32. Retrieved October 14, 2016. ^ a b "ProReview: Jurassic Park Interactive". GamePro. No. 61. IDG. August 1994. pp. 70–71. Retrieved October 14, 2016. ^ a b Strauss, Bob (May 20, 1994). "Jurassic Park Interactive". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 24, 2015. ^ 3DO GAMES CROSS REVIEW: ジュラシック・パーク・インタラクティブ. Weekly Famicom Tsūshin. No.330. Pg.78. April 14, 1995. ^ "Review Crew: Jurassic Park". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 60. Ziff Davis. July 1994. p. 38. ^ Meston, Zach (October 1, 1994). "Jurassic Park Underactive". Wired. Retrieved October 19, 2016. ^ "ECTS: all show and no go?". Edge. June 1994. p. 15. Retrieved October 14, 2016. ^ Gore, Chris (July 1994). "Jurassic Park Interactive review". VideoGames – The Ultimate Gaming Magazine. p. 74. Retrieved February 14, 2018. ^ Sackenheim, Shawn. "Jurassic Park Review". AllGame. Archived from the original on December 11, 2014. ^ Zwiezen, Zack (June 19, 2018). "The Best, Worst, And Weirdest Jurassic Park Games". Kotaku. Retrieved June 20, 2018. External links Jurassic Park Interactive at MobyGames vteJurassic Park video gamesJurassic Park NES/Game Boy Super NES Genesis Sega CD Game Gear/Master System Computer Rampage Edition Arcade Interactive 2: The Chaos Continues Survival The Lost World Console Chaos Island Handheld Genesis Arcade Trespasser Jurassic Park III Arcade III: Danger Zone! III: Dino Defender III: The DNA Factor III: Park Builder III: Island Attack Scan Command Survival (cancelled) Jurassic World trilogy Lego Jurassic World Jurassic World: The Game Jurassic World Evolution Jurassic World Aftermath Jurassic World Evolution 2 Other games Warpath Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure Operation Genesis Jurassic Park: The Game Jurassic Park Builder Jurassic Park Arcade Lego Dimensions vteUniversal InteractiveCrash Bandicoot Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back Warped Crash Team Racing Crash Bash The Huge Adventure The Wrath of Cortex 2: N-Tranced Crash Nitro Kart Spyro Spyro the Dragon 2: Ripto's Rage! Year of the Dragon Season of Ice 2: Season of Flame Enter the Dragonfly Attack of the Rhynocs Jurassic Park Interactive Operation Genesis The Mummy The Mummy Returns Bruce Lee Quest of the Dragon Return of the Legend The Scorpion King Rise of the Akkadian Sword of Osiris Other games Way of the Warrior Disruptor Running Wild Xena: Warrior Princess The Grinch Woody Woodpecker Racing 4x4 EVO 2 Monster Force Hulk Battlestar Galactica Category:Universal Interactive games

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Jurassic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(film)"},{"link_name":"3DO Interactive Multiplayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer"},{"link_name":"Universal Interactive Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Interactive"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA-1"}],"text":"1994 video gameJurassic Park Interactive is an action video game based on the 1993 movie Jurassic Park. It was released in North America on May 10, 1994 exclusively for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer by Universal Interactive Studios.[1] Jurassic Park Interactive was the first video game released by Universal Interactive Studios.","title":"Jurassic Park Interactive"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minigames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigames"},{"link_name":"Dennis Nedry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Nedry"},{"link_name":"level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_(computer_and_video_games)"},{"link_name":"Tyrannosaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosaurus"},{"link_name":"raptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velociraptor"},{"link_name":"dilophosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilophosaurus"},{"link_name":"floppy disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk"}],"text":"The game's interface is a computer screen that allows the player to navigate a map of the island, as well as a collection of five minigames programmed by Dennis Nedry. Players have to locate various guests on the map, then engage in a short first-person action level that either involves outrunning a Tyrannosaurus in a jeep, escaping from a small building containing raptors, or shooting approaching dilophosaurs with a charged electric gun. The end of the game comes once the player successfully relocates all of the island's guests to the helipad dock and locates outside help by breaking through the minigames.Depending on the difficulty level chosen (Normal, Hard, or Expert), more guests are shown on the map to be saved, and less time is allowed in total to break through the minigames. In the minigames the player controls feather-light jeeps and microchips that blast floppy disks that read \"DUMP\".","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA-1"},{"link_name":"Consumer Electronics Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CAVG-3"},{"link_name":"MCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCA_Inc."},{"link_name":"Universal Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Interactive"},{"link_name":"3DO Interactive Multiplayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA-1"},{"link_name":"video game adaptation of Jurassic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_video_games#Jurassic_Park_(1993)"},{"link_name":"the film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(film)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA-1"},{"link_name":"Look-alike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Look-alike"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GP-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EW-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA-1"}],"text":"Jurassic Park Interactive had originally been intended as the 3DO pack-in title for the console's October 1993 launch, but delays in development pushed the release date back.[2] Approximately 10 people worked on the game during its 14-month development period, with a budget between $1–2 million. Designer Greg Gorsiski said about the game: \"It's the hardest thing I've ever had to do. How do you rewrite a linear story for a non-linear environment and make it better? It's a task that a lot of game designers wouldn't touch with a 10-foot pole.\"[1]The game was not showcased at Chicago's Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1993, as the developers chose to keep it a \"closely-guarded secret\" until its release.[3] Jurassic Park Interactive was the first game to be published by MCA's Universal Interactive division. Universal and MCA hoped the game would increase sales of its struggling 3DO Interactive Multiplayer game system. Universal Interactive spent a considerable amount of money to market the game.[1]Jurassic Park Interactive was the only video game adaptation of Jurassic Park to use footage and music from the film.[1] Although footage from the film is included in the opening sequence, actual shots of actors' faces are noticeably edited out. Look-alike actors portray the characters in further game cutscenes and images.[4][5] MCA had no plans to convert the game for release on other game systems, possibly to promote the 3DO, although Gorsiski also said it would be difficult to rewrite the game for other systems as it took advantage of the 3DO's superior technology.[1]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Famicom Tsūshin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famitsu"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Electronic Gaming Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly"},{"link_name":"full motion video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_motion_video"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GP-4"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EW-5"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"European Computer Trade Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Computer_Trade_Show"},{"link_name":"Out Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Run"},{"link_name":"Op Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Wolf"},{"link_name":"Doom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"VideoGames – The Ultimate Gaming Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VideoGames_%26_Computer_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"AllGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllGame"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Kotaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Reviews were mixed, with Famicom Tsūshin scoring the game a 22 out of 40,[6] but Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it a 7.75 out of 10, praising the full motion video sequences, the use of music from the film, the innovation of the main levels, and the nostalgia value of the Nedry minigames.[7] They later rated the game 9 out of 10 in their 1995 Videogame Buyer's Guide. GamePro's review asserted that the music is the game's only good point, lambasting the long load times, substandard graphics, simplistic and boring gameplay, and unvarying video sequences.[4]Bob Strauss of Entertainment Weekly gave the game a \"D\" and called it \"one giant slab of prehistoric cheese.\" Strauss wrote, \"I can say with confidence that the vehicular sequences in Jurassic Park Interactive, with their clumsy controls and grainy visuals, are among the most inept I've seen. [...] The other sequences, sad to say, are also somewhat stingy, lizard-wise-and equally uninteresting to play.\"[5]Zach Meston of Wired wrote that \"the most exciting flick of 1993\" had been turned into \"a bunch of extremely dull arcade sequences linked together by silly full-motion video clips of people running through jungle scenery.\"[8] Edge, which previewed the game at the European Computer Trade Show, called it \"a decidedly average mixture of Out Run, Op Wolf and Doom.\"[9] Chris Gore of VideoGames – The Ultimate Gaming Magazine wrote that the game's biggest weakness was its variety of different gameplay genres, stating that once a player becomes truly involved in a certain game genre, \"the experience is yanked away; you're literally forced to play a game of a different genre every few minutes.\" Gore and three editors for the magazine gave the game an overall score of 7 out of 10, with praise for the game's graphics and music.[10]In a retrospective review for AllGame, Shawn Sackenheim rated the game 3 stars out of 5 and praised the \"decent 2D animations\" of the minigames, but wrote \"they're nothing you'd expect to see on a 32-bit system like the 3DO.\" Sackenheim found the minigames enjoyable but with little replay value, calling them \"rehashes\" of classic arcade games.[11] In 2018, Zack Zwiezen of Kotaku ranked it among the \"worst\" Jurassic Park games ever released, calling it \"boring and unintentionally hilarious,\" while criticizing the \"poorly designed\" minigames and the \"laughably bad imitations\" of the film's characters.[12]","title":"Reception"}]

[]

[{"title":"Jurassic Park video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_video_games"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier

Le Corbusier

["1 Early life (1887–1904)","2 Travel and first houses (1905–1914)","3 Dom-ino House and Schwob House (1914–1918)","4 Painting, Cubism, Purism and L'Esprit Nouveau (1918–1922)","5 Toward an Architecture (1920–1923)","6 L'Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925)","7 The Decorative Art of Today (1925)","8 Five Points of Architecture to Villa Savoye (1923–1931)","9 League of Nations Competition and Pessac Housing Project (1926–1930)","9.1 The Cité Frugès","10 Founding of CIAM (1928) and Athens Charter","11 Projects (1928–1963)","11.1 Moscow projects (1928–1934)","11.2 Cité Universitaire, Immeuble Clarté and Cité de Refuge (1928–1933)","11.3 Ville Contemporaine, Plan Voisin and Cité Radieuse (1922–1939)","11.4 World War II and Reconstruction; Unité d'Habitation in Marseille (1939–1952)","11.5 Postwar projects, United Nations headquarters (1947–1952)","11.6 Religious architecture (1950–63)","11.7 Chandigarh (1951–1956)","12 Later life and work (1955–1965)","13 Estate","14 Ideas","14.1 The Five Points of a Modern Architecture","14.2 \"Architectural Promenade\"","14.3 Ville Radieuse and Urbanism","14.4 Modulor","14.5 Open Hand","15 Furniture","16 Controversies","17 Criticism","18 Influence","19 Fondation Le Corbusier","20 Awards","21 World Heritage Site","22 Memorials","23 Works","24 Books by Le Corbusier","25 See also","26 References","26.1 Sources","27 External links"]

Swiss-French architect (1887–1965) "Charles Jeanneret" redirects here. For the Australian politician, see Charles Jeanneret (politician). "Corbusier" redirects here. For other uses of the term, see Corbusier (disambiguation). This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its readable prose size was 12,000 words. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (September 2023) Le CorbusierLe Corbusier in 1964BornCharles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris(1887-10-06)6 October 1887La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, SwitzerlandDied27 August 1965(1965-08-27) (aged 77)Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, Alpes-Maritimes, FranceNationalitySwiss, FrenchOccupationArchitectAwardsAIA Gold Medal (1961)Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur (1964)BuildingsVilla Savoye, PoissyVilla La Roche, ParisUnité d'habitation, Marseille Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp Buildings in Chandigarh, IndiaProjectsVille Radieuse Signature Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (6 October 1887 – 27 August 1965), known as Le Corbusier (UK: /lə kɔːrˈbjuːzieɪ/ lə kor-BEW-zee-ay, US: /lə ˌkɔːrbuːˈzjeɪ, -ˈsjeɪ/ lə KOR-boo-ZYAY, -⁠SYAY, French: ), was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner and writer, who was one of the pioneers of what is now regarded as modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and acquired French nationality by naturalization on 19 September 1930. His career spanned five decades, in which he designed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, as well as North and South America. He considered that "the roots of modern architecture are to be found in Viollet-le-Duc". Dedicated to providing better living conditions for the residents of crowded cities, Le Corbusier was influential in urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). Le Corbusier prepared the master plan for the city of Chandigarh in India, and contributed specific designs for several buildings there, especially the government buildings. On 17 July 2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement. Le Corbusier remains a controversial figure. Some of his urban planning ideas have been criticized for their indifference to pre-existing cultural sites, societal expression and equality, and his alleged ties with fascism, antisemitism, eugenics, and the dictator Benito Mussolini have resulted in some continuing contention. Le Corbusier also designed well-known furniture such as the LC4 Chaise Lounge Chair, and the ALC-3001 chair, both made of leather with metal framing. Early life (1887–1904) Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret), 1920, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 80.9 cm × 99.7 cm (31.9 in × 39.3 in), Museum of Modern Art, New York Charles-Édouard Jeanneret was born on 6 October 1887 in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a city in the Neuchâtel canton in the Romandie region of Switzerland. His ancestors included Belgians with the surname Lecorbésier, which inspired the pseudonym Le Corbusier which he would adopt as an adult. His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, and his mother taught piano. His elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods. Located in the Jura Mountains 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across the border from France, La Chaux-de-Fonds was a burgeoning city at the heart of the Watch Valley. Its culture was influenced by the Loge L'Amitié, a Masonic lodge upholding moral, social, and philosophical ideas symbolized by the right angle (rectitude) and the compass (exactitude). Le Corbusier would later describe these as "my guide, my choice" and as "time-honored ideas, ingrained and deep-rooted in the intellect, like entries from a catechism." Like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier lacked formal training as an architect. He was attracted to the visual arts; at the age of fifteen, he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the higher course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris. Le Corbusier wrote later that L'Eplattenier had made him "a man of the woods" and taught him about painting from nature. His father frequently took him into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, "we were constantly on mountaintops; we grew accustomed to a vast horizon." His architecture teacher in the Art School was architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest house designs. He reported later that it was the art teacher L'Eplattenier who made him choose architecture. "I had a horror of architecture and architects," he wrote. "...I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. I moved into architecture." Travel and first houses (1905–1914) Le Corbusier's student project, the Villa Fallet, a chalet in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (1905) The "Maison Blanche", built for Le Corbusier's parents in La Chaux-de-Fonds (1912) The Villa Favre-Jacot in Le Locle, Switzerland (1912) Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, visiting museums, sketching buildings, and constructing them. In 1905, he and two other students, under the supervision of their teacher, René Chapallaz, designed and built his first house, the Villa Fallet, for the engraver Louis Fallet, a friend of his teacher Charles L'Eplattenier. Located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds, it was a large chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style and carefully crafted coloured geometric patterns on the façade. The success of this house led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area. In September 1907, he made his first trip outside of Switzerland, going to Italy; then that winter travelling through Budapest to Vienna, where he stayed for four months and met Gustav Klimt and tried, without success, to meet Josef Hoffmann. In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made a lifelong impression on him. "I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells," he wrote later. "It was the solution for a unique kind of worker's housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise." He travelled to Paris, and for fourteen months between 1908 and 1910 he worked as a draftsman in the office of the architect Auguste Perret, the pioneer of the use of reinforced concrete in residential construction and the architect of the Art Deco landmark Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. Two years later, between October 1910 and March 1911, he travelled to Germany and worked for four months in the office Peter Behrens, where Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius were also working and learning. In 1911, he travelled again with his friend August Klipstein for five months; this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome, filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work Vers une architecture (1923). He spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage d'Orient. In 1912, he began his most ambitious project: a new house for his parents, also located on the forested hillside near La-Chaux-de-Fonds. The Jeanneret-Perret house was larger than the others, and in a more innovative style; the horizontal planes contrasted dramatically with the steep alpine slopes, and the white walls and lack of decoration were in sharp contrast with the other buildings on the hillside. The interior spaces were organized around the four pillars of the salon in the centre, foretelling the open interiors he would create in his later buildings. The project was more expensive to build than he imagined; his parents were forced to move from the house within ten years and relocate to a more modest house. However, it led to a commission to build an even more imposing villa in the nearby village of Le Locle for a wealthy watch manufacturer, Georges Favre-Jacot. Le Corbusier designed the new house in less than a month. The building was carefully designed to fit its hillside site, and the interior plan was spacious and designed around a courtyard for maximum light, a significant departure from the traditional house. Dom-ino House and Schwob House (1914–1918) Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, 1914–15, Maison Dom-Ino (Dom-ino House) During World War I, Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds. He concentrated on theoretical architectural studies using modern techniques. In December 1914, along with the engineer Max Dubois, he began a serious study of the use of reinforced concrete as a building material. He had first discovered concrete working in the office of Auguste Perret, the pioneer of reinforced concrete architecture in Paris, but now wanted to use it in new ways. "Reinforced concrete provided me with incredible resources," he wrote later, "and variety, and a passionate plasticity in which by themselves my structures will be the rhythm of a palace, and a Pompieen tranquillity." This led him to his plan for the Dom-Ino House (1914–15). This model proposed an open floor plan consisting of three concrete slabs supported by six thin reinforced concrete columns, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan. The system was originally designed to provide large numbers of temporary residences after World War I, producing only slabs, columns and stairways, and residents could build exterior walls with the materials around the site. He described it in his patent application as "a juxtiposable system of construction according to an infinite number of combinations of plans. This would permit, he wrote, "the construction of the dividing walls at any point on the façade or the interior." The Anatole Schwob House in La-Chaux-de-Fonds (1916–1918) Under this system, the structure of the house did not have to appear on the outside but could be hidden behind a glass wall, and the interior could be arranged in any way the architect liked. After it was patented, Le Corbusier designed several houses according to the system, which was all white concrete boxes. Although some of these were never built, they illustrated his basic architectural ideas which would dominate his works throughout the 1920s. He refined the idea in his 1927 book on the Five Points of a New Architecture. This design, which called for the disassociation of the structure from the walls, and the freedom of plans and façades, became the foundation for most of his architecture over the next ten years. In August 1916, Le Corbusier received his largest commission ever, to construct a villa for the Swiss watchmaker Anatole Schwob, for whom he had already completed several small remodelling projects. He was given a large budget and the freedom to design not only the house but also to create the interior decoration and choose the furniture. Following the precepts of Auguste Perret, he built the structure out of reinforced concrete and filled the gaps with brick. The centre of the house is a large concrete box with two semicolumn structures on both sides, which reflects his ideas of pure geometrical forms. A large open hall with a chandelier occupied the centre of the building. "You can see," he wrote to Auguste Perret in July 1916, "that Auguste Perret left more in me than Peter Behrens." Le Corbusier's grand ambitions collided with the ideas and budget of his client and led to bitter conflicts. Schwob went to court and denied Le Corbusier access to the site, or the right to claim to be the architect. Le Corbusier responded, "Whether you like it or not, my presence is inscribed in every corner of your house." Le Corbusier took great pride in the house and reproduced pictures in several of his books. Painting, Cubism, Purism and L'Esprit Nouveau (1918–1922) Le Corbusier, 1921, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 54 x 81 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris Le Corbusier, 1922, Nature morte verticale (Vertical Still Life), oil on canvas, 146.3 cm × 89.3 cm (57.6 by 35.2 inches), Kunstmuseum Basel Le Corbusier, 1920, Guitare verticale (2ème version), oil on canvas, 100 cm × 81 cm (39 in × 32 in), Fondation Le Corbusier, Paris Le Corbusier moved to Paris definitively in 1917 and began his architectural practise with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), a partnership that would last until the 1950s, with an interruption in the World War II years. In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognised a kindred spirit. Ozenfant encouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and "romantic", the pair jointly published their manifesto, Après le cubisme and established a new artistic movement, Purism. Ozenfant and Le Corbusier began writing for a new journal, L'Esprit Nouveau, and promoted with energy and imagination his ideas of architecture. In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier (an altered form of his maternal grandfather's name, Lecorbésier) as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent themselves. Adopting a single name to identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially in Paris. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier did not build anything, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, he and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. They set up an architectural practice together. From 1927 to 1937 they worked together with Charlotte Perriand at the Le Corbusier-Pierre Jeanneret studio. In 1929 the trio prepared the "House fittings" section for the Decorative Artists Exhibition and asked for a group stand, renewing and widening the 1928 avant-garde group idea. This was refused by the Decorative Artists Committee. They resigned and founded the Union of Modern Artists ("Union des artistes modernes": UAM). His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models. Among these, was the Maison "Citrohan." The project's name was a reference to the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods and materials, Le Corbusier advocated using in the house's construction as well as how he intended the homes would be consumed, similar to other commercial products, like the automobile. As part of the Maison Citrohan model, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with a double-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor. The roof would be occupied by a sun terrace. On the exterior, Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access from the ground level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large uninterrupted banks of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled by windows but left as white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with any movable furniture made of tubular metal frames. Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior walls also were left white. Toward an Architecture (1920–1923) In 1922 and 1923, Le Corbusier devoted himself to advocating his new concepts of architecture and urban planning in a series of polemical articles published in L'Esprit Nouveau. At the Paris Salon d'Automne in 1922, he presented his plan for the Ville Contemporaine, a model city for three million people, whose residents would live and work in a group of identical sixty-story tall apartment buildings surrounded by lower zig-zag apartment blocks and a large park. In 1923, he collected his essays from L'Esprit Nouveau published his first and most influential book, Towards an Architecture. He presented his ideas for the future of architecture in a series of maxims, declarations, and exhortations, pronouncing that "a grand epoch has just begun. There exists a new spirit. There already exist a crowd of works in the new spirit, they are found especially in industrial production. Architecture is suffocating in its current uses. "Styles" are a lie. Style is a unity of principles which animates all the work of a period and which result in a characteristic spirit...Our epoch determines each day its style..-Our eyes, unfortunately, don't know how to see it yet," and his most famous maxim, "A house is a machine to live in." Most of the many photographs and drawings in the book came from outside the world of traditional architecture; the cover showed the promenade deck of an ocean liner, while others showed racing cars, aeroplanes, factories, and the huge concrete and steel arches of zeppelin hangars. L'Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925) The Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau (1925) The model of the Plan Voisin for the reconstruction of Paris displayed at the Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau An important early work of Le Corbusier was the Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, built for the 1925 Paris International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, the event which later gave Art Deco its name. Le Corbusier built the pavilion in collaboration with Amédée Ozenfant and with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Le Corbusier and Ozenfant had broken with Cubism and formed the Purism movement in 1918 and in 1920 founded their journal L'Esprit Nouveau. In his new journal, Le Corbusier vividly denounced the decorative arts: "Decorative Art, as opposed to the machine phenomenon, is the final twitch of the old manual modes, a dying thing." To illustrate his ideas, he and Ozenfant decided to create a small pavilion at the Exposition, representing his idea of the future urban housing unit. A house, he wrote, "is a cell within the body of a city. The cell is made up of the vital elements which are the mechanics of a house...Decorative art is antistandardizational. Our pavilion will contain only standard things created by industry in factories and mass-produced, objects truly of the style of today...my pavilion will therefore be a cell extracted from a huge apartment building." Le Corbusier and his collaborators were given a plot of land located behind the Grand Palais in the centre of the Exposition. The plot was forested, and exhibitors could not cut down trees, so Le Corbusier built his pavilion with a tree in the centre, emerging through a hole in the roof. The building was a stark white box with an interior terrace and square glass windows. The interior was decorated with a few cubist paintings and a few pieces of mass-produced commercially available furniture, entirely different from the expensive one-of-a-kind pieces in the other pavilions. The chief organizers of the Exposition were furious and built a fence to partially hide the pavilion. Le Corbusier had to appeal to the Ministry of Fine Arts, which ordered that fence be taken down. Besides the furniture, the pavilion exhibited a model of his 'Plan Voisin', his provocative plan for rebuilding a large part of the centre of Paris. He proposed to bulldoze a large area north of the Seine and replace the narrow streets, monuments and houses with giant sixty-story cruciform towers placed within an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space. His scheme was met with criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists, although they were favourable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying his designs. The plan was never seriously considered, but it provoked discussion concerning how to deal with the overcrowded poor working-class neighbourhoods of Paris, and it later saw the partial realization in the housing developments built in the Paris suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s. The Pavilion was ridiculed by many critics, but Le Corbusier, undaunted, wrote: "Right now one thing is sure. 1925 marks the decisive turning point in the quarrel between the old and new. After 1925, the antique-lovers will have virtually ended their lives . . . Progress is achieved through experimentation; the decision will be awarded on the field of battle of the 'new'." The Decorative Art of Today (1925) In 1925, Le Corbusier combined a series of articles about decorative art from "L'Esprit Nouveau" into a book, L'art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Art of Today). The book was a spirited attack on the very idea of decorative art. His basic premise, repeated throughout the book, was: "Modern decorative art has no decoration." He attacked with enthusiasm the styles presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts: "The desire to decorate everything about one is a false spirit and an abominable small perversion....The religion of beautiful materials is in its final death agony...The almost hysterical onrush in recent years toward this quasi-orgy of decor is only the last spasm of a death already predictable." He cited the 1912 book of the Austrian architect Adolf Loos "Ornament and crime", and quoted Loos's dictum, "The more a people are cultivated, the more decor disappears." He attacked the deco revival of classical styles, what he called "Louis Philippe and Louis XVI moderne"; he condemned the "symphony of color" at the Exposition, and called it "the triumph of assemblers of colors and materials. They were swaggering in colors... They were making stews out of fine cuisine." He condemned the exotic styles presented at the Exposition based on the art of China, Japan, India and Persia. "It takes energy today to affirm our western styles." He criticized the "precious and useless objects that accumulated on the shelves" in the new style. He attacked the "rustling silks, the marbles which twist and turn, the vermilion whiplashes, the silver blades of Byzantium and the Orient...Let's be done with it!" "Why call bottles, chairs, baskets and objects decorative?" Le Corbusier asked. "They are useful tools....The decor is not necessary. Art is necessary." He declared that in the future the decorative arts industry would produce only "objects which are perfectly useful, convenient, and have a true luxury which pleases our spirit by their elegance and the purity of their execution and the efficiency of their services. This rational perfection and precise determinate creates the link sufficient to recognize a style." He described the future of decoration in these terms: "The idea is to go work in the superb office of a modern factory, rectangular and well-lit, painted in white Ripolin (a major French paint manufacturer); where healthy activity and laborious optimism reign." He concluded by repeating "Modern decoration has no decoration". The book became a manifesto for those who opposed the more traditional styles of the decorative arts; In the 1930s, as Le Corbusier predicted, the modernized versions of Louis Philippe and Louis XVI furniture and the brightly coloured wallpapers of stylized roses were replaced by a more sober, more streamlined style. Gradually the modernism and functionality proposed by Le Corbusier overtook the more ornamental style. The shorthand titles that Le Corbusier used in the book, 1925 Expo: Arts Deco were adapted in 1966 by the art historian Bevis Hillier for a catalogue of an exhibition on the style, and in 1968 in the title of a book, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s. And thereafter the term "Art Deco" was commonly used as the name of the style. Five Points of Architecture to Villa Savoye (1923–1931) Main articles: Villa Savoye and Le Corbusier's Five Points of Architecture The Villa La Roche-Jeanneret (now Fondation Le Corbusier) in Paris (1923) Corbusier Haus (right) and Citrohan Haus in Weissenhof, Stuttgart, Germany (1927) The Villa Savoye in Poissy (1928–1931) The notoriety that Le Corbusier achieved from his writings and the Pavilion at the 1925 Exposition led to commissions to build a dozen residences in Paris and the Paris region in his "purist style." These included the Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret (1923–1925), which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier; the Maison Guiette in Antwerp, Belgium (1926); a residence for Jacques Lipchitz; the Maison Cook, and the Maison Planeix. In 1927, he was invited by the German Werkbund to build three houses in the model city of Weissenhof near Stuttgart, based on the Citroen House and other theoretical models he had published. He described this project in detail in one of his best-known essays, the Five Points of Architecture. The following year he began the Villa Savoye (1928–1931), which became one of the most famous of Le Corbusier's works, and an icon of modernist architecture. Located in Poissy, in a landscape surrounded by trees and a large lawn, the house is an elegant white box poised on rows of slender pylons, surrounded by a horizontal band of windows which fill the structure with light. The service areas (parking, rooms for servants and laundry room) are located under the house. Visitors enter a vestibule from which a gentle ramp leads to the house itself. The bedrooms and salons of the house are distributed around a suspended garden; the rooms look both out at the landscape and into the garden, which provides additional light and air. Another ramp leads up to the roof, and a stairway leads down to the cellar under the pillars. Villa Savoye succinctly summed up the five points of architecture that he had elucidated in L'Esprit Nouveau and the book Vers une architecture, which he had been developing throughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by pilotis, reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate his next two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and an open floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supporting walls. The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding garden, which constitute the fourth point of his system. The fifth point was the roof garden to compensate for the green area consumed by the building and replace it on the roof. A ramp rising from ground level to the third-floor roof terrace allows for a promenade architecturale through the structure. The white tubular railing recalls the industrial "ocean-liner" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired. Le Corbusier was quite rhapsodic when describing the house in Précisions in 1930: "the plan is pure, exactly made for the needs of the house. It has its correct place in the rustic landscape of Poissy. It is Poetry and lyricism, supported by technique." The house had its problems; the roof persistently leaked, due to construction faults; but it became a landmark of modern architecture and one of the best-known works of Le Corbusier. League of Nations Competition and Pessac Housing Project (1926–1930) Thanks to his passionate articles in L'Esprit Nouveau, his participation in the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition and the conferences he gave on the new spirit of architecture, Le Corbusier had become well known in the architectural world, though he had only built residences for wealthy clients. In 1926, he entered the competition for the construction of a headquarters for the League of Nations in Geneva with a plan for an innovative lakeside complex of modernist white concrete office buildings and meeting halls. There were 337 projects in competition. It appeared that the Corbusier's project was the first choice of the architectural jury, but after much behind-the-scenes manoeuvring, the jury declared it was unable to pick a single winner, and the project was given instead to the top five architects, who were all neoclassicists. Le Corbusier was not discouraged; he presented his plans to the public in articles and lectures to show the opportunity that the League of Nations had missed. The Cité Frugès Main article: Cité Frugès de Pessac In 1926, Le Corbusier received the opportunity he had been looking for; he was commissioned by a Bordeaux industrialist, Henry Frugès, a fervent admirer of his ideas on urban planning, to build a complex of worker housing, the Cité Frugès, at Pessac, a suburb of Bordeaux. Le Corbusier described Pessac as "A little like a Balzac novel", a chance to create a whole community for living and working. The Fruges quarter became his first laboratory for residential housing; a series of rectangular blocks composed of modular housing units located in a garden setting. Like the unit displayed at the 1925 Exposition, each housing unit had its own small terrace. The earlier villas he constructed all had white exterior walls, but for Pessac, at the request of his clients, he added colour; panels of brown, yellow and jade green, coordinated by Le Corbusier. Originally planned to have some two hundred units, it finally contained about fifty to seventy housing units, in eight buildings. Pessac became the model on a small scale for his later and much larger Cité Radieuse projects. Founding of CIAM (1928) and Athens Charter In 1928, Le Corbusier took a major step toward establishing modernist architecture as the dominant European style. Le Corbusier had met with many of the leading German and Austrian modernists during the competition for the League of Nations in 1927. In the same year, the German Werkbund organized an architectural exposition at the Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart. Seventeen leading modernist architects in Europe were invited to design twenty-one houses; Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe played a major part. In 1927 Le Corbusier, Pierre Chareau and others proposed the foundation of an international conference to establish the basis for a common style. The first meeting of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne or International Congresses of Modern Architects (CIAM), was held in a château on Lake Leman in Switzerland 26–28 June 1928. Those attending included Le Corbusier, Robert Mallet-Stevens, Auguste Perret, Pierre Chareau and Tony Garnier from France; Victor Bourgeois from Belgium; Walter Gropius, Erich Mendelsohn, Ernst May and Mies van der Rohe from Germany; Josef Frank from Austria; Mart Stam and Gerrit Rietveld from the Netherlands, and Adolf Loos from Czechoslovakia. A delegation of Soviet architects was invited to attend, but they were unable to obtain visas. Later members included Josep Lluís Sert of Spain and Alvar Aalto of Finland. No one attended from the United States. A second meeting was organized in 1930 in Brussels by Victor Bourgeois on the topic "Rational methods for groups of habitations". A third meeting, on "The functional city", was scheduled for Moscow in 1932, but was cancelled at the last minute. Instead, the delegates held their meeting on a cruise ship travelling between Marseille and Athens. On board, they together drafted a text on how modern cities should be organized. The text, called The Athens Charter, after considerable editing by Le Corbusier and others, was finally published in 1943 and became an influential text for city planners in the 1950s and 1960s. The group met once more in Paris in 1937 to discuss public housing and was scheduled to meet in the United States in 1939, but the meeting was cancelled because of the war. The legacy of the CIAM was a roughly common style and doctrine which helped define modern architecture in Europe and the United States after World War II. Projects (1928–1963) Moscow projects (1928–1934) Main article: Le Corbusier in the USSR Building of the Tsentrosoyuz, headquarters of Soviet trade unions, Moscow (1928–34) Le Corbusier saw the new society founded in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution as a promising laboratory for his architectural ideas. He met the Russian architect Konstantin Melnikov during the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and admired the construction of Melnikov's constructivist USSR pavilion, the only truly modernist building in the Exposition other than his own Esprit Nouveau pavilion. At Melnikov's invitation, he travelled to Moscow, where he found that his writings had been published in Russian; he gave lectures and interviews and between 1928 and 1932 he constructed an office building for the Tsentrosoyuz, the headquarters of Soviet trade unions. In 1932, he was invited to take part in an international competition for the new Palace of the Soviets in Moscow, which was to be built on the site of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, demolished on Stalin's orders. Le Corbusier contributed a highly original plan, a low-level complex of circular and rectangular buildings and a rainbow-like arch from which the roof of the main meeting hall was suspended. To Le Corbusier's distress, his plan was rejected by Stalin in favour of a plan for a massive neoclassical tower, the highest in Europe, crowned with a statue of Vladimir Lenin. The Palace was never built; construction was stopped by World War II, a swimming pool took its place, and after the collapse of the USSR the cathedral was rebuilt on its original site. Cité Universitaire, Immeuble Clarté and Cité de Refuge (1928–1933) The Immeuble Clarté in Geneva (1930–1932) Between 1928 and 1934, as Le Corbusier's reputation grew, he received commissions to construct a wide variety of buildings. In 1928 he received a commission from the Soviet government to construct the headquarters of the Tsentrosoyuz, or central office of trade unions, a large office building whose glass walls alternated with plaques of stone. He built the Villa de Madrot in Le Pradet (1929–1931); and an apartment in Paris for Charles de Bestigui at the top of an existing building on the Champs-Élysées 1929–1932, (later demolished). In 1929–1930 he constructed a floating homeless shelter for the Salvation Army on the left bank of the Seine at the Pont d'Austerlitz. Between 1929 and 1933, he built a larger and more ambitious project for the Salvation Army, the Cité de Refuge, on rue Cantagrel in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. He also constructed the Swiss Pavilion in the Cité Universitaire in Paris with 46 units of student housing, (1929–33). He designed furniture to go with the building; the main salon was decorated with a montage of black-and-white photographs of nature. In 1948, he replaced this with a colourful mural he painted himself. In Geneva, he built a glass-walled apartment building with 45 units, the Immeuble Clarté. Between 1931 and 1945 he built an apartment building with fifteen units, including an apartment and studio for himself on the 6th and 7th floors, at 24 rue Nungesser-et-Coli in the 16th arrondissement in Paris. overlooking the Bois de Boulogne. His apartment and studio are owned today by the Fondation Le Corbusier and can be visited. Ville Contemporaine, Plan Voisin and Cité Radieuse (1922–1939) See also: Unité d'habitation and Ville Radieuse As the global Great Depression enveloped Europe, Le Corbusier devoted more and more time to his ideas for urban design and planned cities. He believed that his new, modern architectural forms would provide an organizational solution that would raise the quality of life for the working classes. In 1922 he had presented his model of the Ville Contemporaine, a city of three million inhabitants, at the Salon d'Automne in Paris. His plan featured tall office towers surrounded by lower residential blocks in a park setting. He reported that "analysis leads to such dimensions, to such a new scale, and to such the creation of an urban organism so different from those that exist, that it that the mind can hardly imagine it." The Ville Contemporaine, presenting an imaginary city in an imaginary location, did not attract the attention that Le Corbusier wanted. For his next proposal, the Plan Voisin (1925), he took a much more provocative approach; he proposed to demolish a large part of central Paris and replace it with a group of sixty-story cruciform office towers surrounded by parkland. This idea shocked most viewers, as it was certainly intended to do. The plan included a multi-level transportation hub that included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections, and an airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and created an elaborate road network. Groups of lower-rise zigzag apartment blocks, set back from the street, were interspersed among the office towers. Le Corbusier wrote: "The centre of Paris, currently threatened with death, threatened by exodus, is, in reality, a diamond mine...To abandon the centre of Paris to its fate is to desert in face of the enemy." As no doubt Le Corbusier expected, no one hurried to implement the Plan Voisin, but he continued working on variations of the idea and recruiting followers. In 1929, he travelled to Brazil where he gave conferences on his architectural ideas. He returned with drawings of his vision for Rio de Janeiro; he sketched serpentine multi-story apartment buildings on pylons, like inhabited highways, winding through Rio de Janeiro. In 1931, he developed a visionary plan for another city Algiers, then part of France. This plan, like his Rio Janeiro plan, called for the construction of an elevated viaduct of concrete, carrying residential units, which would run from one end of the city to the other. This plan, unlike his early Plan Voisin, was more conservative, because it did not call for the destruction of the old city of Algiers; the residential housing would be over the top of the old city. This plan, like his Paris plans, provoked discussion but never came close to realization. In 1935, Le Corbusier made his first visit to the United States. He was asked by American journalists what he thought about New York City skyscrapers; he responded, characteristically, that he found them "much too small". He wrote a book describing his experiences in the States, Quand Les cathédrales étaient blanches, Voyage au pays des timides (When Cathedrals were White; voyage to the land of the timid) whose title expressed his view of the lack of boldness in American architecture. He wrote a great deal but built very little in the late 1930s. The titles of his books expressed the combined urgency and optimism of his messages: Cannons? Munitions? No thank you, Lodging please! (1938) and The lyricism of modern times and urbanism (1939). In 1928, the French Minister of Labour, Louis Loucheur, won the passage of French law on public housing, calling for the construction of 260,000 new housing units within five years. Le Corbusier immediately began to design a new type of modular housing unit, which he called the Maison Loucheur, which would be suitable for the project. These units were forty-five square metres (480 square feet) in size, made with metal frames, and were designed to be mass-produced and then transported to the site, where they would be inserted into frameworks of steel and stone; The government insisted on stone walls to win the support of local building contractors. The standardisation of apartment buildings was the essence of what Le Corbusier termed the Ville Radieuse or "radiant city", in a new book published in 1935. The Radiant City was similar to his earlier Contemporary City and Plan Voisin, with the difference that residences would be assigned by family size, rather than by income and social position. In his 1935 book, he developed his ideas for a new kind of city, where the principal functions; heavy industry, manufacturing, habitation and commerce, would be separated into their neighbourhoods, carefully planned and designed. However, before any units could be built, World War II intervened. World War II and Reconstruction; Unité d'Habitation in Marseille (1939–1952) The modular design of the apartments inserted into the building Internal "street" within the Unité d'Habitation, Marseille (1947–1952) Salon and Terrace of an original unit of the Unité d'Habitation, now at the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine in Paris (1952) During the War and the German occupation of France, Le Corbusier did his best to promote his architectural projects. He moved to Vichy for a time, where the collaborationist government of Marshal Philippe Petain was located, offering his services for architectural projects, including his plan for the reconstruction of Algiers, but they were rejected. He continued writing, completing Sur les Quatres routes (On the Four Routes) in 1941. After 1942 Le Corbusier left Vichy for Paris. He became for a time a technical adviser at Alexis Carrel's eugenics foundation but resigned on 20 April 1944. In 1943 he founded a new association of modern architects and builders, the Ascoral, the Assembly of Constructors for a renewal of architecture, but there were no projects to build. When the war ended Le Corbusier was nearly sixty years old and he had not had a single project realized for ten years. He tried, without success, to obtain commissions for several of the first large reconstruction projects, but his proposals for the reconstruction of the town of Saint-Dié and for La Rochelle were rejected. Still, he persisted and finally found a willing partner in Raoul Dautry, the new Minister of Reconstruction and Town Planning. Dautry agreed to fund one of his projects, a "Unité habitation de grandeur conforme", or housing units of standard size, with the first one to be built in Marseille, which had been heavily damaged during the war. This was his first public commission and was a breakthrough for Le Corbusier. He gave the building the name of his pre-war theoretical project, the Cité Radieuse, and followed the principles that he had studied before the war, proposing a giant reinforced-concrete framework into which modular apartments would fit like bottles into a bottle rack. Like the Villa Savoye, the structure was poised on concrete pylons though, because of the shortage of steel to reinforce the concrete, the pylons were more massive than usual. The building contained 337 duplex apartment modules to house a total of 1,600 people. Each module was three storeys high and contained two apartments, combined so each had two levels (see diagram above). The modules ran from one side of the building to the other and each apartment had a small terrace at each end. They were ingeniously fitted together like pieces of a Chinese puzzle, with a corridor slotted through the space between the two apartments in each module. Residents had a choice of twenty-three different configurations for the units. Le Corbusier designed furniture, carpets and lamps to go with the building, all purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of interior colours. The only mildly decorative features of the building were the ventilator shafts on the roof, which Le Corbusier made to look like the smokestacks of an ocean liner, a functional form that he admired. The building was designed not just to be a residence but to offer all the services needed for living. On every third floor, between the modules, there was a wide corridor, like an interior street, which ran the length of the building. This served as a sort of commercial street, with shops, eating places, a nursery school and recreational facilities. A running track and small stage for theatre performances were located on the roof. The building itself was surrounded by trees and a small park. Le Corbusier wrote later that the Unité d'Habitation concept was inspired by the visit he had made to the Florence Charterhouse at Galluzzo in Italy, in 1907 and 1910 during his early travels. He wanted to recreate, he wrote, an ideal place "for meditation and contemplation". He also learned from the monastery, he wrote, that "standardization led to perfection", and that "all of his life a man labours under this impulse: to make the home the temple of the family". The Unité d'Habitation marked a turning point in the career of Le Corbusier; in 1952, he was made a Commander of the Légion d'Honneur in a ceremony held on the roof of his new building. He had progressed from being an outsider and critic of the architectural establishment to its centre, as the most prominent French architect. Postwar projects, United Nations headquarters (1947–1952) The headquarters of the United Nations designed by Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Wallace K. Harrison (1947–1952) Le Corbusier made another almost identical Unité d'Habitation in Rezé-les-Nantes in the Loire-Atlantique Department between 1948 and 1952, and three more over the following years, in Berlin, Briey-en-Forêt and Firminy; and he designed a factory for the company of Claude and Duval, in Saint-Dié in the Vosges. In the post-Second World War decades, Le Corbusier's fame moved beyond architectural and planning circles as he became one of the leading intellectual figures of the time. In early 1947 Le Corbusier submitted a design for the headquarters of the United Nations, which was to be built beside the East River in New York. Instead of competition, the design was to be selected by a Board of Design Consultants composed of leading international architects nominated by member governments, including Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil, Howard Robertson from Britain, Nikolai Bassov of the Soviet Union, and five others from around the world. The committee was under the direction of the American architect Wallace K. Harrison, who was also the architect for the Rockefeller family, which had donated the site for the building. Le Corbusier had submitted his plan for the Secretariat, called Plan 23 of the 58 submitted. In Le Corbusier's plan offices, council chambers and General Assembly Hall were in a single block in the centre of the site. He lobbied hard for his project, and asked the younger Brazilian architect, Niemeyer, to support and assist him with his plan. Niemeyer, to help Le Corbusier, refused to submit his design and did not attend the meetings until the Director, Harrison, insisted. Niemeyer then submitted his plan, Plan 32, with the office building and councils and General Assembly in separate buildings. After much discussion, the Committee chose Niemeyer's plan but suggested that he collaborate with Le Corbusier on the final project. Le Corbusier urged Niemeyer to put the General Assembly Hall in the centre of the site, though this would eliminate Niemeyer's plan to have a large plaza in the centre. Niemeyer agreed with Le Corbusier's suggestion, and the headquarters was built, with minor modifications, according to their joint plan. Religious architecture (1950–63) The chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp (1950–1955) The convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette near Lyon (1953–1960) Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy (1960–2006) Le Corbusier was an avowed atheist, but he also had a strong belief in the ability of architecture to create a sacred and spiritual environment. In the postwar years, he designed two important religious buildings; the chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp (1950–1955); and the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette (1953–1960). Le Corbusier wrote later that he was greatly aided in his religious architecture by a Dominican father, Marie-Alain Couturier, who had founded a movement and review of modern religious art. Le Corbusier first visited the remote mountain site of Ronchamp in May 1950, saw the ruins of the old chapel, and drew sketches of possible forms. He wrote afterwards: "In building this chapel, I wanted to create a place of silence, of peace, of prayer, of interior joy. The feeling of the sacred animated our effort. Some things are sacred, others aren't, whether they're religious or not." The second major religious project undertaken by Le Corbusier was the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette in L'Arbresle in the Rhone Department (1953–1960). Once again it was Father Couturier who engaged Le Corbusier in the project. He invited Le Corbusier to visit the starkly simple and imposing 12th–13th century Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence, and also used his memories of his youthful visit to the Erna Charterhouse in Florence. This project involved not only a chapel, but a library, refectory, rooms for meetings and reflection, and dormitories for the nuns. For the living space he used the same Modulor concept for measuring the ideal living space that he had used in the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille; height under the ceiling of 2.26 metres (7 feet 5 inches); and width 1.83 metres (6 feet 0 inches). Le Corbusier used raw concrete to construct the convent, which is placed on the side of a hill. The three blocks of dormitories are U, closed by the chapel, with a courtyard in the centre. The Convent has a flat roof and is placed on sculpted concrete pillars. Each of the residential cells has a small loggia with a concrete sunscreen looking out at the countryside. The centrepiece of the convent is the chapel, a plain box of concrete, which he called his "Box of miracles." Unlike the highly finished façade of the Unité d'Habitation, the façade of the chapel is raw, unfinished concrete. He described the building in a letter to Albert Camus in 1957: "I'm taken with the idea of a "box of miracles"....as the name indicates, it is a rectangular box made of concrete. It doesn't have any of the traditional theatrical tricks, but the possibility, as its name suggests, to make miracles." The interior of the chapel is extremely simple, only benches in a plain, unfinished concrete box, with light coming through a single square in the roof and six small bands on the sides. The Crypt beneath has intense blue, red and yellow walls, and illumination by sunlight channelled from above. The monastery has other unusual features, including floor to ceiling panels of glass in the meeting rooms, window panels that fragmented the view into pieces, and a system of concrete and metal tubes like gun barrels which aimed sunlight through coloured prisms and projected it onto the walls of the sacristy and to the secondary altars of the crypt on the level below. These were whimsically termed the ""machine guns" of the sacristy and the "light cannons" of the crypt. In 1960, Le Corbusier began a third religious building, the Church of Saint Pierre in the new town of Firminy-Vert, where he had built a Unité d'Habitation and a cultural and sports centre. While he made the original design, construction did not begin until five years after his death, and work continued under different architects until it was completed in 2006. The most spectacular feature of the church is the sloping concrete tower that covers the entire interior, similar to that in the Assembly Building in his complex at Chandigarh. Windows high in the tower illuminates the interior. Le Corbusier originally proposed that tiny windows also project the form of a constellation on the walls. Later architects designed the church to project the constellation Orion. Chandigarh (1951–1956) The High Court of Justice, Chandigarh (1951–1956) Secretariat Building, Chandigarh (1952–1958) Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh) (1952–1961) Le Corbusier's largest and most ambitious project was the design of Chandigarh, the capital city of the Punjab and Haryana States of India, created after India received independence in 1947. Le Corbusier was contacted in 1950 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and invited to propose a project. An American architect, Albert Mayer, had made a plan in 1947 for a city of 150,000 inhabitants, but the Indian government wanted a grander and more monumental city. Corbusier worked on the plan with two British specialists in urban design and tropical climate architecture, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, and with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, who moved to India and supervised the construction until his death. Le Corbusier, as always, was rhapsodic about his project; "It will be a city of trees," he wrote, "of flowers and water, of houses as simple as those at the time of Homer, and of a few splendid edifices of the highest level of modernism, where the rules of mathematics will reign." His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the middle was the capitol, a complex of four major government buildings; the Palace of the National Assembly, the High Court of Justice; the Palace of Secretariat of Ministers, and the Palace of the Governor. For financial and political reasons, the Palace of the Governor was dropped well into the construction of the city, throwing the final project somewhat off-balance. From the beginning, Le Corbusier worked, as he reported, "Like a forced labourer." He dismissed the earlier American plan as "Faux-Moderne" and overly filled with parking spaces and roads. He intended to present what he had learned in forty years of urban study, and also to show the French government the opportunities they had missed in not choosing him to rebuild French cities after the War. His design made use of many of his favourite ideas: an architectural promenade, incorporating the local landscape and the sunlight and shadows into the design; the use of the Modulor to give a correct human scale to each element somewhat based on the proportions of the human body; and his favourite symbol, the open hand ("The hand is open to give and to receive"). He placed a monumental open hand statue in a prominent place in the design. Le Corbusier's design called for the use of raw concrete, whose surface was not smoothed or polished and which showed the marks of the forms in which it dried. Pierre Jeanneret wrote to his cousin that he was in a continual battle with the construction workers, who could not resist the urge to smooth and finish the raw concrete, particularly when important visitors were coming to the site. At one point one thousand workers were employed on the site of the High Court of Justice. Le Corbusier wrote to his mother, "It is an architectural symphony which surpasses all my hopes, which flashes and develops under the light in a way which is unimaginable and unforgettable. From far, from up close, it provokes astonishment; all made with raw concrete and a cement cannon. Adorable, and grandiose. In all the centuries no one has seen that." The High Court of Justice, begun in 1951, was finished in 1956. The building was radical in its design; a parallelogram topped with an inverted parasol. Along the walls were high concrete grills 1.5 metres (4 feet 11 inches) thick which served as sunshades. The entry featured a monumental ramp and columns that allowed the air to circulate. The pillars were originally white limestone, but in the 1960s they were repainted in bright colours, which better resisted the weather. The Secretariat, the largest building that housed the government offices, was constructed between 1952 and 1958. It is an enormous block 250 metres (820 feet) long and eight levels high, served by a ramp which extends from the ground to the top level. The ramp was designed to be partly sculptural and partly practical. Since there were no modern building cranes at the time of construction, the ramp was the only way to get materials to the top of the construction site. The Secretariat had two features which were borrowed from his design for the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille: concrete grill sunscreens over the windows and a roof terrace. The most important building of the capitol complex was the Palace of Assembly (1952–61), which faced the High Court at the other end of a five hundred meter esplanade with a large reflecting pool in the front. This building features a central courtyard, over which is the main meeting hall for the Assembly. On the roof on the rear of the building is a signature feature of Le Corbusier, a large tower, similar in form to the smokestack of a ship or the ventilation tower of a heating plant. Le Corbusier added touches of colour and texture with an immense tapestry in the meeting hall and a large gateway decorated with enamel. He wrote of this building, "A Palace magnificent in its effect, from the new art of raw concrete. It is magnificent and terrible; terrible meaning that there is nothing cold about it to the eyes." Later life and work (1955–1965) The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo (1954–1959) Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1960–1963) The Centre Le Corbusier in Zürich (1962–1967) The 1950s and 1960s were a difficult period for Le Corbusier's personal life: his wife Yvonne died in 1957 and his mother, to whom he was closely attached, died in 1960. He remained active in a wide variety of fields: in 1955 he published Poéme de l'angle droit, a portfolio of lithographs, published in the same collection as the book Jazz by Henri Matisse. In 1958 he collaborated with the composer Edgar Varèse on a work called Le Poème électronique, a show of sound and light, for the Philips Pavilion at the International Exposition in Brussels. In 1960 he published a new book, L'Atelier de la recherché patiente The workshop of patient research), simultaneously published in four languages. He received growing recognition for his pioneering work in modernist architecture: in 1959 a successful international campaign was launched to have his Villa Savoye, threatened with demolition, declared a historic monument; it was the first time that a work by a living architect had received this distinction. In 1962, in the same year as the dedication of the Palace of the Assembly in Chandigarh, the first retrospective exhibit on his work was held at the National Museum of Modern Art in Paris. In 1964, in a ceremony held in his atelier on rue de Sèvres, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur by Culture Minister André Malraux. His later architectural work was extremely varied and often based on designs of earlier projects. In 1952–1958 he designed a series of tiny holiday cabins, 2.26 by 2.26 by 2.6 metres (7.4 by 7.4 by 8.5 feet) in size, for a site next to the Mediterranean at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin. He built a similar cabin for himself but the rest of the project was not realized until after his death. From 1953–to 1957 he designed the Maison du Brésil, a residential building for Brazilian students for the Cité Universitaire in Paris. Between 1954 and 1959 he built the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo. His other projects included a cultural centre and stadium for the town of Firminy, where he had built his first housing project (1955–1958), and a stadium in Baghdad, Iraq (much altered since its construction). He also constructed three new Unités d'Habitation apartment blocks on the model of the original in Marseille, the first in Berlin (1956–1958), the second in Briey-en-Forêt in the Meurthe-et-Moselle Department and the third (1959–1967) in Firminy. From 1960–to 1963 he built his only building in the United States, the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Jørn Utzon, the architect of the Sydney Opera House, commissioned Le Corbusier to create furnishings for the nascent opera house. Le Corbusier designed a tapestry, Les Dés Sont Jetés, which was completed in 1960. Le Corbusier died of a heart attack at age 77 in 1965 after swimming on the French Riviera. At the time of his death several projects were on the drawing board: the church of Saint-Pierre in Firminy, finally completed in modified form in 2006, a Palace of Congresses for Strasbourg (1962–65) and a hospital in Venice (1961–1965), which were never built. Le Corbusier designed an art gallery beside the lake in Zürich for gallery owner Heidi Weber in 1962–1967. Now called the Centre Le Corbusier, it is one of his last finished works. Estate The holiday cabin where he spent his last days in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin The Fondation Le Corbusier (FLC) functions as his official estate. The US copyright representative for the Fondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society. Ideas The Five Points of a Modern Architecture Main article: Le Corbusier's Five Points of Architecture Barrio de las Flores, Coruña, Galicia, (Spain), built under the influence of Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier defined the principles of his new architecture in Les cinq points de l'architecture moderne, published in 1927, and co-authored by his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret. They summarized the lessons he had learned in the previous years, which he put literally into concrete form in his villas constructed in the late 1920s, most dramatically in the Villa Savoye (1928–1931). The five points are: The Pilotis, or pylon. The building is raised on reinforced concrete pylons, which allows for free circulation on the ground level, and eliminates dark and damp parts of the house. The Roof Terrace. The sloping roof is replaced by a flat roof; the roof can be used as a garden, for promenades, for sports or a swimming pool. The Free Plan. Load-bearing walls are replaced by steel or reinforced concrete columns, so the interior can be freely designed, and interior walls can be put anywhere, or left out entirely. The structure of the building is not visible from the outside. The Ribbon Window. Since the walls do not support the house, the windows can run the entire length of the house, so all rooms can get equal light. The Free Façade. Since the building is supported by columns in the interior, the façade can be much lighter and more open or made entirely of glass. There is no need for lintels or other structures around the windows. "Architectural Promenade" The "Architectural Promenade" was another idea dear to Le Corbusier, which he particularly put into play in his design of the Villa Savoye. In 1928, in Une Maison, un Palais, he described it: "Arab architecture gives us a precious lesson: it is best appreciated in walking, on foot. It is in walking, in going from one place to another, that you see develop the features of the architecture. In this house (Villa Savoye) you find a veritable architectural promenade, offering constantly varying aspects, unexpected, sometimes astonishing." The promenade at Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier wrote, both in the interior of the house and on the roof terrace, often erased the traditional difference between the inside and outside. Ville Radieuse and Urbanism In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratification of the former; housing was now assigned according to family size, not economic position. Some have read dark overtones into The Radiant City: from the "astonishingly beautiful assemblage of buildings" that was Stockholm, for example, Le Corbusier saw only "frightening chaos and saddening monotony." He dreamed of "cleaning and purging" the city, bringing "a calm and powerful architecture"—referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete. Although Le Corbusier's designs for Stockholm did not succeed, later architects took his ideas and partly "destroyed" the city with them. Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society. As Norma Evenson has put it, "the proposed city appeared to some an audacious and compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others, a frigid megalomaniacally scaled negation of the familiar urban ambient." Le Corbusier "His ideas—his urban planning and his architecture—are viewed separately," Perelman noted, "whereas they are the same thing." In La Ville radieuse, he conceived an essentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state. Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the 19th-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery. From Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government. Modulor Main article: Modulor The Modulor was a standard model of the human form which Le Corbusier devised to determine the correct amount of living space needed for residents in his buildings. It was also his rather original way of dealing with differences between the metric system and the British or American system since the Modulor was not attached to either one. Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. Many scholars see the Modulor as a humanistic expression but it is also argued that: "It's exactly the opposite (...) It's the mathematization of the body, the standardization of the body, the rationalization of the body." He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles. Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned." Open Hand Open Hand Monument in Chandigarh, India The Open Hand (La Main Ouverte) is a recurring motif in Le Corbusier's architecture, a sign for him of "peace and reconciliation. It is open to give and open to receive." The largest of the many Open Hand sculptures that Le Corbusier created is a 26-meter-high (85 ft) version in Chandigarh, India, known as Open Hand Monument. Furniture Main article: Le Corbusier's Furniture Le Corbusier was an eloquent critic of the finely crafted, hand-made furniture, made with rare and exotic woods, inlays and coverings, presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts. Following his usual method, Le Corbusier first wrote a book with his theories of furniture, complete with memorable slogans. In his 1925 book L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui, he called for furniture that used inexpensive materials and could be mass-produced. Le Corbusier described three different furniture types: type-needs, type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He defined human-limb objects as: "Extensions of our limbs and adapted to human functions that are type-needs and type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. The human-limb object is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing to leave his master free. Certainly, works of art are tools, beautiful tools. And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, and harmony". He further declared: "Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois". Frame of an LC4 chair by Le Corbusier and Perriand (1927–28) at Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris Le Corbusier first relied on ready-made furniture from Thonet to furnish his projects, such as his pavilion at the 1925 Exposition. In 1928, following the publication of his theories, he began experimenting with furniture design. In 1928, he invited the architect Charlotte Perriand to join his studio as a furniture designer. His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs. For the manufacture of his furniture, he turned to the German firm Gebrüder Thonet, which had begun making chairs with tubular steel, a material originally used for bicycles, in the early 1920s. Le Corbusier admired the design of Marcel Breuer and the Bauhaus, who in 1925 had begun making sleek modern tubular club chairs. Mies van der Rohe had begun making his version in a sculptural curved form with a cane seat in 1927. The first results of the collaboration between Le Corbusier and Perriand were three types of chairs made with chrome-plated tubular steel frames: The LC4, Chaise Longue, (1927–28), with a covering of cowhide, which gave it a touch of exoticism; the Fauteuil Grand Confort (LC3) (1928–29), a club chair with a tubular frame which resembled the comfortable Art Deco club chairs that became popular in the 1920s; and the Fauteuil à dossier vascular (LC4) (1928–29), a low seat suspended in a tubular steel frame, also with cowhide upholstery. These chairs were designed specifically for two of his projects, the Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church. All three clearly showed the influence of Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer. The line of furniture was expanded with additional designs for Le Corbusier's 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, 'Equipment for the Home'. Despite the intention of Le Corbusier that his furniture should be inexpensive and mass-produced, his pieces were originally costly to make and were not mass-produced until many years later, when he was famous. Controversies There is debate over the apparently variable or contradictory nature of Le Corbusier's political views. In the 1920s, he co-founded and contributed articles about urbanism to the fascist journals Plans, Prélude and L'Homme Réel. He also penned pieces in favour of Nazi antisemitism for those journals, as well as "hateful editorials". Between 1925 and 1928, Le Corbusier had connections to Le Faisceau, a short-lived French fascist party led by Georges Valois. (Valois later became an anti-fascist.) Le Corbusier knew another former member of Faisceau, Hubert Lagardelle, a former labor leader and syndicalist who had become disaffected with the political left. In 1934, after Lagardelle had obtained a position at the French embassy in Rome, he arranged for Le Corbusier to lecture on architecture in Italy. Lagardelle later served as minister of labor in the pro-Axis Vichy regime. While Le Corbusier sought commissions from the Vichy regime, particularly the redesign of Marseille after its Jewish population had been forcefully removed, he was unsuccessful, and the only appointment he received from it was membership of a committee studying urbanism. Alexis Carrel, a eugenicist surgeon, appointed Le Corbusier to the Department of Bio-Sociology of the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems, an institute promoting eugenics policies under the Vichy regime. Le Corbusier has been accused of antisemitism. He wrote to his mother in October 1940, as the Vichy government enacted anti-Jewish laws: "The Jews are having a bad time. I occasionally feel sorry. But it appears their blind lust for money has rotted the country." He was also accused of belittling the Muslim population of Algeria, then part of France. When Le Corbusier proposed a plan for the rebuilding of Algiers, he condemned the existing housing for European Algerians, complaining that it was inferior to that inhabited by indigenous Algerians: "the civilized live like rats in holes" while "the barbarians live in solitude, in well-being." His plan for rebuilding Algiers was rejected, and thereafter Le Corbusier mostly avoided politics. Criticism In his eulogy to Le Corbusier at the memorial ceremony for the architect in the courtyard of the Louvre on 1 September 1965, French Culture Minister André Malraux declared, "Le Corbusier had some great rivals, but none of them had the same significance in the revolution of architecture, because none bore insults so patiently and for so long." Later criticism of Le Corbusier was directed at his ideas on urban planning. In 1998, the architectural historian Witold Rybczynski wrote in Time magazine: "He called it the Ville Radieuse, the Radiant City. Despite the poetic title, his urban vision was authoritarian, inflexible and simplistic. Wherever it was tried—in Chandigarh by Le Corbusier himself or in Brasilia by his followers—it failed. Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting. The open spaces were inhospitable; the bureaucratically imposed plan was socially destructive. In the US, the Radiant City took the form of vast urban-renewal schemes and regimented public housing projects that damaged the urban fabric beyond repair. Today, these megaprojects are being dismantled, as superblocks give way to rows of houses fronting streets and sidewalks. Downtowns have discovered that combining, not separating, different activities is the key to success. So is the presence of lively residential neighbourhoods, old as well as new. Cities have learned that preserving history makes more sense than starting from zero. It has been an expensive lesson, and not one that Le Corbusier intended, but it too is part of his legacy." Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in Yesterday's City of Tomorrow that the extravagant heights of Le Corbusier's skyscrapers had no reason for existence apart from the fact that they had become technological possibilities. The open spaces in his central areas had no reason for existence either, Mumford wrote, since on the scale he imagined, there was no motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation in the office quarter. By "mating utilitarian and financial image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the organic environment, Le Corbusier had produced a sterile hybrid." The public housing projects influenced by his ideas have been criticized for isolating poor communities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development. One of his most influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban design theories in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great American Cities. For some critics, the urbanism of Le Corbusier was the model for a fascist state. These critics cited Le Corbusier himself when he wrote that "not all citizens could become leaders. The technocratic elite, the industrialists, financiers, engineers, and artists would be located in the city centre, while the workers would be removed to the fringes of the city". Alessandro Hseuh-Bruni wrote in "Le Corbusier's Fatal Flaws – A Critique of Modernism" that "In addition to setting the stage for infrastructural developments to come, Le Corbusier's blueprints and models, while not so well-regarded by urban planners and street dwellers alike, also examined the sociological side of cities in great detail. World War II left millions dead and transformed the urban landscape throughout much of Europe, from England to the Soviet Union, and housing on a mass scale was necessary. Le Corbusier personally took this as a challenge to accommodate the masses on an unprecedented scale. This mission statement manifested itself in the form of "Cité Radieuse" (The Radiant City), located in Marseille, France. The construction of this utopian sanctuary was dependent on the destruction of traditional neighbourhoods – he showed no regard for French cultural heritage and tradition. Entire neighbourhoods were ravaged to make way for these dense, uniform concrete blocks. If he had his way, Paris' elite Marais community would have been destroyed. In addition, the theme of segregation that plagued earlier models of Le Corbusier's continued in this supposed utopian vision, with the wealthy elite being the only ones to access the luxuries of modernism." Influence Gustavo Capanema Palace, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Le Corbusier was concerned about problems he saw in industrial cities at the turn of the 20th century. He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of a moral landscape. He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better-living conditions and a better society through housing. Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily influenced Le Corbusier and his contemporaries. Le Corbusier revolutionized urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). One of the first to realize how the automobile would change human society, Le Corbusier conceived the city of the future with large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le Corbusier's plans were adopted by builders of public housing in Europe and the United States. In Great Britain, urban planners turned to Le Corbusier's "Cities in the Sky" as a cheaper method of building public housing from the late 1950s. Le Corbusier criticized any effort at ornamentation of the buildings. Several of the many architects who worked for Le Corbusier in his studio became prominent, including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are based on his ideas. Le Corbusier's thinking had profound effects on city planning and architecture in the Soviet Union during the Constructivist era. Le Corbusier harmonized and lent credence to the idea of space as a set of destinations between which mankind moved continuously. He gave credibility to the automobile as a transporter and freeway in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban real estate developers in the American post-World War II period because they justified and lent intellectual support to the desire to raze traditional urban spaces for high density, high-profit urban concentration. The freeways connected this new urbanism to low density, low cost, highly profitable suburban locales available to be developed for middle-class single-family housing. Missing from this scheme of movement was connectivity between isolated urban villages created for the lower-middle and working classes, and the destination points in Le Corbusier's plan: suburban and rural areas, and urban commercial centres. As designed, the freeways travelled over, at, or beneath grade levels of the living spaces of the urban poor, for example, the Cabrini–Green housing project in Chicago. Because such projects were devoid of freeway-exit ramps and were cut off by freeway rights-of-way, they became isolated from the jobs and services that had been concentrated at Le Corbusier's nodal transportation endpoints. As jobs migrated to the suburbs, these urban-village dwellers effectively found themselves stranded without freeway-access points in their communities or public mass transit that could economically reach suburban job centres. Late in the post-War period, suburban job centres found labour shortages to be such a critical problem that they sponsored urban-to-suburban shuttle-bus services to fill the vacant working-class and lower-middle-class jobs, which did not typically pay enough to afford car ownership. Le Corbusier influenced architects and urbanists worldwide. In the United States, Shadrach Woods; in Spain, Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza; in Brazil, Oscar Niemeyer; In Mexico, Mario Pani Darqui; in Chile, Roberto Matta; in Argentina, Antoni Bonet i Castellana (a Catalan exile), Juan Kurchan, Jorge Ferrari Hardoy, Amancio Williams, and Clorindo Testa in his first era; in Uruguay, the professors Justino Serralta and Carlos Gómez Gavazzo; in Colombia, Germán Samper Gnecco, Rogelio Salmona, and Dicken Castro; in Peru, Abel Hurtado and José Carlos Ortecho; in Lebanon, Joseph Philippe Karam; in India Shiv Nath Prasad; in South Korea, Kim Chung-up. Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Frankfurt have been inspired by Le Corbusier, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide. Fondation Le Corbusier Le Corbusier, work reproduced in Život 2 (1922) The Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and archive honoring the work of Le Corbusier. It operates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th arrondissement at 8–10, square du Dr Blanche, Paris, France, which is open daily except for Sunday. The foundation was established in 1968. It now owns Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (which form the foundation's headquarters), as well as the apartment occupied by Le Corbusier from 1933 to 1965 at rue Nungesser et Coli in Paris 16e, and the "Small House" he built for his parents in Corseaux on the shores of Lac Leman (1924). Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (1923–24), also known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair of semi-detached houses that was Le Corbusier's third commission in Paris. They are laid out at right angles to each other, with iron, concrete, and blank, white façades setting off a curved two-story gallery space. Maison La Roche is now a museum containing about 8,000 original drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with Pierre Jeanneret from 1922 to 1940), as well as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about 200 other works on paper, and a sizable collection of written and photographic archives. It describes itself as the world's largest collection of Le Corbusier drawings, studies, and plans. Awards In 1937, Le Corbusier was named Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur. In 1945, he was promoted to Officier of the Légion d'honneur. In 1952, he was promoted to Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur. Finally, on 2 July 1964, Le Corbusier was named Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur. He received the Frank P. Brown Medal and AIA Gold Medal in 1961. The University of Cambridge awarded Le Corbusier an honorary degree in June 1959. World Heritage Site In 2016, seventeen of Le Corbusier's buildings spanning seven countries were identified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting "outstanding contribution to the Modern Movement". Memorials Le Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses. The following place-names carry his name: Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier on the Rue de Sèvres Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland Le Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina Le Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of Brossard, Quebec, Canada Le Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin Le Corbusier Museum, Sector – 19 Chandigarh, India Le Corbusier Museum in Stuttgart am Weissenhof Works Main article: List of Le Corbusier buildings 1923: Villa La Roche, Paris, France 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris, France 1926: Cité Frugès, Pessac, France 1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France 1928: Villa Baizeau, Tunis, Tunisia 1929: Cité du Refuge, Armée du Salut, Paris, France 1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project) 1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland 1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR 1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France 1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City, U.S. (Consultant) 1949–1953: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina (project manager: Amancio Williams) 1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France 1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France 1951: Buildings in Ahmedabad, India 1951: Sanskar Kendra Museum, Ahmedabad 1951: ATMA House 1951: Villa Sarabhai, Ahmedabad 1951: Villa Shodhan, Ahmedabad 1951: Villa of Chinubhai Chimanlal, Ahmedabad 1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France 1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India 1952: Palace of Justice 1952: Museum and Gallery of Art 1953: Secretariat Building 1953: Governor's Palace 1955: Palace of Assembly 1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and the Chandigarh College of Architecture (CCA) 1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris, France 1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with Iannis Xenakis) 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16, Berlin, Germany 1962: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S. 1964–1969: Firminy-Vert, France 1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy-Vert 1965: Maison de la Culture de Firminy 1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Zürich, Switzerland Books by Le Corbusier 1918: Après le cubisme (After Cubism), with Amédée Ozenfant 1923: Vers une architecture (Towards an Architecture) (frequently mistranslated as "Towards a New Architecture") 1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism) 1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with Amédée Ozenfant 1925: L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Arts of Today) 1930: Précisions sur un état présent de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme (Precisions on the present state of architecture and urbanism) 1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Keyboard) 1935: Aircraft 1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) 1942: Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter) 1943: Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Students) 1945: Les Trois établissements Humains (The Three Human Establishments) 1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor) 1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the Right Angle) 1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2) 1959: Deuxième clavier de couleurs (Second Colour Keyboard) 1964: Quand les Cathédrales Etáient Blanches (When the Cathedrals were White) 1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East) See also Butterfly roof Crystal Cubism Fabien Vienne Mathematics and art Raoul Albert La Roche - Swiss donator and collector of art References ^ a b Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, Archives nationales; site de Fontainebleau, Légion d'honneur recipient, birth certificate. 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Allen (1999) Le Corbusier's Formative Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Paperback Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-07582-6 Eliel, Carol S. (2002). L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in Paris, 1918–1925. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-6727-8. Curtis, William J.R. (1994) Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms, Phaidon, ISBN 978-0-7148-2790-2. Fishman, Robert (1982). Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-56023-8. Frampton, Kenneth. (2001). Le Corbusier, London, Thames and Hudson. Jencks, Charles (2000) Le Corbusier and the Continual Revolution in Architecture, The Monacelli Press, ISBN 978-1-58093-077-2. Jornod, Naïma and Jornod, Jean-Pierre (2005) Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre peint, Skira, ISBN 88-7624-203-1. Journel, Guillemette Morel (2015). Le Corbusier- Construire la Vie Moderne (in French). Editions du Patrimoine: Centre des Monument Nationaux. ISBN 978-2-7577-0419-6. Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. (2015) 'Transgression and Ekphrasis in Le Corbusier's Journey to the East' in Transgression: Towards the Expanded Field in Architecture, edited by Louis Rice and David Littlefield, London: Routledge, 57–75, ISBN 978-1-13-881892-7. Le Corbusier (1925). L'Art décoratif d'aujourdhui (in French). G. Crés et Cie. Le Corbusier (1923). Vers une architecture (in French). Flammarion (1995). ISBN 978-2-0812-1744-7. Solitaire, Marc (2016) Au retour de La Chaux-de-Fonds: Le Corbusier & Froebel, editions Wiking, ISBN 978-2-9545239-1-0. Riley, Noël (2004). Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs (in French). Flammarion. Von Moos, Stanislaus (2009) Le Corbusier: Elements of A Synthesis, Rotterdam, 010 Publishers. Weber, Nicholas Fox (2008) Le Corbusier: A Life, Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-375-41043-0. External links Library resources about Le Corbusier Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Le Corbusier Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to Le Corbusier. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier architectural drawings, 1935–1961. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University. Fondation Le Corbusier Archived 26 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine – Official site Projects by Le Corbusier – ArchDaily Le Corbusier's Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Le Corbusier' Plummer, Henry. Cosmos of Light: The Sacred Architecture of Le Corbusier. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013. "Le Corbusier and the Sun". solarhousehistory.com. 28 October 2013. vteLe CorbusierPrivate houses Villa Fallet Villa Jeanneret-Perret Villa Savoye Villa Schwob Villa Le Lac Planeix House Villa Cook Maison Guiette/Les Peupliers Villa Stein Curutchet House Maisons Jaoul Villa Sarabhai Villa Shodhan Other buildings Tsentrosoyuz building Notre Dame du Haut National Museum of Western Art Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts Open Hand Monument Pavillon de l'Esprit Nouveau Pavillon Suisse Immeuble Clarté Immeuble Molitor Cabanon de vacances Mill Owners' Association Building United Nations Secretariat Building Sanskar Kendra Museum Museum and Art Gallery Secretariat Building Palace of Assembly Baghdad Gymnasium Maison du Brésil Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy Firminy-Vert Stadium Complexe du Capitole Couvent Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette Maison de la Culture de Firminy Usine Claude et Duval Unbuilt Governor's Palace Palace of the Soviets Plan Voisin Ville Contemporaine Villa Meyer Ville Radieuse Housing systems Maisons de la Weissenhof-Siedlung Butterfly roof Dom-Ino House Le Corbusier's Five Points of Architecture Cité Frugès de Pessac Cité du Refuge Unité d'habitation Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé Unité d'Habitation of Berlin Unité d'Habitation of Briey Unité d'Habitation of Firminy-Vert Furniture Chaise Longue LC4 Grand Confort Le Corbusier's Furniture Paintings and poems Poem of the Right Angle (1947–1953) Books Toward an Architecture (1923) Museums Pavillon Le Corbusier Villa La Roche Related Fondation Le Corbusier Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne List of Le Corbusier buildings The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier Modulor Palace of Ministry of National Education and Public Health Philips Pavilion Purism United Nations headquarters The Price of Desire (2014 film) People Eileen Gray Amédée Ozenfant Pierre Jeanneret Auguste Perret Adolf Loos Charlotte Perriand Commons Wikinews Wikiquote vteTime 100: The Most Important People of the 20th CenturyLeaders & revolutionaries David Ben-Gurion Winston Churchill Mahatma Gandhi Mikhail Gorbachev Adolf Hitler Ho Chi Minh Pope John Paul II Ruhollah Khomeini Martin Luther King Jr. Vladimir Lenin Nelson Mandela Mao Zedong Ronald Reagan Eleanor Roosevelt Franklin D. Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Margaret Sanger Margaret Thatcher Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel Lech Wałęsa Artists & entertainers Louis Armstrong Lucille Ball The Beatles Marlon Brando Coco Chanel Charlie Chaplin Le Corbusier Bob Dylan T. S. Eliot Aretha Franklin Martha Graham Jim Henson James Joyce Pablo Picasso Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein Bart Simpson Frank Sinatra Steven Spielberg Igor Stravinsky Oprah Winfrey Builders & titans Stephen Bechtel Sr. Leo Burnett Willis Carrier Walt Disney Henry Ford Bill Gates Amadeo Giannini Ray Kroc Estée Lauder William Levitt Lucky Luciano Louis B. Mayer Charles E. Merrill Akio Morita Walter Reuther Pete Rozelle David Sarnoff Juan Trippe Sam Walton Thomas J. Watson Jr. Scientists & thinkers Leo Baekeland Tim Berners-Lee Rachel Carson Albert Einstein Philo Farnsworth Enrico Fermi Alexander Fleming Sigmund Freud Robert H. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Jeanneret (politician)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Jeanneret_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Corbusier (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbusier_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"/lə kɔːrˈbjuːzieɪ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"lə kor-BEW-zee-ay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"/lə ˌkɔːrbuːˈzjeɪ, -ˈsjeɪ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"lə KOR-boo-ZYAY, -⁠SYAY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[lə kɔʁbyzje]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"urban planner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planner"},{"link_name":"modern architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"Viollet-le-Duc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"urban planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning"},{"link_name":"Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Architectural_Work_of_Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism"},{"link_name":"antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism"},{"link_name":"eugenics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"\"Charles Jeanneret\" redirects here. For the Australian politician, see Charles Jeanneret (politician).\"Corbusier\" redirects here. For other uses of the term, see Corbusier (disambiguation).Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (6 October 1887 – 27 August 1965), known as Le Corbusier (UK: /lə kɔːrˈbjuːzieɪ/ lə kor-BEW-zee-ay,[2] US: /lə ˌkɔːrbuːˈzjeɪ, -ˈsjeɪ/ lə KOR-boo-ZYAY, -⁠SYAY,[3][4] French: [lə kɔʁbyzje]),[5] was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner and writer, who was one of the pioneers of what is now regarded as modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and acquired French nationality by naturalization on 19 September 1930.[6] His career spanned five decades, in which he designed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, as well as North and South America.[7] He considered that \"the roots of modern architecture are to be found in Viollet-le-Duc\".[8]Dedicated to providing better living conditions for the residents of crowded cities, Le Corbusier was influential in urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). Le Corbusier prepared the master plan for the city of Chandigarh in India, and contributed specific designs for several buildings there, especially the government buildings.On 17 July 2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement.[9]Le Corbusier remains a controversial figure. Some of his urban planning ideas have been criticized for their indifference to pre-existing cultural sites, societal expression and equality, and his alleged ties with fascism, antisemitism, eugenics,[10] and the dictator Benito Mussolini have resulted in some continuing contention.[11][12][13][14]Le Corbusier also designed well-known furniture such as the LC4 Chaise Lounge Chair, and the ALC-3001 chair, both made of leather with metal framing.","title":"Le Corbusier"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret),_1920,_Still_Life,_oil_on_canvas,_80.9_x_99.7_cm,_Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg"},{"link_name":"Museum of Modern Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"La Chaux-de-Fonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Chaux-de-Fonds"},{"link_name":"Neuchâtel canton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Romandie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romandie"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Belgians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"surname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surname"},{"link_name":"pseudonym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonym"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201532-16"},{"link_name":"Fröbelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Fr%C3%B6bel"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Jura Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_Mountains"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Watch Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch_Valley"},{"link_name":"Masonic lodge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonic_lodge"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"Frank Lloyd Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Charles L'Eplattenier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_L%27Eplattenier"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201532-16"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret), 1920, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 80.9 cm × 99.7 cm (31.9 in × 39.3 in), Museum of Modern Art, New YorkCharles-Édouard Jeanneret was born on 6 October 1887 in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a city in the Neuchâtel canton in the Romandie region of Switzerland. His ancestors included Belgians with the surname Lecorbésier, which inspired the pseudonym Le Corbusier which he would adopt as an adult.[15] His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, and his mother taught piano. His elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist.[16] He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods.[17][18][19]Located in the Jura Mountains 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across the border from France, La Chaux-de-Fonds was a burgeoning city at the heart of the Watch Valley. Its culture was influenced by the Loge L'Amitié, a Masonic lodge upholding moral, social, and philosophical ideas symbolized by the right angle (rectitude) and the compass (exactitude). Le Corbusier would later describe these as \"my guide, my choice\" and as \"time-honored ideas, ingrained and deep-rooted in the intellect, like entries from a catechism.\"[7]Like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier lacked formal training as an architect. He was attracted to the visual arts; at the age of fifteen, he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the higher course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris. Le Corbusier wrote later that L'Eplattenier had made him \"a man of the woods\" and taught him about painting from nature.[16] His father frequently took him into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, \"we were constantly on mountaintops; we grew accustomed to a vast horizon.\"[20] His architecture teacher in the Art School was architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest house designs. He reported later that it was the art teacher L'Eplattenier who made him choose architecture. \"I had a horror of architecture and architects,\" he wrote. \"...I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. I moved into architecture.\"[21]","title":"Early life (1887–1904)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cdffallet.jpg"},{"link_name":"Villa Fallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fallet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maison_blanche_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Villa_Favre-Jacot_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Le Locle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Locle"},{"link_name":"Villa Fallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fallet"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201549-22"},{"link_name":"Gustav Klimt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Klimt"},{"link_name":"Josef Hoffmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Hoffmann"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201548-23"},{"link_name":"Florence Charterhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Charterhouse"},{"link_name":"Galluzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galluzzo"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Auguste Perret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Perret"},{"link_name":"concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete"},{"link_name":"Art Deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco"},{"link_name":"Théâtre des Champs-Élysées","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es"},{"link_name":"Peter Behrens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Behrens"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Walter Gropius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gropius"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201532%E2%80%9333-25"},{"link_name":"August Klipstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=August_Klipstein&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans"},{"link_name":"Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii"},{"link_name":"Parthenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon"},{"link_name":"Vers une architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_an_Architecture"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201532%E2%80%9333-25"},{"link_name":"Le Locle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Locle"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201548%E2%80%939-27"}],"text":"Le Corbusier's student project, the Villa Fallet, a chalet in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (1905)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe \"Maison Blanche\", built for Le Corbusier's parents in La Chaux-de-Fonds (1912)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Villa Favre-Jacot in Le Locle, Switzerland (1912)Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, visiting museums, sketching buildings, and constructing them. In 1905, he and two other students, under the supervision of their teacher, René Chapallaz, designed and built his first house, the Villa Fallet, for the engraver Louis Fallet, a friend of his teacher Charles L'Eplattenier. Located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds, it was a large chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style and carefully crafted coloured geometric patterns on the façade. The success of this house led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area.[22]In September 1907, he made his first trip outside of Switzerland, going to Italy; then that winter travelling through Budapest to Vienna, where he stayed for four months and met Gustav Klimt and tried, without success, to meet Josef Hoffmann.[23] In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made a lifelong impression on him. \"I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells,\" he wrote later. \"It was the solution for a unique kind of worker's housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise.\"[24] He travelled to Paris, and for fourteen months between 1908 and 1910 he worked as a draftsman in the office of the architect Auguste Perret, the pioneer of the use of reinforced concrete in residential construction and the architect of the Art Deco landmark Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. Two years later, between October 1910 and March 1911, he travelled to Germany and worked for four months in the office Peter Behrens, where Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius were also working and learning.[25]In 1911, he travelled again with his friend August Klipstein for five months;[26] this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome, filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work Vers une architecture (1923). He spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage d'Orient.[25]In 1912, he began his most ambitious project: a new house for his parents, also located on the forested hillside near La-Chaux-de-Fonds. The Jeanneret-Perret house was larger than the others, and in a more innovative style; the horizontal planes contrasted dramatically with the steep alpine slopes, and the white walls and lack of decoration were in sharp contrast with the other buildings on the hillside. The interior spaces were organized around the four pillars of the salon in the centre, foretelling the open interiors he would create in his later buildings. The project was more expensive to build than he imagined; his parents were forced to move from the house within ten years and relocate to a more modest house. However, it led to a commission to build an even more imposing villa in the nearby village of Le Locle for a wealthy watch manufacturer, Georges Favre-Jacot. Le Corbusier designed the new house in less than a month. The building was carefully designed to fit its hillside site, and the interior plan was spacious and designed around a courtyard for maximum light, a significant departure from the traditional house.[27]","title":"Travel and first houses (1905–1914)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret_(Le_Corbusier),_1914-15,_Maison_Dom-Ino.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maison Dom-Ino (Dom-ino House)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom-ino_House"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Choay-28"},{"link_name":"Auguste Perret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Perret"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Dom-Ino House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom-ino_House"},{"link_name":"reinforced concrete columns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_column"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tim_Benton-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CF05.jpg"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201550%E2%80%9351-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201550-34"}],"text":"Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, 1914–15, Maison Dom-Ino (Dom-ino House)During World War I, Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds. He concentrated on theoretical architectural studies using modern techniques.[28] In December 1914, along with the engineer Max Dubois, he began a serious study of the use of reinforced concrete as a building material. He had first discovered concrete working in the office of Auguste Perret, the pioneer of reinforced concrete architecture in Paris, but now wanted to use it in new ways.\"Reinforced concrete provided me with incredible resources,\" he wrote later, \"and variety, and a passionate plasticity in which by themselves my structures will be the rhythm of a palace, and a Pompieen tranquillity.\"[29] This led him to his plan for the Dom-Ino House (1914–15). This model proposed an open floor plan consisting of three concrete slabs supported by six thin reinforced concrete columns, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan.[30] The system was originally designed to provide large numbers of temporary residences after World War I, producing only slabs, columns and stairways, and residents could build exterior walls with the materials around the site. He described it in his patent application as \"a juxtiposable system of construction according to an infinite number of combinations of plans. This would permit, he wrote, \"the construction of the dividing walls at any point on the façade or the interior.\"The Anatole Schwob House in La-Chaux-de-Fonds (1916–1918)Under this system, the structure of the house did not have to appear on the outside but could be hidden behind a glass wall, and the interior could be arranged in any way the architect liked.[31] After it was patented, Le Corbusier designed several houses according to the system, which was all white concrete boxes. Although some of these were never built, they illustrated his basic architectural ideas which would dominate his works throughout the 1920s. He refined the idea in his 1927 book on the Five Points of a New Architecture. This design, which called for the disassociation of the structure from the walls, and the freedom of plans and façades, became the foundation for most of his architecture over the next ten years.[32]In August 1916, Le Corbusier received his largest commission ever, to construct a villa for the Swiss watchmaker Anatole Schwob, for whom he had already completed several small remodelling projects. He was given a large budget and the freedom to design not only the house but also to create the interior decoration and choose the furniture. Following the precepts of Auguste Perret, he built the structure out of reinforced concrete and filled the gaps with brick. The centre of the house is a large concrete box with two semicolumn structures on both sides, which reflects his ideas of pure geometrical forms. A large open hall with a chandelier occupied the centre of the building. \"You can see,\" he wrote to Auguste Perret in July 1916, \"that Auguste Perret left more in me than Peter Behrens.\"[33]Le Corbusier's grand ambitions collided with the ideas and budget of his client and led to bitter conflicts. Schwob went to court and denied Le Corbusier access to the site, or the right to claim to be the architect. Le Corbusier responded, \"Whether you like it or not, my presence is inscribed in every corner of your house.\" Le Corbusier took great pride in the house and reproduced pictures in several of his books.[34]","title":"Dom-ino House and Schwob House (1914–1918)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Corbusier,_1921,_Nature_morte,_oil_on_canvas,_54_x_81_cm,_Mus%C3%A9e_National_d%27Art_Moderne.jpg"},{"link_name":"Musée National d'Art Moderne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_National_d%27Art_Moderne"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles_Edouard_Jeanneret),_1922,_Nature_morte_verticale_(Vertical_Still_Life),_oil_on_canvas,_146.3_x_89.3_cm,_Kunstmuseum,_Basel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kunstmuseum Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret),_1920,_Guitare_verticale_(2%C3%A8me_version),_oil_on_canvas,_100_x_81_cm,_Fondation_Le_Corbusier,_Paris.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pierre Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jeanneret"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Cubist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism"},{"link_name":"Amédée Ozenfant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Ozenfant"},{"link_name":"Purism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purism_(arts)"},{"link_name":"L'Esprit Nouveau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Esprit_Nouveau"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Choay-28"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Perriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Perriand"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Union des artistes modernes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_des_artistes_modernes"},{"link_name":"Citroën","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citro%C3%ABn"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Le Corbusier, 1921, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 54 x 81 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, ParisLe Corbusier, 1922, Nature morte verticale (Vertical Still Life), oil on canvas, 146.3 cm × 89.3 cm (57.6 by 35.2 inches), Kunstmuseum BaselLe Corbusier, 1920, Guitare verticale (2ème version), oil on canvas, 100 cm × 81 cm (39 in × 32 in), Fondation Le Corbusier, ParisLe Corbusier moved to Paris definitively in 1917 and began his architectural practise with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), a partnership that would last until the 1950s, with an interruption in the World War II years.[35]In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognised a kindred spirit. Ozenfant encouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and \"romantic\", the pair jointly published their manifesto, Après le cubisme and established a new artistic movement, Purism. Ozenfant and Le Corbusier began writing for a new journal, L'Esprit Nouveau, and promoted with energy and imagination his ideas of architecture.In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier (an altered form of his maternal grandfather's name, Lecorbésier) as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent themselves.[36][37] Adopting a single name to identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially in Paris.Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier did not build anything, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, he and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres.[28]\nThey set up an architectural practice together. From 1927 to 1937 they worked together with Charlotte Perriand at the Le Corbusier-Pierre Jeanneret studio.[38] In 1929 the trio prepared the \"House fittings\" section for the Decorative Artists Exhibition and asked for a group stand, renewing and widening the 1928 avant-garde group idea. This was refused by the Decorative Artists Committee. They resigned and founded the Union of Modern Artists (\"Union des artistes modernes\": UAM).His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models. Among these, was the Maison \"Citrohan.\" The project's name was a reference to the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods and materials, Le Corbusier advocated using in the house's construction as well as how he intended the homes would be consumed, similar to other commercial products, like the automobile.[39]As part of the Maison Citrohan model, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with a double-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor. The roof would be occupied by a sun terrace. On the exterior, Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access from the ground level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large uninterrupted banks of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled by windows but left as white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with any movable furniture made of tubular metal frames. Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior walls also were left white.","title":"Painting, Cubism, Purism and L'Esprit Nouveau (1918–1922)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ville Contemporaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Contemporaine"},{"link_name":"Towards an Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_an_Architecture"},{"link_name":"zeppelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeppelin"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Corbusier19231%E2%80%93150-40"}],"text":"In 1922 and 1923, Le Corbusier devoted himself to advocating his new concepts of architecture and urban planning in a series of polemical articles published in L'Esprit Nouveau. At the Paris Salon d'Automne in 1922, he presented his plan for the Ville Contemporaine, a model city for three million people, whose residents would live and work in a group of identical sixty-story tall apartment buildings surrounded by lower zig-zag apartment blocks and a large park. In 1923, he collected his essays from L'Esprit Nouveau published his first and most influential book, Towards an Architecture. He presented his ideas for the future of architecture in a series of maxims, declarations, and exhortations, pronouncing that \"a grand epoch has just begun. There exists a new spirit. There already exist a crowd of works in the new spirit, they are found especially in industrial production. Architecture is suffocating in its current uses. \"Styles\" are a lie. Style is a unity of principles which animates all the work of a period and which result in a characteristic spirit...Our epoch determines each day its style..-Our eyes, unfortunately, don't know how to see it yet,\" and his most famous maxim, \"A house is a machine to live in.\" Most of the many photographs and drawings in the book came from outside the world of traditional architecture; the cover showed the promenade deck of an ocean liner, while others showed racing cars, aeroplanes, factories, and the huge concrete and steel arches of zeppelin hangars.[40]","title":"Toward an Architecture (1920–1923)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pavillon_L%27Esprit_Nouveau.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_Voisin_model.jpg"},{"link_name":"Plan Voisin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_Voisin"},{"link_name":"International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts"},{"link_name":"Art Deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco"},{"link_name":"Amédée Ozenfant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Ozenfant"},{"link_name":"Cubism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism"},{"link_name":"Purism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purism"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArwas199246-41"},{"link_name":"Grand Palais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Palais"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArwas199246-41"},{"link_name":"Plan Voisin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_Voisin"},{"link_name":"Taylorism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management"},{"link_name":"Fordism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordism"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArwas199249-42"}],"text":"The Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau (1925)The model of the Plan Voisin for the reconstruction of Paris displayed at the Pavilion of the Esprit NouveauAn important early work of Le Corbusier was the Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, built for the 1925 Paris International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, the event which later gave Art Deco its name. Le Corbusier built the pavilion in collaboration with Amédée Ozenfant and with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Le Corbusier and Ozenfant had broken with Cubism and formed the Purism movement in 1918 and in 1920 founded their journal L'Esprit Nouveau. In his new journal, Le Corbusier vividly denounced the decorative arts: \"Decorative Art, as opposed to the machine phenomenon, is the final twitch of the old manual modes, a dying thing.\" To illustrate his ideas, he and Ozenfant decided to create a small pavilion at the Exposition, representing his idea of the future urban housing unit. A house, he wrote, \"is a cell within the body of a city. The cell is made up of the vital elements which are the mechanics of a house...Decorative art is antistandardizational. Our pavilion will contain only standard things created by industry in factories and mass-produced, objects truly of the style of today...my pavilion will therefore be a cell extracted from a huge apartment building.\"[41]Le Corbusier and his collaborators were given a plot of land located behind the Grand Palais in the centre of the Exposition. The plot was forested, and exhibitors could not cut down trees, so Le Corbusier built his pavilion with a tree in the centre, emerging through a hole in the roof. The building was a stark white box with an interior terrace and square glass windows. The interior was decorated with a few cubist paintings and a few pieces of mass-produced commercially available furniture, entirely different from the expensive one-of-a-kind pieces in the other pavilions. The chief organizers of the Exposition were furious and built a fence to partially hide the pavilion. Le Corbusier had to appeal to the Ministry of Fine Arts, which ordered that fence be taken down.[41]Besides the furniture, the pavilion exhibited a model of his 'Plan Voisin', his provocative plan for rebuilding a large part of the centre of Paris. He proposed to bulldoze a large area north of the Seine and replace the narrow streets, monuments and houses with giant sixty-story cruciform towers placed within an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space. His scheme was met with criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists, although they were favourable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying his designs. The plan was never seriously considered, but it provoked discussion concerning how to deal with the overcrowded poor working-class neighbourhoods of Paris, and it later saw the partial realization in the housing developments built in the Paris suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s.The Pavilion was ridiculed by many critics, but Le Corbusier, undaunted, wrote: \"Right now one thing is sure. 1925 marks the decisive turning point in the quarrel between the old and new. After 1925, the antique-lovers will have virtually ended their lives . . . Progress is achieved through experimentation; the decision will be awarded on the field of battle of the 'new'.\"[42]","title":"L'Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Corbusier98-46"},{"link_name":"Adolf Loos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Loos"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Corbusier192570%E2%80%9381-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Corbusier192570%E2%80%9381-47"},{"link_name":"Bevis Hillier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevis_Hillier"},{"link_name":"Art Deco of the 20s and 30s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco_of_the_20s_and_30s"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"In 1925, Le Corbusier combined a series of articles about decorative art from \"L'Esprit Nouveau\" into a book, L'art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Art of Today).[43][44] The book was a spirited attack on the very idea of decorative art. His basic premise, repeated throughout the book, was: \"Modern decorative art has no decoration.\"[45] He attacked with enthusiasm the styles presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts: \"The desire to decorate everything about one is a false spirit and an abominable small perversion....The religion of beautiful materials is in its final death agony...The almost hysterical onrush in recent years toward this quasi-orgy of decor is only the last spasm of a death already predictable.\"[46] He cited the 1912 book of the Austrian architect Adolf Loos \"Ornament and crime\", and quoted Loos's dictum, \"The more a people are cultivated, the more decor disappears.\" He attacked the deco revival of classical styles, what he called \"Louis Philippe and Louis XVI moderne\"; he condemned the \"symphony of color\" at the Exposition, and called it \"the triumph of assemblers of colors and materials. They were swaggering in colors... They were making stews out of fine cuisine.\" He condemned the exotic styles presented at the Exposition based on the art of China, Japan, India and Persia. \"It takes energy today to affirm our western styles.\" He criticized the \"precious and useless objects that accumulated on the shelves\" in the new style. He attacked the \"rustling silks, the marbles which twist and turn, the vermilion whiplashes, the silver blades of Byzantium and the Orient...Let's be done with it!\"[47]\"Why call bottles, chairs, baskets and objects decorative?\" Le Corbusier asked. \"They are useful tools....The decor is not necessary. Art is necessary.\" He declared that in the future the decorative arts industry would produce only \"objects which are perfectly useful, convenient, and have a true luxury which pleases our spirit by their elegance and the purity of their execution and the efficiency of their services. This rational perfection and precise determinate creates the link sufficient to recognize a style.\" He described the future of decoration in these terms: \"The idea is to go work in the superb office of a modern factory, rectangular and well-lit, painted in white Ripolin (a major French paint manufacturer); where healthy activity and laborious optimism reign.\" He concluded by repeating \"Modern decoration has no decoration\".[47]The book became a manifesto for those who opposed the more traditional styles of the decorative arts; In the 1930s, as Le Corbusier predicted, the modernized versions of Louis Philippe and Louis XVI furniture and the brightly coloured wallpapers of stylized roses were replaced by a more sober, more streamlined style. Gradually the modernism and functionality proposed by Le Corbusier overtook the more ornamental style. The shorthand titles that Le Corbusier used in the book, 1925 Expo: Arts Deco were adapted in 1966 by the art historian Bevis Hillier for a catalogue of an exhibition on the style, and in 1968 in the title of a book, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s. And thereafter the term \"Art Deco\" was commonly used as the name of the style.[48]","title":"The Decorative Art of Today (1925)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fondation Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_Le_Corbusier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Weissenhofsiedlung.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"Poissy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poissy"},{"link_name":"Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_La_Roche"},{"link_name":"Fondation Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"Maison Guiette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_Guiette"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp"},{"link_name":"Jacques Lipchitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lipchitz"},{"link_name":"Maison Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_Cook"},{"link_name":"Maison Planeix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_Planeix"},{"link_name":"Werkbund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund"},{"link_name":"Stuttgart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201537-49"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"Poissy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poissy"},{"link_name":"Vers une architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_an_Architecture"},{"link_name":"pilotis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piloti"},{"link_name":"open floor plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_plan"},{"link_name":"roof garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_garden"},{"link_name":"promenade architecturale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promenade_architecturale"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201283-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201283-50"}],"text":"The Villa La Roche-Jeanneret (now Fondation Le Corbusier) in Paris (1923)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCorbusier Haus (right) and Citrohan Haus in Weissenhof, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Villa Savoye in Poissy (1928–1931)The notoriety that Le Corbusier achieved from his writings and the Pavilion at the 1925 Exposition led to commissions to build a dozen residences in Paris and the Paris region in his \"purist style.\" These included the Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret (1923–1925), which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier; the Maison Guiette in Antwerp, Belgium (1926); a residence for Jacques Lipchitz; the Maison Cook, and the Maison Planeix. In 1927, he was invited by the German Werkbund to build three houses in the model city of Weissenhof near Stuttgart, based on the Citroen House and other theoretical models he had published. He described this project in detail in one of his best-known essays, the Five Points of Architecture.[49]The following year he began the Villa Savoye (1928–1931), which became one of the most famous of Le Corbusier's works, and an icon of modernist architecture. Located in Poissy, in a landscape surrounded by trees and a large lawn, the house is an elegant white box poised on rows of slender pylons, surrounded by a horizontal band of windows which fill the structure with light. The service areas (parking, rooms for servants and laundry room) are located under the house. Visitors enter a vestibule from which a gentle ramp leads to the house itself. The bedrooms and salons of the house are distributed around a suspended garden; the rooms look both out at the landscape and into the garden, which provides additional light and air. Another ramp leads up to the roof, and a stairway leads down to the cellar under the pillars.Villa Savoye succinctly summed up the five points of architecture that he had elucidated in L'Esprit Nouveau and the book Vers une architecture, which he had been developing throughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by pilotis, reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate his next two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and an open floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supporting walls. The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding garden, which constitute the fourth point of his system. The fifth point was the roof garden to compensate for the green area consumed by the building and replace it on the roof. A ramp rising from ground level to the third-floor roof terrace allows for a promenade architecturale through the structure. The white tubular railing recalls the industrial \"ocean-liner\" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired.Le Corbusier was quite rhapsodic when describing the house in Précisions in 1930: \"the plan is pure, exactly made for the needs of the house. It has its correct place in the rustic landscape of Poissy. It is Poetry and lyricism, supported by technique.\"[50] The house had its problems; the roof persistently leaked, due to construction faults; but it became a landmark of modern architecture and one of the best-known works of Le Corbusier.[50]","title":"Five Points of Architecture to Villa Savoye (1923–1931)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"League of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015116-51"}],"text":"Thanks to his passionate articles in L'Esprit Nouveau, his participation in the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition and the conferences he gave on the new spirit of architecture, Le Corbusier had become well known in the architectural world, though he had only built residences for wealthy clients. In 1926, he entered the competition for the construction of a headquarters for the League of Nations in Geneva with a plan for an innovative lakeside complex of modernist white concrete office buildings and meeting halls. There were 337 projects in competition. It appeared that the Corbusier's project was the first choice of the architectural jury, but after much behind-the-scenes manoeuvring, the jury declared it was unable to pick a single winner, and the project was given instead to the top five architects, who were all neoclassicists. Le Corbusier was not discouraged; he presented his plans to the public in articles and lectures to show the opportunity that the League of Nations had missed.[51]","title":"League of Nations Competition and Pessac Housing Project (1926–1930)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cité Frugès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_Frug%C3%A8s_de_Pessac"},{"link_name":"Pessac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessac"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bordeaux"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"The Cité Frugès","text":"In 1926, Le Corbusier received the opportunity he had been looking for; he was commissioned by a Bordeaux industrialist, Henry Frugès, a fervent admirer of his ideas on urban planning, to build a complex of worker housing, the Cité Frugès, at Pessac, a suburb of Bordeaux. Le Corbusier described Pessac as \"A little like a Balzac novel\", a chance to create a whole community for living and working. The Fruges quarter became his first laboratory for residential housing; a series of rectangular blocks composed of modular housing units located in a garden setting. Like the unit displayed at the 1925 Exposition, each housing unit had its own small terrace. The earlier villas he constructed all had white exterior walls, but for Pessac, at the request of his clients, he added colour; panels of brown, yellow and jade green, coordinated by Le Corbusier. Originally planned to have some two hundred units, it finally contained about fifty to seventy housing units, in eight buildings. Pessac became the model on a small scale for his later and much larger Cité Radieuse projects.[52]","title":"League of Nations Competition and Pessac Housing Project (1926–1930)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Weissenhof Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate"},{"link_name":"Stuttgart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne"},{"link_name":"Lake Leman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Leman"},{"link_name":"Robert Mallet-Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mallet-Stevens"},{"link_name":"Auguste Perret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Perret"},{"link_name":"Pierre Chareau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Chareau"},{"link_name":"Tony Garnier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Garnier_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Victor Bourgeois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Bourgeois"},{"link_name":"Walter Gropius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gropius"},{"link_name":"Erich Mendelsohn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn"},{"link_name":"Ernst May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_May"},{"link_name":"Josef Frank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Frank_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Mart Stam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mart_Stam"},{"link_name":"Gerrit Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"Adolf Loos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Loos"},{"link_name":"Josep Lluís Sert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josep_Llu%C3%ADs_Sert"},{"link_name":"Alvar Aalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvar_Aalto"},{"link_name":"Athens Charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens_Charter"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201284%E2%80%9385-53"}],"text":"In 1928, Le Corbusier took a major step toward establishing modernist architecture as the dominant European style. Le Corbusier had met with many of the leading German and Austrian modernists during the competition for the League of Nations in 1927. In the same year, the German Werkbund organized an architectural exposition at the Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart. Seventeen leading modernist architects in Europe were invited to design twenty-one houses; Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe played a major part. In 1927 Le Corbusier, Pierre Chareau and others proposed the foundation of an international conference to establish the basis for a common style. The first meeting of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne or International Congresses of Modern Architects (CIAM), was held in a château on Lake Leman in Switzerland 26–28 June 1928. Those attending included Le Corbusier, Robert Mallet-Stevens, Auguste Perret, Pierre Chareau and Tony Garnier from France; Victor Bourgeois from Belgium; Walter Gropius, Erich Mendelsohn, Ernst May and Mies van der Rohe from Germany; Josef Frank from Austria; Mart Stam and Gerrit Rietveld from the Netherlands, and Adolf Loos from Czechoslovakia. A delegation of Soviet architects was invited to attend, but they were unable to obtain visas. Later members included Josep Lluís Sert of Spain and Alvar Aalto of Finland. No one attended from the United States. A second meeting was organized in 1930 in Brussels by Victor Bourgeois on the topic \"Rational methods for groups of habitations\". A third meeting, on \"The functional city\", was scheduled for Moscow in 1932, but was cancelled at the last minute. Instead, the delegates held their meeting on a cruise ship travelling between Marseille and Athens. On board, they together drafted a text on how modern cities should be organized. The text, called The Athens Charter, after considerable editing by Le Corbusier and others, was finally published in 1943 and became an influential text for city planners in the 1950s and 1960s. The group met once more in Paris in 1937 to discuss public housing and was scheduled to meet in the United States in 1939, but the meeting was cancelled because of the war. The legacy of the CIAM was a roughly common style and doctrine which helped define modern architecture in Europe and the United States after World War II.[53]","title":"Founding of CIAM (1928) and Athens Charter"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Centrosoyuz_Moscow_-_Ak_Sakharova_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tsentrosoyuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsentrosoyuz_building"},{"link_name":"Konstantin Melnikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov"},{"link_name":"Tsentrosoyuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsentrosoyuz_building"},{"link_name":"Palace of the Soviets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_the_Soviets"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Christ the Saviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015128-54"}],"sub_title":"Moscow projects (1928–1934)","text":"Building of the Tsentrosoyuz, headquarters of Soviet trade unions, Moscow (1928–34)Le Corbusier saw the new society founded in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution as a promising laboratory for his architectural ideas. He met the Russian architect Konstantin Melnikov during the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and admired the construction of Melnikov's constructivist USSR pavilion, the only truly modernist building in the Exposition other than his own Esprit Nouveau pavilion. At Melnikov's invitation, he travelled to Moscow, where he found that his writings had been published in Russian; he gave lectures and interviews and between 1928 and 1932 he constructed an office building for the Tsentrosoyuz, the headquarters of Soviet trade unions.In 1932, he was invited to take part in an international competition for the new Palace of the Soviets in Moscow, which was to be built on the site of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, demolished on Stalin's orders. Le Corbusier contributed a highly original plan, a low-level complex of circular and rectangular buildings and a rainbow-like arch from which the roof of the main meeting hall was suspended. To Le Corbusier's distress, his plan was rejected by Stalin in favour of a plan for a massive neoclassical tower, the highest in Europe, crowned with a statue of Vladimir Lenin. The Palace was never built; construction was stopped by World War II, a swimming pool took its place, and after the collapse of the USSR the cathedral was rebuilt on its original site.[54]","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geneve_immeuble_Clarte_2011-08-02_13_55_36_PICT3664.JPG"},{"link_name":"Immeuble Clarté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immeuble_Clart%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Le Pradet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Pradet"},{"link_name":"Champs-Élysées","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es"},{"link_name":"Pont d'Austerlitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont_d%27Austerlitz"},{"link_name":"Cité de Refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_de_Refuge"},{"link_name":"Cité Universitaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_Universitaire"},{"link_name":"Immeuble Clarté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immeuble_Clart%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Bois de Boulogne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bois_de_Boulogne"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015210-55"}],"sub_title":"Cité Universitaire, Immeuble Clarté and Cité de Refuge (1928–1933)","text":"The Immeuble Clarté in Geneva (1930–1932)Between 1928 and 1934, as Le Corbusier's reputation grew, he received commissions to construct a wide variety of buildings. In 1928 he received a commission from the Soviet government to construct the headquarters of the Tsentrosoyuz, or central office of trade unions, a large office building whose glass walls alternated with plaques of stone. He built the Villa de Madrot in Le Pradet (1929–1931); and an apartment in Paris for Charles de Bestigui at the top of an existing building on the Champs-Élysées 1929–1932, (later demolished). In 1929–1930 he constructed a floating homeless shelter for the Salvation Army on the left bank of the Seine at the Pont d'Austerlitz. Between 1929 and 1933, he built a larger and more ambitious project for the Salvation Army, the Cité de Refuge, on rue Cantagrel in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. He also constructed the Swiss Pavilion in the Cité Universitaire in Paris with 46 units of student housing, (1929–33). He designed furniture to go with the building; the main salon was decorated with a montage of black-and-white photographs of nature. In 1948, he replaced this with a colourful mural he painted himself. In Geneva, he built a glass-walled apartment building with 45 units, the Immeuble Clarté. Between 1931 and 1945 he built an apartment building with fifteen units, including an apartment and studio for himself on the 6th and 7th floors, at 24 rue Nungesser-et-Coli in the 16th arrondissement in Paris. overlooking the Bois de Boulogne.[55] His apartment and studio are owned today by the Fondation Le Corbusier and can be visited.","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unité d'habitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27habitation"},{"link_name":"Ville Radieuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Radieuse"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel201598-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015100-57"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015218-59"},{"link_name":"Louis Loucheur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Loucheur"},{"link_name":"square feet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_foot"}],"sub_title":"Ville Contemporaine, Plan Voisin and Cité Radieuse (1922–1939)","text":"See also: Unité d'habitation and Ville RadieuseAs the global Great Depression enveloped Europe, Le Corbusier devoted more and more time to his ideas for urban design and planned cities. He believed that his new, modern architectural forms would provide an organizational solution that would raise the quality of life for the working classes. In 1922 he had presented his model of the Ville Contemporaine, a city of three million inhabitants, at the Salon d'Automne in Paris. His plan featured tall office towers surrounded by lower residential blocks in a park setting. He reported that \"analysis leads to such dimensions, to such a new scale, and to such the creation of an urban organism so different from those that exist, that it that the mind can hardly imagine it.\"[56] The Ville Contemporaine, presenting an imaginary city in an imaginary location, did not attract the attention that Le Corbusier wanted. For his next proposal, the Plan Voisin (1925), he took a much more provocative approach; he proposed to demolish a large part of central Paris and replace it with a group of sixty-story cruciform office towers surrounded by parkland. This idea shocked most viewers, as it was certainly intended to do. The plan included a multi-level transportation hub that included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections, and an airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and created an elaborate road network. Groups of lower-rise zigzag apartment blocks, set back from the street, were interspersed among the office towers. Le Corbusier wrote: \"The centre of Paris, currently threatened with death, threatened by exodus, is, in reality, a diamond mine...To abandon the centre of Paris to its fate is to desert in face of the enemy.\" [57]As no doubt Le Corbusier expected, no one hurried to implement the Plan Voisin, but he continued working on variations of the idea and recruiting followers. In 1929, he travelled to Brazil where he gave conferences on his architectural ideas. He returned with drawings of his vision for Rio de Janeiro; he sketched serpentine multi-story apartment buildings on pylons, like inhabited highways, winding through Rio de Janeiro.In 1931, he developed a visionary plan for another city Algiers, then part of France. This plan, like his Rio Janeiro plan, called for the construction of an elevated viaduct of concrete, carrying residential units, which would run from one end of the city to the other. This plan, unlike his early Plan Voisin, was more conservative, because it did not call for the destruction of the old city of Algiers; the residential housing would be over the top of the old city. This plan, like his Paris plans, provoked discussion but never came close to realization.In 1935, Le Corbusier made his first visit to the United States. He was asked by American journalists what he thought about New York City skyscrapers; he responded, characteristically, that he found them \"much too small\".[58] He wrote a book describing his experiences in the States, Quand Les cathédrales étaient blanches, Voyage au pays des timides (When Cathedrals were White; voyage to the land of the timid) whose title expressed his view of the lack of boldness in American architecture.[59]He wrote a great deal but built very little in the late 1930s. The titles of his books expressed the combined urgency and optimism of his messages: Cannons? Munitions? No thank you, Lodging please! (1938) and The lyricism of modern times and urbanism (1939).In 1928, the French Minister of Labour, Louis Loucheur, won the passage of French law on public housing, calling for the construction of 260,000 new housing units within five years. Le Corbusier immediately began to design a new type of modular housing unit, which he called the Maison Loucheur, which would be suitable for the project. These units were forty-five square metres (480 square feet) in size, made with metal frames, and were designed to be mass-produced and then transported to the site, where they would be inserted into frameworks of steel and stone; The government insisted on stone walls to win the support of local building contractors. The standardisation of apartment buildings was the essence of what Le Corbusier termed the Ville Radieuse or \"radiant city\", in a new book published in 1935. The Radiant City was similar to his earlier Contemporary City and Plan Voisin, with the difference that residences would be assigned by family size, rather than by income and social position. In his 1935 book, he developed his ideas for a new kind of city, where the principal functions; heavy industry, manufacturing, habitation and commerce, would be separated into their neighbourhoods, carefully planned and designed. However, before any units could be built, World War II intervened.","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M%C3%B3dulo_de_vivienda_tipo_de_Unit%C3%A9_d%C2%B4Habitation.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cit%C3%A9_radieuse._Int%C3%A9rieur_1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Unité d'Habitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_de_l%27Architecture_et_du_Patrimoine"},{"link_name":"Vichy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy"},{"link_name":"Philippe Petain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Petain"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishman1982244%E2%80%93246-60"},{"link_name":"Alexis Carrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Libe-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015215-62"},{"link_name":"Saint-Dié","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Di%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Rochelle"},{"link_name":"Raoul Dautry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Dautry"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012143-63"},{"link_name":"Florence Charterhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Charterhouse"},{"link_name":"Galluzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galluzzo"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015139-64"},{"link_name":"Légion d'Honneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honour"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015152%E2%80%93158-65"}],"sub_title":"World War II and Reconstruction; Unité d'Habitation in Marseille (1939–1952)","text":"The modular design of the apartments inserted into the building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tInternal \"street\" within the Unité d'Habitation, Marseille (1947–1952)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSalon and Terrace of an original unit of the Unité d'Habitation, now at the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine in Paris (1952)During the War and the German occupation of France, Le Corbusier did his best to promote his architectural projects. He moved to Vichy for a time, where the collaborationist government of Marshal Philippe Petain was located, offering his services for architectural projects, including his plan for the reconstruction of Algiers, but they were rejected. He continued writing, completing Sur les Quatres routes (On the Four Routes) in 1941. After 1942 Le Corbusier left Vichy for Paris.[60] He became for a time a technical adviser at Alexis Carrel's eugenics foundation but resigned on 20 April 1944.[61] In 1943 he founded a new association of modern architects and builders, the Ascoral, the Assembly of Constructors for a renewal of architecture, but there were no projects to build.[62]When the war ended Le Corbusier was nearly sixty years old and he had not had a single project realized for ten years. He tried, without success, to obtain commissions for several of the first large reconstruction projects, but his proposals for the reconstruction of the town of Saint-Dié and for La Rochelle were rejected. Still, he persisted and finally found a willing partner in Raoul Dautry, the new Minister of Reconstruction and Town Planning. Dautry agreed to fund one of his projects, a \"Unité habitation de grandeur conforme\", or housing units of standard size, with the first one to be built in Marseille, which had been heavily damaged during the war.[63]This was his first public commission and was a breakthrough for Le Corbusier. He gave the building the name of his pre-war theoretical project, the Cité Radieuse, and followed the principles that he had studied before the war, proposing a giant reinforced-concrete framework into which modular apartments would fit like bottles into a bottle rack. Like the Villa Savoye, the structure was poised on concrete pylons though, because of the shortage of steel to reinforce the concrete, the pylons were more massive than usual. The building contained 337 duplex apartment modules to house a total of 1,600 people. Each module was three storeys high and contained two apartments, combined so each had two levels (see diagram above). The modules ran from one side of the building to the other and each apartment had a small terrace at each end. They were ingeniously fitted together like pieces of a Chinese puzzle, with a corridor slotted through the space between the two apartments in each module. Residents had a choice of twenty-three different configurations for the units. Le Corbusier designed furniture, carpets and lamps to go with the building, all purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of interior colours. The only mildly decorative features of the building were the ventilator shafts on the roof, which Le Corbusier made to look like the smokestacks of an ocean liner, a functional form that he admired.The building was designed not just to be a residence but to offer all the services needed for living. On every third floor, between the modules, there was a wide corridor, like an interior street, which ran the length of the building. This served as a sort of commercial street, with shops, eating places, a nursery school and recreational facilities. A running track and small stage for theatre performances were located on the roof. The building itself was surrounded by trees and a small park.Le Corbusier wrote later that the Unité d'Habitation concept was inspired by the visit he had made to the Florence Charterhouse at Galluzzo in Italy, in 1907 and 1910 during his early travels. He wanted to recreate, he wrote, an ideal place \"for meditation and contemplation\". He also learned from the monastery, he wrote, that \"standardization led to perfection\", and that \"all of his life a man labours under this impulse: to make the home the temple of the family\". [64]The Unité d'Habitation marked a turning point in the career of Le Corbusier; in 1952, he was made a Commander of the Légion d'Honneur in a ceremony held on the roof of his new building. He had progressed from being an outsider and critic of the architectural establishment to its centre, as the most prominent French architect.[65]","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:67%C2%BA_Per%C3%ADodo_de_Sesiones_de_la_Asamblea_General_de_Naciones_Unidas_(8020913157).jpg"},{"link_name":"headquarters of the United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"Wallace K. Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_K._Harrison"},{"link_name":"Loire-Atlantique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loire-Atlantique"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Briey-en-Forêt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation_of_Briey"},{"link_name":"Firminy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firminy"},{"link_name":"factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usine_Claude_et_Duval"},{"link_name":"Vosges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosges"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"headquarters of the United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"Howard Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Robertson_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Wallace K. Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_K._Harrison"},{"link_name":"General Assembly Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Building"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Postwar projects, United Nations headquarters (1947–1952)","text":"The headquarters of the United Nations designed by Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Wallace K. Harrison (1947–1952)Le Corbusier made another almost identical Unité d'Habitation in Rezé-les-Nantes in the Loire-Atlantique Department between 1948 and 1952, and three more over the following years, in Berlin, Briey-en-Forêt and Firminy; and he designed a factory for the company of Claude and Duval, in Saint-Dié in the Vosges. In the post-Second World War decades, Le Corbusier's fame moved beyond architectural and planning circles as he became one of the leading intellectual figures of the time.[66]In early 1947 Le Corbusier submitted a design for the headquarters of the United Nations, which was to be built beside the East River in New York. Instead of competition, the design was to be selected by a Board of Design Consultants composed of leading international architects nominated by member governments, including Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil, Howard Robertson from Britain, Nikolai Bassov of the Soviet Union, and five others from around the world. The committee was under the direction of the American architect Wallace K. Harrison, who was also the architect for the Rockefeller family, which had donated the site for the building.Le Corbusier had submitted his plan for the Secretariat, called Plan 23 of the 58 submitted. In Le Corbusier's plan offices, council chambers and General Assembly Hall were in a single block in the centre of the site. He lobbied hard for his project, and asked the younger Brazilian architect, Niemeyer, to support and assist him with his plan. Niemeyer, to help Le Corbusier, refused to submit his design and did not attend the meetings until the Director, Harrison, insisted. Niemeyer then submitted his plan, Plan 32, with the office building and councils and General Assembly in separate buildings. After much discussion, the Committee chose Niemeyer's plan but suggested that he collaborate with Le Corbusier on the final project. Le Corbusier urged Niemeyer to put the General Assembly Hall in the centre of the site, though this would eliminate Niemeyer's plan to have a large plaza in the centre. Niemeyer agreed with Le Corbusier's suggestion, and the headquarters was built, with minor modifications, according to their joint plan.[67]","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RonchampCorbu.jpg"},{"link_name":"chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_du_Haut"},{"link_name":"Ronchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronchamp"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sainte Marie de La Tourette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EgliseSaintPierreLeCorbusierFirminy.jpg"},{"link_name":"Church of Saint-Pierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Pierre,_Firminy"},{"link_name":"Firminy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firminy"},{"link_name":"chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_du_Haut"},{"link_name":"Ronchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronchamp"},{"link_name":"Sainte Marie de La Tourette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette"},{"link_name":"Marie-Alain Couturier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Alain_Couturier"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Sainte Marie de La Tourette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette"},{"link_name":"L'Arbresle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Arbresle"},{"link_name":"Le Thoronet Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Thoronet_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015154%E2%80%9355-69"},{"link_name":"Albert Camus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015184%E2%80%93185-71"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015165-72"}],"sub_title":"Religious architecture (1950–63)","text":"The chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp (1950–1955)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette near Lyon (1953–1960)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tChurch of Saint-Pierre, Firminy (1960–2006)Le Corbusier was an avowed atheist, but he also had a strong belief in the ability of architecture to create a sacred and spiritual environment. In the postwar years, he designed two important religious buildings; the chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp (1950–1955); and the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette (1953–1960). Le Corbusier wrote later that he was greatly aided in his religious architecture by a Dominican father, Marie-Alain Couturier, who had founded a movement and review of modern religious art.Le Corbusier first visited the remote mountain site of Ronchamp in May 1950, saw the ruins of the old chapel, and drew sketches of possible forms. He wrote afterwards: \"In building this chapel, I wanted to create a place of silence, of peace, of prayer, of interior joy. The feeling of the sacred animated our effort. Some things are sacred, others aren't, whether they're religious or not.\"[68]The second major religious project undertaken by Le Corbusier was the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette in L'Arbresle in the Rhone Department (1953–1960). Once again it was Father Couturier who engaged Le Corbusier in the project. He invited Le Corbusier to visit the starkly simple and imposing 12th–13th century Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence, and also used his memories of his youthful visit to the Erna Charterhouse in Florence. This project involved not only a chapel, but a library, refectory, rooms for meetings and reflection, and dormitories for the nuns. For the living space he used the same Modulor concept for measuring the ideal living space that he had used in the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille; height under the ceiling of 2.26 metres (7 feet 5 inches); and width 1.83 metres (6 feet 0 inches).[69]Le Corbusier used raw concrete to construct the convent, which is placed on the side of a hill. The three blocks of dormitories are U, closed by the chapel, with a courtyard in the centre. The Convent has a flat roof and is placed on sculpted concrete pillars. Each of the residential cells has a small loggia with a concrete sunscreen looking out at the countryside. The centrepiece of the convent is the chapel, a plain box of concrete, which he called his \"Box of miracles.\" Unlike the highly finished façade of the Unité d'Habitation, the façade of the chapel is raw, unfinished concrete. He described the building in a letter to Albert Camus in 1957: \"I'm taken with the idea of a \"box of miracles\"....as the name indicates, it is a rectangular box made of concrete. It doesn't have any of the traditional theatrical tricks, but the possibility, as its name suggests, to make miracles.\"[70] The interior of the chapel is extremely simple, only benches in a plain, unfinished concrete box, with light coming through a single square in the roof and six small bands on the sides. The Crypt beneath has intense blue, red and yellow walls, and illumination by sunlight channelled from above. The monastery has other unusual features, including floor to ceiling panels of glass in the meeting rooms, window panels that fragmented the view into pieces, and a system of concrete and metal tubes like gun barrels which aimed sunlight through coloured prisms and projected it onto the walls of the sacristy and to the secondary altars of the crypt on the level below. These were whimsically termed the \"\"machine guns\" of the sacristy and the \"light cannons\" of the crypt.[71]In 1960, Le Corbusier began a third religious building, the Church of Saint Pierre in the new town of Firminy-Vert, where he had built a Unité d'Habitation and a cultural and sports centre. While he made the original design, construction did not begin until five years after his death, and work continued under different architects until it was completed in 2006. The most spectacular feature of the church is the sloping concrete tower that covers the entire interior, similar to that in the Assembly Building in his complex at Chandigarh. Windows high in the tower illuminates the interior. Le Corbusier originally proposed that tiny windows also project the form of a constellation on the walls. Later architects designed the church to project the constellation Orion.[72]","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chandigarh_High_Court.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chandigarh_Secretariat.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg"},{"link_name":"Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Assembly_(Chandigarh)"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India"},{"link_name":"Haryana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryana"},{"link_name":"Jawaharlal Nehru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru"},{"link_name":"Albert Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Mayer_(planner)"},{"link_name":"Maxwell Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Fry"},{"link_name":"Jane Drew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Drew"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015182-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015182-74"},{"link_name":"Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-75"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015182-74"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015182-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015182-74"},{"link_name":"Palace of Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Assembly_(Chandigarh)"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Chandigarh (1951–1956)","text":"The High Court of Justice, Chandigarh (1951–1956)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSecretariat Building, Chandigarh (1952–1958)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPalace of Assembly (Chandigarh) (1952–1961)Le Corbusier's largest and most ambitious project was the design of Chandigarh, the capital city of the Punjab and Haryana States of India, created after India received independence in 1947. Le Corbusier was contacted in 1950 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and invited to propose a project. An American architect, Albert Mayer, had made a plan in 1947 for a city of 150,000 inhabitants, but the Indian government wanted a grander and more monumental city. Corbusier worked on the plan with two British specialists in urban design and tropical climate architecture, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, and with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, who moved to India and supervised the construction until his death.Le Corbusier, as always, was rhapsodic about his project; \"It will be a city of trees,\" he wrote, \"of flowers and water, of houses as simple as those at the time of Homer, and of a few splendid edifices of the highest level of modernism, where the rules of mathematics will reign.\"[73] His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the middle was the capitol, a complex of four major government buildings; the Palace of the National Assembly, the High Court of Justice; the Palace of Secretariat of Ministers, and the Palace of the Governor. For financial and political reasons, the Palace of the Governor was dropped well into the construction of the city, throwing the final project somewhat off-balance.[74] From the beginning, Le Corbusier worked, as he reported, \"Like a forced labourer.\" He dismissed the earlier American plan as \"Faux-Moderne\" and overly filled with parking spaces and roads. He intended to present what he had learned in forty years of urban study, and also to show the French government the opportunities they had missed in not choosing him to rebuild French cities after the War.[74] His design made use of many of his favourite ideas: an architectural promenade, incorporating the local landscape and the sunlight and shadows into the design; the use of the Modulor to give a correct human scale to each element somewhat based on the proportions of the human body;[75] and his favourite symbol, the open hand (\"The hand is open to give and to receive\"). He placed a monumental open hand statue in a prominent place in the design.[74]Le Corbusier's design called for the use of raw concrete, whose surface was not smoothed or polished and which showed the marks of the forms in which it dried. Pierre Jeanneret wrote to his cousin that he was in a continual battle with the construction workers, who could not resist the urge to smooth and finish the raw concrete, particularly when important visitors were coming to the site. At one point one thousand workers were employed on the site of the High Court of Justice. Le Corbusier wrote to his mother, \"It is an architectural symphony which surpasses all my hopes, which flashes and develops under the light in a way which is unimaginable and unforgettable. From far, from up close, it provokes astonishment; all made with raw concrete and a cement cannon. Adorable, and grandiose. In all the centuries no one has seen that.\"[76]The High Court of Justice, begun in 1951, was finished in 1956. The building was radical in its design; a parallelogram topped with an inverted parasol. Along the walls were high concrete grills 1.5 metres (4 feet 11 inches) thick which served as sunshades. The entry featured a monumental ramp and columns that allowed the air to circulate. The pillars were originally white limestone, but in the 1960s they were repainted in bright colours, which better resisted the weather.[74]The Secretariat, the largest building that housed the government offices, was constructed between 1952 and 1958. It is an enormous block 250 metres (820 feet) long and eight levels high, served by a ramp which extends from the ground to the top level. The ramp was designed to be partly sculptural and partly practical. Since there were no modern building cranes at the time of construction, the ramp was the only way to get materials to the top of the construction site. The Secretariat had two features which were borrowed from his design for the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille: concrete grill sunscreens over the windows and a roof terrace.[74]The most important building of the capitol complex was the Palace of Assembly (1952–61), which faced the High Court at the other end of a five hundred meter esplanade with a large reflecting pool in the front. This building features a central courtyard, over which is the main meeting hall for the Assembly. On the roof on the rear of the building is a signature feature of Le Corbusier, a large tower, similar in form to the smokestack of a ship or the ventilation tower of a heating plant. Le Corbusier added touches of colour and texture with an immense tapestry in the meeting hall and a large gateway decorated with enamel. He wrote of this building, \"A Palace magnificent in its effect, from the new art of raw concrete. It is magnificent and terrible; terrible meaning that there is nothing cold about it to the eyes.\"[77]","title":"Projects (1928–1963)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:National_museum_of_western_art05s3200.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Western Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Western_Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023-0323-Harvard-Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts-02-East_view.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Centre_Le_Corbusier_-_%27Teich%27_-_Blatterwiese_2013-09-21_17-48-26.JPG"},{"link_name":"Centre Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"Henri Matisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Matisse"},{"link_name":"Edgar Varèse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Var%C3%A8se"},{"link_name":"Poème électronique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C3%A8me_%C3%A9lectronique"},{"link_name":"André Malraux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015216-78"},{"link_name":"feet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Roquebrune-Cap-Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roquebrune-Cap-Martin"},{"link_name":"Maison du Brésil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_du_Br%C3%A9sil"},{"link_name":"Cité Universitaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_universitaire_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Western Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Western_Art"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Firminy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firminy"},{"link_name":"Meurthe-et-Moselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meurthe-et-Moselle"},{"link_name":"Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015216-78"},{"link_name":"Jørn Utzon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon"},{"link_name":"Sydney Opera House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House"},{"link_name":"Les Dés Sont Jetés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_D%C3%A9s_Sont_Jet%C3%A9s"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guard16-80"},{"link_name":"French Riviera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Riviera"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Heidi Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heidi_Weber&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Centre Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015212-83"}],"text":"The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo (1954–1959)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCarpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1960–1963)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Centre Le Corbusier in Zürich (1962–1967)The 1950s and 1960s were a difficult period for Le Corbusier's personal life: his wife Yvonne died in 1957 and his mother, to whom he was closely attached, died in 1960. He remained active in a wide variety of fields: in 1955 he published Poéme de l'angle droit, a portfolio of lithographs, published in the same collection as the book Jazz by Henri Matisse. In 1958 he collaborated with the composer Edgar Varèse on a work called Le Poème électronique, a show of sound and light, for the Philips Pavilion at the International Exposition in Brussels. In 1960 he published a new book, L'Atelier de la recherché patiente The workshop of patient research), simultaneously published in four languages. He received growing recognition for his pioneering work in modernist architecture: in 1959 a successful international campaign was launched to have his Villa Savoye, threatened with demolition, declared a historic monument; it was the first time that a work by a living architect had received this distinction. In 1962, in the same year as the dedication of the Palace of the Assembly in Chandigarh, the first retrospective exhibit on his work was held at the National Museum of Modern Art in Paris. In 1964, in a ceremony held in his atelier on rue de Sèvres, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur by Culture Minister André Malraux.[78]His later architectural work was extremely varied and often based on designs of earlier projects. In 1952–1958 he designed a series of tiny holiday cabins, 2.26 by 2.26 by 2.6 metres (7.4 by 7.4 by 8.5 feet) in size, for a site next to the Mediterranean at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin. He built a similar cabin for himself but the rest of the project was not realized until after his death. From 1953–to 1957 he designed the Maison du Brésil, a residential building for Brazilian students for the Cité Universitaire in Paris. Between 1954 and 1959 he built the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo.[79] His other projects included a cultural centre and stadium for the town of Firminy, where he had built his first housing project (1955–1958), and a stadium in Baghdad, Iraq (much altered since its construction). He also constructed three new Unités d'Habitation apartment blocks on the model of the original in Marseille, the first in Berlin (1956–1958), the second in Briey-en-Forêt in the Meurthe-et-Moselle Department and the third (1959–1967) in Firminy. From 1960–to 1963 he built his only building in the United States, the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts.[78] Jørn Utzon, the architect of the Sydney Opera House, commissioned Le Corbusier to create furnishings for the nascent opera house. Le Corbusier designed a tapestry, Les Dés Sont Jetés, which was completed in 1960.[80]Le Corbusier died of a heart attack at age 77 in 1965 after swimming on the French Riviera.[81] At the time of his death several projects were on the drawing board: the church of Saint-Pierre in Firminy, finally completed in modified form in 2006, a Palace of Congresses for Strasbourg (1962–65) and a hospital in Venice (1961–1965), which were never built. Le Corbusier designed an art gallery[82] beside the lake in Zürich for gallery owner Heidi Weber in 1962–1967. Now called the Centre Le Corbusier, it is one of his last finished works.[83]","title":"Later life and work (1955–1965)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabanon_Le_Corbusier.jpg"},{"link_name":"Roquebrune-Cap-Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roquebrune-Cap-Martin"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-foundation-84"},{"link_name":"Artists Rights Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists_Rights_Society"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rights-85"}],"text":"The holiday cabin where he spent his last days in Roquebrune-Cap-MartinThe Fondation Le Corbusier (FLC) functions as his official estate.[84] The US copyright representative for the Fondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society.[85]","title":"Estate"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barriodelasflores5.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coruña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coru%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Pierre Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jeanneret"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"}],"sub_title":"The Five Points of a Modern Architecture","text":"Barrio de las Flores, Coruña, Galicia, (Spain), built under the influence of Le Corbusier.[86]Le Corbusier defined the principles of his new architecture in Les cinq points de l'architecture moderne, published in 1927, and co-authored by his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret. They summarized the lessons he had learned in the previous years, which he put literally into concrete form in his villas constructed in the late 1920s, most dramatically in the Villa Savoye (1928–1931).The five points are:The Pilotis, or pylon. The building is raised on reinforced concrete pylons, which allows for free circulation on the ground level, and eliminates dark and damp parts of the house.\nThe Roof Terrace. The sloping roof is replaced by a flat roof; the roof can be used as a garden, for promenades, for sports or a swimming pool.\nThe Free Plan. Load-bearing walls are replaced by steel or reinforced concrete columns, so the interior can be freely designed, and interior walls can be put anywhere, or left out entirely. The structure of the building is not visible from the outside.\nThe Ribbon Window. Since the walls do not support the house, the windows can run the entire length of the house, so all rooms can get equal light.\nThe Free Façade. Since the building is supported by columns in the interior, the façade can be much lighter and more open or made entirely of glass. There is no need for lintels or other structures around the windows.","title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"sub_title":"\"Architectural Promenade\"","text":"The \"Architectural Promenade\" was another idea dear to Le Corbusier, which he particularly put into play in his design of the Villa Savoye. In 1928, in Une Maison, un Palais, he described it: \"Arab architecture gives us a precious lesson: it is best appreciated in walking, on foot. It is in walking, in going from one place to another, that you see develop the features of the architecture. In this house (Villa Savoye) you find a veritable architectural promenade, offering constantly varying aspects, unexpected, sometimes astonishing.\" The promenade at Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier wrote, both in the interior of the house and on the roof terrace, often erased the traditional difference between the inside and outside.[87]","title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La Ville radieuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville_Radieuse"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishman1982231-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dalrymple-89"},{"link_name":"Taylorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management"},{"link_name":"Fordist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordism"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evenson-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishman1982228-92"},{"link_name":"Saint-Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Henri_de_Rouvroy,_Comte_de_Saint-Simon"},{"link_name":"Charles Fourier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fourier"},{"link_name":"phalanstery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanstery"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-serenyi-93"}],"sub_title":"Ville Radieuse and Urbanism","text":"In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratification of the former; housing was now assigned according to family size, not economic position.[88] Some have read dark overtones into The Radiant City: from the \"astonishingly beautiful assemblage of buildings\" that was Stockholm, for example, Le Corbusier saw only \"frightening chaos and saddening monotony.\" He dreamed of \"cleaning and purging\" the city, bringing \"a calm and powerful architecture\"—referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete. Although Le Corbusier's designs for Stockholm did not succeed, later architects took his ideas and partly \"destroyed\" the city with them.[89]Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society. As Norma Evenson has put it, \"the proposed city appeared to some an audacious and compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others, a frigid megalomaniacally scaled negation of the familiar urban ambient.\"[90]Le Corbusier \"His ideas—his urban planning and his architecture—are viewed separately,\" Perelman noted, \"whereas they are the same thing.\"[91]In La Ville radieuse, he conceived an essentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state.[92]Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the 19th-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery.[93] From Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government.","title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"golden ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio"},{"link_name":"Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(ratio)"},{"link_name":"architectural proportion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportion_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Vitruvius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Vitruvian Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Man"},{"link_name":"Leon Battista Alberti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti"},{"link_name":"golden ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio"},{"link_name":"human measurements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometry"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"Garches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garches"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-padovan-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadovan1999316-96"}],"sub_title":"Modulor","text":"The Modulor was a standard model of the human form which Le Corbusier devised to determine the correct amount of living space needed for residents in his buildings. It was also his rather original way of dealing with differences between the metric system and the British or American system since the Modulor was not attached to either one.Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's \"Vitruvian Man\", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. Many scholars see the Modulor as a humanistic expression but it is also argued that: \"It's exactly the opposite (...) It's the mathematization of the body, the standardization of the body, the rationalization of the body.\"[94]He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.[95]Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he described as \"rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned.\"[96]","title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Hand_Monument_in_Chandigarh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Open Hand Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Hand_Monument"},{"link_name":"Open Hand Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Hand_Monument"}],"sub_title":"Open Hand","text":"Open Hand Monument in Chandigarh, IndiaThe Open Hand (La Main Ouverte) is a recurring motif in Le Corbusier's architecture, a sign for him of \"peace and reconciliation. It is open to give and open to receive.\" The largest of the many Open Hand sculptures that Le Corbusier created is a 26-meter-high (85 ft) version in Chandigarh, India, known as Open Hand Monument.","title":"Ideas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bourgeois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LC4_Chair_by_Le_Corbusier_and_Perriand_1927-28.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Perriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Perriand"},{"link_name":"Pierre Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jeanneret"},{"link_name":"Gebrüder Thonet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebr%C3%BCder_Thonet"},{"link_name":"Marcel Breuer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Breuer"},{"link_name":"Bauhaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus"},{"link_name":"Mies van der Rohe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiley2004382-97"},{"link_name":"LC4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaise_Longue_(Le_Corbusier)"},{"link_name":"Salon d'Automne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salon_d%27Automne"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiley2004383-98"}],"text":"Le Corbusier was an eloquent critic of the finely crafted, hand-made furniture, made with rare and exotic woods, inlays and coverings, presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts. Following his usual method, Le Corbusier first wrote a book with his theories of furniture, complete with memorable slogans. In his 1925 book L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui, he called for furniture that used inexpensive materials and could be mass-produced. Le Corbusier described three different furniture types: type-needs, type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He defined human-limb objects as: \"Extensions of our limbs and adapted to human functions that are type-needs and type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. The human-limb object is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing to leave his master free. Certainly, works of art are tools, beautiful tools. And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, and harmony\". He further declared: \"Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois\".[page needed]Frame of an LC4 chair by Le Corbusier and Perriand (1927–28) at Museum of Decorative Arts, ParisLe Corbusier first relied on ready-made furniture from Thonet to furnish his projects, such as his pavilion at the 1925 Exposition. In 1928, following the publication of his theories, he began experimenting with furniture design. In 1928, he invited the architect Charlotte Perriand to join his studio as a furniture designer. His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs. For the manufacture of his furniture, he turned to the German firm Gebrüder Thonet, which had begun making chairs with tubular steel, a material originally used for bicycles, in the early 1920s. Le Corbusier admired the design of Marcel Breuer and the Bauhaus, who in 1925 had begun making sleek modern tubular club chairs. Mies van der Rohe had begun making his version in a sculptural curved form with a cane seat in 1927.[97]The first results of the collaboration between Le Corbusier and Perriand were three types of chairs made with chrome-plated tubular steel frames: The LC4, Chaise Longue, (1927–28), with a covering of cowhide, which gave it a touch of exoticism; the Fauteuil Grand Confort (LC3) (1928–29), a club chair with a tubular frame which resembled the comfortable Art Deco club chairs that became popular in the 1920s; and the Fauteuil à dossier vascular (LC4) (1928–29), a low seat suspended in a tubular steel frame, also with cowhide upholstery. These chairs were designed specifically for two of his projects, the Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church. All three clearly showed the influence of Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer. The line of furniture was expanded with additional designs for Le Corbusier's 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, 'Equipment for the Home'. Despite the intention of Le Corbusier that his furniture should be inexpensive and mass-produced, his pieces were originally costly to make and were not mass-produced until many years later, when he was famous. [98]","title":"Furniture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simone_2-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simone_2-99"},{"link_name":"Nazi antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism#Racial_theories_and_antisemitism"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Le Faisceau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Faisceau"},{"link_name":"Georges Valois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Valois"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Hubert Lagardelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Lagardelle"},{"link_name":"syndicalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicalist"},{"link_name":"Vichy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simone_2-99"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alexis Carrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel"},{"link_name":"eugenicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simone_2-99"},{"link_name":"anti-Jewish laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_anti-Jewish_legislation"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-celik-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"}],"text":"There is debate over the apparently variable or contradictory nature of Le Corbusier's political views.[99] In the 1920s, he co-founded and contributed articles about urbanism to the fascist journals Plans, Prélude and L'Homme Réel.[100][99] He also penned pieces in favour of Nazi antisemitism for those journals, as well as \"hateful editorials\".[101] Between 1925 and 1928, Le Corbusier had connections to Le Faisceau, a short-lived French fascist party led by Georges Valois. (Valois later became an anti-fascist.)[102] Le Corbusier knew another former member of Faisceau, Hubert Lagardelle, a former labor leader and syndicalist who had become disaffected with the political left. In 1934, after Lagardelle had obtained a position at the French embassy in Rome, he arranged for Le Corbusier to lecture on architecture in Italy. Lagardelle later served as minister of labor in the pro-Axis Vichy regime. While Le Corbusier sought commissions from the Vichy regime, particularly the redesign of Marseille after its Jewish population had been forcefully removed,[99] he was unsuccessful, and the only appointment he received from it was membership of a committee studying urbanism.[citation needed] Alexis Carrel, a eugenicist surgeon, appointed Le Corbusier to the Department of Bio-Sociology of the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems, an institute promoting eugenics policies under the Vichy regime.[99]Le Corbusier has been accused of antisemitism. He wrote to his mother in October 1940, as the Vichy government enacted anti-Jewish laws: \"The Jews are having a bad time. I occasionally feel sorry. But it appears their blind lust for money has rotted the country.\" He was also accused of belittling the Muslim population of Algeria, then part of France. When Le Corbusier proposed a plan for the rebuilding of Algiers, he condemned the existing housing for European Algerians, complaining that it was inferior to that inhabited by indigenous Algerians: \"the civilized live like rats in holes\" while \"the barbarians live in solitude, in well-being.\"[103] His plan for rebuilding Algiers was rejected, and thereafter Le Corbusier mostly avoided politics.[104]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"André Malraux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Witold Rybczynski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witold_Rybczynski"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Technological historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Historians_of_technology"},{"link_name":"Lewis Mumford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumford"},{"link_name":"Jane Jacobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Jacobs"},{"link_name":"The Death and Life of Great American Cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"text":"In his eulogy to Le Corbusier at the memorial ceremony for the architect in the courtyard of the Louvre on 1 September 1965, French Culture Minister André Malraux declared, \"Le Corbusier had some great rivals, but none of them had the same significance in the revolution of architecture, because none bore insults so patiently and for so long.\"[105]Later criticism of Le Corbusier was directed at his ideas on urban planning. In 1998, the architectural historian Witold Rybczynski wrote in Time magazine:\"He called it the Ville Radieuse, the Radiant City. Despite the poetic title, his urban vision was authoritarian, inflexible and simplistic. Wherever it was tried—in Chandigarh by Le Corbusier himself or in Brasilia by his followers—it failed. Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting. The open spaces were inhospitable; the bureaucratically imposed plan was socially destructive. In the US, the Radiant City took the form of vast urban-renewal schemes and regimented public housing projects that damaged the urban fabric beyond repair. Today, these megaprojects are being dismantled, as superblocks give way to rows of houses fronting streets and sidewalks. Downtowns have discovered that combining, not separating, different activities is the key to success. So is the presence of lively residential neighbourhoods, old as well as new. Cities have learned that preserving history makes more sense than starting from zero. It has been an expensive lesson, and not one that Le Corbusier intended, but it too is part of his legacy.\"[106]Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in Yesterday's City of Tomorrow that the extravagant heights of Le Corbusier's skyscrapers had no reason for existence apart from the fact that they had become technological possibilities. The open spaces in his central areas had no reason for existence either, Mumford wrote, since on the scale he imagined, there was no motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation in the office quarter. By \"mating utilitarian and financial image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the organic environment, Le Corbusier had produced a sterile hybrid.\"The public housing projects influenced by his ideas have been criticized for isolating poor communities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development. One of his most influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban design theories in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great American Cities.For some critics, the urbanism of Le Corbusier was the model for a fascist state.[107] These critics cited Le Corbusier himself when he wrote that \"not all citizens could become leaders. The technocratic elite, the industrialists, financiers, engineers, and artists would be located in the city centre, while the workers would be removed to the fringes of the city\".[108]Alessandro Hseuh-Bruni wrote in \"Le Corbusier's Fatal Flaws – A Critique of Modernism\" that\"In addition to setting the stage for infrastructural developments to come, Le Corbusier's blueprints and models, while not so well-regarded by urban planners and street dwellers alike, also examined the sociological side of cities in great detail. World War II left millions dead and transformed the urban landscape throughout much of Europe, from England to the Soviet Union, and housing on a mass scale was necessary. Le Corbusier personally took this as a challenge to accommodate the masses on an unprecedented scale. This mission statement manifested itself in the form of \"Cité Radieuse\" (The Radiant City), located in Marseille, France. The construction of this utopian sanctuary was dependent on the destruction of traditional neighbourhoods – he showed no regard for French cultural heritage and tradition. Entire neighbourhoods were ravaged to make way for these dense, uniform concrete blocks. If he had his way, Paris' elite Marais community would have been destroyed. In addition, the theme of segregation that plagued earlier models of Le Corbusier's continued in this supposed utopian vision, with the wealthy elite being the only ones to access the luxuries of modernism.\"[109]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MESP4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gustavo Capanema Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Capanema_Palace"},{"link_name":"Ebenezer Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"urban planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning"},{"link_name":"Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"automobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile"},{"link_name":"pilotis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piloti"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-75"},{"link_name":"Nadir Afonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_Afonso"},{"link_name":"Lúcio Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa"},{"link_name":"city plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning"},{"link_name":"Brasília","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"},{"link_name":"Zlín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zl%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"František Lydie Gahura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Lydie_Gahura"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Constructivist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_architecture"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"},{"link_name":"Cabrini–Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabrini%E2%80%93Green"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"},{"link_name":"Shadrach Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadrach_Woods"},{"link_name":"Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Javier_S%C3%A1enz_de_Oiza"},{"link_name":"Oscar Niemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Mario Pani Darqui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Pani_Darqui"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Roberto Matta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Matta"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Antoni Bonet i Castellana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_Bonet_i_Castellana"},{"link_name":"Amancio Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amancio_Williams"},{"link_name":"Clorindo Testa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clorindo_Testa"},{"link_name":"Uruguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Rogelio Salmona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogelio_Salmona"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Joseph Philippe Karam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Philippe_Karam"},{"link_name":"Shiv Nath Prasad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiv_Nath_Prasad"},{"link_name":"Kim Chung-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Chung-up"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-75"}],"text":"Gustavo Capanema Palace, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)Le Corbusier was concerned about problems he saw in industrial cities at the turn of the 20th century. He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of a moral landscape. He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better-living conditions and a better society through housing. Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily influenced Le Corbusier and his contemporaries.[110]Le Corbusier revolutionized urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM).[111] One of the first to realize how the automobile would change human society, Le Corbusier conceived the city of the future with large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le Corbusier's plans were adopted by builders of public housing in Europe and the United States. In Great Britain, urban planners turned to Le Corbusier's \"Cities in the Sky\" as a cheaper method of building public housing from the late 1950s.[112] Le Corbusier criticized any effort at ornamentation of the buildings.[75]Several of the many architects who worked for Le Corbusier in his studio became prominent, including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are based on his ideas. Le Corbusier's thinking had profound effects on city planning and architecture in the Soviet Union during the Constructivist era.[original research?]Le Corbusier harmonized and lent credence to the idea of space as a set of destinations between which mankind moved continuously. He gave credibility to the automobile as a transporter and freeway in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban real estate developers in the American post-World War II period because they justified and lent intellectual support to the desire to raze traditional urban spaces for high density, high-profit urban concentration. The freeways connected this new urbanism to low density, low cost, highly profitable suburban locales available to be developed for middle-class single-family housing.[original research?]Missing from this scheme of movement was connectivity between isolated urban villages created for the lower-middle and working classes, and the destination points in Le Corbusier's plan: suburban and rural areas, and urban commercial centres. As designed, the freeways travelled over, at, or beneath grade levels of the living spaces of the urban poor, for example, the Cabrini–Green housing project in Chicago. Because such projects were devoid of freeway-exit ramps and were cut off by freeway rights-of-way, they became isolated from the jobs and services that had been concentrated at Le Corbusier's nodal transportation endpoints.[original research?]As jobs migrated to the suburbs, these urban-village dwellers effectively found themselves stranded without freeway-access points in their communities or public mass transit that could economically reach suburban job centres. Late in the post-War period, suburban job centres found labour shortages to be such a critical problem that they sponsored urban-to-suburban shuttle-bus services to fill the vacant working-class and lower-middle-class jobs, which did not typically pay enough to afford car ownership.[original research?]Le Corbusier influenced architects and urbanists worldwide. In the United States, Shadrach Woods; in Spain, Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza; in Brazil, Oscar Niemeyer; In Mexico, Mario Pani Darqui; in Chile, Roberto Matta; in Argentina, Antoni Bonet i Castellana (a Catalan exile), Juan Kurchan, Jorge Ferrari Hardoy, Amancio Williams, and Clorindo Testa in his first era; in Uruguay, the professors Justino Serralta and Carlos Gómez Gavazzo; in Colombia, Germán Samper Gnecco, Rogelio Salmona, and Dicken Castro; in Peru, Abel Hurtado and José Carlos Ortecho; in Lebanon, Joseph Philippe Karam; in India Shiv Nath Prasad; in South Korea, Kim Chung-up.[original research?]Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Frankfurt have been inspired by Le Corbusier, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide.[75]","title":"Influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret),_reproduced_in_%C5%BDivot_2_(1922).jpg"},{"link_name":"Fondation Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"16th arrondissement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_arrondissement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Corseaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corseaux"},{"link_name":"Lac Leman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_Leman"},{"link_name":"Pierre Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jeanneret"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-foundation-84"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parisinfo-113"}],"text":"Le Corbusier, work reproduced in Život 2 (1922)The Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and archive honoring the work of Le Corbusier. It operates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th arrondissement at 8–10, square du Dr Blanche, Paris, France, which is open daily except for Sunday.The foundation was established in 1968. It now owns Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (which form the foundation's headquarters), as well as the apartment occupied by Le Corbusier from 1933 to 1965 at rue Nungesser et Coli in Paris 16e, and the \"Small House\" he built for his parents in Corseaux on the shores of Lac Leman (1924).Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (1923–24), also known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair of semi-detached houses that was Le Corbusier's third commission in Paris. They are laid out at right angles to each other, with iron, concrete, and blank, white façades setting off a curved two-story gallery space. Maison La Roche is now a museum containing about 8,000 original drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with Pierre Jeanneret from 1922 to 1940), as well as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about 200 other works on paper, and a sizable collection of written and photographic archives. It describes itself as the world's largest collection of Le Corbusier drawings, studies, and plans.[84][113]","title":"Fondation Le Corbusier"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Légion d'honneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honour#Membership"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minist%C3%A8re_de_la_Culture-1"},{"link_name":"Frank P. Brown Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_P._Brown_Medal"},{"link_name":"AIA Gold Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIA_Gold_Medal"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cambridge-114"}],"text":"In 1937, Le Corbusier was named Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur. In 1945, he was promoted to Officier of the Légion d'honneur. In 1952, he was promoted to Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur. Finally, on 2 July 1964, Le Corbusier was named Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur.[1]\nHe received the Frank P. Brown Medal and AIA Gold Medal in 1961.\nThe University of Cambridge awarded Le Corbusier an honorary degree in June 1959.[114]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"text":"In 2016, seventeen of Le Corbusier's buildings spanning seven countries were identified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting \"outstanding contribution to the Modern Movement\".[115]","title":"World Heritage Site"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"10 Swiss francs banknote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Swiss_franc#Eighth_series"},{"link_name":"atelier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atelier"},{"link_name":"Laval, Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laval,_Quebec"},{"link_name":"La Chaux-de-Fonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Chaux-de-Fonds"},{"link_name":"partido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partidos_of_Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Malvinas Argentinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvinas_Argentinas"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Province"},{"link_name":"Brossard, Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brossard,_Quebec"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"}],"text":"Le Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses.The following place-names carry his name:Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier on the Rue de Sèvres\nLe Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada\nPlace Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland\nLe Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina\nLe Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of Brossard, Quebec, Canada\nLe Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin\nLe Corbusier Museum, Sector – 19 Chandigarh, India\nLe Corbusier Museum in Stuttgart am Weissenhof","title":"Memorials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Villa La Roche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_La_Roche"},{"link_name":"Villa Jeanneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Jeanneret"},{"link_name":"Cité Frugès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_Frug%C3%A8s_de_Pessac"},{"link_name":"Pessac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessac"},{"link_name":"Villa Savoye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye"},{"link_name":"Poissy-sur-Seine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poissy-sur-Seine"},{"link_name":"Villa Baizeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Baizeau"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis"},{"link_name":"Cité du Refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_du_Refuge"},{"link_name":"Armée du Salut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_du_Salut"},{"link_name":"Palace of the Soviets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_the_Soviets"},{"link_name":"Immeuble Clarté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immeuble_Clart%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Tsentrosoyuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsentrosoyuz_building"},{"link_name":"Unité d'Habitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"United Nations headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_headquarters"},{"link_name":"Curutchet House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curutchet_House"},{"link_name":"La Plata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Plata"},{"link_name":"Amancio Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amancio_Williams"},{"link_name":"Notre Dame du Haut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_du_Haut"},{"link_name":"Maisons Jaoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maisons_Jaoul"},{"link_name":"Neuilly-sur-Seine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuilly-sur-Seine"},{"link_name":"Ahmedabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmedabad"},{"link_name":"Sanskar Kendra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskar_Kendra"},{"link_name":"ATMA House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATMA_House"},{"link_name":"Villa Sarabhai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Sarabhai"},{"link_name":"Villa Shodhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Shodhan"},{"link_name":"Chinubhai Chimanlal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinubhai_Chimanlal"},{"link_name":"Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantes"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Palace of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_and_Haryana_High_Court"},{"link_name":"Museum and Gallery of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Museum_and_Art_Gallery,_Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Secretariat Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_Building_(Chandigarh)"},{"link_name":"Governor's Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%27s_Palace_(Chandigarh)"},{"link_name":"Palace of Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Assembly_(Chandigarh)"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh College of Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh_College_of_Architecture"},{"link_name":"Maison du Brésil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_du_Br%C3%A9sil"},{"link_name":"Cité Universitaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_Internationale_Universitaire_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Sainte Marie de La Tourette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Iannis Xenakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iannis_Xenakis"},{"link_name":"Unité d'Habitation of Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Firminy-Vert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrimoine_Le_Corbusier_de_Firminy-Vert"},{"link_name":"Unité d'Habitation of Firminy-Vert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation_of_Firminy-Vert"},{"link_name":"Maison de la Culture de Firminy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_de_la_Culture_de_Firminy"},{"link_name":"Heidi Weber Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidi_Weber_Museum"}],"text":"1923: Villa La Roche, Paris, France\n1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris, France\n1926: Cité Frugès, Pessac, France\n1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France\n1928: Villa Baizeau, Tunis, Tunisia\n1929: Cité du Refuge, Armée du Salut, Paris, France\n1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project)\n1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland\n1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR\n1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France\n1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City, U.S. (Consultant)\n1949–1953: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina (project manager: Amancio Williams)\n1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France\n1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France\n1951: Buildings in Ahmedabad, India\n1951: Sanskar Kendra Museum, Ahmedabad\n1951: ATMA House\n1951: Villa Sarabhai, Ahmedabad\n1951: Villa Shodhan, Ahmedabad\n1951: Villa of Chinubhai Chimanlal, Ahmedabad\n1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France\n1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India\n1952: Palace of Justice\n1952: Museum and Gallery of Art\n1953: Secretariat Building\n1953: Governor's Palace\n1955: Palace of Assembly\n1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and the Chandigarh College of Architecture (CCA)\n1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris, France\n1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with Iannis Xenakis)\n1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16, Berlin, Germany\n1962: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.\n1964–1969: Firminy-Vert, France\n1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy-Vert\n1965: Maison de la Culture de Firminy\n1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Zürich, Switzerland","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amédée Ozenfant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Ozenfant"},{"link_name":"Vers une architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_an_Architecture"},{"link_name":"Charte d'Athènes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens_Charter"},{"link_name":"Le Modulor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulor"},{"link_name":"Poem of the Right Angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poem_of_the_Right_Angle"}],"text":"1918: Après le cubisme (After Cubism), with Amédée Ozenfant\n1923: Vers une architecture (Towards an Architecture) (frequently mistranslated as \"Towards a New Architecture\")\n1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism)\n1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with Amédée Ozenfant\n1925: L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Arts of Today)\n1930: Précisions sur un état présent de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme (Precisions on the present state of architecture and urbanism)\n1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Keyboard)\n1935: Aircraft\n1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City)\n1942: Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter)\n1943: Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Students)\n1945: Les Trois établissements Humains (The Three Human Establishments)\n1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor)\n1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the Right Angle)\n1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2)\n1959: Deuxième clavier de couleurs (Second Colour Keyboard)\n1964: Quand les Cathédrales Etáient Blanches (When the Cathedrals were White)\n1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East)","title":"Books by Le Corbusier"}]

[{"image_text":"Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret), 1920, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 80.9 cm × 99.7 cm (31.9 in × 39.3 in), Museum of Modern Art, New York","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/bd/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1920%2C_Still_Life%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.9_x_99.7_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg/220px-Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1920%2C_Still_Life%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.9_x_99.7_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg"},{"image_text":"Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, 1914–15, Maison Dom-Ino (Dom-ino House)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret_%28Le_Corbusier%29%2C_1914-15%2C_Maison_Dom-Ino.jpg/220px-Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret_%28Le_Corbusier%29%2C_1914-15%2C_Maison_Dom-Ino.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Anatole Schwob House in La-Chaux-de-Fonds (1916–1918)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/CF05.jpg/220px-CF05.jpg"},{"image_text":"Le Corbusier, 1921, Nature morte (Still Life), oil on canvas, 54 x 81 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0d/Le_Corbusier%2C_1921%2C_Nature_morte%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_54_x_81_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_National_d%27Art_Moderne.jpg/250px-Le_Corbusier%2C_1921%2C_Nature_morte%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_54_x_81_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_National_d%27Art_Moderne.jpg"},{"image_text":"Le Corbusier, 1922, Nature morte verticale (Vertical Still Life), oil on canvas, 146.3 cm × 89.3 cm (57.6 by 35.2 inches), Kunstmuseum Basel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/97/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles_Edouard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1922%2C_Nature_morte_verticale_%28Vertical_Still_Life%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146.3_x_89.3_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum%2C_Basel.jpg/220px-Le_Corbusier_%28Charles_Edouard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1922%2C_Nature_morte_verticale_%28Vertical_Still_Life%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146.3_x_89.3_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum%2C_Basel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Le Corbusier, 1920, Guitare verticale (2ème version), oil on canvas, 100 cm × 81 cm (39 in × 32 in), Fondation Le Corbusier, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c4/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1920%2C_Guitare_verticale_%282%C3%A8me_version%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100_x_81_cm%2C_Fondation_Le_Corbusier%2C_Paris.jpg/220px-Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1920%2C_Guitare_verticale_%282%C3%A8me_version%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100_x_81_cm%2C_Fondation_Le_Corbusier%2C_Paris.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau (1925)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Pavillon_L%27Esprit_Nouveau.jpg/220px-Pavillon_L%27Esprit_Nouveau.jpg"},{"image_text":"The model of the Plan Voisin for the reconstruction of Paris displayed at the Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plan_Voisin_model.jpg/220px-Plan_Voisin_model.jpg"},{"image_text":"Building of the Tsentrosoyuz, headquarters of Soviet trade unions, Moscow (1928–34)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Centrosoyuz_Moscow_-_Ak_Sakharova_view.jpg/220px-Centrosoyuz_Moscow_-_Ak_Sakharova_view.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Immeuble Clarté in Geneva (1930–1932)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geneve_immeuble_Clarte_2011-08-02_13_55_36_PICT3664.JPG/220px-Geneve_immeuble_Clarte_2011-08-02_13_55_36_PICT3664.JPG"},{"image_text":"The headquarters of the United Nations designed by Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Wallace K. Harrison (1947–1952)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/67%C2%BA_Per%C3%ADodo_de_Sesiones_de_la_Asamblea_General_de_Naciones_Unidas_%288020913157%29.jpg/220px-67%C2%BA_Per%C3%ADodo_de_Sesiones_de_la_Asamblea_General_de_Naciones_Unidas_%288020913157%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The holiday cabin where he spent his last days in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Cabanon_Le_Corbusier.jpg/220px-Cabanon_Le_Corbusier.jpg"},{"image_text":"Barrio de las Flores, Coruña, Galicia, (Spain), built under the influence of Le Corbusier.[86]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Barriodelasflores5.jpg/300px-Barriodelasflores5.jpg"},{"image_text":"Open Hand Monument in Chandigarh, India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Open_Hand_Monument_in_Chandigarh.jpg/220px-Open_Hand_Monument_in_Chandigarh.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frame of an LC4 chair by Le Corbusier and Perriand (1927–28) at Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/LC4_Chair_by_Le_Corbusier_and_Perriand_1927-28.jpg/220px-LC4_Chair_by_Le_Corbusier_and_Perriand_1927-28.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gustavo Capanema Palace, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/MESP4.jpg/220px-MESP4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Le Corbusier, work reproduced in Život 2 (1922)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_reproduced_in_%C5%BDivot_2_%281922%29.jpg/220px-Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_reproduced_in_%C5%BDivot_2_%281922%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Butterfly roof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_roof"},{"title":"Crystal Cubism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Cubism"},{"title":"Fabien Vienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabien_Vienne"},{"title":"Mathematics and art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_and_art"},{"title":"Raoul Albert La Roche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Albert_La_Roche"}]

[{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier\". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220126075540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/le_corbusier","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexico","url_text":"Lexico"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"http://www.lexico.com/definition/Le+Corbusier","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier\". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 16 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Le+Corbusier","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language","url_text":"The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language"}]},{"reference":"\"Corbusier, Le\". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 16 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Corbusier%2C%20Le","url_text":"\"Corbusier, Le\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster","url_text":"Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"\"Steve Rose on Le Corbusier, one of the most iconic architects of the 20th century\". the Guardian. 16 July 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/jul/17/architecture","url_text":"\"Steve Rose on Le Corbusier, one of the most iconic architects of the 20th century\""}]},{"reference":"\"Biographie de Le Corbusier - 1929-1938 : Le globe-trotter de l'architecture moderne\". Fondation Le Corbusier (in French). Retrieved 22 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/biographie/1929-1938/","url_text":"\"Biographie de Le Corbusier - 1929-1938 : Le globe-trotter de l'architecture moderne\""}]},{"reference":"Birksted, Ian (2009). Le Corbusier and the Occult. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262026482.","urls":[{"url":"https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/le-corbusier-and-occult","url_text":"Le Corbusier and the Occult"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262026482","url_text":"9780262026482"}]},{"reference":"Froissart, Rossella (2011). Avant-garde et tradition dans les arts du décor en France. Lectures critiques autour de Guillaume Janneau (PDF) (in French). Université de Provence - Aix-Marseille. p. 73.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/display2.php/attachment.pdf?url=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Ftel-02336495%2Fdocument","url_text":"Avant-garde et tradition dans les arts du décor en France. Lectures critiques autour de Guillaume Janneau"}]},{"reference":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement\". Retrieved 14 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1528/","url_text":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement\""}]},{"reference":"López-Durán, Fabiola (11 December 2018). Eugenics in the Garden Transatlantic Architecture and the Crafting of Modernity By Fabiola López-Durán. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773-1495-1. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220803171236/https://utpress.utexas.edu/books/lopez-duran-eugenics-in-the-garden","url_text":"Eugenics in the Garden Transatlantic Architecture and the Crafting of Modernity By Fabiola López-Durán"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-1495-1","url_text":"978-1-4773-1495-1"},{"url":"https://utpress.utexas.edu/books/lopez-duran-eugenics-in-the-garden","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"BBC Four – A History of Art in Three Colours, White\". BBC. Retrieved 25 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01lng0m","url_text":"\"BBC Four – A History of Art in Three Colours, White\""}]},{"reference":"\"The profound anti-Semitism of Le Corbusier\". Haaretz. Retrieved 25 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/culture/the-profound-anti-semitism-of-le-corbusier-1.5355572","url_text":"\"The profound anti-Semitism of Le Corbusier\""}]},{"reference":"Donadio, Rachel (12 July 2015). \"Le Corbusier's Architecture and His Politics Are Revisited\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 25 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/13/arts/design/le-corbusiers-architecture-and-his-politics-are-revisited.html","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier's Architecture and His Politics Are Revisited\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"Simonin, Laurianne (19 May 2021). \"Le Corbusier: 5 Facts to Know\". Bbys Magazine. Barnebys Group. Retrieved 6 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.barnebys.com/blog/le-corbusier-5-facts-to-know","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier: 5 Facts to Know\""}]},{"reference":"Žaknić, Ivan (2019). Klip and Corb on the road. Zürich: Scheidegger & Spiess. ISBN 978-3-85881-817-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85881-817-1","url_text":"978-3-85881-817-1"}]},{"reference":"Choay, Françoise (1960). Le Corbusier. George Braziller, Inc. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-8076-0104-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lecorbusier0000choa/page/10","url_text":"Le Corbusier"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lecorbusier0000choa/page/10","url_text":"10–11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8076-0104-4","url_text":"978-0-8076-0104-4"}]},{"reference":"Larousse, Éditions. \"Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne – Charles Édouard Jeanneret dit Le Corbusier\". larousse.fr.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/personnage/Le_Corbusier/129220","url_text":"\"Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne – Charles Édouard Jeanneret dit Le Corbusier\""}]},{"reference":"Corbusier, Le; Jenger, Jean (1 January 2002). Le Corbusier: choix de lettres. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-7643-6455-7 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SOKNzunERUwC&pg=PA161","url_text":"Le Corbusier: choix de lettres"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-6455-7","url_text":"978-3-7643-6455-7"}]},{"reference":"Office du Patrimoine et des sites (2016). Le Corbusier & Pierre Jeanneret – Restoration of the Clarté Building. Geneva: Birkhäuser. p. 27. ISBN 978-3-0356-0759-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0356-0759-8","url_text":"978-3-0356-0759-8"}]},{"reference":"Ken, Kuma (2008). Anti-object : the dissolution and disintegration of architecture. Architectural Association (Great Britain). London: Architectural Association. ISBN 978-1-902902-52-4. OCLC 67375498.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902902-52-4","url_text":"978-1-902902-52-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/67375498","url_text":"67375498"}]},{"reference":"\"Architecture View; Le Corbusier's Housing Project-Flexible Enough to Endure; by Ada Louise Huxtable\". The New York Times. 15 March 1981.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/15/arts/architecture-view-le-corbusier-s-housing-project-flexible-enough-endure-ada.html","url_text":"\"Architecture View; Le Corbusier's Housing Project-Flexible Enough to Endure; by Ada Louise Huxtable\""}]},{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier plus facto que fada\". Liberation. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.liberation.fr/livres/2015/03/18/le-corbusier-plus-facho-que-fada_1223411","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier plus facto que fada\""}]},{"reference":"Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. pp. 426. ISBN 978-0-415-25225-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediacity00cave","url_text":"Encyclopedia of the City"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediacity00cave/page/n466","url_text":"426"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25225-6","url_text":"978-0-415-25225-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Oscar Niemeyer and the United Nations Headquarters (1947–1949)\". United Nations. December 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://archives.un.org/content/oscar-niemeyer-and-united-nations-headquarters","url_text":"\"Oscar Niemeyer and the United Nations Headquarters (1947–1949)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations","url_text":"United Nations"}]},{"reference":"Burrows, Terry; Larter, Sarah; Anderson, Janice, eds. (1999). ITV Visual History of the Twentieth Century. London: Carlton Books. p. 318. ISBN 1-85868-688-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton_Books","url_text":"Carlton Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85868-688-1","url_text":"1-85868-688-1"}]},{"reference":"DUYAN, EFE (2021). \"Le Corbusier's Museum as a Critical Attitude\". Tasarım+Kuram. 15 (28): 122–137 – via Academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/41511051","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier's Museum as a Critical Attitude\""}]},{"reference":"Steph Harmon (29 March 2016). \"When Utzon met Le Corbusier: Sydney Opera House unveils 'eye-catching' tapestry\". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/mar/29/le-corbusier-tapestry-finally-finds-its-home-on-sydney-opera-house-wall","url_text":"\"When Utzon met Le Corbusier: Sydney Opera House unveils 'eye-catching' tapestry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Choay, François. \"Le Corbusier\". Britannica. Retrieved 9 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Le-Corbusier","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier\""}]},{"reference":"DUYAN, EFE (2017). \"Le Corbusier's Exhibition Pavilion: The Heterogeneous Character of his Modernism Between Representation and Functionalism\". A/Z: ITU Journal of Faculty of Architecture. 14 (3): 181–194. doi:10.5505/itujfa.2017.83702 – via Academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/38925693","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier's Exhibition Pavilion: The Heterogeneous Character of his Modernism Between Representation and Functionalism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5505%2Fitujfa.2017.83702","url_text":"10.5505/itujfa.2017.83702"}]},{"reference":"\"Foundation: History\". Fondation Le Corbusier. Retrieved 18 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=19&IrisObjectId=7778&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=1&sysParentId=19&clearQuery=1","url_text":"\"Foundation: History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Most Frequently Requested Prominent Artists\". Artists Rights Society. 2003. Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 18 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090131151943/http://arsny.com/requested.html","url_text":"\"Our Most Frequently Requested Prominent Artists\""},{"url":"http://arsny.com/requested.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dalrymple, Theodore (Autumn 2009). \"The Architect as Totalitarian: Le Corbusier's baleful influence\". City Journal. 19 (4). Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160306231319/http://www.city-journal.org/2009/19_4_otbie-le-corbusier.html","url_text":"\"The Architect as Totalitarian: Le Corbusier's baleful influence\""},{"url":"http://www.city-journal.org/2009/19_4_otbie-le-corbusier.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Evenson, Norma (1969). Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. New York: George Braziller. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Munro, Cait (17 April 2005). \"New Books Claim Le Corbusier Was a Fascist\". Artnet news. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/new-books-claim-le-corbusier-fascist-289334","url_text":"\"New Books Claim Le Corbusier Was a Fascist\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230419174158/https://news.artnet.com/art-world/new-books-claim-le-corbusier-fascist-289334","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Serenyi, Peter (December 1967). \"Le Corbusier, Fourier, and the Monastery of Ema\". The Art Bulletin. 49 (4): 282. doi:10.2307/3048487. JSTOR 3048487.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3048487","url_text":"10.2307/3048487"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3048487","url_text":"3048487"}]},{"reference":"Donadio, Rachel (12 July 2015). \"New York Times\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/13/arts/design/le-corbusiers-architecture-and-his-politics-are-revisited.html","url_text":"\"New York Times\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Padovan, Richard (2 November 1999). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Taylor & Francis. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-419-22780-9. from Le Corbusier, The Modulor p. 35: \"Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-419-22780-9","url_text":"978-0-419-22780-9"}]},{"reference":"Brott, Simone (8 December 2017). \"The Le Corbusier Scandal, or, was Le Corbusier a Fascist?\". Fascism. 6 (2): 196–227. doi:10.1163/22116257-00602003. ISSN 2211-6249.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00602003","url_text":"\"The Le Corbusier Scandal, or, was Le Corbusier a Fascist?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22116257-00602003","url_text":"10.1163/22116257-00602003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2211-6249","url_text":"2211-6249"}]},{"reference":"Brott, Simone (2013). \"In the Shadow of the Enlightenment Le Corbusier, Le Faisceau and Georges Valois\". Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand. 2 (30): 777–789. his contribution to three fascist revues: Plans, Prélude and L'Homme Réel","urls":[{"url":"http://eprints.qut.edu.au/63644/","url_text":"\"In the Shadow of the Enlightenment Le Corbusier, Le Faisceau and Georges Valois\""}]},{"reference":"Samuel, Henry (16 April 2015). \"Le Corbusier was 'militant fascist', two new books on French architect claim\". Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Mr Jarcy said that in \"Plans\" Le Corbusier wrote in support of Nazi anti-Semitism and in \"Prelude\" co-wrote \"hateful editorials","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11543431/Le-Corbusier-was-militant-fascist-two-new-books-on-French-architect-claim.html","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier was 'militant fascist', two new books on French architect claim\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11543431/Le-Corbusier-was-militant-fascist-two-new-books-on-French-architect-claim.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Celik, Zeynep (28 July 1997). Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers Under French Rule. University of California Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-520-20457-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press","url_text":"University of California Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20457-7","url_text":"978-0-520-20457-7"}]},{"reference":"Antliff, Mark (2007). Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9047-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ADTdniFtnuwC","url_text":"Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-9047-3","url_text":"978-0-8223-9047-3"}]},{"reference":"Antliff, Mark (1997). \"La Cité francaise: George Valois, Le Corbusier, and Fascist Theories of Urbanism\". In Antliff, Mark; Affron, Matthew (eds.). Fascist Visions: Art and Ideology in France and Italy. Princeton University Press. pp. 134–170. ISBN 978-0-691-02738-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02738-8","url_text":"978-0-691-02738-8"}]},{"reference":"Le Corbusier. Urbanism 1. p. 39.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier's Fatal Flaws – A Critique of Modernism\". Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210628075003/https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1058&context=fypapers","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier's Fatal Flaws – A Critique of Modernism\""},{"url":"https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1058&context=fypapers","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"FITTING, PETER (2002). \"Urban Planning/Utopian Dreaming: Le Corbusier's Chandigarh Today\". Utopian Studies. 13 (1): 69–93. ISSN 1045-991X. JSTOR 20718410.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1045-991X","url_text":"1045-991X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20718410","url_text":"20718410"}]},{"reference":"Tate. \"Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) 1887–1965\". Tate. Retrieved 19 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/le-corbusier-1483","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) 1887–1965\""}]},{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier – enfant terrible of Modernist Architecture? / Pash Living Blog\". pash-living.co.uk. 10 October 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161129101819/http://www.pash-living.co.uk/blog/contemporary-designers/le-corbusier-enfant-terrible-of-modernist-architecture.html","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier – enfant terrible of Modernist Architecture? / Pash Living Blog\""},{"url":"http://www.pash-living.co.uk/blog/contemporary-designers/le-corbusier-enfant-terrible-of-modernist-architecture.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Musée: Fondation Le Corbusier – Maison La Roche\". Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau. Retrieved 18 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://en.parisinfo.com/paris-museum-monument/71409/Fondation-Le-Corbusier-Maison-La-Roche","url_text":"\"Musée: Fondation Le Corbusier – Maison La Roche\""}]},{"reference":"\"About the Faculty\". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140302185218/http://www.aha.cam.ac.uk/about","url_text":"\"About the Faculty\""},{"url":"http://www.aha.cam.ac.uk/about","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321","url_text":"\"The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement\""}]},{"reference":"Arwas, Victor (1992). Art Deco. Harry N. Abrams Inc. ISBN 978-0-8109-1926-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-1926-6","url_text":"978-0-8109-1926-6"}]},{"reference":"Bony, Anne (2012). L'Architecture moderne. Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-587641-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-03-587641-6","url_text":"978-2-03-587641-6"}]},{"reference":"Fishman, Robert (1982). Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-56023-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press","url_text":"MIT Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-56023-8","url_text":"978-0-262-56023-8"}]},{"reference":"Journel, Guillemette Morel (2015). Le Corbusier- Construire la Vie Moderne (in French). Editions du Patrimoine: Centre des Monument Nationaux. ISBN 978-2-7577-0419-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7577-0419-6","url_text":"978-2-7577-0419-6"}]},{"reference":"Le Corbusier (1925). L'Art décoratif d'aujourdhui (in French). G. Crés et Cie.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Le Corbusier (1923). Vers une architecture (in French). Flammarion (1995). ISBN 978-2-0812-1744-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-0812-1744-7","url_text":"978-2-0812-1744-7"}]},{"reference":"Riley, Noël (2004). Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs (in French). Flammarion.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Le Corbusier and the Sun\". solarhousehistory.com. 28 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://solarhousehistory.com/blog/2013/10/28/le-corbusier-and-the-sun","url_text":"\"Le Corbusier and the Sun\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_telescopes

Space telescope

["1 History","2 Advantages","3 Disadvantages","4 Future of space observatories","5 List of space telescopes","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]

Instrument in space to study astronomical objects This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Space telescope" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Wavelength sensitivity of Hubble, Webb, Roman, and other major observatories The Hubble Space Telescope, one of the Great Observatories A space telescope (also known as space observatory) is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Suggested by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971. Space telescopes avoid several problems caused by the atmosphere, including the absorption or scattering of certain wavelengths of light, obstruction by clouds, and distortions due to atmospheric refraction such as twinkling. Space telescopes can also observe dim objects during the daytime, and they avoid light pollution which ground-based observatories encounter. They are divided into two types: Satellites which map the entire sky (astronomical survey), and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from Earth imaging satellites, which point toward Earth for satellite imaging, applied for weather analysis, espionage, and other types of information gathering. History In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer, "father of Hubble" proposed to put a telescope in space. Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be hindered by Earth's atmosphere. After lobbying in the 1960s and 70s for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized into the Hubble Space Telescope, which was launched on April 24, 1990, by the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-31). This was launched due to many efforts by Nancy Grace Roman, "mother of Hubble", who was the first Chief of Astronomy and first female executive at NASA. She was a program scientist that worked to convince NASA, Congress, and others that Hubble was "very well worth doing". The first operational space telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971. Advantages Kepler's Supernova observed in visible light, infrared, and X-rays by NASA's three Great Observatories Performing astronomy from ground-based observatories on Earth is limited by the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation (scintillation or twinkling) due to the atmosphere. A telescope orbiting Earth outside the atmosphere is subject neither to twinkling nor to light pollution from artificial light sources on Earth. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes is often much higher than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. Many larger terrestrial telescopes, however, reduce atmospheric effects with adaptive optics. Space-based astronomy is more important for frequency ranges that are outside the optical window and the radio window, the only two wavelength ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum that are not severely attenuated by the atmosphere. For example, X-ray astronomy is nearly impossible when done from Earth, and has reached its current importance in astronomy only due to orbiting X-ray telescopes such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the XMM-Newton observatory. Infrared and ultraviolet are also largely blocked. Disadvantages Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle, but most space telescopes cannot be serviced at all. Future of space observatories Satellites have been launched and operated by NASA, ISRO, ESA, CNSA, JAXA and the Soviet space program (later succeeded by Roscosmos of Russia). As of 2022, many space observatories have already completed their missions, while others continue operating on extended time. However, the future availability of space telescopes and observatories depends on timely and sufficient funding. While future space observatories are planned by NASA, JAXA and the CNSA, scientists fear that there would be gaps in coverage that would not be covered immediately by future projects and this would affect research in fundamental science. On 16 January 2023, NASA announced preliminary considerations of several future space telescope programs, including the Great Observatory Technology Maturation Program, Habitable Worlds Observatory, and New Great Observatories. List of space telescopes Main article: List of space telescopes See also Airborne observatory Balloon-borne telescope Earth observation satellite List of telescope types Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology Ultraviolet astronomy X-ray telescope References ^ "Lyman Spitzer - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 7 January 2024. ^ "Hubble Essentials: About Lyman Spitzer, Jr". Hubble Site. Space Telescope Science Institute. ^ "Hubble Essentials: Quick Facts". Hubble Site. Space Telescope Science Institute. ^ "The mother of hubble". June 4, 2024. ^ "Dr. Nancy Grace Roman (1925-2018) - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-05. ^ a b "Why a Telescope in Space? - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 7 January 2024. ^ Kaplan, Sarah (18 October 2018). "As NASA's Telescopes Falter, Astronomers Fear Losing Their Eyes In Space". NDTV.com. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ Foust, Jeff (16 January 2023). "NASA prepares next steps in development of future large space telescope". SpaceNews. Retrieved 24 January 2023. ^ O'Callaghan, Jonthan (23 January 2023). "JWST Heralds a New Dawn for Exoplanet Science - The James Webb Space Telescope is opening an exciting new chapter in the study of exoplanets and the search for life beyond Earth". Scientific American. Retrieved 24 January 2023. Further reading Lyman Spitzer, "Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-terrestrial Observatory", 1946 Neil English: Space Telescopes – Capturing the Rays of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. Springer, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-27812-4. External links Media related to Space telescopes at Wikimedia Commons· Space telescopes with frequencies, at GSFC. vteSpace telescopesOperatingRadio and Microwave NCLE (since 2018) Solar Orbiter (since 2020) STEREO (since 2006) Queqiao (since 2018) Wind (since 1994) Queqiao 2 (since 2024) Infrared James Webb (since 2022) Odin (since 2001) SOLAR (since 2008) WISE (since 2009) Optical Aoi (since 2018) Astrosat (since 2015) BRITE constellation (since 2013) CHASE (since 2021) CHEOPS (since 2019) DSCOVR (since 2015) Euclid (since 2023) Hayabusa2 (since 2021) Gaia (since 2013) HiRISE (since 2005) Hubble (since 1990) Hinode (Solar-B) (since 2006) NEOSSat (since 2013) Odin (since 2001) SDO (since 2010) SOHO (since 1995) SOLAR (since 2008) Swift (since 2004) TESS (since 2018) Ultraviolet Aditya-L1 (since 2023) ASO-S (since 2022) Astrosat (since 2015) Hibari (since 2021) Hinode (Solar-B) (since 2006) IRIS (since 2013) SDO (since 2010) SOHO (since 1995) SOLAR (since 2008) Solar Orbiter (since 2020) STEREO (since 2006) Swift (since 2004) X-ray and Gamma-ray AGILE (since 2007) CALET (since 2015) Chandra (AXAF) (since 1999) DAMPE (since 2015) Einstein Probe (since 2024) HXMT (Insight) (since 2017) INTEGRAL (since 2002) Fermi (since 2008) GECAM (since 2020) IXPE (since 2021) Spektr-RG (since 2019) Swift (since 2004) Max Valier Sat (since 2017) MAXI (since 2009) MinXSS-2 (since 2018) NICER (since 2017) NuSTAR (since 2012) LEIA (since 2022) XRISM (since 2023) XPoSat (since 2024) XMM-Newton (since 1999) Other (particleor unclassified) ACE (since 1997) AMS-02 (since 2011) CALET (since 2015) DAMPE (since 2015) IBEX (since 2008) ISS-CREAM (since 2017) Mini-EUSO (since 2019) SOHO (since 1995) Solar Orbiter (since 2020) STEREO (since 2006) Planned ILO-X (2024) K-EUSO (2024) PETREL (2024) SVOM (2024) Xuntian (2024) SPHEREx (2025) Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (2026) PLATO (2026) COSI (2027) LORD (2027) JASMINE (2028) NEO Surveyor (2028) Solar-C EUVST (2028) ARIEL (2029) Spektr-UV (2030) UVEX (2030) Spektr-M (2030+) LiteBIRD (2032) Athena (2035) LISA (2035) Proposed Arcus Astro-1 Telescope AstroSat-2 EXCEDE Fresnel Imager FOCAL HabEx HWO Hypertelescope ILO-1 iWF-MAXI JEM-EUSO LUCI LUVOIR Lynx Nano-JASMINE Nautilus Deep Space Observatory New Worlds Mission NRO donation to NASA ORBIS OST PhoENiX Solar-D Space Solar Telescope THEIA THESEUS Retired Akari (Astro-F) (2006–2011) ALEXIS (1993–2005) Alouette 1 (1962–1972) Ariel 1 (1962, 1964) Ariel 2 (1964) Ariel 3 (1967–1969) Ariel 4 (1971–1972) Ariel 5 (1974–1980) Ariel 6 (1979–1982) ASTERIA (2017–2019) ATM (1973–1974) ASCA (Astro-D) (1993–2000) Astro-1 (1990) BBXRT HUT Astro-2 (HUT) (1995) Astron (1983–1991) ANS (1974–1976) BeppoSAX (1996–2003) CHIPSat (2003–2008) Compton (CGRO) (1991–2000) CoRoT (2006–2013) Cos-B (1975–1982) COBE (1989–1993) CXBN-2 (2017–2019) DXS (1993) EPOCh (2008) EPOXI (2010) Explorer 11 (1961) EXOSAT (1983–1986) EUVE (1992–2001) FUSE (1999–2007) Kvant-1 (1987–2001) GALEX (2003–2013) Gamma (1990–1992) Ginga (Astro-C) (1987–1991) Granat (1989–1998) Hakucho (CORSA-b) (1979–1985) HALCA (MUSES-B) (1997–2005) HEAO-1 (1977–1979) Herschel (2009–2013) Hinotori (Astro-A) (1981–1991) Hisaki (SPRINT-A) (2013–2023) HEAO-2 (Einstein Obs.) (1978–1982) HEAO-3 (1979–1981) HETE-2 (2000–2008) Hipparcos (1989–1993) IUE (1978–1996) IRAS (1983) IRTS (1995–1996) ISO (1996–1998) IXAE (1996–2004) Kepler (2009–2018) Kristall (1990–2001) LEGRI (1997–2002) LISA Pathfinder (2015–2017) MinXSS (2015–2017) MOST (2003–2019) MSX (1996–1997) Mikhailo Lomonosov (failed on-orbit) OAO-2 (1968–1973) OAO-3 (Copernicus) (1972–1981) Orbiting Solar Observatory OSO 1 OSO B OSO 3 OSO 4 OSO 5 OSO 6 OSO 7 OSO 8 Orion 1 (1971) Orion 2 (1973) PAMELA (2006–2016) PicSat (2018) Planck (2009–2013) RELIKT-1 (1983–1984) R/HESSI (2002–2018) ROSAT (1990–1999) RXTE (1995–2012) SAMPEX (1992–2004) SAS-B (1972–1973) SAS-C (1975–1979) Solwind (1979–1985) Spektr-R (2011–2019) Spitzer (2003–2020) Suzaku (Astro-EII) (2005–2015) Taiyo (SRATS) (1975–1980) Tenma (Astro-B) (1983–1985) Uhuru (1970–1973) Vanguard 3 (1959) WMAP (2001–2010) Yokoh (Solar-A) (1991–2001) Hibernating (Mission completed) SWAS (1998–2005) TRACE (1998–2010) Lost/Failed OAO-1 (1966) OAO-B (1970) CORSA (1976) CXBN (2012–2013) OSO C (1965) ABRIXAS (1999) HETE-1 (1996) WIRE (1999) Astro-E (2000) Tsubame (2014–2015) Hitomi (Astro-H) (2016) Cancelled Aelita AOSO Astro-G Constellation-X Darwin Destiny EChO Eddington FAME FINESSE GEMS HOP IXO JDEM LOFT OSO J OSO K Sentinel SIM & SIMlite SNAP SPICA SPOrt TAUVEX TPF XEUS XIPE Related Great Observatories program List of space telescopes List of proposed space telescopes X-ray telescope List of heliophysics missions List of planetariums Category:Space telescopes vte... in spaceBiologyHuman The human body Hygiene Locomotion Medicine Neuroscience Psychology Psychological and sociological effects Sex Sleep Non-human Animals Cats Dogs Frogs Fruit flies Mice Primates Tortoises Extraterrestrial life Microorganisms Plants Astrobotany Environment Climate Corrosion Debris Dust Magnetosphere Weather Weathering Society Advertising Alcohol Archaeology of Earth of items in space Art Burial Colonization Economy Mining Trade Ethics Exploration Food Law 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Suggested by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971. Space telescopes avoid several problems caused by the atmosphere, including the absorption or scattering of certain wavelengths of light, obstruction by clouds, and distortions due to atmospheric refraction such as twinkling. Space telescopes can also observe dim objects during the daytime, and they avoid light pollution which ground-based observatories encounter. They are divided into two types: Satellites which map the entire sky (astronomical survey), and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from Earth imaging satellites, which point toward Earth for satellite imaging, applied for weather analysis, espionage, and other types of information gathering.","title":"Space telescope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lyman Spitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hubble Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Orbiting Astronomical Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Astronomical_Observatory"},{"link_name":"OAO-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OAO-2"},{"link_name":"Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(space_telescope)"},{"link_name":"Salyut 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_1"}],"text":"In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer, \"father of Hubble\" proposed to put a telescope in space.[1][2] Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be hindered by Earth's atmosphere. After lobbying in the 1960s and 70s for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized into the Hubble Space Telescope, which was launched on April 24, 1990, by the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-31).[3] This was launched due to many efforts by Nancy Grace Roman, \"mother of Hubble\", who was the first Chief of Astronomy and first female executive at NASA.[4] She was a program scientist that worked to convince NASA, Congress, and others that Hubble was \"very well worth doing\".[5]The first operational space telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NASA%27s_Great_Observatories_Provide_a_Detailed_View_of_Kepler%27s_Supernova_Remnant.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kepler's Supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova"},{"link_name":"Great Observatories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Observatories"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"ground-based observatories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory#Ground-based_observatories"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation"},{"link_name":"scintillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere"},{"link_name":"light pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pollution"},{"link_name":"angular resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_resolution"},{"link_name":"aperture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture"},{"link_name":"adaptive optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_optics"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-6"},{"link_name":"optical window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_window"},{"link_name":"radio window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_window"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-6"},{"link_name":"X-ray astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Chandra X-ray Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory"},{"link_name":"XMM-Newton observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMM-Newton"},{"link_name":"Infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"}],"text":"Kepler's Supernova observed in visible light, infrared, and X-rays by NASA's three Great ObservatoriesPerforming astronomy from ground-based observatories on Earth is limited by the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation (scintillation or twinkling) due to the atmosphere. A telescope orbiting Earth outside the atmosphere is subject neither to twinkling nor to light pollution from artificial light sources on Earth. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes is often much higher than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. Many larger terrestrial telescopes, however, reduce atmospheric effects with adaptive optics.[6]Space-based astronomy is more important for frequency ranges that are outside the optical window and the radio window, the only two wavelength ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum that are not severely attenuated by the atmosphere.[6] For example, X-ray astronomy is nearly impossible when done from Earth, and has reached its current importance in astronomy only due to orbiting X-ray telescopes such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the XMM-Newton observatory. Infrared and ultraviolet are also largely blocked.","title":"Advantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"}],"text":"Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle, but most space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"ISRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation"},{"link_name":"ESA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency"},{"link_name":"CNSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration"},{"link_name":"JAXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA"},{"link_name":"Soviet space program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_space_program"},{"link_name":"Roscosmos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscosmos"},{"link_name":"CNSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NDTV-7"},{"link_name":"Habitable Worlds Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_Worlds_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SN-20230116-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA-20230123-9"}],"text":"Satellites have been launched and operated by NASA, ISRO, ESA, CNSA, JAXA and the Soviet space program (later succeeded by Roscosmos of Russia). As of 2022, many space observatories have already completed their missions, while others continue operating on extended time. However, the future availability of space telescopes and observatories depends on timely and sufficient funding. While future space observatories are planned by NASA, JAXA and the CNSA, scientists fear that there would be gaps in coverage that would not be covered immediately by future projects and this would affect research in fundamental science.[7]On 16 January 2023, NASA announced preliminary considerations of several future space telescope programs, including the Great Observatory Technology Maturation Program, Habitable Worlds Observatory, and New Great Observatories.[8][9]","title":"Future of space observatories"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of space telescopes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-terrestrial Observatory\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//history.nasa.gov/SP-4407/vol5/chapter-3/III-1%20(546).pdf"},{"link_name":"Space Telescopes – Capturing the Rays of the Electromagnetic Spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-27814-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-27812-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-27812-4"}],"text":"Lyman Spitzer, \"Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-terrestrial Observatory\", 1946\nNeil English: Space Telescopes – Capturing the Rays of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. Springer, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-27812-4.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Wavelength sensitivity of Hubble, Webb, Roman, and other major observatories","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Wavelength_Sensitivity_of_Hubble%2C_Webb%2C_Roman%2C_and_Other_Observatories_%2801FEBQTM8Y4FESTQ4N2AFQDBXH%29.jpg/400px-Wavelength_Sensitivity_of_Hubble%2C_Webb%2C_Roman%2C_and_Other_Observatories_%2801FEBQTM8Y4FESTQ4N2AFQDBXH%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Hubble Space Telescope, one of the Great Observatories","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg/220px-HST-SM4.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Kepler's Supernova observed in visible light, infrared, and X-rays by NASA's three Great Observatories","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/NASA%27s_Great_Observatories_Provide_a_Detailed_View_of_Kepler%27s_Supernova_Remnant.jpg/220px-NASA%27s_Great_Observatories_Provide_a_Detailed_View_of_Kepler%27s_Supernova_Remnant.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Airborne observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_observatory"},{"title":"Balloon-borne telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon-borne_telescope"},{"title":"Earth observation satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite"},{"title":"List of telescope types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_types"},{"title":"Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes"},{"title":"Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_telescopes,_observatories,_and_observing_technology"},{"title":"Ultraviolet astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy"},{"title":"X-ray telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope"}]

[{"reference":"\"Lyman Spitzer - NASA Science\". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 7 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://science.nasa.gov/people/lyman-spitzer-making-space-for-hubble/","url_text":"\"Lyman Spitzer - NASA Science\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hubble Essentials: About Lyman Spitzer, Jr\". Hubble Site. Space Telescope Science Institute.","urls":[{"url":"http://hubblesite.org/the_telescope/hubble_essentials/lyman_spitzer.php","url_text":"\"Hubble Essentials: About Lyman Spitzer, Jr\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Telescope_Science_Institute","url_text":"Space Telescope Science Institute"}]},{"reference":"\"Hubble Essentials: Quick Facts\". Hubble Site. Space Telescope Science Institute.","urls":[{"url":"http://hubblesite.org/the_telescope/hubble_essentials/quick_facts.php","url_text":"\"Hubble Essentials: Quick Facts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Telescope_Science_Institute","url_text":"Space Telescope Science Institute"}]},{"reference":"\"The mother of hubble\". June 4, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://esahubble.org/about/history/the-mother-of-hubble/","url_text":"\"The mother of hubble\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dr. Nancy Grace Roman (1925-2018) - NASA Science\". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://science.nasa.gov/people/nancy-roman/","url_text":"\"Dr. Nancy Grace Roman (1925-2018) - NASA Science\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why a Telescope in Space? - NASA Science\". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 7 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/overview/why-a-space-telescope-in-space/","url_text":"\"Why a Telescope in Space? - NASA Science\""}]},{"reference":"Kaplan, Sarah (18 October 2018). \"As NASA's Telescopes Falter, Astronomers Fear Losing Their Eyes In Space\". NDTV.com. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ndtv.com/science/as-nasas-prized-telescopes-falter-astronomers-fear-losing-their-eyes-in-space-1934035","url_text":"\"As NASA's Telescopes Falter, Astronomers Fear Losing Their Eyes In Space\""}]},{"reference":"Foust, Jeff (16 January 2023). \"NASA prepares next steps in development of future large space telescope\". SpaceNews. Retrieved 24 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://spacenews.com/nasa-prepares-next-steps-in-development-of-future-large-space-telescope/","url_text":"\"NASA prepares next steps in development of future large space telescope\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceNews","url_text":"SpaceNews"}]},{"reference":"O'Callaghan, Jonthan (23 January 2023). \"JWST Heralds a New Dawn for Exoplanet Science - The James Webb Space Telescope is opening an exciting new chapter in the study of exoplanets and the search for life beyond Earth\". Scientific American. Retrieved 24 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/jwst-heralds-a-new-dawn-for-exoplanet-science/","url_text":"\"JWST Heralds a New Dawn for Exoplanet Science - The James Webb Space Telescope is opening an exciting new chapter in the study of exoplanets and the search for life beyond Earth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American","url_text":"Scientific American"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium

Rhetorica ad Herennium

["1 Overview","2 Rhetorical figures from Book 4","3 Old French translation","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"]

Ancient Latin book on rhetoric Rhetorica ad Herennium AuthorCicero or CornificiusLanguageLatinSubjectRhetoricSet inAncient RomePublication date~ 90 BCEPublication placeRoman Empire Part of a series onRhetoric History Ancient Greece Asianism Atticism Attic orators Calliope Sophists Ancient India Ancient Rome The age of Cicero Second Sophistic Middle Ages Byzantine rhetoric Trivium Renaissance Studia humanitatis Modern period Concepts Captatio benevolentiae Chironomia Decorum Delectare Docere Device Eloquence Eloquentia perfecta Eunoia Enthymeme Facilitas Fallacy Informal Figure of speech Scheme Trope Five canons Inventio Dispositio Elocutio Memoria Pronuntiatio Hypsos Imitatio Kairos Method of loci Modes Operations Persuasion Ethos Pathos Logos Situation Style Grand Sotto voce Topos Genres Apologetics Debate Declamation Controversia Deliberative Demagogy Dialectic Socratic method Dissoi logoi Elocution Epideictic Encomium Panegyric Eulogy Farewell speech Forensic Funeral oration Homiletics‎ Sermon Invitational Lecture Public Lightning talk Maiden speech Oratory Polemic Diatribe Eristic Philippic Progymnasmata Suasoria Propaganda Spin Resignation speech Stump speech War-mongering Criticism Cluster Dramatic Pentadic Frame Genre Ideological Metaphoric Mimesis Narrative Neo-Aristotelian Rhetoricians Aristotle Aspasia Augustine Bakhtin Booth Brueggemann Burke Cicero de Man Demosthenes Derrida Erasmus Gorgias Hobbes Isocrates Lucian Lysias McLuhan Ong Perelman Pizan Plato Protagoras Quintilian Ramus Richards Smith Tacitus Toulmin Vico Weaver Works Gorgias (380 BC) Phaedrus (c. 370 BC) Rhetoric (c. 350 BC) Rhetoric to Alexander (c. 350 BC) De Sophisticis Elenchis (c. 350 BC) Topics (c. 350 BC) De Inventione (84 BC) Rhetorica ad Herennium (80 BC) De Oratore (55 BC) A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions (c. 50 BC) De Optimo Genere Oratorum (46 BC) Orator (46 BC) On the Sublime (c. 50) Institutio Oratoria (95) Panegyrici Latini (100–400) Dialogus de oratoribus (102) De doctrina Christiana (426) De vulgari eloquentia (1305) Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style (1521) Language as Symbolic Action (1966) A General Rhetoric (1970) Subfields Argumentation Cognitive Contrastive Constitutive Digital Feminist Native American New Health and medicine Pedagogy Procedural Science Technology Therapy Visual Composition Related Ars dictaminis Communication studies Composition studies Doxa Glossary of rhetorical terms Glossophobia List of feminist rhetoricians List of speeches Oral skills Orator Pistis Public rhetoric Rhetoric of social intervention model Rhetrickery Rogerian argument Seduction Speechwriting Talking point TED Terministic screen Toulmin model Wooden iron vte The Rhetorica ad Herennium (Rhetoric for Herennius) is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the late 80s BC. It was formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but is in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor. Overview The Rhetorica ad Herennium was addressed to Gaius Herennius (otherwise unknown). The Rhetorica remained the most popular book on rhetoric during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was commonly used, along with Cicero's De Inventione, to teach rhetoric, and over one hundred manuscripts are extant. It was also translated extensively into European vernacular languages and continued to serve as the standard schoolbook text on rhetoric during the Renaissance. The work focuses on the practical applications and examples of rhetoric. It is also the first book to teach rhetoric in a highly structured and disciplined form. Its discussion of elocutio (style) is the oldest surviving systematic treatment of Latin style, and many of the examples are of contemporary Roman events. This new style, which flowered in the century following this work's writing, promoted revolutionary advances in Roman literature and oratory. However, according to some analysts, teaching oratory in Latin was inherently controversial because oratory was seen as a political tool, which had to be kept in the hands of the Greek-speaking upper class. The Rhetorica ad Herennium can be seen as part of a liberal populist movement, carried forward by those, like L. Plotius Gallus, who was the first to open a school of rhetoric at Rome conducted entirely in Latin. He opened the school in 93 BCE. The work contains the first known description of the method of loci, a mnemonic technique. Ad Herennium also provides the first complete treatment of memoria (memorization of speeches). According to the work, there are three types of causes that a speaker would address: Demonstrativum, where there is praise or condemnation of a particular person Deliberativum, where policy is discussed Iudiciale, where legal controversies are addressed The Rhetorica ad Herennium suggests that in a standard format for argument (widely followed today in any five part essay) there were six steps: Exordium, in which the writer uses relevant generalities, anecdotes, quotes, or analogies to capture attention and then connects them to the specific topic Narratio, in which the author succinctly states what will be the argument, thesis or point that is to be proven Divisio, in which the author outlines the main points, or reviews the debate to clarify what needs to be discussed further Confirmatio, which sets out the arguments (often three) for the thesis that the author supports as well as evidence supporting them Refutatio, which sets out and refutes the opposing arguments Conclusio, which is a summary of the argument, describing the urgency of the viewpoint and actions that could be taken The Rhetorica ad Herennium divides oral rhetoric into three styles. Each style has traits that make it most effective for specific purposes in oration. Grand, a style using intricate arrangement of complex language The diction used is formal and impressive. The purpose of this style is to move an audience, either emotionally or to perform some action. Middle, a style using more relaxed language than the Grand style but not quite at the level of casual conversation It avoids using colloquialisms but is not overly formal. The Middle style's purpose is to please or entertain an audience. Simple, a style using ordinary speech common to everyday conversation It uses colloquialisms and informal language, and is best suited for instruction and explanation. Rhetorical figures from Book 4 Book 4 of the Rhetorica ad Herennium's systematic treatment of Latin oratory style identifies two categories of rhetorical devices, or Figures. These are Figures of Diction, which are identifiable in the language itself, and Figures of Thought, which are derived from the ideas presented. Although these figures have been in use in rhetoric throughout history, the Rhetorica ad Herennium was the first text to compile them and discuss the effects they have on an audience. Many of the following figures described in Book 4 are still used in modern rhetoric, though they were originally intended specifically for use in oral debate. The Figures of Diction include the following: Epanaphora, when the same word starts successive sentences Antistrophe, when the same word ends successive sentences Interlacement, when the previous two occur simultaneously Transplacement, when the same word is reused frequently The repetition of the same word in these four figures produces an elegant and pleasant sound for the listener, rather than simply being repetitive. Antithesis is when the structure of the sentence is built upon contraries. Apostrophe expresses grief or resentment by addressing a specific person or object. Interrogation reinforces an argument by asking the opposition a series of rhetorical questions after they have presented their case, while reasoning by question and answer involves asking and answering oneself the reasoning behind every statement made. These figures use conversational style to hold the audience's attention. A maxim is a saying that concisely shows what happens in life and therefore ought to happen as it applies to the situation the speaker is talking about. Reasoning by contraries uses one statement to prove an opposite statement. Colon or clause is when a series of up to three brief but complete clauses are strung together to communicate an entire thought; it is called isocolon when the clauses have an equal number of syllables. Similar to this is the comma or phrase, where single words are split up in a sentence to give it a halting, staccato sound. Both these figures create emphasis on the independent words or clauses within the entire thought; Period is the opposite, in which words in a sentence are close-packed and uninterrupted to form a complete thought. Homoeoptoton occurs when two or more words in the same sentence are in the same case with the same ending; in contrast, homoeoteleuton features words without inflection that have the same ending. Paronomasia (a term often treated as a formal term for a pun) changes a sound or a letter in a word to make it sound similar to another word with a different meaning; these three figures are most relevant in highly inflected languages with cases like Latin, and the Rhetorica ad Herennium states they are best used in speeches of entertainment. Hypophora occurs in debate when the speaker asks himself or his opponent what points can be made against his case or in favor of the opponent's, then uses the response (whether his own or his opponent's) to attack the position of the opponent. Climax is the repetition of a preceding word in the process of moving on to a new one. (An example is "The industry of Africanus brought him excellence, his excellence glory, his glory rivals.") Definition is the concise statement of a person or object's characteristic traits, transition restates a previous statement to set up the presentation of a new one, and correction is the deliberate retraction of a statement in order to replace it with a more fitting one. Paralipsis is best used as an indirect reference in a debate, it occurs when a speaker pretends to be passing or ignorant of points that are not relevant, when he is actually addressing them as points relevant to the discussion. Disjunction happens when two or more clauses end in verbs with similar meanings, conjunction when the clauses are connected by one verb between them, and adjunction when the verb connecting the clauses is located at the beginning or end. The author groups these three figures together, stating that disjunction is best suited for limited use to convey elegance while one should use conjunction more frequently for its brevity. Reduplication is the repetition of words for emphasis or an appeal to pity. Synonymy or Interpretation is similar to reduplication, only instead of repeating the same word it replaces it with a synonym. Reciprocal change is when two differing thoughts are arranged so that one follows the other despite the discrepancy (example: I do not write poems, because I cannot write the sort I wish, and I do not wish to write the sort I can). Surrender evokes pity by submitting to another's opinion on the topic. A speaker uses indecision by asking rhetorically which of two or more words he should use. Elimination lists multiple options or possibilities, and then systematically removes all except one of them, the point the speaker is arguing. Asyndeton is the presentation of concise clauses connected without conjunctions, which the Rhetorica ad Herennium claims creates animation and power in the speech. Aposiopesis occurs when a speaker deliberately does not finish a statement about his opponent, allowing suspicion of his opponent to settle in the audience. Conclusion identifies the necessary consequences or results of a previous statement. The author distinguishes the last ten figures of diction from the rest. The common characteristic of these ten figures is the application of language beyond the strict meaning of the words. The first he identifies as Onomatopoeia, the term given for words assigned to sounds we cannot properly imitate with language, such as "hiss" or "roar." Antonomasia or pronomination is the use of an epithet when addressing a person or object in place of their proper name. Metonymy occurs when an object is referred to as something closely associated with it rather than its proper name. Periphrasis is the use of more words than are necessary to express a simple idea (example: "The steadiness of the tortoise defeated the impatience of the hare," rather than "The tortoise defeated the hare,"). Hyperbaton upsets the order of the words used. Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. Synecdoche occurs when a whole point is understood when only a small part is addressed. Catachresis is the use of an inexact but similar word in place of the proper one (example: The power of man is short). The author defines metaphor as the application of one object to another due to some indirect similarity, and allegory as the implication of multiple meanings to a phrase beyond the actual letter of the words used. The Figures of Thought include: Distribution, which assigns specific roles to a number of objects or people in order to identify their place in the structure of the argument, and frankness of speech, in which the speaker exercises his right to speak freely despite the presence of superiors. Understatement occurs when a speaker downplays a particular advantage he might have over someone in order to avoid appearing arrogant. Vivid description describes the consequences of something with impressive and elaborate detail. Division separates all the possible causes of something, and then resolves them with reasoning that is connected. Accumulation is the connection of all the points made throughout an argument at the end of a speech, adding emphasis to the conclusion. Dwelling on the point is the continuous repetition of the same point, while refining disguises dwelling on the same topic by continuously saying the same thing in new ways. Dialogue is used as a figure of thought when the speaker puts words in the mouth of his opponent for the sake of rhetorical conversation to illustrate his point. Comparisons point out similar traits in different people or objects, while exemplification is the citing of something done in the past along with the name of the person or thing that did it. Portrayal identifies a person with a physical description rather than their name, while character delineation identifies a person with noticeable elements of their character or personality. Both of these figures allow the speaker to draw particular attentions to specific traits of that person. Personification assigns an inanimate object or an absent person traits to help the audience understand its character. Emphasis leaves more to be suspected about a topic than what is actually said, while conciseness is the precise expression of a thought using the least amount of language possible. Ocular demonstration is similar to vivid description, though the emphasis is on the visual elements of the scene described. Old French translation At the request of William of Santo Stefano, the Rhetorica ad Herennium was translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282. See also Rhetorical operations Five paragraph essay Cicero, De Inventione Rhetorica ad Alexandrum Notes ^ "Rhetorica ad Herennium". Reference to Sulpicius' tribunate of 88, and Gaius Marius' final consulship (86). ^ J. Carcopino. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. ^ "Roman rhetoric : an overview". societasviaromana.net. Retrieved 28 July 2015. ^ Douglas Boin/Karl Galinsky. "Rhetorica ad Herennium Passages on Memory". utexas.edu. Retrieved 28 July 2015. ^ "Ad C. Herennium de ratione dicendi (Rhetorica ad Herennium)". Internet Archive. Retrieved 28 July 2015. ^ Jonathan Rubin (2018), "John of Antioch and the Perceptions of Language and Translation in Thirteenth-Century Acre", in John France (ed.), Acre and Its Falls: Studies in the History of a Crusader City, Brill, pp. 90–104. References Rhetorica ad Herennium (Friedrich Marx, ed. Prolegomena in editio maior), Teubner, Leipzig, 1923. Golla, Georg. Sprachliche Beobachtungen zum auctor ad Herennium, Breslau, 1935. Kroll, Wilhelm. Die Entwicklung der lateinischen Sprache, Glotta 22 (1934). 24-27. Kroll, Wilhelm. Der Text des Cornificius, Philologus 89 (1934). 63-84 Tolkiehn, Johannes. Jahresbuch des philologischen Vereins zu Berlin 45 (1919) External links Rhetorica ad Herennium at the Internet Archive. Latin text with English translation by Harry Caplan. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1954. Liber rethoricorum Ms. Codex 1630 from Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts. Latin manuscript written in protohumanistic script from northern Italy, possibly Venice, between 1440 and 1460. Commentaria ad Rhetoricam Ciceronis (UPenn MS Codex 1629) from Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts University of Pennsylvania. Latin manuscript, , 1342. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cornificius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 173–174. This discusses the work under the now disputed name of the author. Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National Norway Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Poland Vatican 2 Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"Cornificius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornificius"}],"text":"The Rhetorica ad Herennium (Rhetoric for Herennius) is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the late 80s BC.[1] It was formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but is in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor.","title":"Rhetorica ad Herennium"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"De Inventione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Inventione"},{"link_name":"elocutio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elocutio"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Roman literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_literature"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"method of loci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci"},{"link_name":"mnemonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic"},{"link_name":"memoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"five part essay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_part_essay"},{"link_name":"Exordium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exordium_(rhetoric)"}],"text":"The Rhetorica ad Herennium was addressed to Gaius Herennius (otherwise unknown). The Rhetorica remained the most popular book on rhetoric during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was commonly used, along with Cicero's De Inventione, to teach rhetoric, and over one hundred manuscripts are extant. It was also translated extensively into European vernacular languages and continued to serve as the standard schoolbook text on rhetoric during the Renaissance. The work focuses on the practical applications and examples of rhetoric. It is also the first book to teach rhetoric in a highly structured and disciplined form.Its discussion of elocutio (style) is the oldest surviving systematic treatment of Latin style, and many of the examples are of contemporary Roman events. This new style, which flowered in the century following this work's writing, promoted revolutionary advances in Roman literature and oratory. However, according to some analysts, teaching oratory in Latin was inherently controversial because oratory was seen as a political tool, which had to be kept in the hands of the Greek-speaking upper class.[2] The Rhetorica ad Herennium can be seen as part of a liberal populist movement, carried forward by those, like L. Plotius Gallus, who was the first to open a school of rhetoric at Rome conducted entirely in Latin. He opened the school in 93 BCE.[3] The work contains the first known description of the method of loci, a mnemonic technique. Ad Herennium also provides the first complete treatment of memoria (memorization of speeches).[4]According to the work, there are three types of causes that a speaker would address:Demonstrativum, where there is praise or condemnation of a particular person\nDeliberativum, where policy is discussed\nIudiciale, where legal controversies are addressedThe Rhetorica ad Herennium suggests that in a standard format for argument (widely followed today in any five part essay) there were six steps:Exordium, in which the writer uses relevant generalities, anecdotes, quotes, or analogies to capture attention and then connects them to the specific topic\nNarratio, in which the author succinctly states what will be the argument, thesis or point that is to be proven\nDivisio, in which the author outlines the main points, or reviews the debate to clarify what needs to be discussed further\nConfirmatio, which sets out the arguments (often three) for the thesis that the author supports as well as evidence supporting them\nRefutatio, which sets out and refutes the opposing arguments\nConclusio, which is a summary of the argument, describing the urgency of the viewpoint and actions that could be takenThe Rhetorica ad Herennium divides oral rhetoric into three styles. Each style has traits that make it most effective for specific purposes in oration.Grand, a style using intricate arrangement of complex language\nThe diction used is formal and impressive. The purpose of this style is to move an audience, either emotionally or to perform some action.\nMiddle, a style using more relaxed language than the Grand style but not quite at the level of casual conversation\nIt avoids using colloquialisms but is not overly formal. The Middle style's purpose is to please or entertain an audience.\nSimple, a style using ordinary speech common to everyday conversation\nIt uses colloquialisms and informal language, and is best suited for instruction and explanation.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modern rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_rhetoric"},{"link_name":"pun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pun"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Book 4 of the Rhetorica ad Herennium's systematic treatment of Latin oratory style identifies two categories of rhetorical devices, or Figures. These are Figures of Diction, which are identifiable in the language itself, and Figures of Thought, which are derived from the ideas presented. Although these figures have been in use in rhetoric throughout history, the Rhetorica ad Herennium was the first text to compile them and discuss the effects they have on an audience. Many of the following figures described in Book 4 are still used in modern rhetoric, though they were originally intended specifically for use in oral debate.The Figures of Diction include the following:Epanaphora, when the same word starts successive sentences\nAntistrophe, when the same word ends successive sentences\nInterlacement, when the previous two occur simultaneously\nTransplacement, when the same word is reused frequentlyThe repetition of the same word in these four figures produces an elegant and pleasant sound for the listener, rather than simply being repetitive.Antithesis is when the structure of the sentence is built upon contraries.\nApostrophe expresses grief or resentment by addressing a specific person or object.\nInterrogation reinforces an argument by asking the opposition a series of rhetorical questions after they have presented their case, while reasoning by question and answer involves asking and answering oneself the reasoning behind every statement made.These figures use conversational style to hold the audience's attention.A maxim is a saying that concisely shows what happens in life and therefore ought to happen as it applies to the situation the speaker is talking about.\nReasoning by contraries uses one statement to prove an opposite statement.\nColon or clause is when a series of up to three brief but complete clauses are strung together to communicate an entire thought; it is called isocolon when the clauses have an equal number of syllables.\nSimilar to this is the comma or phrase, where single words are split up in a sentence to give it a halting, staccato sound.Both these figures create emphasis on the independent words or clauses within the entire thought; Period is the opposite, in which words in a sentence are close-packed and uninterrupted to form a complete thought.Homoeoptoton occurs when two or more words in the same sentence are in the same case with the same ending;\nin contrast, homoeoteleuton features words without inflection that have the same ending.\nParonomasia (a term often treated as a formal term for a pun) changes a sound or a letter in a word to make it sound similar to another word with a different meaning; these three figures are most relevant in highly inflected languages with cases like Latin, and the Rhetorica ad Herennium states they are best used in speeches of entertainment.\nHypophora occurs in debate when the speaker asks himself or his opponent what points can be made against his case or in favor of the opponent's, then uses the response (whether his own or his opponent's) to attack the position of the opponent.\nClimax is the repetition of a preceding word in the process of moving on to a new one. (An example is \"The industry of Africanus brought him excellence, his excellence glory, his glory rivals.\")\nDefinition is the concise statement of a person or object's characteristic traits, transition restates a previous statement to set up the presentation of a new one, and correction is the deliberate retraction of a statement in order to replace it with a more fitting one. Paralipsis is best used as an indirect reference in a debate, it occurs when a speaker pretends to be passing or ignorant of points that are not relevant, when he is actually addressing them as points relevant to the discussion.Disjunction happens when two or more clauses end in verbs with similar meanings, conjunction when the clauses are connected by one verb between them, and adjunction when the verb connecting the clauses is located at the beginning or end. The author groups these three figures together, stating that disjunction is best suited for limited use to convey elegance while one should use conjunction more frequently for its brevity.Reduplication is the repetition of words for emphasis or an appeal to pity. Synonymy or Interpretation is similar to reduplication, only instead of repeating the same word it replaces it with a synonym. Reciprocal change is when two differing thoughts are arranged so that one follows the other despite the discrepancy (example: I do not write poems, because I cannot write the sort I wish, and I do not wish to write the sort I can). Surrender evokes pity by submitting to another's opinion on the topic. A speaker uses indecision by asking rhetorically which of two or more words he should use. Elimination lists multiple options or possibilities, and then systematically removes all except one of them, the point the speaker is arguing. Asyndeton is the presentation of concise clauses connected without conjunctions, which the Rhetorica ad Herennium claims creates animation and power in the speech. Aposiopesis occurs when a speaker deliberately does not finish a statement about his opponent, allowing suspicion of his opponent to settle in the audience. Conclusion identifies the necessary consequences or results of a previous statement.The author distinguishes the last ten figures of diction from the rest. The common characteristic of these ten figures is the application of language beyond the strict meaning of the words. The first he identifies as Onomatopoeia, the term given for words assigned to sounds we cannot properly imitate with language, such as \"hiss\" or \"roar.\" Antonomasia or pronomination is the use of an epithet when addressing a person or object in place of their proper name. Metonymy occurs when an object is referred to as something closely associated with it rather than its proper name. Periphrasis is the use of more words than are necessary to express a simple idea (example: \"The steadiness of the tortoise defeated the impatience of the hare,\" rather than \"The tortoise defeated the hare,\"). Hyperbaton upsets the order of the words used. Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. Synecdoche occurs when a whole point is understood when only a small part is addressed. Catachresis is the use of an inexact but similar word in place of the proper one (example: The power of man is short). The author defines metaphor as the application of one object to another due to some indirect similarity, and allegory as the implication of multiple meanings to a phrase beyond the actual letter of the words used.The Figures of Thought include: \nDistribution, which assigns specific roles to a number of objects or people in order to identify their place in the structure of the argument, and frankness of speech, in which the speaker exercises his right to speak freely despite the presence of superiors. Understatement occurs when a speaker downplays a particular advantage he might have over someone in order to avoid appearing arrogant. Vivid description describes the consequences of something with impressive and elaborate detail. Division separates all the possible causes of something, and then resolves them with reasoning that is connected. Accumulation is the connection of all the points made throughout an argument at the end of a speech, adding emphasis to the conclusion. Dwelling on the point is the continuous repetition of the same point, while refining disguises dwelling on the same topic by continuously saying the same thing in new ways. Dialogue is used as a figure of thought when the speaker puts words in the mouth of his opponent for the sake of rhetorical conversation to illustrate his point. Comparisons point out similar traits in different people or objects, while exemplification is the citing of something done in the past along with the name of the person or thing that did it. Portrayal identifies a person with a physical description rather than their name, while character delineation identifies a person with noticeable elements of their character or personality. Both of these figures allow the speaker to draw particular attentions to specific traits of that person. Personification assigns an inanimate object or an absent person traits to help the audience understand its character. Emphasis leaves more to be suspected about a topic than what is actually said, while conciseness is the precise expression of a thought using the least amount of language possible. Ocular demonstration is similar to vivid description, though the emphasis is on the visual elements of the scene described.[5]","title":"Rhetorical figures from Book 4"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William of Santo Stefano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Santo_Stefano"},{"link_name":"Old French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French"},{"link_name":"John of Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Antioch_(translator)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"At the request of William of Santo Stefano, the Rhetorica ad Herennium was translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282.[6]","title":"Old French translation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Rhetorica ad Herennium\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Roman rhetoric : an overview\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.societasviaromana.net/Collegium_Historicum/roman_rhetoric1.php"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Rhetorica ad Herennium Passages on Memory\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.utexas.edu/research/memoria/Ad_Herennium_Passages.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Ad C. Herennium de ratione dicendi (Rhetorica ad Herennium)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/adcherenniumdera00capluoft"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"text":"^ \"Rhetorica ad Herennium\". Reference to Sulpicius' tribunate of 88, and Gaius Marius' final consulship (86).\n\n^ J. Carcopino. Daily Life in Ancient Rome.\n\n^ \"Roman rhetoric : an overview\". societasviaromana.net. Retrieved 28 July 2015.\n\n^ Douglas Boin/Karl Galinsky. \"Rhetorica ad Herennium Passages on Memory\". utexas.edu. Retrieved 28 July 2015.\n\n^ \"Ad C. Herennium de ratione dicendi (Rhetorica ad Herennium)\". Internet Archive. Retrieved 28 July 2015.\n\n^ Jonathan Rubin (2018), \"John of Antioch and the Perceptions of Language and Translation in Thirteenth-Century Acre\", in John France (ed.), Acre and Its Falls: Studies in the History of a Crusader City, Brill, pp. 90–104.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga

Lady Gaga

["1 Life and career","1.1 1986–2004: Early life","1.2 2005–2007: Career beginnings","1.3 2008–2010: Breakthrough with The Fame and The Fame Monster","1.4 2011–2014: Born This Way, Artpop, and Cheek to Cheek","1.5 2015–2017: American Horror Story, Joanne, and Super Bowl performances","1.6 2018–2019: A Star Is Born and Las Vegas residency","1.7 2020–2023: Chromatica, Love for Sale, and House of Gucci","1.8 2024: Joker: Folie à Deux and upcoming seventh studio album","2 Artistry","2.1 Influences","2.2 Musical style and themes","2.3 Videos and stage","3 Public image","3.1 Censorship","4 Activism","4.1 Philanthropy","4.2 Born This Way Foundation","4.3 LGBT advocacy","5 Legacy","6 Achievements","7 Discography","8 Tours and residencies","9 Filmography","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","12.1 Citations","12.2 Literary sources","13 External links"]

American singer-songwriter and actress (born 1986) For the Peso Pluma song, see Lady Gaga (song). Lady GagaGaga at the inauguration of Joe Biden, 2021BornStefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (1986-03-28) March 28, 1986 (age 38)Manhattan, New York City, USOccupationsSingersongwriteractressYears active2001–presentWorksDiscographysongsvideographyperformancesParentsCynthia BissettJoseph GermanottaAwardsFull listMusical careerGenresPopdanceelectronicjazzrockInstrument(s)Vocalspianoguitar LabelsDef JamCherrytreeKonLiveStreamlineInterscope Websiteladygaga.comSignature Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (/ˈstɛfəni ˌdʒɜːrməˈnɒtə/ ⓘ STEF-ən-ee JUR-mə-NOT-ə; born March 28, 1986), known professionally as Lady Gaga, is an American singer-songwriter and actress. She is known for reinventing her image and showcasing versatility in entertainment. Gaga started performing as a teenager by singing at open mic nights and acting in school plays. She studied Collaborative Arts Project 21 before leaving to pursue a music career. After a contract cancellation by Def Jam Recordings, Gaga worked as a songwriter for Sony/ATV Music Publishing. In 2007, she signed with Interscope Records and KonLive Distribution. Her breakthrough came the following year with her debut studio album, The Fame, and its singles "Just Dance" and "Poker Face". The album was later reissued along with The Fame Monster (2009), which yielded the successful singles "Bad Romance", "Alejandro" and "Telephone". Gaga's five succeeding albums all debuted atop the US Billboard 200. Her second full-length album, Born This Way (2011), explored electronic rock and techno-pop and sold more than one million copies in its first week. The title track became the fastest-selling song on the iTunes Store, with over one million downloads in less than a week. Following her EDM-influenced third album, Artpop (2013), and its lead single "Applause", she released the jazz album Cheek to Cheek (2014) with Tony Bennett, and the soft rock album Joanne (2016). She ventured into acting, winning awards for her leading roles in the miniseries American Horror Story: Hotel (2015–2016) and the musical film A Star Is Born (2018). Her contributions to the latter's soundtrack, which spawned the chart-topping single "Shallow", made her the first woman to win an Academy Award, BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award and Grammy Award in one year. Gaga returned to dance-pop with her sixth studio album, Chromatica (2020), which yielded the number-one single "Rain on Me". In 2021, she released her second and final collaborative album with Bennett, Love for Sale, and also starred in the biopic House of Gucci. Having sold an estimated 170 million records, Gaga is one of the world's best selling music artists and the only female artist to achieve four singles each selling at least 10 million copies globally. Her accolades include 13 Grammy Awards, 2 Golden Globe Awards, 18 MTV Video Music Awards, awards from the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Council of Fashion Designers of America, and recognition as Billboard's Artist of the Year (2010) and Woman of the Year (2015). She has also been included in several Forbes power rankings and ranked fourth on VH1's Greatest Women in Music (2012). Time named Gaga one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2010 and 2019 and placed her on their All-Time 100 Fashion Icons list. Gaga's philanthropy and activism focus on mental health awareness and LGBT rights; she has her own non-profit organization, the Born This Way Foundation, which supports the wellness of young people. Her business ventures include Haus Labs, a vegan cosmetics brand launched in 2019. Life and career 1986–2004: Early life Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta was born on March 28, 1986, at Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan, New York City, to an upper middle class Catholic family. Both of her parents have Italian ancestry. Her parents are Cynthia Louise (née Bissett), a philanthropist and business executive, and Internet entrepreneur Joseph Germanotta, and she has a younger sister named Natali. Brought up on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, Gaga said in an interview that her parents came from lower-class families and worked hard for everything. From age 11, she attended the Convent of the Sacred Heart, a private all-girls Roman Catholic school. Gaga has described her high-school self as "very dedicated, very studious, very disciplined" but also "a bit insecure". She considered herself a misfit and was mocked for "being either too provocative or too eccentric". Gaga began playing the piano at age four when her mother insisted she become "a cultured young woman". She took piano lessons and practiced through her childhood. The lessons taught her to create music by ear, which Gaga preferred over reading sheet music. Her parents encouraged her to pursue music and enrolled her in Creative Arts Camp. As a teenager, she played at open mic nights. Gaga played the lead roles of Adelaide in the play Guys and Dolls and Philia in the play A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum at Regis High School. She also studied method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute for ten years. Gaga unsuccessfully auditioned for New York shows, though did appear in a small background role as a high-school student in a 2001 episode of The Sopranos titled "The Telltale Moozadell". She later said of her inclination towards music: I don't know exactly where my affinity for music comes from, but it is the thing that comes easiest to me. When I was like three years old, I may have been even younger, my mom always tells this really embarrassing story of me propping myself up and playing the keys like this because I was too young and short to get all the way up there. Just go like this on the low end of the piano ... I was really, really good at piano, so my first instincts were to work so hard at practicing piano, and I might not have been a natural dancer, but I am a natural musician. That is the thing that I believe I am the greatest at. In 2003, at age 17, Gaga gained early admission to Collaborative Arts Project 21, a music school at New York University (NYU)'s Tisch School of the Arts, and lived in an NYU dorm. She studied music there and improved her songwriting skills by writing essays on art, religion, social issues and politics, including a thesis on pop artists Spencer Tunick and Damien Hirst. In 2005, Gaga withdrew from school during the second semester of her second year to focus on her music career. That year, she also played an unsuspecting diner customer for MTV's Boiling Points, a prank reality television show. In a 2014 interview, Gaga said she was raped at age 19 by her producer, and later underwent mental and physical therapy for this. She has post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and attributes it to the incident, and has credited support from doctors, family and friends with helping her. Gaga later gave additional details about the rape, including that "the person who raped me dropped me off pregnant on a corner at my parents' house because I was vomiting and sick. Because I'd been being abused. I was locked away in a studio for months." 2005–2007: Career beginnings In 2005, Gaga recorded two songs with hip-hop artist Melle Mel for an audio book accompanying Cricket Casey's children's novel The Portal in the Park. She also formed a band called the SGBand with some friends from NYU. They played gigs around New York and became a fixture of the downtown Lower East Side club scene. After the 2006 Songwriters Hall of Fame New Songwriters Showcase at the Cutting Room in June, talent scout Wendy Starland recommended her to music producer Rob Fusari. Fusari collaborated with Gaga, who traveled daily to New Jersey, helping to develop her songs and compose new material. The producer said they began dating in May 2006, and claimed to have been the first person to call her "Lady Gaga", which was derived from Queen's song "Radio Ga Ga". Their relationship lasted until January 2007. Gaga performing at Lollapalooza in 2007 Fusari and Gaga established a company called "Team Lovechild, LLC" to promote her career. They recorded and produced electropop tracks, sending them to music industry executives. Joshua Sarubin, the head of Artists and repertoire (A&R) at Def Jam Recordings, responded positively and, after approval from Sarubin's boss Antonio "L.A." Reid, Gaga was signed to Def Jam in September 2006. She was dropped from the label three months later and returned to her family home for Christmas. Gaga began performing at neo-burlesque shows, which according to her represented freedom. During this time, she met performance artist Lady Starlight, who helped mold her onstage persona. The pair began performing at downtown club venues like the Mercury Lounge, the Bitter End, and the Rockwood Music Hall. Their live performance art piece, known as "Lady Gaga and the Starlight Revue" and billed as "The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rockshow", was a tribute to 1970s variety acts. They performed at the 2007 Lollapalooza music festival. Having initially focused on avant-garde electronic dance music, Gaga began to incorporate pop melodies and the glam rock style of David Bowie and Queen into her songs. While Gaga and Starlight were performing, Fusari continued to develop the songs he had created with her, sending them to the producer and record executive Vincent Herbert. In November 2007, Herbert signed Gaga to his label Streamline Records, an imprint of Interscope Records, established that month. Gaga later credited Herbert as the man who discovered her. Having served as an apprentice songwriter during an internship at Famous Music Publishing, Gaga struck a music publishing deal with Sony/ATV. As a result, she was hired to write songs for Britney Spears, New Kids on the Block, Fergie, and the Pussycat Dolls. At Interscope, musician Akon was impressed with her singing abilities when she sang a reference vocal for one of his tracks in studio. Akon convinced Jimmy Iovine, chairman and CEO of Interscope Geffen A&M Records (a brother company for Def Jam), to form a joint deal by having Gaga also sign with his own label KonLive, making her his "franchise player". In late 2007, Gaga met with songwriter and producer RedOne. She collaborated with him in the recording studio for a week on her debut album, signing with Cherrytree Records, an Interscope imprint established by producer and songwriter Martin Kierszenbaum; she also wrote four songs with Kierszenbaum. Despite securing a record deal, she said that some radio stations found her music too "racy", "dance-oriented", and "underground" for the mainstream market, to which she replied: "My name is Lady Gaga, I've been on the music scene for years, and I'm telling you, this is what's next." 2008–2010: Breakthrough with The Fame and The Fame Monster By 2008, Gaga had relocated to Los Angeles to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album, The Fame, and to set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga, modeled on Andy Warhol's The Factory. The Fame was released on August 19, 2008, and reached number one in Austria, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the UK, as well as the top five in Australia and the US. Its first two singles, "Just Dance" and "Poker Face", reached number one in the United States, Australia, Canada and the UK. The latter was also the world's bestselling single of 2009, with 9.8 million copies sold that year, and spent a record 83 weeks on Billboard magazine's Digital Songs chart. Three other singles, "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)", "LoveGame" and "Paparazzi", were released from the album; the lattermost reached number one in Germany. Remixed versions of the singles from The Fame, except "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)", were included on Hitmixes in August 2009. At the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, The Fame and "Poker Face" won Best Dance/Electronica Album and Best Dance Recording, respectively. Gaga on The Monster Ball Tour in 2010; it grossed $227 million and became the highest-grossing concert tour for a debut headlining artist Following her opening act on the Pussycat Dolls' 2009 Doll Domination Tour in Europe and Oceania, Gaga headlined her worldwide The Fame Ball Tour, which ran from March to September 2009. While traveling the globe, she wrote eight songs for The Fame Monster, a reissue of The Fame. Those new songs were also released as a standalone EP on November 18, 2009. Its first single, "Bad Romance", was released one month earlier and went number one in Canada and the UK, and number two in the US, Australia and New Zealand. "Telephone", with Beyoncé, followed as the second single from the EP and became Gaga's fourth UK number one. Its third single was "Alejandro", which reached number one in Finland and attracted controversy when its music video was deemed blasphemous by the Catholic League. Both tracks reached the top five in the US. The video for "Bad Romance" became the most watched on YouTube in April 2010, and that October, Gaga became the first person with more than one billion combined views. At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, she won eight awards from 13 nominations, including Video of the Year for "Bad Romance". She was the most nominated artist for a single year, and the first woman to receive two nominations for Video of the Year at the same ceremony. The Fame Monster won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album, and "Bad Romance" won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Short Form Music Video at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. In 2009, Gaga spent a record 150 weeks on the UK Singles Chart and became the most downloaded female act in a year in the US, with 11.1 million downloads sold, earning an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records. Worldwide, The Fame and The Fame Monster together have sold more than 15 million copies, and the latter was 2010's second bestselling album. Its success allowed Gaga to start her second worldwide concert tour, The Monster Ball Tour, and release The Remix, her final record with Cherrytree Records and among the bestselling remix albums of all time. The Monster Ball Tour ran from November 2009 to May 2011 and grossed $227.4 million, making it the highest-grossing concert tour for a debut headlining artist. Concerts performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for an HBO television special, Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden. Gaga also performed songs from her albums at the 2009 Royal Variety Performance, the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, and the 2010 Brit Awards. Before Michael Jackson's death, Gaga was set to take part in his canceled This Is It concert series at the O2 Arena in the UK. During this era, Gaga ventured into business, collaborating with consumer electronics company Monster Cable Products to create in-ear, jewel-encrusted headphones called Heartbeats by Lady Gaga. She also partnered with Polaroid in January 2010 as their creative director and announced a suite of photo-capture products called Grey Label. Her collaboration with her past record producer and ex-boyfriend Rob Fusari led to a lawsuit against her production team, Mermaid Music LLC. At this time, Gaga was tested borderline positive for lupus but claimed not to be affected by the symptoms and hoped to maintain a healthy lifestyle. 2011–2014: Born This Way, Artpop, and Cheek to Cheek In February 2011, Gaga released "Born This Way", the lead single from her studio album of the same name. The song sold more than one million copies within five days, earning the Guinness World Record for the fastest selling single on iTunes. It debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the 1,000th number-one single in the history of the charts. Its second single "Judas" followed two months later, and "The Edge of Glory" served as its third single. Both reached the top 10 in the US and the UK. Her music video for "The Edge of Glory", unlike her previous work, portrays her dancing on a fire escape and walking on a lonely street, without intricate choreography and back-up dancers. Gaga promoting Born This Way with performances in Sydney, Australia Born This Way was released on May 23, 2011, and debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 1.1 million copies. It sold eight million copies worldwide and received three Grammy nominations, including Gaga's third consecutive nomination for Album of the Year. Rolling Stone listed the record among "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" in 2020. Born This Way's following singles were "You and I" and "Marry the Night", which reached numbers 6 and 29 in the US, respectively. Its cut, "Bloody Mary", became a resurgent success and was released as a single in 2022. While filming the foremost's music video, Gaga met and started dating actor Taylor Kinney in July 2011, who played her love interest. She also embarked on the Born This Way Ball tour in April 2012, which was scheduled to conclude the following March, but ended one month earlier when Gaga canceled the remaining dates due to a labral tear of her right hip that required surgery. While refunds for the cancellations were estimated to be worth $25 million, the tour grossed $183.9 million globally. In 2011, Gaga also worked with Tony Bennett on a jazz version of "The Lady Is a Tramp", with Elton John on "Hello Hello" for the animated feature film Gnomeo & Juliet, and with The Lonely Island and Justin Timberlake on "3-Way (The Golden Rule)". She also performed a concert at the Sydney Town Hall in Australia that year to promote Born This Way and to celebrate former US President Bill Clinton's 65th birthday. In November, she was featured in a Thanksgiving television special titled A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, which attracted 5.7 million American viewers and spawned the release of her fourth EP, A Very Gaga Holiday. In 2012, Gaga guest-starred as an animated version of herself in an episode of The Simpsons called "Lisa Goes Gaga", and released her first fragrance, Lady Gaga Fame, followed by a second one, Eau de Gaga, in 2014. Gaga began work on her third studio album, Artpop, in early 2012, during the Born This Way Ball tour; she crafted the album to mirror "a night at the club". In August 2013, Gaga released the album's lead single "Applause", which reached number one in Hungary, number four in the US, and number five in the UK. A lyric video for Artpop track "Aura" followed in October to accompany Robert Rodriguez's Machete Kills, where she plays an assassin named La Chameleon. The film received generally mixed reviews and earned less than half of its $33 million budget. The second Artpop single, "Do What U Want", featured singer R. Kelly and was released later that month, topping the charts in Hungary and reaching number 13 in the US. Artpop was released on November 6, 2013, to mixed reviews. Helen Brown of The Daily Telegraph criticized Gaga for making another album about her fame and doubted the record's originality, but found it "great for dancing". The album debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart, and sold more than 2.5 million copies worldwide as of July 2014. "G.U.Y." was released as the third single in March 2014 and peaked at number 76 in the US. With the Cheek to Cheek era, Gaga (seen here performing on the Cheek to Cheek Tour alongside Tony Bennett) ushered in an overhaul of her image. Gaga hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live in November 2013. After holding her second Thanksgiving Day television special on ABC, Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular, she performed a special rendition of "Do What U Want" with Christina Aguilera on the fifth season of the American reality talent show The Voice. In March 2014, Gaga had a seven-day concert residency commemorating the last performance at New York's Roseland Ballroom before its closure. Two months later, she embarked on the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour, building on concepts from her ArtRave promotional event. Earning $83 million, the tour included cities canceled from the Born This Way Ball tour itinerary. In the meantime, Gaga split from longtime manager Troy Carter over "creative differences", and by June 2014, she and new manager Bobby Campbell joined Artist Nation, the artist management division of Live Nation Entertainment. She briefly appeared in Rodriguez's Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, and was confirmed as Versace's spring-summer 2014 ambassador with a campaign called "Lady Gaga For Versace". In September 2014, Gaga released a collaborative jazz album with Tony Bennett titled Cheek to Cheek. The inspiration behind the album came from her friendship with Bennett, and fascination with jazz music since her childhood. He stated that Gaga is "the most talented artist I have ever met". Before the album was released, it produced the singles "Anything Goes" and "I Can't Give You Anything but Love". Cheek to Cheek received generally favorable reviews; The Guardian's Caroline Sullivan praised Gaga's vocals and Howard Reich of the Chicago Tribune wrote that "Cheek to Cheek serves up the real thing, start to finish". The record was Gaga's third consecutive number-one album on the Billboard 200, and won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. The duo recorded the concert special Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live!, and embarked on the Cheek to Cheek Tour from December 2014 to August 2015. 2015–2017: American Horror Story, Joanne, and Super Bowl performances In February 2015, Gaga became engaged to Taylor Kinney. After the lukewarm response to Artpop, Gaga began to reinvent her image and style. According to Billboard, this shift started with the release of Cheek to Cheek and the attention she received for her performance at the 87th Academy Awards, where she sang a medley of songs from The Sound of Music in a tribute to Julie Andrews. Considered one of her best performances by Billboard, it triggered more than 214,000 interactions per minute globally on Facebook. She and Diane Warren co-wrote the song "Til It Happens to You" for the documentary The Hunting Ground, which earned them the Satellite Award for Best Original Song and an Academy Award nomination in the same category. Gaga won Billboard Woman of the Year and Contemporary Icon Award at the 2015 Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame Awards. Gaga had spent much of her early life wanting to be an actress, and achieved her goal when she starred in American Horror Story: Hotel. Running from October 2015 to January 2016, Hotel is the fifth season of the television anthology horror series, American Horror Story, in which Gaga played a hotel owner named Elizabeth. At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards, Gaga received the Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film award for her work on the season. She appeared in Nick Knight's 2015 fashion film for Tom Ford's 2016 spring campaign and was guest editor for V fashion magazine's 99th issue in January 2016, which featured 16 different covers. She received Editor of the Year award at the Fashion Los Angeles Awards. Gaga performing on the Joanne World Tour in 2017 In February 2016, Gaga sang the US national anthem at Super Bowl 50, partnered with Intel and Nile Rodgers for a tribute performance to the late David Bowie at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards, and sang "Til It Happens to You" at the 88th Academy Awards, where she was introduced by Joe Biden and was accompanied on-stage by 50 people who had suffered from sexual assault. She was honored that April with the Artist Award at the Jane Ortner Education Awards by The Grammy Museum, which recognizes artists who have demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts. Her engagement to Taylor Kinney ended in July; she later said her career had interfered with their relationship. Gaga played a witch named Scathach in American Horror Story: Roanoke, the series' sixth season, which ran from September to November 2016. Her role in the fifth season of the show ultimately influenced her future music, prompting her to feature "the art of darkness". In September 2016, she released her fifth album's lead single, "Perfect Illusion", which topped the charts in France and reached number 15 in the US. The album, titled Joanne, was named after Gaga's late aunt, who was an inspiration for the music. It was released on October 21, 2016, and became Gaga's fourth number one album on the Billboard 200, making her the first woman to reach the US chart's summit four times in the 2010s. The album's second single, "Million Reasons", followed the next month and reached number four in the US. She later released a piano version of the album's title track in 2018, which won a Grammy for Best Pop Solo Performance. To promote the album, Gaga embarked on the three-date Dive Bar Tour. Gaga performed as the headlining act during the Super Bowl LI halftime show on February 5, 2017. Her performance featured a group of hundreds of lighted drones forming various shapes in the sky above Houston's NRG Stadium—the first time robotic aircraft appeared in a Super Bowl program. It attracted 117.5 million viewers in the United States, exceeding the game's 111.3 million viewers and making it the third most-watched Super Bowl halftime show at the time. The performance led to a surge of 410,000 song downloads in the United States for Gaga and earned her an Emmy nomination in the Outstanding Special Class Program category. CBS Sports included her performance as the second best in the history of Super Bowl halftime shows. In April, Gaga headlined the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. She also released a standalone single, "The Cure", which reached the top 10 in Australia. Four months later, Gaga began the Joanne World Tour, which she announced after the Super Bowl LI halftime show. Gaga's creation of Joanne and preparation for her halftime show performance were featured in the documentary Gaga: Five Foot Two, which premiered on Netflix that September. Throughout the film, she was seen suffering from chronic pain, which was later revealed to be the effect of a long-term condition called fibromyalgia. In February 2018, it prompted Gaga to cancel the last ten shows of the Joanne World Tour, which ultimately grossed $95 million from 842,000 tickets sold. 2018–2019: A Star Is Born and Las Vegas residency Gaga at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival prior to the screening of A Star Is Born, which was her first lead role in a film In March 2018, Gaga supported the March for Our Lives gun-control rally in Washington, D.C., and released a cover of Elton John's "Your Song" for his tribute album Revamp. Later that year, she starred as struggling singer Ally in Bradley Cooper's musical romantic drama A Star Is Born, a remake of the 1937 film of the same name. The film follows Ally's relationship with singer Jackson Maine (played by Cooper), which becomes strained after her career begins to overshadow his. It received acclaim from critics, with a consensus that the movie had "appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story". Cooper approached Gaga after seeing her perform at a cancer research fundraiser. An admirer of Cooper's work, Gaga agreed to the project due to its portrayal of addiction and depression. A Star Is Born premiered at the 2018 Venice Film Festival, and was released worldwide that October. Gaga's performance was acclaimed by film critics, with Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian labeling the film "outrageously watchable" and stating that "Gaga's ability to be part ordinary person, part extraterrestrial celebrity empress functions at the highest level"; Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine similarly highlighted her "knockout performance" and found her to be "charismatic" without her usual makeup, wigs and costumes. For the role, Gaga won the National Board of Review and Critics' Choice awards for Best Actress, in addition to receiving nominations for the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award and BAFTA Award for Best Actress. Gaga and Cooper co-wrote and produced most of the songs on the soundtrack for A Star Is Born, which she insisted they perform live in the film. Its lead single, "Shallow", performed by the two, was released on September 27, 2018 and topped the charts in various countries including Australia, the UK and the US. The soundtrack contains 34 tracks, including 17 original songs, and received generally positive reviews; Mark Kennedy of The Washington Post called it a "five-star marvel" and Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian termed it an "instant classics full of Gaga's emotional might". Commercially, the soundtrack debuted at number one in the US, making Gaga the first woman with five US number-one albums in the 2010s, and breaking her tie with Taylor Swift as the most for any female artist this decade; Swift tied with her again in 2019. It additionally topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Switzerland and the UK. As of June 2019, the soundtrack had sold over six million copies worldwide. The album won Gaga four Grammy Awards—Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance and Best Song Written for Visual Media for "Shallow", as well as the latter category for "I'll Never Love Again"—and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music. "Shallow" also won her the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Critics' Choice Award, and Satellite Award for Best Original Song. Gaga gave live performances of the song at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards and the 91st Academy Awards. In October, Gaga announced her engagement to talent agent Christian Carino whom she had met in early 2017. They ended the engagement in February 2019. Gaga signed a concert residency, named Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano, to perform at the MGM Park Theater in Las Vegas. The residency consists of two types of shows: Enigma, which focused on theatricality and included Gaga's biggest hits, and Jazz & Piano, which involved tracks from the Great American Songbook and stripped-down versions of Gaga's songs. The Enigma show opened in December 2018 and the Jazz & Piano in January 2019. Gaga launched her vegan makeup line, Haus Laboratories, in September 2019 exclusively on Amazon. Consisting of 40 products, including liquid eyeliners, lip glosses and face mask sticker, it reached number-one on Amazon's list of bestselling lipsticks. 2020–2023: Chromatica, Love for Sale, and House of Gucci In February 2020, Gaga began a relationship with entrepreneur Michael Polansky. Her sixth studio album, Chromatica, was released on May 29, 2020, to positive reviews. It debuted atop the US charts, becoming her sixth consecutive number-one album in the country, and reached the top spot in more than a dozen other territories including Australia, Canada, France, Italy and the UK. Chromatica was preceded by two singles, "Stupid Love", on February 28, 2020, and "Rain on Me", with Ariana Grande, on May 22. The latter won the Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, and debuted at number one in the US, making Gaga the third person to top the country's chart in the 2000s, 2010s and 2020s. At the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards, Gaga won five awards, including the inaugural Tricon Award recognizing artists accomplished in different areas of the entertainment industry. In September 2020, she appeared in the video campaign for Valentino's Voce Viva fragrance, singing a stripped-down version of Chromatica track "Sine from Above", along with a group of models. Gaga performing on The Chromatica Ball in 2022, which is her first all-stadium concert tour During the inauguration of Joe Biden as the 46th President of the United States on January 20, 2021, Gaga sang the US national anthem. In February 2021, her dog walker Ryan Fischer was hospitalized after getting shot in Hollywood. Two of her French Bulldogs, Koji and Gustav, were taken while a third dog named Miss Asia escaped and was subsequently recovered by police. Gaga later offered a $500,000 reward for the return of her pets. Two days later, on February 26, a woman brought the dogs to a police station in Los Angeles. Both were unharmed. Los Angeles Police initially said the woman who dropped off the dogs did not appear to be involved with the shooting, but on April 29, she was one of five people charged in connection with the shooting and theft. In December 2022, James Howard Jackson, the man who shot Fischer, was sentenced to 21 years in prison. In April 2021, Gaga teamed up with Champagne brand Dom Pérignon, and appeared in an ad shot by Nick Knight. On September 3, she released her third remix album, Dawn of Chromatica. This was followed by her second collaborative album with Tony Bennett, titled Love for Sale, on September 30. The record received generally favorable reviews, and debuted at number eight in the US. The album's promotional rollout included the television special One Last Time: An Evening with Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga, released in November 2021, on CBS, which featured select performances from the duo's August 3 and 5 performances at Radio City Music Hall. Another taped performance by the duo recorded for MTV Unplugged was released that December. At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, Love for Sale won Gaga and Bennett the award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. After an appearance in the television special Friends: The Reunion, in which Gaga sang "Smelly Cat" with Lisa Kudrow, she portrayed Patrizia Reggiani, who was convicted of hiring a hitman to murder her ex-husband and former head of the Gucci fashion house Maurizio Gucci (played by Adam Driver), in Ridley Scott's biographical crime film titled House of Gucci. For the part, Gaga learned to speak with an Italian accent. She also stayed in character for 18 months, speaking with an accent for nine months during that period. Her method acting took a toll on her mental wellbeing, and towards the end of filming she had to be accompanied on-set by a psychiatric nurse. The film was released on November 24, 2021, to mixed reviews, though critics praised Gaga's performance as "note-perfect". She earned the New York Film Critics Circle Award, and nominations for the BAFTA Award, Critics' Choice Award, Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress. Gaga co-wrote the song "Hold My Hand" for the 2022 film Top Gun: Maverick, and also composed the score alongside Hans Zimmer and Harold Faltermeyer. She performed "Hold My Hand" live at the 95th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Original Song. The track also earned Gaga her third win for Best Original Song at the Satellite Awards. In July 2022, she embarked on The Chromatica Ball stadium tour, which concluded that September. It grossed $112.4 million from 834,000 tickets sold throughout twenty dates and produced an HBO concert special titled Gaga Chromatica Ball. By the end of the year, she became the highest grossing female artist touring in 2022. Gaga was appointed as co-chair of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities by President Joe Biden in April 2023, and collaborated with the Rolling Stones on the song "Sweet Sounds of Heaven", also featuring Stevie Wonder, from their album Hackney Diamonds that year. 2024: Joker: Folie à Deux and upcoming seventh studio album Gaga was the featured artist for season two of the online video game Fortnite spin-off, Fortnite Festival, which ran from February to April 2024. She is set to star with Joaquin Phoenix in the film Joker: Folie à Deux in October 2024. Gaga announced her upcoming seventh studio album in May 2024 through Gaga Chromatica Ball, which ended with a cryptic message stating "LG7. Gaga returns" and a snippet of new music. Artistry Influences Musicians such as Madonna and David Bowie have influenced Gaga. Gaga grew up listening to artists such as Michael Jackson, the Beatles, Stevie Wonder, Queen, Bruce Springsteen, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Whitney Houston, Elton John, Prince, En Vogue, TLC, Christina Aguilera, Janet Jackson, and Blondie, who have all influenced her music. Gaga's musical inspiration varies from dance-pop singers such as Madonna and Michael Jackson to glam rock artists such as David Bowie and Freddie Mercury, as well as the theatrics of the pop artist Andy Warhol and her own performance roots in musical theater. She has been compared to Madonna, who has said that she sees herself reflected in Gaga. Gaga says that she wants to revolutionize pop music as Madonna has. Gaga has also cited heavy metal bands as an influence, specifically Iron Maiden, Black Sabbath and Marilyn Manson. She credits Beyoncé as a key inspiration to pursue a musical career. Gaga was inspired by her mother to be interested in fashion, which she now says is a major influence and integrated with her music. Stylistically, Gaga has been compared to Leigh Bowery, Isabella Blow, and Cher; she once commented that as a child, she absorbed Cher's fashion sense and made it her own. Gaga became friends with British fashion designer Alexander McQueen shortly before his suicide in 2010, and became known for wearing his designs, particularly his towering armadillo shoes. She considers fashion designer Donatella Versace her muse; Versace has called Lady Gaga "the fresh Donatella". Gaga has also been influenced by Princess Diana, whom she has admired since her childhood. Gaga has called the Indian alternative medicine advocate Deepak Chopra a "true inspiration", and has also quoted Indian leader Osho's book Creativity on Twitter. Gaga says she was influenced by Osho's work in valuing rebellion through creativity and equality. Musical style and themes Critics have analyzed and scrutinized Gaga's musical and performance style, as she has experimented with new ideas and images throughout her career. She says the continual reinvention is "liberating" herself, which she has been drawn to since childhood. Gaga combines a variety of music genres, particularly incorporating elements of rock into her pop and dance music. She has also branched out into jazz and other non-pop musical genres. Gaga is a contralto, with a range spanning from B♭2 to B5. She has changed her vocal style regularly, and considers Born This Way "much more vocally up to par with what I've always been capable of". In summing up her voice, Entertainment Weekly wrote: "There's an immense emotional intelligence behind the way she uses her voice. Almost never does she overwhelm a song with her vocal ability, recognizing instead that artistry is to be found in nuance rather than lung power." According to Evan Sawdey of PopMatters, Gaga managed "to get you moving and grooving at an almost effortless pace" with The Fame. Gaga believes that "all good music can be played on a piano and still sound like a hit". Simon Reynolds wrote in 2010, "Everything about Gaga came from electroclash, except the music, which wasn't particularly 1980s, just ruthlessly catchy naughties pop glazed with Auto-Tune and undergirded with R&B-ish beats." Gaga's songs have covered a wide variety of concepts; The Fame discusses the lust for stardom, while the follow-up The Fame Monster expresses fame's dark side through monster metaphors. The Fame is an electropop and dance-pop album that has influences of 1980s pop and 1990s Europop, whereas The Fame Monster displays Gaga's taste for pastiche, drawing on "Seventies arena glam, perky ABBA disco, and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q". Born This Way has lyrics in English, French, German, and Spanish and features themes common to Gaga's controversial songwriting such as sex, love, religion, money, drugs, identity, liberation, sexuality, freedom, and individualism. The album explores new genres, such as electronic rock and techno. The themes in Artpop revolve around Gaga's personal views of fame, love, sex, feminism, self-empowerment, overcoming addiction, and reactions to media scrutiny. Billboard describes Artpop as "coherently channeling R&B, techno, disco and rock music". With Cheek to Cheek, Gaga dabbled in the jazz genre. Joanne, exploring the genres of country, funk, pop, dance, rock, electronic music and folk, was influenced by her personal life. The A Star Is Born soundtrack contains elements of blues rock, country and bubblegum pop. Billboard says its lyrics are about wanting change, its struggle, love, romance, and bonding, describing the music as "timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener." On Chromatica, Gaga returned to her dance-pop roots, and discussed her struggles with mental health. Her second album with Tony Bennett, Love for Sale, consists of a tribute to Cole Porter. Videos and stage Gaga during a "blood soaked" performance in 2010 Featuring constant costume changes and provocative visuals, Gaga's music videos are often described as short films. The video for "Telephone" earned Gaga the Guinness World Record for Most Product Placement in a Video. According to author Curtis Fogel, she explores bondage and sadomasochism and highlights prevalent feminist themes. The main themes of her music videos are sex, violence, and power. She calls herself "a little bit of a feminist" and asserts that she is "sexually empowering women". Billboard ranked her sixth on its list of "The 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time" in 2020, stating that "the name 'Lady Gaga' will forever be synonymous with culture-shifting music videos". Regarded as "one of the greatest living musical performers" by Rolling Stone, Gaga has called herself a perfectionist when it comes to her elaborate shows. Her performances have been described as "highly entertaining and innovative"; the blood-spurting performance of "Paparazzi" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards was described as "eye-popping" by MTV News. She continued the blood-soaked theme during The Monster Ball Tour, causing protests in England from family groups and fans in the aftermath of the Cumbria shootings, in which a taxi driver had killed 12 people, then himself. At the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Gaga appeared in drag as her male alter ego, Jo Calderone, and delivered a lovesick monolog before a performance of her song "You and I". As Gaga's choreographer and creative director, Laurieann Gibson provided material for her shows and videos for four years before she was replaced by her assistant Richard Jackson in 2014. In an October 2018 article for Billboard, Rebecca Schiller traced back Gaga's videography from "Just Dance" to the release of A Star Is Born. Schiller noted that following the Artpop era, Gaga's stripped-down approach to music was reflected in the clips for the singles from Joanne, taking the example of the music video of lead single "Perfect Illusion" where she eschewed "the elaborate outfits for shorts and a tee-shirt as she performed the song at a desert party". It continued with her performances in the film as well as her stage persona. Reviewing The Chromatica Ball in 2022, Chris Willman of Variety wrote that Gaga "could have further played the authenticity card for all it's worth" after the release of Joanne and A Star Is Born, but instead "has determined to keep herself weird — or just weird enough to provide necessarily ballast to her more earnest inclinations". Public image In 2010, eight wax figures of Gaga were installed at the museum Madame Tussauds. Public reception of her music, fashion sense, and persona is polarized. Because of her influence on modern culture, and her rise to global fame, sociologist Mathieu Deflem of the University of South Carolina has offered a course titled "Lady Gaga and the Sociology of the Fame" since early 2011 with the objective of unraveling "some of the sociologically relevant dimensions of the fame of Lady Gaga". When Gaga met briefly with then-president Barack Obama at a Human Rights Campaign fundraiser, he found the interaction "intimidating" as she was dressed in 16-inch heels, making her the tallest woman in the room. When interviewed by Barbara Walters for her annual ABC News special 10 Most Fascinating People in 2009, Gaga dismissed the claim that she is intersex as an urban legend. Responding to a question on this issue, she expressed her fondness for androgyny. Gaga's outlandish fashion sense has also served as an important aspect of her character. During her early career, members of the media compared her fashion choices to those of Christina Aguilera. In 2011, 121 women gathered at the Grammy Awards dressed in costumes similar to those worn by Gaga, earning the 2011 Guinness World Record for Largest Gathering of Lady Gaga Impersonators. The Global Language Monitor named "Lady Gaga" as the Top Fashion Buzzword with her trademark "no pants" a close third. Entertainment Weekly put her outfits on its end of the decade "best-of" list, saying that she "brought performance art into the mainstream". People ranked her number one on their "Best Dressed Stars of 2021" list, writing that Gaga "strutted the streets in high-fashion designs, from a sculptural seersucker number to a black lace corseted gown—accessorizing each with elegant updos, sky-high heels and retro shades—like it was no sweat." Time placed Gaga on their All-Time 100 Fashion Icons list, stating: "Lady Gaga is just as notorious for her outrageous style as she is for her pop hits", mentioning outfits "made from plastic bubbles, Kermit the Frog dolls, and raw meat." Gaga wore a dress made of raw beef to the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, which was supplemented by boots, a purse, and a hat also made out of raw beef. Partly awarded in recognition of the dress, Vogue named her one of the Best Dressed people of 2010 and Time named the dress the Fashion Statement of the year. It attracted the attention of worldwide media; the animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) found it offensive. The meat dress was displayed at the National Museum of Women in the Arts in 2012, and entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in September 2015. Gaga's fans call her "Mother Monster", and she often refers to them as "Little Monsters", a phrase she had tattooed on herself in dedication. In his article "Lady Gaga Pioneered Online Fandom Culture As We Know It" for Vice, Jake Hall wrote that Gaga inspired several subsequent fan-brandings, such as those of Taylor Swift, Rihanna and Justin Bieber. In July 2012, Gaga also co-founded the social networking service LittleMonsters.com, devoted to her fans. Scott Hardy, CEO of Polaroid, praised Gaga for inspiring fans and for her close interactions with them on social media. Censorship In 2011, lyrics of Gaga's song "Born This Way", which reference homosexuality and LGBT subjects, were censored by Malaysian broadcaster AMP Radio Networks as a precaution against government restrictions against songs which might violate "good taste or decency or offensive to public feeling". The same year, the Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China, reportedly enforcing a directive designed to tackle "poor taste and vulgar content", banned the publication of six of Gaga's songs from the album Born This Way on all Chinese music websites. In 2014, her album Artpop was released in China with conditions being placed on the album artwork, covering her almost naked body as well as changing the title of the song "Sexxx Dreams" to "X Dreams". In 2016, her meeting with the Dalai Lama resulted in the Chinese government adding her to a list of hostile foreign forces, and Chinese websites and media organizations were ordered to stop distributing her songs. The Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party also issued an order for state-controlled media to condemn the meeting. In 2019, coverage of Gaga in the 91st Academy Awards was removed on some Chinese streaming platforms such as Mango TV and in 2021 her appearance was cut from Friends: The Reunion; both incidents received backlash from Chinese fans. Activism Philanthropy After declining an invitation to appear on the single "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", because of rehearsals for her tour, to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Gaga donated the proceeds of her January 2010 Radio City Music Hall concert to the country's reconstruction relief fund. All profits from her online store that day were also donated, and Gaga announced that $500,000 was collected for the fund. Hours after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Japan, Gaga tweeted a link to Japan Prayer Bracelets. All revenue from a bracelet she designed in conjunction with the company was donated to relief efforts; these raised $1.5 million. In June 2011, Gaga performed at MTV Japan's charity show in Makuhari Messe, which benefited the Japanese Red Cross. In 2012, Gaga joined the campaign group Artists Against Fracking. That October, Yoko Ono gave Gaga and four other activists the LennonOno Grant for Peace in Reykjavík, Iceland. The following month, Gaga pledged to donate $1 million to the American Red Cross to help the victims of Hurricane Sandy. Gaga also contributes in the fight against HIV and AIDS, focusing on educating young women about the risks of the disease. In collaboration with Cyndi Lauper, Gaga joined forces with MAC Cosmetics to launch a line of lipstick under their supplementary cosmetic line, Viva Glam. Sales have raised more than $202 million to fight HIV and AIDS. In April 2016, Gaga joined Vice President Joe Biden at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas to support Biden's It's On Us campaign as he traveled to colleges on behalf of the organization, which has seen 250,000 students from more than 530 colleges sign a pledge of solidarity and activism. Two months later, Gaga attended the 84th Annual US Conference of Mayors in Indianapolis where she joined with the Dalai Lama to talk about the power of kindness and how to make the world a more compassionate place. In April 2020, Gaga curated the televised benefit concert, One World: Together at Home, a collaboration with Global Citizen to benefit the World Health Organization's COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund. The special raised $127 million, which according to Forbes "puts it on par with the other legendary fundraiser, Live Aid, as the highest grossing charity concert in history." In recognition of her contribution to the Black Lives Matter movement, Gaga received the Yolanda Denise King High Ground Award from the King Center's Beloved Community Awards in January 2021. In her acceptance speech, she denounced racism and white supremacy and addressed her social responsibility as a high-profile artist and white woman. Born This Way Foundation Main article: Born This Way Foundation Gaga during an event for the Born This Way Foundation in Europe, 2013 In 2012, Gaga launched the Born This Way Foundation (BTWF), a non-profit organization that focuses on youth empowerment. It takes its name from her 2011 single and album. Media proprietor Oprah Winfrey, writer Deepak Chopra, and US Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius spoke at the foundation's inauguration at Harvard University. The foundation's original funding included $1.2 million from Gaga, $500,000 from the MacArthur Foundation, and $850,000 from Barneys New York. In July 2012, the BTWF partnered with Office Depot, which donated 25% of the sales, a minimum of $1 million of a series of limited edition back-to-school products. The foundation's initiatives have included the "Born Brave Bus" that followed her on tour as a youth drop-in center as an initiative against bullying. In October 2015, at the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, Gaga joined 200 high school students, policy makers, and academic officials, including Peter Salovey, to discuss ways to recognize and channel emotions for positive outcomes. In 2016, the foundation partnered with Intel, Vox Media, and Recode to fight online harassment. The sales revenue of the 99th issue of the V magazine, which featured Gaga and Kinney, was donated to the foundation. Gaga and Elton John released the clothing and accessories line Love Bravery at Macy's in May. 25% of each purchase support Gaga's foundation and the Elton John AIDS Foundation. Gaga partnered with Starbucks for a week in June 2017 with the "Cups of Kindness" campaign, where the company donated 25 cents from some of the beverages sold to the foundation. She also appeared in a video by Staples Inc. to raise funds for the foundation and DonorsChoose.org. On the 2018 World Kindness Day, Gaga partnered with the foundation to bring food and relief to a Red Cross shelter for people who have been forced to evacuate homes due to the California wildfires. The foundation also partnered with Starbucks and SoulCycle to thank California firefighters for their relief work during the crisis. The singer had to previously evacuate her own home during the Woolsey Fire which spread through parts of Malibu. In March 2019, she penned a letter to supporters of the Born This Way Foundation, announcing the launch of a new pilot program for a teen mental health first aid project with the National Council for Behavioral Health. Gaga revealed her personal struggles with mental health in her letter and how she was able to get support which saved her life: "I know what it means to have someone support me and understand what I'm going through, and every young person in the world should have someone to turn to when they're hurting. It saved my life, and it will save theirs." In September 2020, Gaga released an anthology book, Channel Kindness: Stories of Kindness and Community, featuring fifty-one stories about kindness, bravery, and resilience from young people all over the world collected by the Born This Way Foundation, and introduced by herself. She had been promoting it with a 21 days of kindness challenge on her social media, using the "BeKind21" hashtag. In 2021, Gaga collaborated with the Champagne house Dom Pérignon to benefit the Born This Way Foundation by releasing a limited edition of Rosé Vintage 2005 bottles along with a sculpture designed by her. The 110 exclusive pieces were sold at private sales, and the profit of $570,000 was donated to the foundation. On the 2021 World Kindness Day, Gaga released a 30-minute special, titled The Power of Kindness, as part of the foundation's Channel Kindness program, in which together with a mental health expert and a group of eleven young people, she explored the connection between kindness and mental health. LGBT advocacy Gaga speaking against "don't ask, don't tell" in Portland, Maine (2010) A bisexual woman, Gaga actively supports LGBT rights worldwide. She attributes much of her early success as a mainstream artist to her gay fans and is considered a gay icon. Early in her career, Gaga had difficulty getting radio airplay, and stated, "The turning point for me was the gay community." She thanked FlyLife, a Manhattan-based LGBT marketing company with whom her label Interscope works, in the liner notes of The Fame. One of her first televised performances was in May 2008 at the NewNowNext Awards, an awards show aired by the LGBT television network Logo. Gaga spoke at the 2009 National Equality March in Washington, D.C., to support the LGBT rights movement. She attended the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards accompanied by four gay and lesbian former members of the United States Armed Forces who had been unable to serve openly under the US military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy, which banned open homosexuality in the military. Gaga urged her fans via YouTube to contact their senators in an effort to overturn the policy. In September 2010, she spoke at a Servicemembers Legal Defense Network's rally in Portland, Maine. Following this event, The Advocate named her a "fierce advocate" for gays and lesbians. Gaga appeared at Europride, an international event dedicated to LGBT pride, in Rome in June 2011. She criticized the poor state of gay rights in many European countries and described gay people as "revolutionaries of love". Later that year, she was referenced by teenager Jamey Rodemeyer in the hours prior to his death, with Rodemeyer having tweeted "@ladygaga bye mother monster, thank you for all you have done, paws up forever". Rodemeyer's suicide prompted Gaga to meet with then-President Barack Obama in order to address anti-gay bullying in American schools. In 2011, she was also ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery so that she could officiate the wedding of two female friends. In June 2016, during a vigil held in Los Angeles for victims of the attack at the gay nightclub Pulse in Orlando, Gaga read aloud the names of the 49 people killed in the attack, and gave a speech. Later that month, Gaga appeared in Human Rights Campaign's tribute video to the victims of the attack. She opposed the presidency of Donald Trump and his military transgender ban. She supported former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016. In 2018, a leaked memo from Trump's office revealed that his administration wanted to change the legal definition of sex to exclude transgender Americans. Gaga was one of the many celebrities to condemn him and spread the #WontBeErased campaign to her 77 million Twitter followers. In January 2019, during one of her Enigma shows, she criticized Vice President Mike Pence for his wife Karen Pence working at an evangelical Christian school where LGBTQ people are turned away, calling him "the worst representation of what it means to be a Christian". Gaga also stated "I am a Christian woman, and what I do know about Christianity is that we bear no prejudice, and everybody is welcome". Gaga made a congratulatory speech commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots and the LGBTQ+ community's accomplishments at WorldPride NYC 2019 outside the Stonewall Inn, birthplace of the modern gay rights movement. Legacy Gaga performing on the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour in 2014 Gaga was named the "Queen of Pop" in a 2011 ranking by Rolling Stone based on record sales and social media metrics. In 2012, she ranked fourth in VH1's Greatest Women in Music and became a feature of the temporary exhibition The Elevated. From the Pharaoh to Lady Gaga, which marked the 150th anniversary of the National Museum in Warsaw. Gaga has often been praised for using controversy to bring attention to various issues. According to Frankie Graddon of The Independent, Gaga—who wore a meat dress to highlight her distaste for the US military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy—influenced protest dressing on red carpet. Billboard named her "the Greatest Pop Star of 2009", asserting that "to say that her one-year rise from rookie to MVP was meteoric doesn't quite cut it, as she wasn't just successful, but game-changing—thanks to her voracious appetite for reinvention." Because of The Fame's success—it was listed as one of the 100 Greatest Debut Albums of All-Time by Rolling Stone in 2013—Gaga has been credited as one of the musicians that popularized synth-pop in the late 2000s and early 2010s. According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker, "Lady Gaga blazed a trail for truculent pop stars by treating her own celebrity as an evolving art project." Including Born This Way as one of the 50 best female albums of all time, Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield considers it "hard to remember a world where we didn't have Gaga, although we're pretty sure it was a lot more boring". In 2015, Time also noted that Gaga had "practically invented the current era of pop music as spectacle". A 2017 journal published by Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts studying structural patterns in melodies of earworm songs compiled lists of catchiest tracks from 3,000 participants, in which Gaga's "Bad Romance", "Alejandro", and "Poker Face" ranked number one, eight, and nine, respectively. In 2018, NPR named her the second most influential female artist of the 21st century, noting her as "one of the first big artists of the 'Internet age'". Gaga and her work have influenced various artists including Miley Cyrus, Nicki Minaj, Ellie Goulding, Halsey, Jennifer Lopez, Beyoncé, Nick Jonas, Sam Smith, Noah Cyrus, Katherine Langford, MGMT, Allie X, Greyson Chance, Cardi B, Rina Sawayama, Blackpink, Madison Beer, Ren of NU'EST, Slayyyter, Bebe Rexha, Bree Runway, Celeste, Kim Petras, JoJo Siwa, Pabllo Vittar, Ava Max, Doja Cat, Chaeyoung of Twice, Kanye West, Rachel Zegler, SZA, Raye, Grace Gaustad, and Laufey. A new genus of ferns, Gaga, and three species, G. germanotta, G. monstraparva and Kaikaia gaga, have been named in her honor. The name monstraparva alluded to Gaga's fans, known as Little Monsters, since their symbol is the outstretched "monster claw" hand, which resembles a tightly rolled young fern leaf prior to unfurling. Gaga also has an extinct mammal, Gagadon minimonstrum, and a parasitic wasp, Aleiodes gaga, named for her. In Taichung, Taiwan, July 3 is designated as "Lady Gaga Day" marking the first day Gaga visited the country in 2011. In May 2021, to celebrate the tenth anniversary of Born This Way and its cultural impact, West Hollywood mayor, Lindsey P. Horvath, presented Gaga with a key to the city and declared May 23 as "Born This Way Day." A street painting with the Daniel Quasar's version of the pride flag featuring the album's title was also unveiled on Robertson Boulevard as a tribute to the album, and how it has inspired the LGBT community over the years. Achievements See also: List of awards and nominations received by Lady Gaga Gaga has won thirteen Grammy Awards, an Academy Award, two Golden Globe Awards, a BAFTA Award, three Brit Awards, sixteen Guinness World Records, and the inaugural Songwriters Hall of Fame's Contemporary Icon Award. She received a National Arts Awards' Young Artist Award, which honors individuals who have shown accomplishments and leadership early in their career, the Jane Ortner Artist Award from the Grammy Museum in 2016, and a National Board of Review Award for Best Actress in 2018. Gaga has also been recognized by the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) with the Fashion Icon award. In 2019, she became the first woman to win an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Grammy Award in one year for her contribution to A Star Is Born's soundtrack. At the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards, she was honored with the inaugural Tricon Award representing achievement in three (or more) fields of entertainment. Acknowledged by Billboard as the Greatest Pop Star in 2009, with honorable mention in 2010 and 2011, and Woman of the Year in 2015, Gaga has consecutively appeared on the magazine's Artists of the Year chart (scoring the definitive title in 2010), and ranked 11th on its Top Artists of the 2010s chart. She is the longest-reigning act of Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums chart with 244 weeks at number one, while The Fame (2008) holds the record for the most time on top in the chart's history, with 175 non-consecutive weeks. Her album Born This Way (2011) featured on Rolling Stone's 2020 revision of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and the song "Bad Romance" and its music video were among Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and 100 Greatest Music Videos of All Time, respectively, in 2021. In 2023, the magazine included Gaga among the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. With estimated sales of 170 million records as of 2018, Gaga is one of the world's bestselling music artists, and has produced some of the bestselling singles of all time. As of 2022, she has grossed more than $689.5 million in revenue from concert tours and residencies with attendance of 6.3 million, being the fifth woman to pass the half-billion total as reported to Billboard Boxscore, receiving the Pollstar Award for Pop Touring Artist of the Decade (2010s). She is also among the top digital singles artists in the US, with 87.5 million equivalent units certified according to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), was the first woman to receive the Digital Diamond Award certification from RIAA, one of the few artists with at least three Diamond certified songs ("Bad Romance", "Poker Face" and "Just Dance"), and the first and only artist to have two songs pass seven million downloads ("Poker Face" and "Just Dance"). In 2020, she became the first female artist to have four singles ("Just Dance", "Poker Face", "Bad Romance" and "Shallow") sell at least 10 million copies globally. According to Guinness World Records, she was the most followed person on Twitter from 2011 to 2013, the most famous celebrity in 2013, and the most powerful popstar in 2014. She was included on Forbes' Celebrity 100 from 2010 to 2015 and then from 2018 to 2020, having topped the list in 2011. She earned $62 million, $90 million, $52 million, $80 million, $33 million, and $59 million from 2010 through 2015, and $50 million, $39 million and $38 million between 2018 and 2020. Gaga also appeared on their list of the World's Most Powerful Women from 2010 to 2014. She was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time magazine in 2010 and 2019, and ranked second in its most influential people of the past ten years readers' poll in 2013. In March 2012, Gaga was ranked fourth on Billboard's list of top moneymakers of 2011 with earnings of $25 million, which included sales from Born This Way and her Monster Ball Tour. The following year, she topped Forbes' List of Top-Earning Celebs Under 30, which she also topped in 2011, and in February 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth to be $275 million. In December 2019, Gaga placed 10th on Forbes' list of Top-Earning Musicians of the Decade with earnings of $500 million in the 2010s. She was the fourth highest-earning female musician on the list. Discography Main articles: Lady Gaga discography and List of songs recorded by Lady Gaga Solo studio albums The Fame (2008) (reissued in 2009 as The Fame Monster) Born This Way (2011) Artpop (2013) Joanne (2016) Chromatica (2020) Collaborative studio albums Cheek to Cheek (with Tony Bennett) (2014) Love for Sale (with Tony Bennett) (2021) Soundtrack albums A Star Is Born (with Bradley Cooper) (2018) Top Gun: Maverick (with Lorne Balfe, Harold Faltermeyer and Hans Zimmer) (2022) Tours and residencies See also: List of Lady Gaga live performances Headlining tours The Fame Ball Tour (2009) The Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011) The Born This Way Ball (2012–2013) ArtRave: The Artpop Ball (2014) Joanne World Tour (2017–2018) The Chromatica Ball (2022) Co-headlining tours Cheek to Cheek Tour (with Tony Bennett) (2014–2015) Residencies Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom (2014) Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano (2018–2024) Filmography See also: Lady Gaga videography Machete Kills (2013) Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014) A Star Is Born (2018) House of Gucci (2021) Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) See also Artists with the most number-ones on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart Forbes list of highest-earning musicians Honorific nicknames in popular music LGBT culture in New York City List of actors with Academy Award nominations List of LGBT people from New York City List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists List of most-followed Twitter accounts List of organisms named after famous people (born 1950–present) Notes ^ In 2010, Fusari claimed he was entitled to a 20% share of the company's earnings, but the New York Supreme Court dismissed both the lawsuit and a counter-suit by Gaga. ^ Both of the fragrances were released in association with Coty ^ Gaga says that the song "Poker Face" was about her bisexuality, and she openly speaks about how her past boyfriends were uncomfortable with her sexual orientation. ^ As of February 2024, Gaga has had cumulative single certifications of 82.5 million digital downloads and on-demand streaming as a solo artist, and 5 million with Bradley Cooper. 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External links Lady Gaga at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteData from Wikidata Official website Lady Gaga at Amazon Music Lady Gaga at Curlie Lady Gaga at IMDb Lady Gaga at Rotten Tomatoes Appearances on C-SPAN Lady Gaga at Todomusica.org Spanish vteLady Gaga Awards and nominations Discography Live performances Songs Videography Studio albums The Fame The Fame Monster Born This Way Artpop Cheek to Cheek Joanne Chromatica Love for Sale Soundtracks A Star Is Born Top Gun: Maverick Compilation albums The Remix Born This Way: The Remix Born This Way: The Collection Dawn of Chromatica Extended plays The Cherrytree Sessions Hitmixes A Very Gaga Holiday Concert tours The Fame Ball Tour Fame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga (cancelled) The Monster Ball Tour Born This Way Ball ArtRave: The Artpop Ball Cheek to Cheek Tour Joanne World Tour The Chromatica Ball Promotional events ArtRave Dive Bar Tour Residencies Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano Documentaries Gaga: Five Foot Two Television Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden A Very Gaga Thanksgiving Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live! Super Bowl LI halftime show One Last Time: An Evening with Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga Gaga Chromatica Ball Bibliography Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson Fragrances and cosmetics Lady Gaga Fame Eau de Gaga Haus Labs Fashion Armadillo shoe Meat dress of Lady Gaga Related articles Cynthia Germanotta (mother) Born This Way Foundation Doll Domination Tour Lady Gaga: Queen of Pop One World: Together at Home "Perform This Way" Theatricality TechHaus Volantis Aleiodes gaga Gaga (plant) Gagadon Kaikaia gaga Category vteLady Gaga songs Discography Songs The Fame "Just Dance" "LoveGame" "Paparazzi" "Poker Face" "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)" "Beautiful, Dirty, Rich" The Fame Monster "Bad Romance" "Alejandro" "Monster" "Speechless" "Dance in the Dark" "Telephone" "So Happy I Could Die" "Teeth" Born This Way "Marry the Night" "Born This Way" "Government Hooker" "Judas" "Americano" "Hair" "Scheiße" "Bloody Mary" "Electric Chapel" "You and I" "The Edge of Glory" Artpop "Aura" "Venus" "G.U.Y." "Sexxx Dreams" "Do What U Want" "Artpop" "Swine" "Dope" "Gypsy" "Applause" Cheek to Cheek "Anything Goes" "I Can't Give You Anything but Love" "Nature Boy" "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" Joanne "A-Yo" "Joanne" "John Wayne" "Perfect Illusion" "Million Reasons" "Angel Down" A Star Is Born "Shallow" "Always Remember Us This Way" "Is That Alright?" "Why Did You Do That?" "I'll Never Love Again" Chromatica "Alice" "Stupid Love" "Rain on Me" "Free Woman" "911" "Sour Candy" "Sine from Above" Love for Sale "Love for Sale" "I Get a Kick Out of You" Top Gun: Maverick "Hold My Hand" As featured artist "Chillin" "Video Phone" (remix) "3-Way (The Golden Rule)" "Sweet Sounds of Heaven" Other songs recorded "Christmas Tree" "The Lady Is a Tramp" "Til It Happens to You" "The Cure" "Your Song" Other songs written/produced "Make Her Say" "Fever" "Invading My Mind" "Hypnotico" "Maybe It's Time" Category Awards for Lady Gaga vteAcademy Award for Best Original Song1934–1940 "The Continental" Music: Con Conrad Lyrics: Herb Magidson (1934) "Lullaby of Broadway" Music: Harry Warren Lyrics: Al Dubin (1935) "The Way You Look Tonight" Music: Jerome Kern Lyrics: Dorothy Fields (1936) "Sweet Leilani" Music and lyrics: Harry Owens (1937) "Thanks for the Memory" Music: Ralph Rainger Lyrics: Leo Robin (1938) "Over the Rainbow" Music: Harold Arlen Lyrics: E. Y. Harburg (1939) "When You Wish Upon a Star" Music: Leigh Harline Lyrics: Ned Washington (1940) 1941–1950 "The Last Time I Saw Paris" Music: Jerome Kern Lyrics: Oscar Hammerstein II (1941) "White Christmas" Music and lyrics: Irving Berlin (1942) "You'll Never Know" Music: Harry Warren Lyrics: Mack Gordon (1943) "Swinging on a Star" Music: Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics: Johnny Burke (1944) "It Might as Well Be Spring" Music: Richard Rodgers Lyrics: Oscar Hammerstein II (1945) "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe" Music: Harry Warren Lyrics: Johnny Mercer (1946) "Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah" Music: Allie Wrubel Lyrics: Ray Gilbert (1947) "Buttons and Bows" Music: Jay Livingston Lyrics: Ray Evans (1948) "Baby, It's Cold Outside" Music and lyrics: Frank Loesser (1949) "Mona Lisa" Music and lyrics: Ray Evans and Jay Livingston (1950) 1951–1960 "In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening" Music: Hoagy Carmichael Lyrics: Johnny Mercer (1951) "High Noon (Do Not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin')" Music: Dimitri Tiomkin Lyrics: Ned Washington (1952) "Secret Love" Music: Sammy Fain Lyrics: Paul Francis Webster (1953) "Three Coins in the Fountain" Music: Jule Styne Lyrics: Sammy Cahn (1954) "Love Is a Many Splendored Thing" Music: Sammy Fain Lyrics: Paul Francis Webster (1955) "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)" Music and lyrics: Jay Livingston and Ray Evans (1956) "All the Way" Music: Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics: Sammy Cahn (1957) "Gigi" Music: Frederick Loewe Lyrics: Alan Jay Lerner (1958) "High Hopes" Music: Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics: Sammy Cahn (1959) "Never on Sunday" Music and lyrics: Manos Hatzidakis (1960) 1961–1970 "Moon River" Music: Henry Mancini Lyrics: Johnny Mercer (1961) "Days of Wine and Roses" Music: Henry Mancini Lyrics: Johnny Mercer (1962) "Call Me Irresponsible" Music: Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics: Sammy Cahn (1963) "Chim Chim Cher-ee" Music and lyrics: Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman (1964) "The Shadow of Your Smile" Music: Johnny Mandel Lyrics: Paul Francis Webster (1965) "Born Free" Music: John Barry Lyrics: Don Black (1966) "Talk to the Animals" Music and lyrics: Leslie Bricusse (1967) "The Windmills of Your Mind" Music: Michel Legrand Lyrics: Alan and Marilyn Bergman (1968) "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head" Music: Burt Bacharach Lyrics: Hal David (1969) "For All We Know" Music: Fred Karlin Lyrics: Robb Royer and Jimmy Griffin (1970) 1971–1980 "Theme from Shaft" Music and lyrics: Isaac Hayes (1971) "The Morning After" Music and lyrics: Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn (1972) "The Way We Were" Music: Marvin Hamlisch Lyrics: Alan and Marilyn Bergman (1973) "We May Never Love Like This Again" Music and lyrics: Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn (1974) "I'm Easy" Music and lyrics: Keith Carradine (1975) "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)" Music: Barbra Streisand Lyrics: Paul Williams (1976) "You Light Up My Life" Music and lyrics: Joseph Brooks (1977) "Last Dance" Music and lyrics: Paul Jabara (1978) "It Goes Like It Goes" Music: David Shire Lyrics: Norman Gimbel (1979) "Fame" Music: Michael Gore Lyrics: Dean Pitchford (1980) 1981–1990 "Arthur's Theme (Best That You Can Do)" Music and lyrics: Burt Bacharach, Carole Bayer Sager, Christopher Cross and Peter Allen (1981) "Up Where We Belong" Music: Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Sainte-Marie Lyrics: Will Jennings (1982) "Flashdance... What a Feeling" Music: Giorgio Moroder Lyrics: Keith Forsey and Irene Cara (1983) "I Just Called to Say I Love You" Music and lyrics: Stevie Wonder (1984) "Say You, Say Me" Music and lyrics: Lionel Richie (1985) "Take My Breath Away" Music: Giorgio Moroder Lyrics: Tom Whitlock (1986) "(I've Had) The Time of My Life" Music: Franke Previte, John DeNicola and Donald Markowitz Lyrics: Franke Previte (1987) "Let the River Run" Music and lyrics: Carly Simon (1988) "Under the Sea" Music: Alan Menken Lyrics: Howard Ashman (1989) "Sooner or Later (I Always Get My Man)" Music and lyrics: Stephen Sondheim (1990) 1991–2000 "Beauty and the Beast" Music: Alan Menken Lyrics: Howard Ashman (1991) "A Whole New World" Music: Alan Menken Lyrics: Tim Rice (1992) "Streets of Philadelphia" Music and lyrics: Bruce Springsteen (1993) "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" Music: Elton John Lyrics: Tim Rice (1994) "Colors of the Wind" Music: Alan Menken Lyrics: Stephen Schwartz (1995) "You Must Love Me" Music: Andrew Lloyd Webber Lyrics: Tim Rice (1996) "My Heart Will Go On" Music: James Horner Lyrics: Will Jennings (1997) "When You Believe" Music and lyrics: Stephen Schwartz (1998) "You'll Be in My Heart" Music and lyrics: Phil Collins (1999) "Things Have Changed" Music and lyrics: Bob Dylan (2000) 2001–2010 "If I Didn't Have You" Music and lyrics: Randy Newman (2001) "Lose Yourself" Music: Eminem, Jeff Bass and Luis Resto Lyrics: Eminem (2002) "Into the West" Music and lyrics: Fran Walsh, Howard Shore and Annie Lennox (2003) "Al otro lado del río" Music and lyrics: Jorge Drexler (2004) "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp" Music and lyrics: Juicy J, Frayser Boy and DJ Paul (2005) "I Need to Wake Up" Music and lyrics: Melissa Etheridge (2006) "Falling Slowly" Music and lyrics: Glen Hansard and Markéta Irglová (2007) "Jai Ho" Music: A. R. Rahman Lyrics: Gulzar (2008) "The Weary Kind" Music and lyrics: Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett (2009) "We Belong Together" Music and lyrics: Randy Newman (2010) 2011–2020 "Man or Muppet" Music and lyrics: Bret McKenzie (2011) "Skyfall" Music and lyrics: Adele Adkins and Paul Epworth (2012) "Let It Go" Music and lyrics: Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (2013) "Glory" Music and lyrics: John Stephens and Lonnie Lynn (2014) "Writing's on the Wall" Music and lyrics: James Napier and Sam Smith (2015) "City of Stars" Music: Justin Hurwitz Lyrics: Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016) "Remember Me" Music and lyrics: Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (2017) "Shallow" Music and lyrics: Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando and Andrew Wyatt (2018) "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" Music: Elton John Lyrics: Bernie Taupin (2019) "Fight for You" Music: D'Mile and H.E.R. Lyrics: H.E.R. and Tiara Thomas (2020) 2021–present "No Time to Die" Music and lyrics: Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2021) "Naatu Naatu" Music: M. M. Keeravani Lyrics: Chandrabose (2022) "What Was I Made For?" Music and lyrics: Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2023) vteAmerican Music Award for Favorite Electronic Dance Music Artist David Guetta (2012) Avicii (2013) Calvin Harris (2014) Calvin Harris (2015) The Chainsmokers (2016) The Chainsmokers (2017) Marshmello (2018) Marshmello (2019) Lady Gaga (2020) vteAmerican Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Artist Helen Reddy (1974) Olivia Newton-John (1975) Olivia Newton-John (1976) Olivia Newton-John (1977) Linda Ronstadt (1978) Linda Ronstadt (1979) Donna Summer (1980) Barbra Streisand (1981) Pat Benatar (1982) Olivia Newton-John (1983) Pat Benatar (1984) Cyndi Lauper (1985) Tina Turner (1986) Whitney Houston (1987) Whitney Houston (1988) Whitney Houston (1989) Paula Abdul (1990) Janet Jackson (1991) Paula Abdul (1992) Mariah Carey (1993) Whitney Houston (1994) Mariah Carey (1995) Mariah Carey (1996) Alanis Morissette (1997) Celine Dion (1998) Celine Dion (1999) Shania Twain (2000) Faith Hill (2001) Janet Jackson (2002) Sheryl Crow (2003) Jennifer Lopez (2003) Sheryl Crow (2004) Gwen Stefani (2005) Kelly Clarkson (2006) Fergie (2007) Rihanna (2008) Taylor Swift (2009) Lady Gaga (2010) Adele (2011) Katy Perry (2012) Taylor Swift (2013) Katy Perry (2014) Ariana Grande (2015) Selena Gomez (2016) Lady Gaga (2017) Taylor Swift (2018) Taylor Swift (2019) Taylor Swift (2020) Taylor Swift (2021) Taylor Swift (2022) vteBAFTA Award for Best Original Score1968–2000 John Barry (1968) Mikis Theodorakis (1969) Burt Bacharach (1970) Michel Legrand (1971) Nino Rota (1972) Alan Price (1973) Richard Rodney Bennett (1974) John Williams (1975) Bernard Herrmann (1976) John Addison (1977) John Williams (1978) Ennio Morricone (1979) John Williams (1980) Carl Davis (1981) John Williams (1982) Ryuichi Sakamoto (1983) Ennio Morricone (1984) Maurice Jarre (1985) Ennio Morricone (1986) Ennio Morricone (1987) John Williams (1988) Maurice Jarre (1989) Andrea Morricone and Ennio Morricone (1990) Jean-Claude Petit (1991) David Hirschfelder (1992) John Williams (1993) Don Was (1994) Luis Enríquez Bacalov (1995) Gabriel Yared (1996) Nellee Hooper, Craig Armstrong, and Marius de Vries (1997) David Hirschfelder (1998) Thomas Newman (1999) Tan Dun (2000) 2001–present Craig Armstrong and Marius de Vries (2001) Philip Glass (2002) T Bone Burnett and Gabriel Yared (2003) Gustavo Santaolalla (2004) John Williams (2005) Gustavo Santaolalla (2006) Christopher Gunning (2007) A. R. Rahman (2008) Michael Giacchino (2009) Alexandre Desplat (2010) Ludovic Bource (2011) Thomas Newman (2012) Steven Price (2013) Alexandre Desplat (2014) Ennio Morricone (2015) Justin Hurwitz (2016) Alexandre Desplat (2017) Bradley Cooper, Lady Gaga, and Lukas Nelson (2018) Hildur Guðnadóttir (2019) Jon Batiste, Trent Reznor, and Atticus Ross (2020) Hans Zimmer (2021) Volker Bertelmann (2022) Ludwig Göransson (2023) vteBest-selling singles by year in the United Kingdom1950s 1952: "Here in My Heart" – Al Martino 1953: "I Believe" – Frankie Laine 1954: "Secret Love" – Doris Day 1955: "Rose Marie" – Slim Whitman 1956: "I'll Be Home" – Pat Boone 1957: "Diana" – Paul Anka 1958: "Jailhouse Rock" – Elvis Presley 1959: "Living Doll" – Cliff Richard (UK) 1960s 1960: "It's Now or Never" – Elvis Presley 1961: "Wooden Heart" – Elvis Presley 1962: "I Remember You" – Frank Ifield (UK) 1963: "She Loves You" – The Beatles (UK) 1964: "Can't Buy Me Love" – The Beatles (UK) 1965: "Tears" – Ken Dodd (UK) 1966: "Green, Green Grass of Home" – Tom Jones (UK) 1967: "Release Me" – Engelbert Humperdinck (UK) 1968: "Hey Jude" – The Beatles (UK) 1969: "Sugar, Sugar" – The Archies 1970s 1970: "The Wonder of You" – Elvis Presley / "In the Summertime" – Mungo Jerry (UK) 1971: "My Sweet Lord" – George Harrison (UK) 1972: "Amazing Grace" – Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (UK) 1973: "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree" – Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 1974: "Tiger Feet" – Mud (UK) 1975: "Bye Bye Baby" – Bay City Rollers (UK) 1976: "Save Your Kisses for Me" – Brotherhood of Man (UK) 1977: "Mull of Kintyre" / "Girls' School" – Wings (UK) 1978: "Rivers of Babylon" / "Brown Girl in the Ring" – Boney M. 1979: "Bright Eyes" – Art Garfunkel 1980s 1980: "Don't Stand So Close to Me" – The Police (UK) 1981: "Tainted Love" – Soft Cell (UK) / "Don't You Want Me" – The Human League (UK) 1982: "Come On Eileen" – Dexys Midnight Runners (UK) 1983: "Karma Chameleon" – Culture Club (UK) 1984: "Do They Know It's Christmas?" – Band Aid (UK) 1985: "The Power of Love" – Jennifer Rush 1986: "Don't Leave Me This Way" – The Communards (UK) 1987: "Never Gonna Give You Up" – Rick Astley (UK) 1988: "Mistletoe and Wine" – Cliff Richard (UK) 1989: "Ride on Time" – Black Box 1990s 1990: "Unchained Melody" – The Righteous Brothers 1991: "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" – Bryan Adams 1992: "I Will Always Love You" – Whitney Houston 1993: "I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)" – Meat Loaf 1994: "Love Is All Around" – Wet Wet Wet (UK) 1995: "Unchained Melody" – Robson & Jerome (UK) 1996: "Killing Me Softly" – Fugees 1997: "Something About the Way You Look Tonight" / "Candle in the Wind 1997" – Elton John (UK) 1998: "Believe" – Cher 1999: "...Baby One More Time" – Britney Spears 2000s 2000: "Can We Fix It?" – Bob the Builder (UK) 2001: "It Wasn't Me" – Shaggy featuring Rikrok (UK) 2002: "Anything Is Possible" / "Evergreen" – Will Young (UK) 2003: "Where Is the Love?" – Black Eyed Peas 2004: "Do They Know It's Christmas?" – Band Aid 20 (UK) 2005: "(Is This the Way to) Amarillo" – Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay (UK) 2006: "Crazy" – Gnarls Barkley 2007: "Bleeding Love" – Leona Lewis (UK) 2008: "Hallelujah" – Alexandra Burke (UK) 2009: "Poker Face" – Lady Gaga 2010s 2010: "Love the Way You Lie" – Eminem featuring Rihanna 2011: "Someone like You" – Adele (UK) 2012: "Somebody That I Used to Know" – Gotye featuring Kimbra 2013: "Blurred Lines" – Robin Thicke featuring T.I. & Pharrell Williams 2014: "Happy" – Pharrell Williams 2015: "Uptown Funk" – Mark Ronson (UK) featuring Bruno Mars 2016: "One Dance" – Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla (UK) 2017: "Shape of You" – Ed Sheeran (UK) 2018: "One Kiss" – Calvin Harris and Dua Lipa (UK) 2019: "Someone You Loved" – Lewis Capaldi (UK) 2020s 2020: "Blinding Lights" – The Weeknd 2021: "Bad Habits" – Ed Sheeran (UK) 2022: "As It Was" – Harry Styles (UK) 2023: "Flowers" – Miley Cyrus vteBET Award for Video of the Year2000s "Ms. Jackson" – OutKast (2001) "Pass the Courvoisier, Part II" – Busta Rhymes (2002) "Love of My Life (An Ode to Hip-Hop)" – Erykah Badu (2003) "Hey Ya!" – OutKast (2004) "Jesus Walks" – Kanye West (2005) "Be Without You" – Mary J. Blige / "Gold Digger" – Kanye West featuring Jamie Foxx (2006) "Irreplaceable" – Beyoncé (2007) "International Players Anthem (I Choose You)" – UGK (2008) "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" – Beyoncé (2009) 2010s "Video Phone" – Beyoncé featuring Lady Gaga (2010) "Look at Me Now" – Chris Brown (2011) "Otis" – Jay-Z and Kanye West featuring Otis Redding (2012) "Started from the Bottom" – Drake (2013) "Happy" – Pharrell Williams (2014) "7/11" – Beyoncé (2015) "Formation" – Beyoncé (2016) "Sorry" – Beyoncé / "24K Magic" – Bruno Mars (2017) "God's Plan" – Drake (2018) "This Is America" – Childish Gambino (2019) 2020s "Higher" – DJ Khaled featuring Nipsey Hussle and John Legend (2020) "WAP" – Cardi B featuring Megan Thee Stallion (2021) "Family Ties" – Baby Keem and Kendrick Lamar / "Smokin out the Window" – Silk Sonic (2022) "Kill Bill" – SZA (2023) vteBrit Award for International Female Solo Artist Tracy Chapman (1989) Sinéad O'Connor (1991) Björk (1994) K.d. lang (1995) Björk (1996) Sheryl Crow (1997) Björk (1998) Natalie Imbruglia (1999) Macy Gray (2000) Madonna (2001) Kylie Minogue (2002) Pink (2003) Beyoncé (2004) Gwen Stefani (2005) Madonna (2006) Nelly Furtado (2007) Kylie Minogue (2008) Katy Perry (2009) Lady Gaga (2010) Rihanna (2011) Rihanna (2012) Lana Del Rey (2013) Lorde (2014) Taylor Swift (2015) Björk (2016) Beyoncé (2017) Lorde (2018) Ariana Grande (2019) Billie Eilish (2020) Billie Eilish (2021) vteCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress Nicole Kidman (1995) Frances McDormand (1996) Helena Bonham Carter (1997) Cate Blanchett (1998) Hilary Swank (1999) Julia Roberts (2000) Sissy Spacek (2001) Julianne Moore (2002) Charlize Theron (2003) Hilary Swank (2004) Reese Witherspoon (2005) Helen Mirren (2006) Julie Christie (2007) Anne Hathaway / Meryl Streep (2008) Sandra Bullock / Meryl Streep (2009) Natalie Portman (2010) Viola Davis (2011) Jessica Chastain (2012) Cate Blanchett (2013) Julianne Moore (2014) Brie Larson (2015) Natalie Portman (2016) Frances McDormand (2017) Glenn Close / Lady Gaga (2018) Renée Zellweger (2019) Carey Mulligan (2020) Jessica Chastain (2021) Cate Blanchett (2022) Emma Stone (2023) vteCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Song1990s "When You Believe" – Music and Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz (1998) "Music of My Heart" – Music and Lyrics by Diane Warren (1999) 2000s "My Funny Friend and Me" – Music by David Hartley and Sting; Lyrics by Sting (2000) "May It Be" – Music and Lyrics by Enya, Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan / "Vanilla Sky" – Music and Lyrics by Paul McCartney (2001) "Lose Yourself" – Music and Lyrics by Jeff Bass, Eminem and Luis Resto (2002) "A Mighty Wind" – Music and Lyrics by Christopher Guest, Eugene Levy and Michael McKean (2003) "Old Habits Die Hard" – Music and Lyrics by Mick Jagger and David Stewart (2004) "Hustle & Flow" – Music and Lyrics by Terrence Howard (2005) "Listen" – Music and Lyrics by Scott Cutler, Henry Krieger and Anne Preven (2006) "Falling Slowly" – Music and Lyrics by Glen Hansard and Markéta Irglová (2007) "The Wrestler" – Music and Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen (2008) "The Weary Kind" – Music and Lyrics by Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett (2009) 2010s "If I Rise" – Music and Lyrics by Rollo Armstrong, Dido and A. R. Rahman (2010) "Life's a Happy Song" – Music and Lyrics by Bret McKenzie (2011) "Skyfall" – Music and Lyrics by Adele and Paul Epworth (2012) "Let It Go" – Music and Lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (2013) "Glory" – Music and Lyrics by Common and John Legend (2014) "See You Again" – Music and Lyrics by Andrew Cedar, DJ Frank E, Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth (2015) "City of Stars" – Music by Justin Hurwitz; Lyrics by Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016) "Remember Me" – Music and Lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (2017) "Shallow" – Music and Lyrics by Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando and Andrew Wyatt (2018) "Glasgow (No Place Like Home)" – Music and Lyrics by Mary Steenburgen / "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" – Music by Elton John; Lyrics by Bernie Taupin (2019) 2020s "Speak Now" – Music and Lyrics by Leslie Odom Jr. and Sam Ashworth (2020) "No Time to Die" – Music and Lyrics by Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2021) "Naatu Naatu" – Music by M. M. Keeravani; Lyrics by Chandrabose (2022) "I'm Just Ken" – Music and Lyrics by Mark Ronson and Andrew Wyatt (2023) vteGLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Music ArtistOutstanding Music Artist (1991–present) Two Nice Girls (1991) Phranc and John Corigliano (1992) Elton John and Garth Brooks (1993) Melissa Etheridge (1994) Melissa Etheridge, Indigo Girls, and Disappear Fear (1995) Boy George and Jill Sobule (1996) Meshell Ndegeocello (1997) Janet Jackson (1998) Rufus Wainwright and Queen Pen (1999) Indigo Girls (2000) k.d. lang (2001) k.d. lang and Tony Bennett (2003) Rufus Wainwright (2004) Scissor Sisters (2005) Melissa Etheridge (2006) Scissor Sisters (2007) Rufus Wainwright (2008) k.d. lang (2009) Lady Gaga (2010) Scissor Sisters (2011) Lady Gaga (2012) Adam Lambert and Frank Ocean (2013) Tegan and Sara (2014) Against Me! (2015) Troye Sivan (2016) Tegan and Sara (2017) Halsey (2018) Janelle Monáe (2019) Lil Nas X (2020) Sam Smith (2021) Lil Nas X (2022) Fletcher (2023) Reneé Rapp (2024) Outstanding Breakthrough Music Artist (2021–present) Chika (2021) Lily Rose (2022) Dove Cameron (2023) David Archuleta (2024) vteGlamour Award for Woman of the Year Britney Spears (2003) Christina Aguilera (2004) Rachel Stevens (2005) Somaly Mam (2006) Victoria Beckham (2007) Kylie Minogue (2009) Cheryl Cole (2010) Selena Gomez (2012) Lady Gaga (2013) Lupita Nyong'o (2014) Caitlyn Jenner (2015) Gwen Stefani (2016) Jourdan Dunn (2017) Viola Davis (2018) Greta Thunberg (2019) vteGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Limited or Anthology Series or Television Film1981–1999 Jane Seymour (1981) Ingrid Bergman (1982) Ann-Margret (1983) Ann-Margret (1984) Liza Minnelli (1985) Loretta Young (1986) Gena Rowlands (1987) Ann Jillian (1988) Christine Lahti (1989) Barbara Hershey (1990) Judy Davis (1991) Laura Dern (1992) Bette Midler (1993) Joanne Woodward (1994) Jessica Lange (1995) Helen Mirren (1996) Alfre Woodard (1997) Angelina Jolie (1998) Halle Berry (1999) 2000–2019 Judi Dench (2000) Judy Davis (2001) Uma Thurman (2002) Meryl Streep (2003) Glenn Close (2004) S. Epatha Merkerson (2005) Helen Mirren (2006) Queen Latifah (2007) Laura Linney (2008) Drew Barrymore (2009) Claire Danes (2010) Kate Winslet (2011) Julianne Moore (2012) Elisabeth Moss (2013) Maggie Gyllenhaal (2014) Lady Gaga (2015) Sarah Paulson (2016) Nicole Kidman (2017) Patricia Arquette (2018) Michelle Williams (2019) 2020–present Anya Taylor-Joy (2020) Kate Winslet (2021) Amanda Seyfried (2022) Ali Wong (2023) vteGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song1960s "Town Without Pity" – Music by Dimitri Tiomkin; Lyrics by Ned Washington (1961) No Award (1962) No Award (1963) "Circus World" – Music by Dimitri Tiomkin; Lyrics by Ned Washington (1964) "Forget Domani" – Music by Riz Ortolani; Lyrics by Norman Newell (1965) "Strangers in the Night" – Music by Bert Kaempfert; Lyrics by Charles Singleton & Eddie Snyder (1966) "If Ever I Would Leave You" – Music by Frederick Loewe; Lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner (1967) "The Windmills of Your Mind" – Music by Michel Legrand; Lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman (1968) "Jean" – Music and Lyrics by Rod McKuen (1969) 1970s "Whistling Away the Dark" – Music by Henry Mancini; Lyrics by Johnny Mercer (1970) "Life Is What You Make It" – Music by Marvin Hamlisch; Lyrics by Johnny Mercer (1971) "Ben" – Music by Walter Scharf; Lyrics by Don Black (1972) "The Way We Were" – Music by Marvin Hamlisch; Lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman (1973) "I Feel Love" – Music by Euel Box; Lyrics by Betty Box (1974) "I'm Easy" – Music and Lyrics by Keith Carradine (1975) "Evergreen" – Music by Barbra Streisand; Lyrics by Paul Williams (1976) "You Light Up My Life" – Music and Lyrics by Joseph Brooks (1977) "Last Dance" – Music and Lyrics by Paul Jabara (1978) "The Rose" – Music and Lyrics by Amanda McBroom (1979) 1980s "Fame" – Music by Michael Gore; Lyrics by Dean Pitchford (1980) "Arthur's Theme (Best That You Can Do)" – Music and Lyrics by Peter Allen, Burt Bacharach, Christopher Cross & Carole Bayer Sager (1981) "Up Where We Belong" – Music by Jack Nitzsche & Buffy Sainte-Marie; Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings (1982) "Flashdance... What a Feeling" – Music by Giorgio Moroder; Lyrics by Irene Cara & Keith Forsey (1983) "I Just Called to Say I Love You" – Music and Lyrics by Stevie Wonder (1984) "Say You, Say Me" – Music and Lyrics by Lionel Richie (1985) "Take My Breath Away" – Music by Giorgio Moroder; Lyrics by Tom Whitlock (1986) "(I've Had) The Time of My Life" – Music by John DeNicola & Donald Markowitz; Lyrics by Franke Previte (1987) "Let the River Run" – Music and Lyrics by Carly Simon / "Two Hearts" – Music by Lamont Dozier; Lyrics by Phil Collins (1988) "Under the Sea" – Music by Alan Menken; Lyrics by Howard Ashman (1989) 1990s "Blaze of Glory" – Music and Lyrics by Jon Bon Jovi (1990) "Beauty and the Beast" – Music by Alan Menken; Lyrics by Howard Ashman (1991) "A Whole New World" – Music by Alan Menken; Lyrics by Tim Rice (1992) "Streets of Philadelphia" – Music and Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen (1993) "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" – Music by Elton John; Lyrics by Tim Rice (1994) "Colors of the Wind" – Music by Alan Menken; Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz (1995) "You Must Love Me" – Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber; Lyrics by Tim Rice (1996) "My Heart Will Go On" – Music by James Horner; Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings (1997) "The Prayer" – Music and Lyrics by David Foster, Tony Renis, Carole Bayer Sager & Alberto Testa (1998) "You'll Be in My Heart" – Music and Lyrics by Phil Collins (1999) 2000s "Things Have Changed" – Music and Lyrics by Bob Dylan (2000) "Until..." – Music and Lyrics by Sting (2001) "The Hands That Built America" – Music and Lyrics by Bono, Adam Clayton, The Edge & Larry Mullen Jr. (2002) "Into the West" – Music and Lyrics by Annie Lennox, Howard Shore & Frances Walsh (2003) "Old Habits Die Hard" – Music and Lyrics by Mick Jagger & David A. Stewart (2004) "A Love That Will Never Grow Old" – Music by Gustavo Santaolalla; Lyrics by Bernie Taupin (2005) "The Song of the Heart" – Music and Lyrics by Prince Rogers Nelson (2006) "Guaranteed" – Music and Lyrics by Eddie Vedder (2007) "The Wrestler" – Music and Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen (2008) "The Weary Kind" – Music and Lyrics by Ryan Bingham & T Bone Burnett (2009) 2010s "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" – Music and lyrics by Diane Warren (2010) "Masterpiece" – Music and lyrics by Madonna, Julie Frost & Jimmy Harry (2011) "Skyfall" – Music and lyrics by Adele Adkins & Paul Epworth (2012) "Ordinary Love" – Music and lyrics by Bono, Adam Clayton, The Edge, Larry Mullen Jr. & Danger Mouse (2013) "Glory" – Music and lyrics by Common & John Legend (2014) "Writing's on the Wall" – Music and lyrics by Sam Smith & Jimmy Napes (2015) "City of Stars" – Music by Justin Hurwitz; lyrics by Benj Pasek & Justin Paul (2016) "This Is Me" – Music and lyrics by Benj Pasek & Justin Paul (2017) "Shallow" – Music and lyrics by Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando & Andrew Wyatt (2018) "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" – Music by Elton John; lyrics by Bernie Taupin (2019) 2020s "Io sì (Seen)" – Music by Diane Warren; Lyrics by Diane Warren, Laura Pausini & Niccolò Agliardi (2020) "No Time to Die" – Music and Lyrics by Billie Eilish & Finneas O'Connell (2021) "Naatu Naatu" – Music by M. M. Keeravani; Lyrics by Chandrabose (2022) "What Was I Made For?" – Music and Lyrics by Billie Eilish O'Connell and Finneas O'Connell (2023) Complete List (1960s) (1970s) (1980s) (1990s) (2000s) (2010s) (2020s) vteGrammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance2010s "Someone Like You" – Adele (2011) "Set Fire to the Rain" (Live) – Adele (2012) "Royals" – Lorde (2013) "Happy" (Live) – Pharrell Williams (2014) "Thinking Out Loud" – Ed Sheeran (2015) "Hello" – Adele (2016) "Shape of You" – Ed Sheeran (2017) "Joanne (Where Do You Think You're Goin'?)" – Lady Gaga (2018) "Truth Hurts" – Lizzo (2019) 2020s "Watermelon Sugar" – Harry Styles (2020) "Drivers License" – Olivia Rodrigo (2021) "Easy on Me" – Adele (2022) "Flowers" – Miley Cyrus (2023) vteGrammy Award for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance2010s "Body and Soul" – Tony Bennett and Amy Winehouse (2011) "Somebody That I Used to Know" – Gotye featuring Kimbra (2012) "Get Lucky" – Daft Punk featuring Pharrell Williams and Nile Rodgers (2013) "Say Something" – A Great Big World and Christina Aguilera (2014) "Uptown Funk" – Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars (2015) "Stressed Out" – Twenty One Pilots (2016) "Feel It Still" – Portugal. The Man (2017) "Shallow" – Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper (2018) "Old Town Road" – Lil Nas X featuring Billy Ray Cyrus (2019) 2020s "Rain on Me" – Lady Gaga and Ariana Grande (2020) "Kiss Me More" – Doja Cat featuring SZA (2021) "Unholy" – Sam Smith and Kim Petras (2022) "Ghost in the Machine" – SZA featuring Phoebe Bridgers (2023) vteGrammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album1960s Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band – The Beatles (1967) 1990s Longing in Their Hearts – Bonnie Raitt (1994) Turbulent Indigo – Joni Mitchell (1995) Falling into You – Celine Dion (1996) Hourglass – James Taylor (1997) Ray of Light – Madonna (1998) Brand New Day – Sting (1999) 2000s Two Against Nature – Steely Dan (2000) Lovers Rock – Sade (2001) Come Away with Me – Norah Jones (2002) Justified – Justin Timberlake (2003) Genius Loves Company – Ray Charles and various artists (2004) Breakaway – Kelly Clarkson (2005) Continuum – John Mayer (2006) Back to Black – Amy Winehouse (2007) Rockferry – Duffy (2008) The E.N.D. – Black Eyed Peas (2009) 2010s The Fame Monster – Lady Gaga (2010) 21 – Adele (2011) Stronger – Kelly Clarkson (2012) Unorthodox Jukebox – Bruno Mars (2013) In the Lonely Hour – Sam Smith (2014) 1989 – Taylor Swift (2015) 25 – Adele (2016) ÷ – Ed Sheeran (2017) Sweetener – Ariana Grande (2018) When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? – Billie Eilish (2019) 2020s Future Nostalgia – Dua Lipa (2020) Sour – Olivia Rodrigo (2021) Harry's House – Harry Styles (2022) Midnights – Taylor Swift (2023) From 1968–1993, the category was discontinued. vteGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media1980s "Somewhere Out There" – James Horner, Barry Mann & Cynthia Weil (songwriters) (1987) "Two Hearts" – Phil Collins & Lamont Dozier (songwriters) (1988) "Let the River Run" – Carly Simon (songwriter) (1989) 1990s "Under the Sea" – Alan Menken & Howard Ashman (songwriters) (1990) "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" – Robert John "Mutt" Lange, Michael Kamen & Bryan Adams (songwriters) (1991) "Beauty and the Beast" – Alan Menken & Howard Ashman (songwriters) (1992) "A Whole New World" – Alan Menken & Tim Rice (songwriters) (1993) "Streets of Philadelphia" – Bruce Springsteen (songwriter) (1994) "Colors of the Wind" – Alan Menken & Stephen Schwartz (songwriters) (1995) "Because You Loved Me" – Diane Warren (songwriter) (1996) "I Believe I Can Fly" – R. Kelly (songwriter) (1997) "My Heart Will Go On" – James Horner & Will Jennings (songwriters) (1998) "Beautiful Stranger" – Madonna & William Orbit (songwriters) (1999) 2000s "When She Loved Me" – Randy Newman (songwriter) (2000) "Boss of Me" – John Flansburgh & John Linnell (songwriters) (2001) "If I Didn't Have You" – Randy Newman (songwriter) (2002) "A Mighty Wind" – Christopher Guest, Eugene Levy & Michael McKean (songwriters) (2003) "Into the West" – Annie Lennox, Howard Shore & Fran Walsh (songwriters) (2004) "Believe" – Glen Ballard & Alan Silvestri (songwriters) (2005) "Our Town" – Randy Newman (songwriter) (2006) "Love You I Do" – Siedah Garrett & Henry Krieger (songwriters) (2007) "Down to Earth" – Peter Gabriel & Thomas Newman (songwriters) (2008) "Jai Ho" – Gulzar, A. R. Rahman & Tanvi Shah (songwriters) (2009) 2010s "The Weary Kind" – Ryan Bingham & T Bone Burnett (songwriters) (2010) "I See the Light" – Alan Menken & Glenn Slater (songwriters) (2011) "Safe & Sound" – T Bone Burnett, Taylor Swift, Joy Williams & John Paul White (songwriters) (2012) "Skyfall" – Adele Atkins & Paul Epworth (songwriters) (2013) "Let It Go" – Kristen Anderson-Lopez & Robert Lopez (songwriters) (2014) "Glory" – Common, Che Smith & John Legend (songwriters) (2015) "Can't Stop the Feeling!" – Max Martin, Shellback & Justin Timberlake (songwriters) (2016) "How Far I'll Go" – Lin-Manuel Miranda (songwriter) (2017) "Shallow" – Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando & Andrew Wyatt (songwriters) (2018) "I'll Never Love Again" – Lady Gaga, Natalie Hemby, Hillary Lindsey & Aaron Raitiere (songwriters) (2019) 2020s "No Time to Die" – Billie Eilish O'Connell & Finneas O'Connell (songwriters) (2020) "All Eyes on Me" – Bo Burnham (songwriter) (2021) "We Don't Talk About Bruno" – Lin-Manuel Miranda (songwriter) (2022) "What Was I Made For?" – Billie Eilish O'Connell & Finneas O'Connell (songwriters) (2023) vteGrammy Award for Best Music VideoVideo of the Year (1981−1982) Elephant Parts – Michael Nesmith (1981) Olivia Physical – Olivia Newton-John (1982) 1983–1986 "Girls on Film" / "Hungry Like the Wolf" – Duran Duran (1983) "Jazzin' for Blue Jean" – David Bowie (1984) "We Are the World" – USA for Africa (1985) "Brothers in Arms" – Dire Straits (1986) Best ConceptMusic Video (1987−1988) "Land of Confusion" – Genesis (1987) "Fat" – "Weird Al" Yankovic (1988) 1989–2009 "Leave Me Alone" – Michael Jackson (1989) "Opposites Attract" – Paula Abdul (1990) "Losing My Religion" – R.E.M. (1991) "Digging in the Dirt" – Peter Gabriel (1992) "Steam" – Peter Gabriel (1993) "Love Is Strong" – The Rolling Stones (1994) "Scream" – Michael Jackson & Janet Jackson (1995) "Free as a Bird" – The Beatles (1996) "Got 'til It's Gone" – Janet Jackson (1997) "Ray of Light" – Madonna (1998) "Freak on a Leash" – Korn (1999) "Learn to Fly" – Foo Fighters (2000) "Weapon of Choice" – Fatboy Slim featuring Bootsy Collins (2001) "Without Me" - Eminem (2002) "Hurt" – Johnny Cash (2003) "Vertigo" – U2 (2004) "Lose Control" – Missy Elliott featuring Ciara & Fatman Scoop (2005) "Here It Goes Again" – OK Go (2006) "God's Gonna Cut You Down" – Johnny Cash (2007) "Pork and Beans" – Weezer (2008) "Boom Boom Pow" – The Black Eyed Peas (2009) 2010–present "Bad Romance" – Lady Gaga (2010) "Rolling in the Deep" – Adele (2011) "We Found Love" – Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris (2012) "Suit & Tie" – Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z (2013) "Happy" – Pharrell Williams (2014) "Bad Blood" – Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar (2015) "Formation" – Beyoncé (2016) "Humble" – Kendrick Lamar (2017) "This Is America" – Childish Gambino (2018) "Old Town Road" – Lil Nas X featuring Billy Ray Cyrus (2019) "Brown Skin Girl" – Beyoncé, Blue Ivy & Wizkid (2020) "Freedom" – Jon Batiste (2021) All Too Well: The Short Film – Taylor Swift (2022) "I'm Only Sleeping" – The Beatles (2023) vteGuild of Music Supervisors Award for Best Song Written and/or Recording Created for a Film2010s "See You Again" – Written by DJ Frank E, Charlie Puth, Wiz Khalifa, and Andrew Cedar (2015) "City of Stars" – Written by Justin Hurwitz, Benj Pasek, and Justin Paul (2016) "Mystery of Love" – Written by Sufjan Stevens (2017) "Shallow" – Written by Stefani Germanotta, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando, and Andrew Wyatt (2018) "One Little Soldier" – Written by Regina Spektor (2019) 2020s "Hear My Voice" – Written by Celeste Waite and Daniel Pemberton (2020) "Dos Oruguitas" – Written by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2021) "This Is a Life" – Written by Ryan Lott, David Byrne, and Mitski Miyawaki (2022) "What Was I Made For?" – Written by Billie Eilish O'Connell and Finneas O'Connell (2023) vteHollywood Music in Media Award for Best Original Song in a Documentary2010s "Coming Home" – Written by Joel Martin (2014) "Til It Happens to You" – Written by Diane Warren and Lady Gaga (2015) "A Minute to Breathe" – Written by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross (2016) "Jump" – Written by Raphael Saadiq, Taura Stinson, and Laura Karpman (2017) "I'll Fight" – Written by Diane Warren (2018) "Sun, Flood, or Drought" – Written by Scott Avett and Seth Avett (2019) 2020s "Never Break" – Written by John Legend, Nasri Atweh, Benjamin Hudson McIldowie, and Greg Wells (2020) "Secret Sister" – Written by Rufus Wainwright (2021) "Ready As I'll Never Be" – Written by Brandi Carlile and Tanya Tucker (2022) "Todo Fue Por Amor" – Written by Carla Morrison, Juan Alejandro Jimenez Perez, and Mario Demian Jimenez Perez (2023) vteHollywood Music in Media Award for Best Original Song in a Feature Film2010s "Lost Stars" – Written by Gregg Alexander and Danielle Brisebois (2014) "See You Again" – Written by Andrew Cedar, Cameron Thomaz, Charlie Puth, and Justin Franks (2015) "City of Stars" – Written by Justin Hurwitz, Benj Pasek, and Justin Paul (2016) "Stand Up for Something" – Written by Diane Warren and Lonnie R. Lynn (2017) "Shallow" – Written by Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando, and Andrew Wyatt (2018) "Stand Up" – Written by Cynthia Erivo and Joshuah Brian Campbell (2019) 2020s "Io sì (Seen)" – Written by Laura Pausini, Diane Warren, and Niccolò Agliardi (2020) "No Time to Die" – Written by Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2021) "Lift Me Up" – Written by Tems, Rihanna, Ryan Coogler, and Ludwig Göransson (2022) "What Was I Made For?" – Written by Billie Eilish O'Connell and Finneas O'Connell (2023) vteIFPI Global Year-End ChartsArtist of the Year One Direction (2013) Taylor Swift (2014) Adele (2015) Drake (2016) Ed Sheeran (2017) Drake (2018) Taylor Swift (2019) BTS (2020–2021) Taylor Swift (2022) Taylor Swift (2023) Album of the Year Hybrid Theory by Linkin Park (2001) The Eminem Show by Eminem (2002) Come Away with Me by Norah Jones (2003) Confessions by Usher (2004) X&Y by Coldplay (2005) High School Musical by Various Artists (2006) High School Musical 2 by Various Artists (2007) Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends by Coldplay (2008) I Dreamed a Dream by Susan Boyle (2009) Recovery by Eminem (2010) 21 by Adele (2011) 21 by Adele (2012) Midnight Memories by One Direction (2013) Frozen by Various Artists (2014) 25 by Adele (2015) Lemonade by Beyoncé (2016) ÷ by Ed Sheeran (2017) The Greatest Showman by Various Artists (2018) 5x20 All the Best!! 1999–2019 by Arashi (2019) Map of the Soul: 7 by BTS (2020) 30 by Adele (2021) Un Verano Sin Ti by Bad Bunny (2022) FML by Seventeen (2023) Single of the Year "Girlfriend" by Avril Lavigne (2007) "Lollipop" by Lil Wayne featuring Static Major (2008) "Poker Face" by Lady Gaga (2009) "Tik Tok" by Kesha (2010) "Just the Way You Are" by Bruno Mars (2011) "Call Me Maybe" by Carly Rae Jepsen (2012) "Blurred Lines" by Robin Thicke featuring T.I. and Pharrell (2013) "Happy" by Pharrell Williams (2014) "See You Again" by Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth (2015) "One Dance" by Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla (2016) "Shape of You" by Ed Sheeran (2017) "Havana" by Camila Cabello featuring Young Thug (2018) "Bad Guy" by Billie Eilish (2019) "Blinding Lights" by the Weeknd (2020) "Save Your Tears" by the Weeknd (2021) "As It Was" by Harry Styles (2022) "Flowers" by Miley Cyrus (2023) vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best Female Mariah Carey (1994) Björk (1995) Alanis Morissette (1996) Janet Jackson (1997) Madonna (1998) Britney Spears (1999, 2004) Madonna (2000) Jennifer Lopez (2001–2002) Christina Aguilera (2003, 2006) Shakira (2005) Beyoncé (2009) Lady Gaga (2010–2011, 2016) Taylor Swift (2012) Katy Perry (2013) Ariana Grande (2014) Rihanna (2015) vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best Look Taylor Swift (2012) Harry Styles (2013) Katy Perry (2014) Justin Bieber (2015) Lady Gaga (2016) Zayn (2017) Nicki Minaj (2018) Halsey (2019) vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best New Act Crash Test Dummies (1994) Dog Eat Dog (1995) Garbage (1996) Hanson (1997) All Saints (1998) Britney Spears (1999) Blink 182 (2000) Dido (2001) The Calling (2002) Sean Paul (2003) Maroon 5 (2004) James Blunt (2005) Gnarls Barkley (2006) Bedwetters (2007) Katy Perry (2008) Lady Gaga (2009) Kesha (2010) Bruno Mars (2011) One Direction (2012) Macklemore & Ryan Lewis (2013) 5 Seconds of Summer (2014) Shawn Mendes (2015) Zara Larsson (2016) Dua Lipa (2017) Cardi B (2018) Billie Eilish (2019) Doja Cat (2020) Saweetie (2021) Seventeen (2022) vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best Pop Spice Girls (1998) Britney Spears (1999) All Saints (2000) Anastacia (2001) Kylie Minogue (2002) Justin Timberlake (2003) Black Eyed Peas (2004–2005) Justin Timberlake (2006) Lady Gaga (2010) Justin Bieber (2011–2012) One Direction (2013–2015) Fifth Harmony (2016) Camila Cabello (2017) Dua Lipa (2018) Halsey (2019) Little Mix (2020) BTS (2021) Taylor Swift (2022) vteMTV Europe Music Award for Best US Act MGK (2012) Miley Cyrus (2013) Fifth Harmony (2014, 2017) Taylor Swift (2015, 2019, 2021) Ariana Grande (2016) Camila Cabello (2018) Lady Gaga (2020) Billie Eilish (2022) Nicki Minaj (2023) vteMTV Movie & TV Award for Best Performance in a MovieBest Male Performance(1992–2005, 2008–2016) Arnold Schwarzenegger (1992) Denzel Washington (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Brad Pitt (1995) Jim Carrey (1996) Tom Cruise (1997) Leonardo DiCaprio (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) Keanu Reeves (2000) Tom Cruise (2001) Will Smith (2002) Eminem (2003) Johnny Depp (2004) Leonardo DiCaprio (2005) Will Smith (2008) Zac Efron (2009) Robert Pattinson (2010) Robert Pattinson (2011) Josh Hutcherson (2012) Bradley Cooper (2013) Josh Hutcherson (2014) Bradley Cooper (2015) Leonardo DiCaprio (2016) Best Female Performance(1992–2005, 2008–2016) Linda Hamilton (1992) Sharon Stone (1993) Janet Jackson (1994) Sandra Bullock (1995) Alicia Silverstone (1996) Claire Danes (1997) Neve Campbell (1998) Cameron Diaz (1999) Sarah Michelle Gellar (2000) Julia Roberts (2001) Nicole Kidman (2002) Kirsten Dunst (2003) Uma Thurman (2004) Lindsay Lohan (2005) Elliot Page (2008) Kristen Stewart (2009) Kristen Stewart (2010) Kristen Stewart (2011) Jennifer Lawrence (2012) Jennifer Lawrence (2013) Jennifer Lawrence (2014) Shailene Woodley (2015) Charlize Theron (2016) Best Performance(2006–2007, 2017–present) Jake Gyllenhaal (2006) Johnny Depp (2007) Emma Watson (2017) Chadwick Boseman (2018) Lady Gaga (2019) No Award (2020) Chadwick Boseman (2021) Tom Holland (2022) Tom Cruise (2023) vteMTV Movie & TV Award for Best Musical MomentBest Song from a Movie(1992–1999, 2009, 2012) Bryan Adams (1992) Whitney Houston (1993) Michael Jackson (1994) Stone Temple Pilots (1995) Brandy (1996) Bush (1997) Will Smith (1998) Aerosmith (1999) Miley Cyrus (2009) LMFAO (2012) Best Musical Sequence(2000–2002, 2005, 2014) Terrence and Philip (2000) Piper Perabo (2001) Nicole Kidman and Ewan McGregor (2002) Jon Heder (2005) Backstreet Boys, Jay Baruchel, Seth Rogen and Craig Robinson (2014) Best Musical Moment(2013, 2017–present) Anna Kendrick, Rebel Wilson, Anna Camp, Brittany Snow, Alexis Knapp, Ester Dean, and Hana Mae Lee (2013) Ensemble of Grease Live! (2017) Finn Wolfhard and Millie Bobby Brown (2018) Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper (2019) No Award (2020) Madison Reyes, Charlie Gillespie, Owen Joyner and Jeremy Shada (2021) Beabadoobee (2022) Sofia Carson (2023) vteMTV Video Music Award for Best Collaboration Beyoncé and Shakira (2007) Lady Gaga and Beyoncé (2010) Katy Perry and Kanye West (2011) Pink and Nate Ruess (2013) Beyoncé and Jay-Z (2014) Taylor Swift and Kendrick Lamar (2015) Fifth Harmony and Ty Dolla Sign (2016) Zayn and Taylor Swift (2017) Jennifer Lopez, DJ Khaled and Cardi B (2018) Shawn Mendes and Camila Cabello (2019) Lady Gaga and Ariana Grande (2020) Doja Cat and SZA (2021) Lil Nas X and Jack Harlow (2022) Karol G and Shakira (2023) vteMTV Video Music Award for Best Video with a Social Message2010s "Born This Way" by Lady Gaga (2011) "Skyscraper" by Demi Lovato (2012) "Same Love" by Macklemore & Ryan Lewis featuring Mary Lambert (2013) "Pretty Hurts" by Beyoncé (2014) "One Man Can Change the World" by Big Sean featuring Kanye West and John Legend (2015) No award (2016) "Scars to Your Beautiful" by Alessia Cara / "Light" by Big Sean featuring Jeremih / "Surefire" by John Legend / "Immigrants (We Get the Job Done)" by K'naan, Snow Tha Product, Riz Ahmed and Residente / "Black Spiderman" by Logic featuring Damian Lemar Hudson / "Stand Up/Stand N Rock #NoDAPL" by Taboo featuring Shailene Woodley (2017) "This Is America" by Childish Gambino (2018) "You Need to Calm Down" by Taylor Swift (2019) 2020s "I Can't Breathe" by H.E.R. (2020) "Your Power" by Billie Eilish (2021) "About Damn Time" by Lizzo (2022) vteMTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist Eurythmics (1984) 'Til Tuesday (1985) A-ha (1986) Crowded House (1987) Guns N' Roses (1988) Living Colour (1989) Michael Penn (1990) Jesus Jones (1991) Nirvana (1992) Stone Temple Pilots (1993) Counting Crows (1994) Hootie & the Blowfish (1995) Alanis Morissette (1996) Fiona Apple (1997) Natalie Imbruglia (1998) Eminem (1999) Macy Gray (2000) Alicia Keys (2001) Avril Lavigne (2002) 50 Cent (2003) Maroon 5 (2004) The Killers (2005) Avenged Sevenfold (2006) Gym Class Heroes (2007) Tokio Hotel (2008) Lady Gaga (2009) Justin Bieber and Ludacris (2010) Tyler, the Creator (2011) One Direction (2012) Austin Mahone (2013) Fifth Harmony (2014) Fetty Wap (2015) DNCE (2016) Khalid (2017) Cardi B (2018) Billie Eilish (2019) Doja Cat (2020) Olivia Rodrigo (2021) Dove Cameron (2022) Ice Spice (2023) vteMTV Video Music Award for Artist of the Year Ed Sheeran (2017) Camila Cabello (2018) Ariana Grande (2019) Lady Gaga (2020) Justin Bieber (2021) Bad Bunny (2022) Taylor Swift (2023) vteMTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year1980s "You Might Think" – The Cars (1984) "The Boys of Summer" – Don Henley (1985) "Money for Nothing" – Dire Straits (1986) "Sledgehammer" – Peter Gabriel (1987) "Need You Tonight" / "Mediate" – INXS (1988) "This Note's for You" – Neil Young (1989) 1990s "Nothing Compares 2 U" – Sinéad O'Connor (1990) "Losing My Religion" – R.E.M. (1991) "Right Now" – Van Halen (1992) "Jeremy" – Pearl Jam (1993) "Cryin'" – Aerosmith (1994) "Waterfalls" – TLC (1995) "Tonight, Tonight" – The Smashing Pumpkins (1996) "Virtual Insanity" – Jamiroquai (1997) "Ray of Light" – Madonna (1998) "Doo Wop (That Thing)" – Lauryn Hill (1999) 2000s "The Real Slim Shady" – Eminem (2000) "Lady Marmalade" – Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, Mýa and Pink (2001) "Without Me" – Eminem (2002) "Work It" – Missy Elliott (2003) "Hey Ya!" – Outkast (2004) "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" – Green Day (2005) "I Write Sins Not Tragedies" – Panic! at the Disco (2006) "Umbrella" – Rihanna featuring Jay-Z (2007) "Piece of Me" – Britney Spears (2008) "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" – Beyoncé (2009) 2010s "Bad Romance" – Lady Gaga (2010) "Firework" – Katy Perry (2011) "We Found Love" – Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris (2012) "Mirrors" – Justin Timberlake (2013) "Wrecking Ball" – Miley Cyrus (2014) "Bad Blood" – Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar (2015) "Formation" – Beyoncé (2016) "Humble" – Kendrick Lamar (2017) "Havana" – Camila Cabello featuring Young Thug (2018) "You Need to Calm Down" – Taylor Swift (2019) 2020s "Blinding Lights" – The Weeknd (2020) "Montero (Call Me by Your Name)" – Lil Nas X (2021) All Too Well: The Short Film – Taylor Swift (2022) "Anti-Hero" – Taylor Swift (2023) vteNational Board of Review Award for Best Actress1945–1975 Joan Crawford (1945) Anna Magnani (1946) Celia Johnson (1947) Olivia de Havilland (1948) Gloria Swanson (1950) Jan Sterling (1951) Shirley Booth (1952) Jean Simmons (1953) Grace Kelly (1954) Anna Magnani (1955) Dorothy McGuire (1956) Joanne Woodward (1957) Ingrid Bergman (1958) Simone Signoret (1959) Greer Garson (1960) Geraldine Page (1961) Anne Bancroft (1962) Patricia Neal (1963) Kim Stanley (1964) Julie Christie (1965) Elizabeth Taylor (1966) Edith Evans (1967) Liv Ullmann (1968) Geraldine Page (1969) Glenda Jackson (1970) Irene Papas (1971) Cicely Tyson (1972) Liv Ullmann (1973) Gena Rowlands (1974) Isabelle Adjani (1975) 1976–2000 Liv Ullmann (1976) Anne Bancroft (1977) Ingrid Bergman (1978) Sally Field (1979) Sissy Spacek (1980) Glenda Jackson (1981) Meryl Streep (1982) Shirley MacLaine (1983) Peggy Ashcroft (1984) Whoopi Goldberg (1985) Kathleen Turner (1986) Lillian Gish / Holly Hunter (1987) Jodie Foster (1988) Michelle Pfeiffer (1989) Mia Farrow (1990) Geena Davis / Susan Sarandon (1991) Emma Thompson (1992) Holly Hunter (1993) Miranda Richardson (1994) Emma Thompson (1995) Frances McDormand (1996) Helena Bonham Carter (1997) Fernanda Montenegro (1998) Janet McTeer (1999) Julia Roberts (2000) 2001–present Halle Berry (2001) Julianne Moore (2002) Diane Keaton (2003) Annette Bening (2004) Felicity Huffman (2005) Helen Mirren (2006) Julie Christie (2007) Anne Hathaway (2008) Carey Mulligan (2009) Lesley Manville (2010) Tilda Swinton (2011) Jessica Chastain (2012) Emma Thompson (2013) Julianne Moore (2014) Brie Larson (2015) Amy Adams (2016) Meryl Streep (2017) Lady Gaga (2018) Renée Zellweger (2019) Carey Mulligan (2020) Rachel Zegler (2021) Michelle Yeoh (2022) Lily Gladstone (2023) vteNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress1935–1950 Greta Garbo (1935) Luise Rainer (1936) Greta Garbo (1937) Margaret Sullavan (1938) Vivien Leigh (1939) Katharine Hepburn (1940) Joan Fontaine (1941) Agnes Moorehead (1942) Ida Lupino (1943) Tallulah Bankhead (1944) Ingrid Bergman (1945) Celia Johnson (1946) Deborah Kerr (1947) Olivia de Havilland (1948) Olivia de Havilland (1949) Bette Davis (1950) 1951–1975 Vivien Leigh (1951) Shirley Booth (1952) Audrey Hepburn (1953) Grace Kelly (1954) Anna Magnani (1955) Ingrid Bergman (1956) Deborah Kerr (1957) Susan Hayward (1958) Audrey Hepburn (1959) Deborah Kerr (1960) Sophia Loren (1961) No Award (1962) Patricia Neal (1963) Kim Stanley (1964) Julie Christie (1965) Lynn Redgrave / Elizabeth Taylor (1966) Edith Evans (1967) Joanne Woodward (1968) Jane Fonda (1969) Glenda Jackson (1970) Jane Fonda (1971) Liv Ullmann (1972) Joanne Woodward (1973) Liv Ullmann (1974) Isabelle Adjani (1975) 1976–2000 Liv Ullmann (1976) Diane Keaton (1977) Ingrid Bergman (1978) Sally Field (1979) Sissy Spacek (1980) Glenda Jackson (1981) Meryl Streep (1982) Shirley MacLaine (1983) Peggy Ashcroft (1984) Norma Aleandro (1985) Sissy Spacek (1986) Holly Hunter (1987) Meryl Streep (1988) Michelle Pfeiffer (1989) Joanne Woodward (1990) Jodie Foster (1991) Emma Thompson (1992) Holly Hunter (1993) Linda Fiorentino (1994) Jennifer Jason Leigh (1995) Emily Watson (1996) Julie Christie (1997) Cameron Diaz (1998) Hilary Swank (1999) Laura Linney (2000) 2001–present Sissy Spacek (2001) Diane Lane (2002) Hope Davis (2003) Imelda Staunton (2004) Reese Witherspoon (2005) Helen Mirren (2006) Julie Christie (2007) Sally Hawkins (2008) Meryl Streep (2009) Annette Bening (2010) Meryl Streep (2011) Rachel Weisz (2012) Cate Blanchett (2013) Marion Cotillard (2014) Saoirse Ronan (2015) Isabelle Huppert (2016) Saoirse Ronan (2017) Regina Hall (2018) Lupita Nyong'o (2019) Sidney Flanigan (2020) Lady Gaga (2021) Cate Blanchett (2022) Lily Gladstone (2023) vteRecording Industry Association of Japan – Gold Disc Award for Artist of the YearDomestic Akina Nakamori (1987) Rebecca (1988) Boøwy (1989) Southern All Stars (1990) Yumi Matsutoya (1991) Chage and Aska (1992) Chage and Aska (1993) Wands (1994) TRF (1995) TRF (1996) Namie Amuro (1997) Glay (1998) B'z (1999) Hikaru Utada (2000) Ayumi Hamasaki (2001) Ayumi Hamasaki (2002) Hikaru Utada (2003) Ayumi Hamasaki (2004) Orange Range (2005) Kumi Koda (2006) Kumi Koda (2007) Exile (2008) Exile (2009) Arashi (2010) Arashi (2011) AKB48 (2012) AKB48 (2013) AKB48 (2014) Arashi (2015) Arashi (2016) Arashi (2017) Namie Amuro (2018) Namie Amuro (2019) Arashi (2020) Arashi (2021) Snow Man (2022) International Madonna (1987) The Beatles (1988) Bon Jovi (1989) Madonna (1990) Madonna (1991) Guns N' Roses (1992) Madonna (1993) The Beatles (1994) Mariah Carey (1995) Mariah Carey (1996) Me & My (1997) Celine Dion (1998) Celine Dion (1999) Celine Dion (2000) The Beatles (2001) Backstreet Boys (2002) Avril Lavigne (2003) Twelve Girls Band (2004) Queen (2005) O-Zone (2006) Daniel Powter (2007) Avril Lavigne (2008) Madonna (2009) The Beatles (2010) Lady Gaga (2011) Lady Gaga (2012) Che'Nelle (2013) One Direction (2014) One Direction (2015) The Beatles (2016) Ariana Grande (2017) The Beatles (2018) Queen (2019) Queen (2020) Queen (2021) The Beatles (2022) vteSatellite Award for Best Original Song1990s "You Must Love Me" – Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber; Lyrics by Tim Rice (1996) "My Heart Will Go On" – Music by James Horner; Lyrics by Will Jennings (1997) "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing" – Music and Lyrics by Diane Warren (1998) "When She Loved Me" – Music and Lyrics by Randy Newman (1999) 2000s "I've Seen It All" – Music by Björk; Lyrics by Sjón and Lars von Trier (2000) "All Love Can Be" – Music by James Horner; Lyrics by Will Jennings (2001) "Something to Talk About" – Music and Lyrics by Badly Drawn Boy (2002) "Siente Mi Amor (Feel My Love)" – Music and Lyrics by Robert Rodriguez (2003) "Million Voices" – Music and Lyrics by Wyclef Jean, Jerry 'Wonder' Duplessis, and Andrea Guerra (2004) "A Love That Will Never Grow Old" – Music by Gustavo Santaolalla; Lyrics by Bernie Taupin (2005) "You Know My Name" – Music and Lyrics by Chris Cornell (2006) "Grace is Gone" – Music by Clint Eastwood; Lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager (2007) "Another Way to Die" – Music and Lyrics by Jack White (2008) "The Weary Kind" – Music and Lyrics by Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett (2009) 2010s "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" – Music and Lyrics by Diane Warren (2010) "Lay Your Head Down" – Music by Brian Byrne; Lyrics by Glenn Close (2011) "Suddenly" – Music by Claude-Michel Schönberg; Lyrics by Alain Boublil and Herbert Kretzmer (2012) "Young and Beautiful" – Music and Lyrics by Lana Del Rey and Daniel Heath (2013) "We Will Not Go" – Music and Lyrics by J. Ralph (2014) "Til It Happens to You" – Music and Lyrics by Lady Gaga and Diane Warren (2015) "City of Stars" – Music by Justin Hurwitz; Lyrics by Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016) "Stand Up for Something" – Music by Diane Warren; Lyrics by Common and Diane Warren (2017) "Shallow" – Music and Lyrics by Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando, and Andrew Wyatt (2018) "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" – Music by Elton John; Lyrics by Bernie Taupin (2019) 2020s "Io sì (Seen)" – Music and Lyrics by Niccolò Agliardi, Laura Pausini, and Diane Warren (2020) "Colombia, Mi Encanto" – Music and Lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2021) "Hold My Hand" – Music and Lyrics by Lady Gaga and BloodPop (2022) "What Was I Made For?" – Music and Lyrics by Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2023) vteTeen Choice Award for Choice Music Female Artist Brandy (1999) Britney Spears (2000) Britney Spears (2001) Britney Spears (2002) Kelly Clarkson (2003) Avril Lavigne (2004) Kelly Clarkson (2005) Kelly Clarkson (2006) Fergie (2007) Miley Cyrus (2008) Taylor Swift (2009) Lady Gaga (2010) Taylor Swift (2011) Taylor Swift (2012) Demi Lovato (2013) Ariana Grande (2014) Demi Lovato (2015) Selena Gomez (2016) Ariana Grande (2017) Camila Cabello (2018) Billie Eilish (2019) vteWashington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress Julianne Moore (2002) Naomi Watts (2003) Imelda Staunton (2004) Reese Witherspoon (2005) Helen Mirren (2006) Julie Christie (2007) Meryl Streep (2008) Carey Mulligan (2009) Jennifer Lawrence (2010) Michelle Williams (2011) Jessica Chastain (2012) Cate Blanchett (2013) Julianne Moore (2014) Saoirse Ronan (2015) Natalie Portman (2016) Frances McDormand (2017) Lady Gaga (2018) Lupita Nyong'o (2019) Frances McDormand (2020) Kristen Stewart (2021) Cate Blanchett (2022) Lily Gladstone (2023) vteWorld Soundtrack Award for Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film2000s "Come What May" – Written by David Baerwald and Kevin Gilbert (2001) "If I Didn't Have You" – Written by Randy Newman (2002) "The Hands That Built America" – Written by Adam Clayton, The Edge, Bono, and Larry Mullen, Jr. (2003) "You Will Be My Ain True Love" – Written by Alison Krauss and Sting (2004) "Old Habits Die Hard" – Written by Dave Stewart and Mick Jagger (2005) "Our Town" – Written by Randy Newman (2006) "You Know My Name" – Written by Chris Cornell and David Arnold (2007) "Down to Earth" – Written by Peter Gabriel and Thomas Newman (2008) "Jai Ho" – Written by A. R. Rahman, Gulzar, and Tanvi Shah (2009) 2010s "The Weary Kind" – Written by Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett (2010) "We Belong Together" – Written by Randy Newman (2011) "Lay Your Head Down" – Written by Brian Byrne and Glenn Close (2012) "Skyfall" – Written by Adele and Paul Epworth (2013) "Happy" – Written by Pharrell Williams (2014) "The Apology Song" – Written by Gustavo Santaolalla and Paul Williams (2015) "None of Them Are You" – Written by Carter Burwell and Charlie Kaufman (2016) "City of Stars" – Written by Justin Hurwitz, Benj Pasek, and Justin Paul (2017) "Black Panther" – Written by Kendrick Duckworth, Mark Spears, Kevin Gomringer, Tim Gomringer, and Matt Schaeffer (2018) "Shallow" – Written by Lady Gaga, Andrew Wyatt, Anthony Rossomando, and Mark Ronson (2019) 2020s "Stand Up" – Written by Joshuah Brian Campbell and Cynthia Erivo (2020) "Call Me Cruella" – Written by Nicholas Britell, Florence Welch, Steph Jones, Jordan Powers, and Taura Stinson (2021) "No Time to Die" – Written by Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell (2022) "Your Personal Trash Man Can" – Written by Thomas Mizer and Curtis Moore (2023) vteBillboard Year-End Top Artist1981–1999 1981: REO Speedwagon 1982: The Go-Go's 1983: Michael Jackson 1984: Lionel Richie 1985: Madonna 1986: Whitney Houston 1987: Bon Jovi 1988: George Michael 1989: New Kids on the Block 1990: New Kids on the Block 1991: Mariah Carey 1992: Garth Brooks 1993: Garth Brooks 1994: Ace of Base 1995: TLC 1996: Alanis Morissette 1997: LeAnn Rimes 1998: Usher 1999: Backstreet Boys 2000–2019 2000: Destiny's Child 2001: Destiny's Child 2002: Nelly 2003: 50 Cent 2004: Usher 2005: 50 Cent 2006: Chris Brown 2007: Akon 2008: Chris Brown 2009: Taylor Swift 2010: Lady Gaga 2011: Adele 2012: Adele 2013: Bruno Mars 2014: One Direction 2015: Taylor Swift 2016: Adele 2017: Ed Sheeran 2018: Drake 2019: Post Malone 2020-present 2020: Post Malone 2021: Drake 2022: Bad Bunny 2023: Taylor Swift Portals: Biography New York City LGBT Pop music Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Norway Chile Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel Finland United States Sweden Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Portugal Academics CiNii Artists Emmy Awards Grammy Awards MusicBrainz People Deutsche Synchronkartei Trove Other IdRef Te Papa (New Zealand)

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga (song)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_(song)"},{"link_name":"/ˈstɛfəni ˌdʒɜːrməˈnɒtə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/En-us-StefaniGermanotta.ogg/En-us-StefaniGermanotta.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-us-StefaniGermanotta.ogg"},{"link_name":"STEF-ən-ee JUR-mə-NOT-ə","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"open mic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_mic"},{"link_name":"Collaborative Arts Project 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_Arts_Project_21"},{"link_name":"Def Jam Recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Def_Jam_Recordings"},{"link_name":"Sony/ATV Music Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony/ATV_Music_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Interscope Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interscope_Records"},{"link_name":"KonLive Distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KonLive_Distribution"},{"link_name":"The Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame"},{"link_name":"Just Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Dance_(song)"},{"link_name":"Poker Face","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poker_Face_(song)"},{"link_name":"The Fame Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame_Monster"},{"link_name":"Bad Romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Romance"},{"link_name":"Alejandro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_(song)"},{"link_name":"Telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_(song)"},{"link_name":"Billboard 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_200"},{"link_name":"Born This Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_(album)"},{"link_name":"electronic rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_rock"},{"link_name":"techno-pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-pop"},{"link_name":"more than one million copies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_fastest-selling_albums"},{"link_name":"title track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_(song)"},{"link_name":"iTunes Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"EDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_dance_music"},{"link_name":"Artpop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artpop"},{"link_name":"Applause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applause_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"Cheek to Cheek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek_(album)"},{"link_name":"Tony Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Bennett"},{"link_name":"soft rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_rock"},{"link_name":"Joanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne_(album)"},{"link_name":"American Horror Story: Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Horror_Story:_Hotel"},{"link_name":"A Star Is Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_film)"},{"link_name":"latter's soundtrack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Shallow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_(Lady_Gaga_and_Bradley_Cooper_song)"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"Chromatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatica"},{"link_name":"Rain on Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_on_Me_(Lady_Gaga_and_Ariana_Grande_song)"},{"link_name":"Love for Sale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_for_Sale_(Tony_Bennett_and_Lady_Gaga_album)"},{"link_name":"House of Gucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gucci"},{"link_name":"best selling music artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_music_artists"},{"link_name":"four singles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_singles"},{"link_name":"Her accolades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Lady_Gaga"},{"link_name":"MTV Video Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Video_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"Songwriters Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriters_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Council of Fashion Designers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Fashion_Designers_of_America"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Woman of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Women_in_Music"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"VH1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1"},{"link_name":"Greatest Women in Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greatest_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"100 most influential people in the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100"},{"link_name":"LGBT rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory"},{"link_name":"Born This Way Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Haus Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haus_Labs"},{"link_name":"vegan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegan"}],"text":"American singer-songwriter and actress (born 1986)For the Peso Pluma song, see Lady Gaga (song).Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (/ˈstɛfəni ˌdʒɜːrməˈnɒtə/ ⓘ STEF-ən-ee JUR-mə-NOT-ə; born March 28, 1986), known professionally as Lady Gaga, is an American singer-songwriter and actress. She is known for reinventing her image and showcasing versatility in entertainment. Gaga started performing as a teenager by singing at open mic nights and acting in school plays. She studied Collaborative Arts Project 21 before leaving to pursue a music career. After a contract cancellation by Def Jam Recordings, Gaga worked as a songwriter for Sony/ATV Music Publishing. In 2007, she signed with Interscope Records and KonLive Distribution. Her breakthrough came the following year with her debut studio album, The Fame, and its singles \"Just Dance\" and \"Poker Face\". The album was later reissued along with The Fame Monster (2009), which yielded the successful singles \"Bad Romance\", \"Alejandro\" and \"Telephone\".Gaga's five succeeding albums all debuted atop the US Billboard 200. Her second full-length album, Born This Way (2011), explored electronic rock and techno-pop and sold more than one million copies in its first week. The title track became the fastest-selling song on the iTunes Store, with over one million downloads in less than a week. Following her EDM-influenced third album, Artpop (2013), and its lead single \"Applause\", she released the jazz album Cheek to Cheek (2014) with Tony Bennett, and the soft rock album Joanne (2016). She ventured into acting, winning awards for her leading roles in the miniseries American Horror Story: Hotel (2015–2016) and the musical film A Star Is Born (2018). Her contributions to the latter's soundtrack, which spawned the chart-topping single \"Shallow\", made her the first woman to win an Academy Award, BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award and Grammy Award in one year. Gaga returned to dance-pop with her sixth studio album, Chromatica (2020), which yielded the number-one single \"Rain on Me\". In 2021, she released her second and final collaborative album with Bennett, Love for Sale, and also starred in the biopic House of Gucci.Having sold an estimated 170 million records, Gaga is one of the world's best selling music artists and the only female artist to achieve four singles each selling at least 10 million copies globally. Her accolades include 13 Grammy Awards, 2 Golden Globe Awards, 18 MTV Video Music Awards, awards from the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Council of Fashion Designers of America, and recognition as Billboard's Artist of the Year (2010) and Woman of the Year (2015). She has also been included in several Forbes power rankings and ranked fourth on VH1's Greatest Women in Music (2012). Time named Gaga one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2010 and 2019 and placed her on their All-Time 100 Fashion Icons list. Gaga's philanthropy and activism focus on mental health awareness and LGBT rights; she has her own non-profit organization, the Born This Way Foundation, which supports the wellness of young people. Her business ventures include Haus Labs, a vegan cosmetics brand launched in 2019.","title":"Lady Gaga"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lenox Hill Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenox_Hill_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"upper middle class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Cynthia Louise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Germanotta"},{"link_name":"née","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Upper West Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_West_Side"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TimesOnlineDec09-6"},{"link_name":"Convent of the Sacred Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convent_of_the_Sacred_Heart_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent-7"},{"link_name":"misfit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcast_(person)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2013202-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201220-9"},{"link_name":"open mic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_mic"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201226-10"},{"link_name":"Guys and Dolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls"},{"link_name":"A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum"},{"link_name":"Regis High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regis_High_School_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-growingupgaga-11"},{"link_name":"method acting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_acting"},{"link_name":"Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Strasberg_Theatre_and_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leestrasburgalumna-12"},{"link_name":"The Sopranos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sopranos"},{"link_name":"The Telltale Moozadell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telltale_Moozadell"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201027-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Collaborative Arts Project 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_Arts_Project_21"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"Tisch School of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisch_School_of_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"NYU dorm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_residence_halls"},{"link_name":"Spencer Tunick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Tunick"},{"link_name":"Damien Hirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Hirst"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mtv_55-18"},{"link_name":"MTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV"},{"link_name":"Boiling Points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_Points"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"post-traumatic stress disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"dropped me off pregnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"1986–2004: Early life","text":"Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta was born on March 28, 1986, at Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan, New York City,[1] to an upper middle class Catholic family. Both of her parents have Italian ancestry.[2] Her parents are Cynthia Louise (née Bissett), a philanthropist and business executive, and Internet entrepreneur Joseph Germanotta,[3] and she has a younger sister named Natali.[4] Brought up on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, Gaga said in an interview that her parents came from lower-class families and worked hard for everything.[5][6] From age 11, she attended the Convent of the Sacred Heart, a private all-girls Roman Catholic school.[7] Gaga has described her high-school self as \"very dedicated, very studious, very disciplined\" but also \"a bit insecure\". She considered herself a misfit and was mocked for \"being either too provocative or too eccentric\".[8]Gaga began playing the piano at age four when her mother insisted she become \"a cultured young woman\". She took piano lessons and practiced through her childhood. The lessons taught her to create music by ear, which Gaga preferred over reading sheet music. Her parents encouraged her to pursue music and enrolled her in Creative Arts Camp.[9] As a teenager, she played at open mic nights.[10] Gaga played the lead roles of Adelaide in the play Guys and Dolls and Philia in the play A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum at Regis High School.[11] She also studied method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute for ten years.[12] Gaga unsuccessfully auditioned for New York shows, though did appear in a small background role as a high-school student in a 2001 episode of The Sopranos titled \"The Telltale Moozadell\".[13][14] She later said of her inclination towards music:I don't know exactly where my affinity for music comes from, but it is the thing that comes easiest to me. When I was like three years old, I may have been even younger, my mom always tells this really embarrassing story of me propping myself up and playing the keys like this because I was too young and short to get all the way up there. Just go like this on the low end of the piano ... I was really, really good at piano, so my first instincts were to work so hard at practicing piano, and I might not have been a natural dancer, but I am a natural musician. That is the thing that I believe I am the greatest at.[15]In 2003, at age 17, Gaga gained early admission to Collaborative Arts Project 21, a music school at New York University (NYU)'s Tisch School of the Arts, and lived in an NYU dorm. She studied music there and improved her songwriting skills by writing essays on art, religion, social issues and politics, including a thesis on pop artists Spencer Tunick and Damien Hirst.[16][17] In 2005, Gaga withdrew from school during the second semester of her second year to focus on her music career.[18] That year, she also played an unsuspecting diner customer for MTV's Boiling Points, a prank reality television show.[19]In a 2014 interview, Gaga said she was raped at age 19 by her producer, and later underwent mental and physical therapy for this.[20] She has post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and attributes it to the incident, and has credited support from doctors, family and friends with helping her.[21] Gaga later gave additional details about the rape, including that \"the person who raped me dropped me off pregnant on a corner at my parents' house because I was vomiting and sick. Because I'd been being abused. I was locked away in a studio for months.\"[22]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melle Mel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melle_Mel"},{"link_name":"audio book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_book"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-growingupgaga-11"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201031-24"},{"link_name":"Lower East Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_East_Side"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-growingupgaga-11"},{"link_name":"Songwriters Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriters_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"the Cutting Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cutting_Room"},{"link_name":"Rob Fusari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Fusari"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fusari1-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201036-26"},{"link_name":"Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band)"},{"link_name":"Radio Ga Ga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Ga_Ga"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fusari2-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rsannual-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga_at_Lollapalooza_2007_-_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lollapalooza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollapalooza"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fusari2-27"},{"link_name":"electropop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropop"},{"link_name":"Artists and repertoire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists_and_repertoire"},{"link_name":"Def Jam Recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Def_Jam_Recordings"},{"link_name":"Antonio \"L.A.\" Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.A._Reid"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201045-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allmusic_bio-30"},{"link_name":"neo-burlesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-burlesque"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-always-famous-31"},{"link_name":"Lady Starlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Starlight"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Mercury Lounge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Lounge"},{"link_name":"the Bitter End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bitter_End"},{"link_name":"Rockwood Music Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwood_Music_Hall"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seattleweekly-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Lollapalooza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollapalooza"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seattleweekly-33"},{"link_name":"avant-garde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-garde"},{"link_name":"electronic dance music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_dance_music"},{"link_name":"glam rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glam_rock"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"record executive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_executive"},{"link_name":"Vincent Herbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Herbert"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trans26-35"},{"link_name":"imprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_name"},{"link_name":"Interscope Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interscope_Records"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newimprent-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vincentdiscover-37"},{"link_name":"Famous Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_Music"},{"link_name":"music publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_publisher_(popular_music)"},{"link_name":"Sony/ATV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony/ATV_Music_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Britney Spears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britney_Spears"},{"link_name":"New Kids on the Block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kids_on_the_Block"},{"link_name":"Fergie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergie_(singer)"},{"link_name":"the Pussycat Dolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pussycat_Dolls"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbcover-38"},{"link_name":"Akon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akon"},{"link_name":"reference vocal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratch_vocal"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-totallygaga-39"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Iovine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Iovine"},{"link_name":"Interscope Geffen A&M Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interscope_Geffen_A%26M_Records"},{"link_name":"KonLive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KonLive_Distribution"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allmusic_bio-30"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-franchise-40"},{"link_name":"RedOne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RedOne"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hitquarters.com-41"},{"link_name":"Cherrytree Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherrytree_Records"},{"link_name":"Martin Kierszenbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kierszenbaum"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbcover-38"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent-7"}],"sub_title":"2005–2007: Career beginnings","text":"In 2005, Gaga recorded two songs with hip-hop artist Melle Mel for an audio book accompanying Cricket Casey's children's novel The Portal in the Park.[23] She also formed a band called the SGBand with some friends from NYU.[11][24] They played gigs around New York and became a fixture of the downtown Lower East Side club scene.[11] After the 2006 Songwriters Hall of Fame New Songwriters Showcase at the Cutting Room in June, talent scout Wendy Starland recommended her to music producer Rob Fusari.[25] Fusari collaborated with Gaga, who traveled daily to New Jersey, helping to develop her songs and compose new material.[26] The producer said they began dating in May 2006, and claimed to have been the first person to call her \"Lady Gaga\", which was derived from Queen's song \"Radio Ga Ga\".[27] Their relationship lasted until January 2007.[28]Gaga performing at Lollapalooza in 2007Fusari and Gaga established a company called \"Team Lovechild, LLC\" to promote her career.[27] They recorded and produced electropop tracks, sending them to music industry executives. Joshua Sarubin, the head of Artists and repertoire (A&R) at Def Jam Recordings, responded positively and, after approval from Sarubin's boss Antonio \"L.A.\" Reid, Gaga was signed to Def Jam in September 2006.[29] She was dropped from the label three months later[30] and returned to her family home for Christmas. Gaga began performing at neo-burlesque shows, which according to her represented freedom.[31] During this time, she met performance artist Lady Starlight, who helped mold her onstage persona.[32] The pair began performing at downtown club venues like the Mercury Lounge, the Bitter End, and the Rockwood Music Hall. Their live performance art piece, known as \"Lady Gaga and the Starlight Revue\" and billed as \"The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rockshow\", was a tribute to 1970s variety acts.[33][34] They performed at the 2007 Lollapalooza music festival.[33]Having initially focused on avant-garde electronic dance music, Gaga began to incorporate pop melodies and the glam rock style of David Bowie and Queen into her songs. While Gaga and Starlight were performing, Fusari continued to develop the songs he had created with her, sending them to the producer and record executive Vincent Herbert.[35] In November 2007, Herbert signed Gaga to his label Streamline Records, an imprint of Interscope Records, established that month.[36] Gaga later credited Herbert as the man who discovered her.[37] Having served as an apprentice songwriter during an internship at Famous Music Publishing, Gaga struck a music publishing deal with Sony/ATV. As a result, she was hired to write songs for Britney Spears, New Kids on the Block, Fergie, and the Pussycat Dolls.[38] At Interscope, musician Akon was impressed with her singing abilities when she sang a reference vocal for one of his tracks in studio.[39] Akon convinced Jimmy Iovine, chairman and CEO of Interscope Geffen A&M Records (a brother company for Def Jam), to form a joint deal by having Gaga also sign with his own label KonLive, making her his \"franchise player\".[30][40]In late 2007, Gaga met with songwriter and producer RedOne.[41] She collaborated with him in the recording studio for a week on her debut album, signing with Cherrytree Records, an Interscope imprint established by producer and songwriter Martin Kierszenbaum; she also wrote four songs with Kierszenbaum.[38] Despite securing a record deal, she said that some radio stations found her music too \"racy\", \"dance-oriented\", and \"underground\" for the mainstream market, to which she replied: \"My name is Lady Gaga, I've been on the music scene for years, and I'm telling you, this is what's next.\"[7]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame"},{"link_name":"Andy Warhol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol"},{"link_name":"The Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Factory"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Contactmusic.com-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Just Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Dance_(song)"},{"link_name":"Poker 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Say)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eh,_Eh_(Nothing_Else_I_Can_Say)"},{"link_name":"LoveGame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LoveGame"},{"link_name":"Paparazzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paparazzi_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Germany-55"},{"link_name":"Hitmixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitmixes"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"52nd Annual Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/52nd_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Dance/Electronica Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Dance/Electronic_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Dance Recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Dance_Recording"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Monster_Ball_-_Poker_Face_revamped2_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Monster Ball Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monster_Ball_Tour"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-58"},{"link_name":"the Pussycat Dolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pussycat_Dolls"},{"link_name":"Doll Domination Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doll_Domination_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Fame Ball Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame_Ball_Tour"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan2010131-59"},{"link_name":"The Fame Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame_Monster"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"EP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_play"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Bad 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Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Female_Pop_Vocal_Performance"},{"link_name":"Best Short Form Music Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Short_Form_Music_Video"},{"link_name":"53rd Annual Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53rd_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"Guinness Book of World Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"The Monster Ball Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monster_Ball_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Remix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Remix_(Lady_Gaga_album)"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"among the bestselling remix albums of all time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_remix_albums"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbannounceball-82"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-58"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Madison Square Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_Presents_the_Monster_Ball_Tour:_At_Madison_Square_Garden"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Royal Variety Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Variety_Performance"},{"link_name":"2010 Brit Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Brit_Awards"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"This Is It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_It_(concert_residency)"},{"link_name":"O2 Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_O2_Arena_(London)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Monster Cable Products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Cable_Products"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Polaroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"lupus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-comeparty-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"2008–2010: Breakthrough with The Fame and The Fame Monster","text":"By 2008, Gaga had relocated to Los Angeles to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album, The Fame, and to set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga, modeled on Andy Warhol's The Factory.[42][43] The Fame was released on August 19, 2008,[44] and reached number one in Austria, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Switzerland and the UK, as well as the top five in Australia and the US.[45][46] Its first two singles, \"Just Dance\" and \"Poker Face\",[47] reached number one in the United States,[48] Australia,[49] Canada[50] and the UK.[51] The latter was also the world's bestselling single of 2009, with 9.8 million copies sold that year, and spent a record 83 weeks on Billboard magazine's Digital Songs chart.[52][53] Three other singles, \"Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)\", \"LoveGame\" and \"Paparazzi\", were released from the album;[54] the lattermost reached number one in Germany.[55] Remixed versions of the singles from The Fame, except \"Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)\", were included on Hitmixes in August 2009.[56] At the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, The Fame and \"Poker Face\" won Best Dance/Electronica Album and Best Dance Recording, respectively.[57]Gaga on The Monster Ball Tour in 2010; it grossed $227 million and became the highest-grossing concert tour for a debut headlining artist[58]Following her opening act on the Pussycat Dolls' 2009 Doll Domination Tour in Europe and Oceania, Gaga headlined her worldwide The Fame Ball Tour, which ran from March to September 2009.[59] While traveling the globe, she wrote eight songs for The Fame Monster, a reissue of The Fame.[60] Those new songs were also released as a standalone EP on November 18, 2009.[61] Its first single, \"Bad Romance\", was released one month earlier[62] and went number one in Canada[50] and the UK,[51] and number two in the US,[48] Australia[63] and New Zealand.[64] \"Telephone\", with Beyoncé, followed as the second single from the EP and became Gaga's fourth UK number one.[65][66] Its third single was \"Alejandro\",[67] which reached number one in Finland[68] and attracted controversy when its music video was deemed blasphemous by the Catholic League.[69] Both tracks reached the top five in the US.[48] The video for \"Bad Romance\" became the most watched on YouTube in April 2010, and that October, Gaga became the first person with more than one billion combined views.[70][71] At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, she won eight awards from 13 nominations, including Video of the Year for \"Bad Romance\".[72] She was the most nominated artist for a single year, and the first woman to receive two nominations for Video of the Year at the same ceremony.[73] The Fame Monster won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album, and \"Bad Romance\" won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Short Form Music Video at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards.[74]In 2009, Gaga spent a record 150 weeks on the UK Singles Chart and became the most downloaded female act in a year in the US, with 11.1 million downloads sold, earning an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records.[75][76] Worldwide, The Fame and The Fame Monster together have sold more than 15 million copies, and the latter was 2010's second bestselling album.[77][78][79] Its success allowed Gaga to start her second worldwide concert tour, The Monster Ball Tour, and release The Remix, her final record with Cherrytree Records[80] and among the bestselling remix albums of all time.[81][82] The Monster Ball Tour ran from November 2009 to May 2011 and grossed $227.4 million, making it the highest-grossing concert tour for a debut headlining artist.[58][83] Concerts performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for an HBO television special, Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden.[84] Gaga also performed songs from her albums at the 2009 Royal Variety Performance, the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, and the 2010 Brit Awards.[85] Before Michael Jackson's death, Gaga was set to take part in his canceled This Is It concert series at the O2 Arena in the UK.[86]During this era, Gaga ventured into business, collaborating with consumer electronics company Monster Cable Products to create in-ear, jewel-encrusted headphones called Heartbeats by Lady Gaga.[87] She also partnered with Polaroid in January 2010 as their creative director and announced a suite of photo-capture products called Grey Label.[88][89] Her collaboration with her past record producer and ex-boyfriend Rob Fusari led to a lawsuit against her production team, Mermaid Music LLC.[a] At this time, Gaga was tested borderline positive for lupus but claimed not to be affected by the symptoms and hoped to maintain a healthy lifestyle.[92][93]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Born This Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_(song)"},{"link_name":"studio album of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_(album)"},{"link_name":"iTunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-champ-95"},{"link_name":"debuted atop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_chart_achievements_and_milestones#Number-one_debuts"},{"link_name":"Billboard Hot 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Judas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dwn-97"},{"link_name":"The Edge of Glory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Edge_of_Glory"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USsongpeaks-48"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ukchart-51"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga_(6891780238)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Born This 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I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_and_I_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"Marry the Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marry_the_Night"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-youandimv-104"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USsongpeaks-48"},{"link_name":"Bloody Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Mary_(song)"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Taylor Kinney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Kinney"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"Born This Way 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Rodriguez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rodriguez"},{"link_name":"Machete Kills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machete_Kills"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Do What U Want","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_What_U_Want"},{"link_name":"R. Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Kelly"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dowhatSingleAnnouncement-128"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USsongpeaks-48"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"The Daily 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Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nov2013SNL-136"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_and_the_Muppets_Holiday_Spectacular"},{"link_name":"Christina Aguilera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Aguilera"},{"link_name":"fifth season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voice_(U.S._season_5)"},{"link_name":"The Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voice_(U.S._TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thanksgiving2013-137"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"seven-day concert residency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_Live_at_Roseland_Ballroom"},{"link_name":"Roseland Ballroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roseland_Ballroom"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"ArtRave: The Artpop Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtRave:_The_Artpop_Ball"},{"link_name":"ArtRave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtRave"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"Troy Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy_Carter_(music_industry)"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NY_news-141"},{"link_name":"Live Nation Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Nation_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"Sin City: A Dame to Kill For","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_City:_A_Dame_to_Kill_For"},{"link_name":"Versace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versace"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GagaNailedIt-143"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"Cheek to Cheek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek_(album)"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-145"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes_(Cole_Porter_song)#Tony_Bennett_and_Lady_Gaga_version"},{"link_name":"I Can't Give You Anything but Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Can%27t_Give_You_Anything_but_Love,_Baby#Tony_Bennett_and_Lady_Gaga_version"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mc-148"},{"link_name":"Chicago Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guarrev-149"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usc2c-151"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Traditional_Pop_Vocal_Album"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Bennett_and_Lady_Gaga:_Cheek_to_Cheek_Live!"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Cheek to Cheek Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek_Tour"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"}],"sub_title":"2011–2014: Born This Way, Artpop, and Cheek to Cheek","text":"In February 2011, Gaga released \"Born This Way\", the lead single from her studio album of the same name. The song sold more than one million copies within five days, earning the Guinness World Record for the fastest selling single on iTunes.[94] It debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the 1,000th number-one single in the history of the charts.[95] Its second single \"Judas\" followed two months later,[96] and \"The Edge of Glory\" served as its third single.[97] Both reached the top 10 in the US and the UK.[48][51] Her music video for \"The Edge of Glory\", unlike her previous work, portrays her dancing on a fire escape and walking on a lonely street, without intricate choreography and back-up dancers.[98]Gaga promoting Born This Way with performances in Sydney, AustraliaBorn This Way was released on May 23, 2011,[96] and debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 1.1 million copies.[99] It sold eight million copies worldwide and received three Grammy nominations, including Gaga's third consecutive nomination for Album of the Year.[100][101] Rolling Stone listed the record among \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" in 2020.[102] Born This Way's following singles were \"You and I\" and \"Marry the Night\",[103] which reached numbers 6 and 29 in the US, respectively.[48] Its cut, \"Bloody Mary\", became a resurgent success and was released as a single in 2022.[104] While filming the foremost's music video, Gaga met and started dating actor Taylor Kinney in July 2011, who played her love interest.[105][106] She also embarked on the Born This Way Ball tour in April 2012, which was scheduled to conclude the following March, but ended one month earlier when Gaga canceled the remaining dates due to a labral tear of her right hip that required surgery.[107] While refunds for the cancellations were estimated to be worth $25 million,[108] the tour grossed $183.9 million globally.[109]In 2011, Gaga also worked with Tony Bennett on a jazz version of \"The Lady Is a Tramp\",[110] with Elton John on \"Hello Hello\" for the animated feature film Gnomeo & Juliet,[111] and with The Lonely Island and Justin Timberlake on \"3-Way (The Golden Rule)\".[112] She also performed a concert at the Sydney Town Hall in Australia that year to promote Born This Way and to celebrate former US President Bill Clinton's 65th birthday.[113] In November, she was featured in a Thanksgiving television special titled A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, which attracted 5.7 million American viewers and spawned the release of her fourth EP, A Very Gaga Holiday.[114] In 2012, Gaga guest-starred as an animated version of herself in an episode of The Simpsons called \"Lisa Goes Gaga\",[115] and released her first fragrance, Lady Gaga Fame, followed by a second one, Eau de Gaga, in 2014.[b]Gaga began work on her third studio album, Artpop, in early 2012, during the Born This Way Ball tour; she crafted the album to mirror \"a night at the club\".[118][119][120] In August 2013, Gaga released the album's lead single \"Applause\",[121] which reached number one in Hungary, number four in the US, and number five in the UK.[51][48][122] A lyric video for Artpop track \"Aura\" followed in October to accompany Robert Rodriguez's Machete Kills, where she plays an assassin named La Chameleon.[123] The film received generally mixed reviews and earned less than half of its $33 million budget.[124][125] The second Artpop single, \"Do What U Want\", featured singer R. Kelly and was released later that month,[126] topping the charts in Hungary and reaching number 13 in the US.[48][127] Artpop was released on November 6, 2013, to mixed reviews.[128] Helen Brown of The Daily Telegraph criticized Gaga for making another album about her fame and doubted the record's originality, but found it \"great for dancing\".[129] The album debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart, and sold more than 2.5 million copies worldwide as of July 2014.[130][131] \"G.U.Y.\" was released as the third single in March 2014 and peaked at number 76 in the US.[48][132]With the Cheek to Cheek era, Gaga (seen here performing on the Cheek to Cheek Tour alongside Tony Bennett) ushered in an overhaul of her image.[133]Gaga hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live in November 2013.[134] After holding her second Thanksgiving Day television special on ABC, Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular, she performed a special rendition of \"Do What U Want\" with Christina Aguilera on the fifth season of the American reality talent show The Voice.[135][136] In March 2014, Gaga had a seven-day concert residency commemorating the last performance at New York's Roseland Ballroom before its closure.[137] Two months later, she embarked on the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour, building on concepts from her ArtRave promotional event. Earning $83 million, the tour included cities canceled from the Born This Way Ball tour itinerary.[138] In the meantime, Gaga split from longtime manager Troy Carter over \"creative differences\",[139] and by June 2014, she and new manager Bobby Campbell joined Artist Nation, the artist management division of Live Nation Entertainment.[140] She briefly appeared in Rodriguez's Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, and was confirmed as Versace's spring-summer 2014 ambassador with a campaign called \"Lady Gaga For Versace\".[141][142]In September 2014, Gaga released a collaborative jazz album with Tony Bennett titled Cheek to Cheek. The inspiration behind the album came from her friendship with Bennett, and fascination with jazz music since her childhood.[143] He stated that Gaga is \"the most talented artist I have ever met\".[144] Before the album was released, it produced the singles \"Anything Goes\" and \"I Can't Give You Anything but Love\".[145] Cheek to Cheek received generally favorable reviews;[146] The Guardian's Caroline Sullivan praised Gaga's vocals and Howard Reich of the Chicago Tribune wrote that \"Cheek to Cheek serves up the real thing, start to finish\".[147][148] The record was Gaga's third consecutive number-one album on the Billboard 200,[149] and won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album.[150] The duo recorded the concert special Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live!,[151] and embarked on the Cheek to Cheek Tour from December 2014 to August 2015.[152]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"87th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/87th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"The Sound of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_(film)"},{"link_name":"Julie Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Andrews"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reinvention-135"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"Diane Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane_Warren"},{"link_name":"Til It Happens to You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Til_It_Happens_to_You"},{"link_name":"The Hunting Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunting_Ground"},{"link_name":"Satellite Award for Best Original 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American Horror Story, Joanne, and Super Bowl performances","text":"In February 2015, Gaga became engaged to Taylor Kinney.[153] After the lukewarm response to Artpop, Gaga began to reinvent her image and style. According to Billboard, this shift started with the release of Cheek to Cheek and the attention she received for her performance at the 87th Academy Awards, where she sang a medley of songs from The Sound of Music in a tribute to Julie Andrews.[133] Considered one of her best performances by Billboard, it triggered more than 214,000 interactions per minute globally on Facebook.[154][155] She and Diane Warren co-wrote the song \"Til It Happens to You\" for the documentary The Hunting Ground, which earned them the Satellite Award for Best Original Song and an Academy Award nomination in the same category.[156] Gaga won Billboard Woman of the Year and Contemporary Icon Award at the 2015 Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame Awards.[157][158]Gaga had spent much of her early life wanting to be an actress, and achieved her goal when she starred in American Horror Story: Hotel.[159] Running from October 2015 to January 2016, Hotel is the fifth season of the television anthology horror series, American Horror Story, in which Gaga played a hotel owner named Elizabeth.[160][161] At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards, Gaga received the Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film award for her work on the season.[159] She appeared in Nick Knight's 2015 fashion film for Tom Ford's 2016 spring campaign[162] and was guest editor for V fashion magazine's 99th issue in January 2016, which featured 16 different covers.[163] She received Editor of the Year award at the Fashion Los Angeles Awards.[164]Gaga performing on the Joanne World Tour in 2017In February 2016, Gaga sang the US national anthem at Super Bowl 50,[165] partnered with Intel and Nile Rodgers for a tribute performance to the late David Bowie at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards,[166] and sang \"Til It Happens to You\" at the 88th Academy Awards, where she was introduced by Joe Biden and was accompanied on-stage by 50 people who had suffered from sexual assault.[167] She was honored that April with the Artist Award at the Jane Ortner Education Awards by The Grammy Museum, which recognizes artists who have demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts.[168] Her engagement to Taylor Kinney ended in July; she later said her career had interfered with their relationship.[169]Gaga played a witch named Scathach in American Horror Story: Roanoke, the series' sixth season,[170] which ran from September to November 2016.[171][172] Her role in the fifth season of the show ultimately influenced her future music, prompting her to feature \"the art of darkness\".[173] In September 2016, she released her fifth album's lead single, \"Perfect Illusion\", which topped the charts in France and reached number 15 in the US.[174][175][176] The album, titled Joanne, was named after Gaga's late aunt, who was an inspiration for the music.[177] It was released on October 21, 2016, and became Gaga's fourth number one album on the Billboard 200, making her the first woman to reach the US chart's summit four times in the 2010s.[178] The album's second single, \"Million Reasons\", followed the next month and reached number four in the US.[176][179] She later released a piano version of the album's title track in 2018,[180] which won a Grammy for Best Pop Solo Performance.[181] To promote the album, Gaga embarked on the three-date Dive Bar Tour.[182]Gaga performed as the headlining act during the Super Bowl LI halftime show on February 5, 2017. Her performance featured a group of hundreds of lighted drones forming various shapes in the sky above Houston's NRG Stadium—the first time robotic aircraft appeared in a Super Bowl program.[183] It attracted 117.5 million viewers in the United States, exceeding the game's 111.3 million viewers and making it the third most-watched Super Bowl halftime show at the time.[184] The performance led to a surge of 410,000 song downloads in the United States for Gaga and earned her an Emmy nomination in the Outstanding Special Class Program category.[185][186] CBS Sports included her performance as the second best in the history of Super Bowl halftime shows.[187] In April, Gaga headlined the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.[188] She also released a standalone single, \"The Cure\", which reached the top 10 in Australia.[189][190] Four months later, Gaga began the Joanne World Tour, which she announced after the Super Bowl LI halftime show.[191] Gaga's creation of Joanne and preparation for her halftime show performance were featured in the documentary Gaga: Five Foot Two, which premiered on Netflix that September.[192] Throughout the film, she was seen suffering from chronic pain, which was later revealed to be the effect of a long-term condition called fibromyalgia.[193] In February 2018, it prompted Gaga to cancel the last ten shows of the Joanne World Tour, which ultimately grossed $95 million from 842,000 tickets sold.[194][195]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TIFF_2018_Lady_Gaga_(1_of_1)_(cropped_2)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"2018 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"A Star Is Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_film)"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"March for Our 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Songbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Songbook"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"vegan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegan"},{"link_name":"Haus Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haus_Labs"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"}],"sub_title":"2018–2019: A Star Is Born and Las Vegas residency","text":"Gaga at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival prior to the screening of A Star Is Born, which was her first lead role in a film[196]In March 2018, Gaga supported the March for Our Lives gun-control rally in Washington, D.C.,[197] and released a cover of Elton John's \"Your Song\" for his tribute album Revamp.[198] Later that year, she starred as struggling singer Ally in Bradley Cooper's musical romantic drama A Star Is Born, a remake of the 1937 film of the same name. The film follows Ally's relationship with singer Jackson Maine (played by Cooper), which becomes strained after her career begins to overshadow his. It received acclaim from critics, with a consensus that the movie had \"appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story\".[199] Cooper approached Gaga after seeing her perform at a cancer research fundraiser. An admirer of Cooper's work, Gaga agreed to the project due to its portrayal of addiction and depression.[200][201] A Star Is Born premiered at the 2018 Venice Film Festival, and was released worldwide that October.[202] Gaga's performance was acclaimed by film critics, with Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian labeling the film \"outrageously watchable\" and stating that \"Gaga's ability to be part ordinary person, part extraterrestrial celebrity empress functions at the highest level\";[203] Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine similarly highlighted her \"knockout performance\" and found her to be \"charismatic\" without her usual makeup, wigs and costumes.[204] For the role, Gaga won the National Board of Review and Critics' Choice awards for Best Actress, in addition to receiving nominations for the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award and BAFTA Award for Best Actress.[205]Gaga and Cooper co-wrote and produced most of the songs on the soundtrack for A Star Is Born, which she insisted they perform live in the film.[206] Its lead single, \"Shallow\", performed by the two, was released on September 27, 2018[207] and topped the charts in various countries including Australia, the UK and the US.[208] The soundtrack contains 34 tracks, including 17 original songs, and received generally positive reviews;[209] Mark Kennedy of The Washington Post called it a \"five-star marvel\" and Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian termed it an \"instant classics full of Gaga's emotional might\".[210][211] Commercially, the soundtrack debuted at number one in the US, making Gaga the first woman with five US number-one albums in the 2010s, and breaking her tie with Taylor Swift as the most for any female artist this decade;[212] Swift tied with her again in 2019.[213] It additionally topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Switzerland and the UK.[214] As of June 2019, the soundtrack had sold over six million copies worldwide.[215] The album won Gaga four Grammy Awards—Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance and Best Song Written for Visual Media for \"Shallow\", as well as the latter category for \"I'll Never Love Again\"—and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music.[181][216][217] \"Shallow\" also won her the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Critics' Choice Award, and Satellite Award for Best Original Song.[205] Gaga gave live performances of the song at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards and the 91st Academy Awards.[218][219]In October, Gaga announced her engagement to talent agent Christian Carino whom she had met in early 2017.[220] They ended the engagement in February 2019.[221] Gaga signed a concert residency, named Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano, to perform at the MGM Park Theater in Las Vegas.[222] The residency consists of two types of shows: Enigma, which focused on theatricality and included Gaga's biggest hits,[223] and Jazz & Piano, which involved tracks from the Great American Songbook and stripped-down versions of Gaga's songs. The Enigma show opened in December 2018 and the Jazz & Piano in January 2019.[224] Gaga launched her vegan makeup line, Haus Laboratories, in September 2019 exclusively on Amazon. Consisting of 40 products, including liquid eyeliners, lip glosses and face mask sticker, it reached number-one on Amazon's list of bestselling lipsticks.[225]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-228"},{"link_name":"Chromatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatica"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"},{"link_name":"Stupid Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupid_Love_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"Rain on Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_on_Me_(Lady_Gaga_and_Ariana_Grande_song)"},{"link_name":"Ariana 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Reggiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrizia_Reggiani"},{"link_name":"Gucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gucci"},{"link_name":"Maurizio Gucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurizio_Gucci"},{"link_name":"Adam Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Driver"},{"link_name":"Ridley Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridley_Scott"},{"link_name":"House of Gucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gucci"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-256"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-257"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-258"},{"link_name":"psychiatric nurse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_nurse"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-259"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-260"},{"link_name":"New York Film Critics Circle Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Film_Critics_Circle_Award_for_Best_Actress"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/75th_British_Academy_Film_Awards"},{"link_name":"Critics' Choice Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/27th_Critics%27_Choice_Awards"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/79th_Golden_Globe_Awards"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Screen_Actors_Guild_Awards"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-261"},{"link_name":"Hold My Hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hold_My_Hand_(Lady_Gaga_song)"},{"link_name":"Top Gun: Maverick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Gun:_Maverick"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"the score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Gun:_Maverick_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Hans Zimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Zimmer"},{"link_name":"Harold Faltermeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Faltermeyer"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-263"},{"link_name":"95th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264"},{"link_name":"Satellite Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/27th_Satellite_Awards"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"},{"link_name":"The Chromatica Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chromatica_Ball"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tour2022-266"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miami-267"},{"link_name":"Gaga Chromatica Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaga_Chromatica_Ball"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chromaticaballboxscore-238"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-268"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-269"},{"link_name":"President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Committee_on_the_Arts_and_Humanities"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270"},{"link_name":"the Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"Sweet Sounds of Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Sounds_of_Heaven"},{"link_name":"Stevie Wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder"},{"link_name":"Hackney Diamonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackney_Diamonds"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-271"}],"sub_title":"2020–2023: Chromatica, Love for Sale, and House of Gucci","text":"In February 2020, Gaga began a relationship with entrepreneur Michael Polansky.[226] Her sixth studio album, Chromatica, was released on May 29, 2020, to positive reviews.[227][228] It debuted atop the US charts, becoming her sixth consecutive number-one album in the country, and reached the top spot in more than a dozen other territories including Australia, Canada, France, Italy and the UK.[229] Chromatica was preceded by two singles, \"Stupid Love\", on February 28, 2020,[230] and \"Rain on Me\", with Ariana Grande, on May 22.[231] The latter won the Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, and debuted at number one in the US, making Gaga the third person to top the country's chart in the 2000s, 2010s and 2020s.[232][233] At the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards, Gaga won five awards, including the inaugural Tricon Award recognizing artists accomplished in different areas of the entertainment industry.[234] In September 2020, she appeared in the video campaign for Valentino's Voce Viva fragrance, singing a stripped-down version of Chromatica track \"Sine from Above\", along with a group of models.[235]Gaga performing on The Chromatica Ball in 2022, which is her first all-stadium concert tour[236]During the inauguration of Joe Biden as the 46th President of the United States on January 20, 2021, Gaga sang the US national anthem.[237] In February 2021, her dog walker Ryan Fischer was hospitalized after getting shot in Hollywood. Two of her French Bulldogs, Koji and Gustav, were taken while a third dog named Miss Asia escaped and was subsequently recovered by police. Gaga later offered a $500,000 reward for the return of her pets.[238][239] Two days later, on February 26, a woman brought the dogs to a police station in Los Angeles. Both were unharmed. Los Angeles Police initially said the woman who dropped off the dogs did not appear to be involved with the shooting,[240][241] but on April 29, she was one of five people charged in connection with the shooting and theft.[242] In December 2022, James Howard Jackson, the man who shot Fischer, was sentenced to 21 years in prison.[243]In April 2021, Gaga teamed up with Champagne brand Dom Pérignon, and appeared in an ad shot by Nick Knight.[244] On September 3, she released her third remix album, Dawn of Chromatica.[245] This was followed by her second collaborative album with Tony Bennett, titled Love for Sale, on September 30.[246] The record received generally favorable reviews, and debuted at number eight in the US.[247][248] The album's promotional rollout included the television special One Last Time: An Evening with Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga, released in November 2021, on CBS, which featured select performances from the duo's August 3 and 5 performances at Radio City Music Hall.[249][250] Another taped performance by the duo recorded for MTV Unplugged was released that December.[251] At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, Love for Sale won Gaga and Bennett the award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album.[252]After an appearance in the television special Friends: The Reunion, in which Gaga sang \"Smelly Cat\" with Lisa Kudrow,[253] she portrayed Patrizia Reggiani, who was convicted of hiring a hitman to murder her ex-husband and former head of the Gucci fashion house Maurizio Gucci (played by Adam Driver), in Ridley Scott's biographical crime film titled House of Gucci.[254][255] For the part, Gaga learned to speak with an Italian accent. She also stayed in character for 18 months, speaking with an accent for nine months during that period.[256] Her method acting took a toll on her mental wellbeing, and towards the end of filming she had to be accompanied on-set by a psychiatric nurse.[257] The film was released on November 24, 2021, to mixed reviews, though critics praised Gaga's performance as \"note-perfect\".[258] She earned the New York Film Critics Circle Award, and nominations for the BAFTA Award, Critics' Choice Award, Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress.[259] Gaga co-wrote the song \"Hold My Hand\" for the 2022 film Top Gun: Maverick,[260] and also composed the score alongside Hans Zimmer and Harold Faltermeyer.[261] She performed \"Hold My Hand\" live at the 95th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Original Song.[262] The track also earned Gaga her third win for Best Original Song at the Satellite Awards.[263] In July 2022, she embarked on The Chromatica Ball stadium tour,[264] which concluded that September.[265] It grossed $112.4 million from 834,000 tickets sold throughout twenty dates and produced an HBO concert special titled Gaga Chromatica Ball.[236][266] By the end of the year, she became the highest grossing female artist touring in 2022.[267] Gaga was appointed as co-chair of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities by President Joe Biden in April 2023,[268] and collaborated with the Rolling Stones on the song \"Sweet Sounds of Heaven\", also featuring Stevie Wonder, from their album Hackney Diamonds that year.[269]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_video_game"},{"link_name":"Fortnite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortnite"},{"link_name":"Fortnite Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortnite_Festival"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-272"},{"link_name":"Joaquin Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaquin_Phoenix"},{"link_name":"Joker: Folie à Deux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker:_Folie_%C3%A0_Deux"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"}],"sub_title":"2024: Joker: Folie à Deux and upcoming seventh studio album","text":"Gaga was the featured artist for season two of the online video game Fortnite spin-off, Fortnite Festival, which ran from February to April 2024.[270] She is set to star with Joaquin Phoenix in the film Joker: Folie à Deux in October 2024.[271] Gaga announced her upcoming seventh studio album in May 2024 through Gaga Chromatica Ball, which ended with a cryptic message stating \"LG7. Gaga returns\" and a snippet of new music.[272]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Artistry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Madonna_Rebel_Heart_Tour_2015_-_Stockholm_(23051472299)_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Bowie_(1987).jpg"},{"link_name":"Madonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-275"},{"link_name":"the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Bruce Springsteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"Led Zeppelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led_Zeppelin"},{"link_name":"Whitney 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Sabbath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sabbath"},{"link_name":"Marilyn Manson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Manson_(band)"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-287"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-288"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-289"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-290"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-291"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mtv_55-18"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timesonline2-292"},{"link_name":"Leigh Bowery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leigh_Bowery"},{"link_name":"Isabella Blow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_Blow"},{"link_name":"Cher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cher"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ourladyvogue-293"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cherfashionsense-294"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cherfashionsense-294"},{"link_name":"Alexander McQueen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_McQueen"},{"link_name":"armadillo shoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo_shoe"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-comeparty-93"},{"link_name":"[293]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-295"},{"link_name":"Donatella Versace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatella_Versace"},{"link_name":"muse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muse"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times_Online.co.uk-296"},{"link_name":"[295]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-297"},{"link_name":"Princess Diana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales"},{"link_name":"[296]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-298"},{"link_name":"alternative medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine"},{"link_name":"Deepak Chopra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepak_Chopra"},{"link_name":"[297]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-299"},{"link_name":"Osho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajneesh"},{"link_name":"[298]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-300"}],"sub_title":"Influences","text":"Musicians such as Madonna and David Bowie have influenced Gaga.Gaga grew up listening to artists such as Michael Jackson,[273] the Beatles, Stevie Wonder, Queen, Bruce Springsteen, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Whitney Houston,[274] Elton John, Prince,[275][276] En Vogue, TLC,[277] Christina Aguilera,[278] Janet Jackson,[279] and Blondie,[280] who have all influenced her music.[281] Gaga's musical inspiration varies from dance-pop singers such as Madonna and Michael Jackson to glam rock artists such as David Bowie and Freddie Mercury, as well as the theatrics of the pop artist Andy Warhol and her own performance roots in musical theater.[30][282] She has been compared to Madonna, who has said that she sees herself reflected in Gaga.[283] Gaga says that she wants to revolutionize pop music as Madonna has.[284] Gaga has also cited heavy metal bands as an influence, specifically Iron Maiden, Black Sabbath and Marilyn Manson.[285][286][287][288] She credits Beyoncé as a key inspiration to pursue a musical career.[289]Gaga was inspired by her mother to be interested in fashion, which she now says is a major influence and integrated with her music.[18][290] Stylistically, Gaga has been compared to Leigh Bowery, Isabella Blow, and Cher;[291][292] she once commented that as a child, she absorbed Cher's fashion sense and made it her own.[292] Gaga became friends with British fashion designer Alexander McQueen shortly before his suicide in 2010, and became known for wearing his designs, particularly his towering armadillo shoes.[92][293] She considers fashion designer Donatella Versace her muse; Versace has called Lady Gaga \"the fresh Donatella\".[294][295] Gaga has also been influenced by Princess Diana, whom she has admired since her childhood.[296]Gaga has called the Indian alternative medicine advocate Deepak Chopra a \"true inspiration\",[297] and has also quoted Indian leader Osho's book Creativity on Twitter. Gaga says she was influenced by Osho's work in valuing rebellion through creativity and equality.[298]","title":"Artistry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[299]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-301"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeflem2017190-302"},{"link_name":"contralto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contralto"},{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_range"},{"link_name":"B♭2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E2%99%AD_(musical_note)"},{"link_name":"B5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_(musical_note)"},{"link_name":"[301]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Corner-303"},{"link_name":"[302]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-304"},{"link_name":"[303]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDicker2017ii-305"},{"link_name":"[304]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-306"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-307"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[306]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-308"},{"link_name":"PopMatters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PopMatters"},{"link_name":"[307]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-popmatters-309"},{"link_name":"[308]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-310"},{"link_name":"Simon Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"electroclash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroclash"},{"link_name":"naughties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noughties"},{"link_name":"Auto-Tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto-Tune"},{"link_name":"R&B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_R%26B"},{"link_name":"[309]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-311"},{"link_name":"monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoia"},{"link_name":"Europop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europop"},{"link_name":"[310]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-312"},{"link_name":"ABBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABBA"},{"link_name":"disco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco"},{"link_name":"Stacey Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacey_Q"},{"link_name":"[311]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-albumguide-313"},{"link_name":"[312]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btwrs-314"},{"link_name":"electronic rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_rock"},{"link_name":"techno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-315"},{"link_name":"feminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism"},{"link_name":"[314]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-316"},{"link_name":"[315]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-317"},{"link_name":"[316]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-318"},{"link_name":"[317]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jlg-319"},{"link_name":"blues rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues_rock"},{"link_name":"bubblegum pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubblegum_pop"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWP-212"},{"link_name":"[318]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-320"},{"link_name":"[319]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-321"},{"link_name":"Cole Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole_Porter"},{"link_name":"[320]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-322"}],"sub_title":"Musical style and themes","text":"Critics have analyzed and scrutinized Gaga's musical and performance style, as she has experimented with new ideas and images throughout her career. She says the continual reinvention is \"liberating\" herself, which she has been drawn to since childhood.[299] Gaga combines a variety of music genres, particularly incorporating elements of rock into her pop and dance music. She has also branched out into jazz and other non-pop musical genres.[300] Gaga is a contralto, with a range spanning from B♭2 to B5.[301][302][303] She has changed her vocal style regularly, and considers Born This Way \"much more vocally up to par with what I've always been capable of\".[304][305] In summing up her voice, Entertainment Weekly wrote: \"There's an immense emotional intelligence behind the way she uses her voice. Almost never does she overwhelm a song with her vocal ability, recognizing instead that artistry is to be found in nuance rather than lung power.\"[306]According to Evan Sawdey of PopMatters, Gaga managed \"to get you moving and grooving at an almost effortless pace\" with The Fame.[307] Gaga believes that \"all good music can be played on a piano and still sound like a hit\".[308] Simon Reynolds wrote in 2010, \"Everything about Gaga came from electroclash, except the music, which wasn't particularly 1980s, just ruthlessly catchy naughties pop glazed with Auto-Tune and undergirded with R&B-ish beats.\"[309]Gaga's songs have covered a wide variety of concepts; The Fame discusses the lust for stardom, while the follow-up The Fame Monster expresses fame's dark side through monster metaphors. The Fame is an electropop and dance-pop album that has influences of 1980s pop and 1990s Europop,[310] whereas The Fame Monster displays Gaga's taste for pastiche, drawing on \"Seventies arena glam, perky ABBA disco, and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q\".[311] Born This Way has lyrics in English, French, German, and Spanish and features themes common to Gaga's controversial songwriting such as sex, love, religion, money, drugs, identity, liberation, sexuality, freedom, and individualism.[312] The album explores new genres, such as electronic rock and techno.[313]The themes in Artpop revolve around Gaga's personal views of fame, love, sex, feminism, self-empowerment, overcoming addiction, and reactions to media scrutiny.[314] Billboard describes Artpop as \"coherently channeling R&B, techno, disco and rock music\".[315] With Cheek to Cheek, Gaga dabbled in the jazz genre.[316] Joanne, exploring the genres of country, funk, pop, dance, rock, electronic music and folk, was influenced by her personal life.[317] The A Star Is Born soundtrack contains elements of blues rock, country and bubblegum pop.[210] Billboard says its lyrics are about wanting change, its struggle, love, romance, and bonding, describing the music as \"timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener.\"[318] On Chromatica, Gaga returned to her dance-pop roots, and discussed her struggles with mental health.[319] Her second album with Tony Bennett, Love for Sale, consists of a tribute to Cole Porter.[320]","title":"Artistry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga_covered_in_blood.jpg"},{"link_name":"[321]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray_II201296;_183-323"},{"link_name":"[322]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGWR2014172-324"},{"link_name":"bondage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondage_(sexual)"},{"link_name":"sadomasochism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadomasochism"},{"link_name":"[323]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ultimatepredator-325"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-326"},{"link_name":"[325]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-327"},{"link_name":"[326]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParvis201061-328"},{"link_name":"[327]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllisonGoethals201331-329"},{"link_name":"2009 MTV Video Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_MTV_Video_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"[328]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-330"},{"link_name":"Cumbria shootings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria_shootings"},{"link_name":"[329]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-331"},{"link_name":"2011 MTV Video Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_MTV_Video_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"drag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_(clothing)"},{"link_name":"alter ego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego"},{"link_name":"[330]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-332"},{"link_name":"Laurieann Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurieann_Gibson"},{"link_name":"Richard Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jackson_(choreographer)"},{"link_name":"[331]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-byebyegibson-333"},{"link_name":"[332]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-334"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[333]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-335"}],"sub_title":"Videos and stage","text":"Gaga during a \"blood soaked\" performance in 2010Featuring constant costume changes and provocative visuals, Gaga's music videos are often described as short films.[321] The video for \"Telephone\" earned Gaga the Guinness World Record for Most Product Placement in a Video.[322] According to author Curtis Fogel, she explores bondage and sadomasochism and highlights prevalent feminist themes. The main themes of her music videos are sex, violence, and power. She calls herself \"a little bit of a feminist\" and asserts that she is \"sexually empowering women\".[323] Billboard ranked her sixth on its list of \"The 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time\" in 2020, stating that \"the name 'Lady Gaga' will forever be synonymous with culture-shifting music videos\".[324]Regarded as \"one of the greatest living musical performers\" by Rolling Stone,[325] Gaga has called herself a perfectionist when it comes to her elaborate shows.[326] Her performances have been described as \"highly entertaining and innovative\";[327] the blood-spurting performance of \"Paparazzi\" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards was described as \"eye-popping\" by MTV News.[328] She continued the blood-soaked theme during The Monster Ball Tour, causing protests in England from family groups and fans in the aftermath of the Cumbria shootings, in which a taxi driver had killed 12 people, then himself.[329] At the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Gaga appeared in drag as her male alter ego, Jo Calderone, and delivered a lovesick monolog before a performance of her song \"You and I\".[330] As Gaga's choreographer and creative director, Laurieann Gibson provided material for her shows and videos for four years before she was replaced by her assistant Richard Jackson in 2014.[331]In an October 2018 article for Billboard, Rebecca Schiller traced back Gaga's videography from \"Just Dance\" to the release of A Star Is Born. Schiller noted that following the Artpop era, Gaga's stripped-down approach to music was reflected in the clips for the singles from Joanne, taking the example of the music video of lead single \"Perfect Illusion\" where she eschewed \"the elaborate outfits for shorts and a tee-shirt as she performed the song at a desert party\". It continued with her performances in the film as well as her stage persona.[332] Reviewing The Chromatica Ball in 2022, Chris Willman of Variety wrote that Gaga \"could have further played the authenticity card for all it's worth\" after the release of Joanne and A Star Is Born, but instead \"has determined to keep herself weird — or just weird enough to provide necessarily ballast to her more earnest inclinations\".[333]","title":"Artistry"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaga_vax_at_Madame_Tussauds_London.jpg"},{"link_name":"Madame Tussauds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Tussauds"},{"link_name":"[334]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-336"},{"link_name":"University of South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"[335]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-course-337"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"Human Rights Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign"},{"link_name":"[336]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-338"},{"link_name":"Barbara Walters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Walters"},{"link_name":"ABC News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News"},{"link_name":"10 Most Fascinating People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Walters%27_10_Most_Fascinating_People"},{"link_name":"intersex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex"},{"link_name":"urban legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_legend"},{"link_name":"androgyny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgyny"},{"link_name":"[337]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-walters-339"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ourladyvogue-293"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times_Online.co.uk-296"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times_Online.co.uk-296"},{"link_name":"Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53rd_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-champ-95"},{"link_name":"Global Language Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Language_Monitor"},{"link_name":"[338]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nopants-340"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[339]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-341"},{"link_name":"People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[340]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-342"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Kermit the Frog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermit_the_Frog"},{"link_name":"[341]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-343"},{"link_name":"dress made of raw beef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_dress_of_Lady_Gaga"},{"link_name":"[342]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-344"},{"link_name":"Vogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[343]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-345"},{"link_name":"[344]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-346"},{"link_name":"People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals"},{"link_name":"[345]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-347"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Women in the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Women_in_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"[346]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-348"},{"link_name":"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[347]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-349"},{"link_name":"[348]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-monsters-350"},{"link_name":"Vice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"[349]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-351"},{"link_name":"social networking service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"[350]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-352"},{"link_name":"[351]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-353"}],"text":"In 2010, eight wax figures of Gaga were installed at the museum Madame Tussauds.[334]Public reception of her music, fashion sense, and persona is polarized. Because of her influence on modern culture, and her rise to global fame, sociologist Mathieu Deflem of the University of South Carolina has offered a course titled \"Lady Gaga and the Sociology of the Fame\" since early 2011 with the objective of unraveling \"some of the sociologically relevant dimensions of the fame of Lady Gaga\".[335] When Gaga met briefly with then-president Barack Obama at a Human Rights Campaign fundraiser, he found the interaction \"intimidating\" as she was dressed in 16-inch heels, making her the tallest woman in the room.[336] When interviewed by Barbara Walters for her annual ABC News special 10 Most Fascinating People in 2009, Gaga dismissed the claim that she is intersex as an urban legend. Responding to a question on this issue, she expressed her fondness for androgyny.[337]Gaga's outlandish fashion sense has also served as an important aspect of her character.[291][294] During her early career, members of the media compared her fashion choices to those of Christina Aguilera.[294] In 2011, 121 women gathered at the Grammy Awards dressed in costumes similar to those worn by Gaga, earning the 2011 Guinness World Record for Largest Gathering of Lady Gaga Impersonators.[94] The Global Language Monitor named \"Lady Gaga\" as the Top Fashion Buzzword with her trademark \"no pants\" a close third.[338] Entertainment Weekly put her outfits on its end of the decade \"best-of\" list, saying that she \"brought performance art into the mainstream\".[339] People ranked her number one on their \"Best Dressed Stars of 2021\" list, writing that Gaga \"strutted the streets in high-fashion designs, from a sculptural seersucker number to a black lace corseted gown—accessorizing each with elegant updos, sky-high heels and retro shades—like it was no sweat.\"[340]Time placed Gaga on their All-Time 100 Fashion Icons list, stating: \"Lady Gaga is just as notorious for her outrageous style as she is for her pop hits\", mentioning outfits \"made from plastic bubbles, Kermit the Frog dolls, and raw meat.\"[341] Gaga wore a dress made of raw beef to the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, which was supplemented by boots, a purse, and a hat also made out of raw beef.[342] Partly awarded in recognition of the dress, Vogue named her one of the Best Dressed people of 2010 and Time named the dress the Fashion Statement of the year.[343][344] It attracted the attention of worldwide media; the animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) found it offensive.[345] The meat dress was displayed at the National Museum of Women in the Arts in 2012,[346] and entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in September 2015.[347]Gaga's fans call her \"Mother Monster\", and she often refers to them as \"Little Monsters\", a phrase she had tattooed on herself in dedication.[348] In his article \"Lady Gaga Pioneered Online Fandom Culture As We Know It\" for Vice, Jake Hall wrote that Gaga inspired several subsequent fan-brandings, such as those of Taylor Swift, Rihanna and Justin Bieber.[349] In July 2012, Gaga also co-founded the social networking service LittleMonsters.com, devoted to her fans.[350] Scott Hardy, CEO of Polaroid, praised Gaga for inspiring fans and for her close interactions with them on social media.[351]","title":"Public image"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AMP Radio Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMP_Radio_Networks"},{"link_name":"[352]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-354"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[353]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-355"},{"link_name":"[354]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-356"},{"link_name":"Sexxx Dreams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexxx_Dreams"},{"link_name":"[355]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-357"},{"link_name":"Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama"},{"link_name":"Chinese government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_government"},{"link_name":"[356]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-358"},{"link_name":"[357]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-359"},{"link_name":"Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicity_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"[358]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-360"},{"link_name":"Mango TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango_TV"},{"link_name":"[359]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-361"},{"link_name":"[360]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-362"}],"sub_title":"Censorship","text":"In 2011, lyrics of Gaga's song \"Born This Way\", which reference homosexuality and LGBT subjects, were censored by Malaysian broadcaster AMP Radio Networks as a precaution against government restrictions against songs which might violate \"good taste or decency or [are] offensive to public feeling\".[352] The same year, the Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China, reportedly enforcing a directive designed to tackle \"poor taste and vulgar content\", banned the publication of six of Gaga's songs from the album Born This Way on all Chinese music websites.[353][354]In 2014, her album Artpop was released in China with conditions being placed on the album artwork, covering her almost naked body as well as changing the title of the song \"Sexxx Dreams\" to \"X Dreams\".[355] In 2016, her meeting with the Dalai Lama resulted in the Chinese government adding her to a list of hostile foreign forces, and Chinese websites and media organizations were ordered to stop distributing her songs.[356][357] The Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party also issued an order for state-controlled media to condemn the meeting.[358] In 2019, coverage of Gaga in the 91st Academy Awards was removed on some Chinese streaming platforms such as Mango TV and in 2021 her appearance was cut from Friends: The Reunion; both incidents received backlash from Chinese fans.[359][360]","title":"Public image"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"We Are the World 25 for Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Are_the_World_25_for_Haiti"},{"link_name":"2010 Haiti earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Haiti_earthquake"},{"link_name":"Radio City Music Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall"},{"link_name":"[361]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-363"},{"link_name":"[362]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-364"},{"link_name":"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"link_name":"[363]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-365"},{"link_name":"[364]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-366"},{"link_name":"MTV Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Japan"},{"link_name":"Makuhari Messe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuhari_Messe"},{"link_name":"Japanese Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Red_Cross"},{"link_name":"[365]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-367"},{"link_name":"Artists Against Fracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists_Against_Fracking"},{"link_name":"[366]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-368"},{"link_name":"Yoko Ono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoko_Ono"},{"link_name":"LennonOno Grant for Peace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LennonOno_Grant_for_Peace"},{"link_name":"Reykjavík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"[367]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-369"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Sandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy"},{"link_name":"HIV and AIDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS"},{"link_name":"Cyndi Lauper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper"},{"link_name":"MAC Cosmetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make-up_Art_Cosmetics"},{"link_name":"[368]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-370"},{"link_name":"[369]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forbesprofile-371"},{"link_name":"University of Nevada, Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nevada,_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"It's On Us","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Task_Force_to_Protect_Students_from_Sexual_Assault"},{"link_name":"[370]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-372"},{"link_name":"84th Annual US Conference of Mayors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Conference_of_Mayors"},{"link_name":"[371]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-373"},{"link_name":"One World: Together at Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Together_at_Home"},{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Solidarity_Response_Fund"},{"link_name":"[372]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHO-374"},{"link_name":"[373]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-375"},{"link_name":"Live Aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Aid"},{"link_name":"[374]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-376"},{"link_name":"Black Lives Matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter"},{"link_name":"Yolanda Denise King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolanda_Denise_King"},{"link_name":"King Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change"},{"link_name":"[375]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-377"}],"sub_title":"Philanthropy","text":"After declining an invitation to appear on the single \"We Are the World 25 for Haiti\", because of rehearsals for her tour, to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Gaga donated the proceeds of her January 2010 Radio City Music Hall concert to the country's reconstruction relief fund.[361] All profits from her online store that day were also donated, and Gaga announced that $500,000 was collected for the fund.[362] Hours after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Japan, Gaga tweeted a link to Japan Prayer Bracelets. All revenue from a bracelet she designed in conjunction with the company was donated to relief efforts;[363] these raised $1.5 million.[364] In June 2011, Gaga performed at MTV Japan's charity show in Makuhari Messe, which benefited the Japanese Red Cross.[365]In 2012, Gaga joined the campaign group Artists Against Fracking.[366] That October, Yoko Ono gave Gaga and four other activists the LennonOno Grant for Peace in Reykjavík, Iceland.[367] The following month, Gaga pledged to donate $1 million to the American Red Cross to help the victims of Hurricane Sandy. Gaga also contributes in the fight against HIV and AIDS, focusing on educating young women about the risks of the disease. In collaboration with Cyndi Lauper, Gaga joined forces with MAC Cosmetics to launch a line of lipstick under their supplementary cosmetic line, Viva Glam.[368] Sales have raised more than $202 million to fight HIV and AIDS.[369]In April 2016, Gaga joined Vice President Joe Biden at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas to support Biden's It's On Us campaign as he traveled to colleges on behalf of the organization, which has seen 250,000 students from more than 530 colleges sign a pledge of solidarity and activism.[370] Two months later, Gaga attended the 84th Annual US Conference of Mayors in Indianapolis where she joined with the Dalai Lama to talk about the power of kindness and how to make the world a more compassionate place.[371]In April 2020, Gaga curated the televised benefit concert, One World: Together at Home, a collaboration with Global Citizen to benefit the World Health Organization's COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund.[372][373] The special raised $127 million, which according to Forbes \"puts it on par with the other legendary fundraiser, Live Aid, as the highest grossing charity concert in history.\"[374] In recognition of her contribution to the Black Lives Matter movement, Gaga received the Yolanda Denise King High Ground Award from the King Center's Beloved Community Awards in January 2021. In her acceptance speech, she denounced racism and white supremacy and addressed her social responsibility as a high-profile artist and white woman.[375]","title":"Activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LadyGagaBornBraveBus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Born This Way Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Born This Way Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Oprah Winfrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey"},{"link_name":"Kathleen Sebelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Sebelius"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[376]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-378"},{"link_name":"Barneys New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barneys_New_York"},{"link_name":"[377]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-379"},{"link_name":"Office Depot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_Depot"},{"link_name":"[378]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-380"},{"link_name":"[379]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-381"},{"link_name":"[380]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-382"},{"link_name":"Peter Salovey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Salovey"},{"link_name":"[381]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-383"},{"link_name":"Vox Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_Media"},{"link_name":"Recode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recode"},{"link_name":"[382]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-384"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-V_mag-165"},{"link_name":"Macy's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macy%27s"},{"link_name":"Elton John AIDS Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John_AIDS_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[383]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lovebravery-385"},{"link_name":"Starbucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starbucks"},{"link_name":"[384]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-386"},{"link_name":"Staples Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staples_Inc."},{"link_name":"[385]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-387"},{"link_name":"World Kindness Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Kindness_Day"},{"link_name":"Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cross"},{"link_name":"California wildfires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_California_wildfires"},{"link_name":"SoulCycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoulCycle"},{"link_name":"Woolsey Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsey_Fire"},{"link_name":"[386]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-388"},{"link_name":"mental health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health"},{"link_name":"[387]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-389"},{"link_name":"[388]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-390"},{"link_name":"[389]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-391"},{"link_name":"[390]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-392"},{"link_name":"[391]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-393"},{"link_name":"[392]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-394"},{"link_name":"The Power of Kindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Power_of_Kindness"},{"link_name":"[393]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-395"}],"sub_title":"Born This Way Foundation","text":"Gaga during an event for the Born This Way Foundation in Europe, 2013In 2012, Gaga launched the Born This Way Foundation (BTWF), a non-profit organization that focuses on youth empowerment. It takes its name from her 2011 single and album. Media proprietor Oprah Winfrey, writer Deepak Chopra, and US Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius spoke at the foundation's inauguration at Harvard University.[376] The foundation's original funding included $1.2 million from Gaga, $500,000 from the MacArthur Foundation, and $850,000 from Barneys New York.[377] In July 2012, the BTWF partnered with Office Depot, which donated 25% of the sales, a minimum of $1 million of a series of limited edition back-to-school products.[378] The foundation's initiatives have included the \"Born Brave Bus\" that followed her on tour as a youth drop-in center as an initiative against bullying.[379][380]In October 2015, at the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, Gaga joined 200 high school students, policy makers, and academic officials, including Peter Salovey, to discuss ways to recognize and channel emotions for positive outcomes.[381] In 2016, the foundation partnered with Intel, Vox Media, and Recode to fight online harassment.[382] The sales revenue of the 99th issue of the V magazine, which featured Gaga and Kinney, was donated to the foundation.[163] Gaga and Elton John released the clothing and accessories line Love Bravery at Macy's in May. 25% of each purchase support Gaga's foundation and the Elton John AIDS Foundation.[383] Gaga partnered with Starbucks for a week in June 2017 with the \"Cups of Kindness\" campaign, where the company donated 25 cents from some of the beverages sold to the foundation.[384] She also appeared in a video by Staples Inc. to raise funds for the foundation and DonorsChoose.org.[385]On the 2018 World Kindness Day, Gaga partnered with the foundation to bring food and relief to a Red Cross shelter for people who have been forced to evacuate homes due to the California wildfires. The foundation also partnered with Starbucks and SoulCycle to thank California firefighters for their relief work during the crisis. The singer had to previously evacuate her own home during the Woolsey Fire which spread through parts of Malibu.[386]In March 2019, she penned a letter to supporters of the Born This Way Foundation, announcing the launch of a new pilot program for a teen mental health first aid project with the National Council for Behavioral Health. Gaga revealed her personal struggles with mental health in her letter and how she was able to get support which saved her life: \"I know what it means to have someone support me and understand what I'm going through, and every young person in the world should have someone to turn to when they're hurting. It saved my life, and it will save theirs.\"[387][388] In September 2020, Gaga released an anthology book, Channel Kindness: Stories of Kindness and Community, featuring fifty-one stories about kindness, bravery, and resilience from young people all over the world collected by the Born This Way Foundation, and introduced by herself.[389] She had been promoting it with a 21 days of kindness challenge on her social media, using the \"BeKind21\" hashtag.[390] In 2021, Gaga collaborated with the Champagne house Dom Pérignon to benefit the Born This Way Foundation by releasing a limited edition of Rosé Vintage 2005 bottles along with a sculpture designed by her. The 110 exclusive pieces were sold at private sales, and the profit of $570,000 was donated to the foundation.[391][392] On the 2021 World Kindness Day, Gaga released a 30-minute special, titled The Power of Kindness, as part of the foundation's Channel Kindness program, in which together with a mental health expert and a group of eleven young people, she explored the connection between kindness and mental health.[393]","title":"Activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gagaspeechdontask.jpg"},{"link_name":"don't ask, don't tell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_ask,_don%27t_tell"},{"link_name":"Portland, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Maine"},{"link_name":"bisexual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisexuality"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-396"},{"link_name":"LGBT rights 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Advocate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Advocate_(LGBT_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[402]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-405"},{"link_name":"Europride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europride"},{"link_name":"gay rights in many European countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"[403]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mtvrome2-406"},{"link_name":"Jamey Rodemeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_of_Jamey_Rodemeyer"},{"link_name":"[404]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian2-407"},{"link_name":"Universal Life Church Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Life_Church_Monastery"},{"link_name":"[405]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-408"},{"link_name":"attack at the gay nightclub Pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_nightclub_shooting"},{"link_name":"[406]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-409"},{"link_name":"Human Rights Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign"},{"link_name":"[407]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-410"},{"link_name":"presidency of Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"military transgender ban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_military_ban_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[408]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-411"},{"link_name":"[409]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-412"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[410]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-413"},{"link_name":"transgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender"},{"link_name":"[411]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-414"},{"link_name":"[412]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-415"},{"link_name":"Mike Pence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Pence"},{"link_name":"Karen Pence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Pence"},{"link_name":"[413]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-416"},{"link_name":"Stonewall riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewall_riots"},{"link_name":"LGBTQ+ community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_community"},{"link_name":"WorldPride NYC 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewall_50_%E2%80%93_WorldPride_NYC_2019"},{"link_name":"Stonewall Inn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewall_Inn"},{"link_name":"gay rights movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_social_movements"},{"link_name":"[414]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GagaStonewallNYCPride-417"}],"sub_title":"LGBT advocacy","text":"Gaga speaking against \"don't ask, don't tell\" in Portland, Maine (2010)A bisexual woman,[c] Gaga actively supports LGBT rights worldwide.[394] She attributes much of her early success as a mainstream artist to her gay fans and is considered a gay icon.[395][396] Early in her career, Gaga had difficulty getting radio airplay, and stated, \"The turning point for me was the gay community.\"[397] She thanked FlyLife, a Manhattan-based LGBT marketing company with whom her label Interscope works, in the liner notes of The Fame.[398] One of her first televised performances was in May 2008 at the NewNowNext Awards, an awards show aired by the LGBT television network Logo.[399]Gaga spoke at the 2009 National Equality March in Washington, D.C., to support the LGBT rights movement.[400] She attended the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards accompanied by four gay and lesbian former members of the United States Armed Forces who had been unable to serve openly under the US military's \"don't ask, don't tell\" policy, which banned open homosexuality in the military.[401] Gaga urged her fans via YouTube to contact their senators in an effort to overturn the policy. In September 2010, she spoke at a Servicemembers Legal Defense Network's rally in Portland, Maine. Following this event, The Advocate named her a \"fierce advocate\" for gays and lesbians.[402]Gaga appeared at Europride, an international event dedicated to LGBT pride, in Rome in June 2011. She criticized the poor state of gay rights in many European countries and described gay people as \"revolutionaries of love\".[403] Later that year, she was referenced by teenager Jamey Rodemeyer in the hours prior to his death, with Rodemeyer having tweeted \"@ladygaga bye mother monster, thank you for all you have done, paws up forever\". Rodemeyer's suicide prompted Gaga to meet with then-President Barack Obama in order to address anti-gay bullying in American schools.[404] In 2011, she was also ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery so that she could officiate the wedding of two female friends.[405]In June 2016, during a vigil held in Los Angeles for victims of the attack at the gay nightclub Pulse in Orlando, Gaga read aloud the names of the 49 people killed in the attack, and gave a speech.[406] Later that month, Gaga appeared in Human Rights Campaign's tribute video to the victims of the attack.[407] She opposed the presidency of Donald Trump and his military transgender ban.[408][409] She supported former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016.[410] In 2018, a leaked memo from Trump's office revealed that his administration wanted to change the legal definition of sex to exclude transgender Americans. Gaga was one of the many celebrities to condemn him and spread the #WontBeErased campaign to her 77 million Twitter followers.[411][412] In January 2019, during one of her Enigma shows, she criticized Vice President Mike Pence for his wife Karen Pence working at an evangelical Christian school where LGBTQ people are turned away, calling him \"the worst representation of what it means to be a Christian\". Gaga also stated \"I am a Christian woman, and what I do know about Christianity is that we bear no prejudice, and everybody is welcome\".[413] Gaga made a congratulatory speech commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots and the LGBTQ+ community's accomplishments at WorldPride NYC 2019 outside the Stonewall Inn, birthplace of the modern gay rights movement.[414]","title":"Activism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga,_ARTPOP_Ball_Tour,_Bell_Center,_Montr%C3%A9al,_2_July_2014_(60)_(14376655959).jpg"},{"link_name":"ArtRave: The Artpop Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtRave:_The_Artpop_Ball"},{"link_name":"Queen of Pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music#G"},{"link_name":"VH1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1"},{"link_name":"Greatest Women in Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greatest_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[415]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Molanphy-418"},{"link_name":"[416]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-419"},{"link_name":"National Museum in Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw"},{"link_name":"[417]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-warsawvoice-420"},{"link_name":"[418]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-421"},{"link_name":"[419]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsico201277%E2%80%9378-422"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"[420]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-423"},{"link_name":"[421]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-424"},{"link_name":"[422]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-425"},{"link_name":"[423]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-426"},{"link_name":"Kelefa Sanneh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelefa_Sanneh"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"[424]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-427"},{"link_name":"Rob Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Sheffield"},{"link_name":"[425]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-428"},{"link_name":"[426]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-429"},{"link_name":"Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_Aesthetics,_Creativity,_and_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"earworm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earworm"},{"link_name":"[427]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakubowskiFinkelStewartM%C3%BCllensiefen2017122%E2%80%93135-430"},{"link_name":"NPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR"},{"link_name":"[428]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-431"},{"link_name":"Miley Cyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miley_Cyrus"},{"link_name":"[429]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-432"},{"link_name":"Nicki Minaj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicki_Minaj"},{"link_name":"[430]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-433"},{"link_name":"Ellie Goulding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Goulding"},{"link_name":"[431]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-434"},{"link_name":"Halsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"[432]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-435"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Lopez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez"},{"link_name":"[433]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-436"},{"link_name":"[434]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-437"},{"link_name":"Nick Jonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Jonas"},{"link_name":"[435]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-438"},{"link_name":"Sam Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Smith_(singer)"},{"link_name":"[436]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-439"},{"link_name":"Noah Cyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Cyrus"},{"link_name":"[437]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-440"},{"link_name":"Katherine Langford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Langford"},{"link_name":"[438]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-441"},{"link_name":"MGMT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGMT"},{"link_name":"[439]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-442"},{"link_name":"Allie X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allie_X"},{"link_name":"[440]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-443"},{"link_name":"Greyson Chance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greyson_Chance"},{"link_name":"[441]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-444"},{"link_name":"Cardi B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardi_B"},{"link_name":"[442]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-445"},{"link_name":"Rina Sawayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rina_Sawayama"},{"link_name":"[443]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-446"},{"link_name":"Blackpink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpink"},{"link_name":"[444]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-447"},{"link_name":"Madison Beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Beer"},{"link_name":"[445]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-448"},{"link_name":"Ren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_(singer)"},{"link_name":"NU'EST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NU%27EST"},{"link_name":"[446]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-449"},{"link_name":"Slayyyter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayyyter"},{"link_name":"[447]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-450"},{"link_name":"Bebe Rexha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebe_Rexha"},{"link_name":"[448]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-451"},{"link_name":"Bree Runway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bree_Runway"},{"link_name":"[449]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-452"},{"link_name":"Celeste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeste_(singer)"},{"link_name":"[450]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-453"},{"link_name":"Kim Petras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Petras"},{"link_name":"[451]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-454"},{"link_name":"JoJo Siwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JoJo_Siwa"},{"link_name":"[452]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-455"},{"link_name":"Pabllo Vittar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabllo_Vittar"},{"link_name":"[453]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-456"},{"link_name":"Ava Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ava_Max"},{"link_name":"[454]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-457"},{"link_name":"Doja Cat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doja_Cat"},{"link_name":"[455]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-458"},{"link_name":"Chaeyoung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaeyoung"},{"link_name":"Twice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twice"},{"link_name":"[456]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-459"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"[457]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-460"},{"link_name":"Rachel Zegler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Zegler"},{"link_name":"[458]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-461"},{"link_name":"SZA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SZA"},{"link_name":"[459]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-462"},{"link_name":"Raye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raye"},{"link_name":"[460]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463"},{"link_name":"Grace Gaustad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Gaustad"},{"link_name":"[461]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-464"},{"link_name":"Laufey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"[462]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-465"},{"link_name":"ferns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern"},{"link_name":"Gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaga_(plant)"},{"link_name":"Kaikaia gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikaia_gaga"},{"link_name":"[463]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-466"},{"link_name":"[464]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-467"},{"link_name":"Gagadon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagadon"},{"link_name":"[465]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stuck&Covert2014-468"},{"link_name":"Aleiodes gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleiodes_gaga"},{"link_name":"[466]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-469"},{"link_name":"[467]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Butcheretal2012-470"},{"link_name":"Taichung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taichung"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[468]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-471"},{"link_name":"West Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Hollywood,_California"},{"link_name":"Lindsey P. Horvath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsey_P._Horvath"},{"link_name":"key to the city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_to_the_city"},{"link_name":"Daniel Quasar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Quasar"},{"link_name":"pride flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_flag_(LGBT)"},{"link_name":"Robertson Boulevard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertson_Boulevard_(Los_Angeles)"},{"link_name":"[469]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-472"}],"text":"Gaga performing on the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour in 2014Gaga was named the \"Queen of Pop\" in a 2011 ranking by Rolling Stone based on record sales and social media metrics. In 2012, she ranked fourth in VH1's Greatest Women in Music[415][416] and became a feature of the temporary exhibition The Elevated. From the Pharaoh to Lady Gaga, which marked the 150th anniversary of the National Museum in Warsaw.[417]Gaga has often been praised for using controversy to bring attention to various issues.[418][419] According to Frankie Graddon of The Independent, Gaga—who wore a meat dress to highlight her distaste for the US military's \"don't ask, don't tell\" policy—influenced protest dressing on red carpet.[420] Billboard named her \"the Greatest Pop Star of 2009\", asserting that \"to say that her one-year rise from rookie to MVP was meteoric doesn't quite cut it, as she wasn't just successful, but game-changing—thanks to her voracious appetite for reinvention.\"[421] Because of The Fame's success—it was listed as one of the 100 Greatest Debut Albums of All-Time by Rolling Stone in 2013[422]—Gaga has been credited as one of the musicians that popularized synth-pop in the late 2000s and early 2010s.[423]According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker, \"Lady Gaga blazed a trail for truculent pop stars by treating her own celebrity as an evolving art project.\"[424] Including Born This Way as one of the 50 best female albums of all time, Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield considers it \"hard to remember a world where we didn't have Gaga, although we're pretty sure it was a lot more boring\".[425] In 2015, Time also noted that Gaga had \"practically invented the current era of pop music as spectacle\".[426] A 2017 journal published by Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts studying structural patterns in melodies of earworm songs compiled lists of catchiest tracks from 3,000 participants, in which Gaga's \"Bad Romance\", \"Alejandro\", and \"Poker Face\" ranked number one, eight, and nine, respectively.[427] In 2018, NPR named her the second most influential female artist of the 21st century, noting her as \"one of the first big artists of the 'Internet age'\".[428] Gaga and her work have influenced various artists including Miley Cyrus,[429] Nicki Minaj,[430] Ellie Goulding,[431] Halsey,[432] Jennifer Lopez,[433] Beyoncé,[434] Nick Jonas,[435] Sam Smith,[436] Noah Cyrus,[437] Katherine Langford,[438] MGMT,[439] Allie X,[440] Greyson Chance,[441] Cardi B,[442] Rina Sawayama,[443] Blackpink,[444] Madison Beer,[445] Ren of NU'EST,[446] Slayyyter,[447] Bebe Rexha,[448] Bree Runway,[449] Celeste,[450] Kim Petras,[451] JoJo Siwa,[452] Pabllo Vittar,[453] Ava Max,[454] Doja Cat,[455] Chaeyoung of Twice,[456] Kanye West,[457] Rachel Zegler,[458] SZA,[459] Raye,[460] Grace Gaustad,[461] and Laufey.[462]A new genus of ferns, Gaga, and three species, G. germanotta, G. monstraparva and Kaikaia gaga, have been named in her honor. The name monstraparva alluded to Gaga's fans, known as Little Monsters, since their symbol is the outstretched \"monster claw\" hand, which resembles a tightly rolled young fern leaf prior to unfurling.[463][464] Gaga also has an extinct mammal, Gagadon minimonstrum,[465] and a parasitic wasp, Aleiodes gaga, named for her.[466][467]In Taichung, Taiwan, July 3 is designated as \"Lady Gaga Day\" marking the first day Gaga visited the country in 2011.[468] In May 2021, to celebrate the tenth anniversary of Born This Way and its cultural impact, West Hollywood mayor, Lindsey P. Horvath, presented Gaga with a key to the city and declared May 23 as \"Born This Way Day.\" A street painting with the Daniel Quasar's version of the pride flag featuring the album's title was also unveiled on Robertson Boulevard as a tribute to the album, and how it has inspired the LGBT community over the years.[469]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of awards and nominations received by Lady Gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Lady_Gaga"},{"link_name":"Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[470]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-473"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a_star_is_born_awards_and_nominations-207"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Awards"},{"link_name":"[471]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-474"},{"link_name":"BAFTA 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America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Fashion_Designers_of_America"},{"link_name":"[475]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-478"},{"link_name":"[476]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-479"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tricon-236"},{"link_name":"Top Artists of the 2010s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Decade-End"},{"link_name":"[477]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-480"},{"link_name":"[478]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-481"},{"link_name":"[479]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-482"},{"link_name":"Dance/Electronic Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance/Electronic_Albums"},{"link_name":"[480]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-483"},{"link_name":"[481]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-484"},{"link_name":"500 Greatest Songs of All Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Songs_of_All_Time"},{"link_name":"[482]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-485"},{"link_name":"[483]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-486"},{"link_name":"[484]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-487"},{"link_name":"the world's bestselling music artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_music_artists"},{"link_name":"bestselling singles of all time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_singles"},{"link_name":"[485]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-488"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chromaticaballboxscore-238"},{"link_name":"[486]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbgrossenogma-489"},{"link_name":"Pollstar Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollstar"},{"link_name":"[487]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-490"},{"link_name":"top digital singles artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-certified_music_artists_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Recording Industry Association of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-492"},{"link_name":"few artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIAA_certification#Most_Diamond_2"},{"link_name":"[489]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-493"},{"link_name":"[490]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-494"},{"link_name":"[491]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-495"},{"link_name":"[492]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-496"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-champ-95"},{"link_name":"[493]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-497"},{"link_name":"[494]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-498"},{"link_name":"[495]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-499"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"Celebrity 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_Celebrity_100"},{"link_name":"[496]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-500"},{"link_name":"[497]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-501"},{"link_name":"World's Most Powerful Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_list_of_The_World%27s_100_Most_Powerful_Women"},{"link_name":"[498]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-502"},{"link_name":"[499]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-503"},{"link_name":"100 most influential people in the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100"},{"link_name":"[500]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-504"},{"link_name":"[501]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-505"},{"link_name":"[502]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fusetv-506"},{"link_name":"[503]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboard-507"},{"link_name":"[497]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-501"},{"link_name":"[504]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-508"},{"link_name":"[505]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-509"},{"link_name":"Top-Earning Musicians of the Decade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_list_of_highest-earning_musicians#2010s"},{"link_name":"[506]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-510"}],"text":"See also: List of awards and nominations received by Lady GagaGaga has won thirteen Grammy Awards,[470] an Academy Award,[205] two Golden Globe Awards,[471] a BAFTA Award,[205] three Brit Awards,[472] sixteen Guinness World Records,[473] and the inaugural Songwriters Hall of Fame's Contemporary Icon Award.[158] She received a National Arts Awards' Young Artist Award, which honors individuals who have shown accomplishments and leadership early in their career,[474] the Jane Ortner Artist Award from the Grammy Museum in 2016,[168] and a National Board of Review Award for Best Actress in 2018.[205] Gaga has also been recognized by the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) with the Fashion Icon award.[475] In 2019, she became the first woman to win an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Grammy Award in one year for her contribution to A Star Is Born's soundtrack.[476] At the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards, she was honored with the inaugural Tricon Award representing achievement in three (or more) fields of entertainment.[234]Acknowledged by Billboard as the Greatest Pop Star in 2009, with honorable mention in 2010 and 2011, and Woman of the Year in 2015, Gaga has consecutively appeared on the magazine's Artists of the Year chart (scoring the definitive title in 2010), and ranked 11th on its Top Artists of the 2010s chart.[477][478][479] She is the longest-reigning act of Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums chart with 244 weeks at number one, while The Fame (2008) holds the record for the most time on top in the chart's history, with 175 non-consecutive weeks.[480][481] Her album Born This Way (2011) featured on Rolling Stone's 2020 revision of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and the song \"Bad Romance\" and its music video were among Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and 100 Greatest Music Videos of All Time, respectively, in 2021.[482] In 2023, the magazine included Gaga among the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.[483]With estimated sales of 170 million records as of 2018,[484] Gaga is one of the world's bestselling music artists, and has produced some of the bestselling singles of all time.[485] As of 2022, she has grossed more than $689.5 million in revenue from concert tours and residencies with attendance of 6.3 million, being the fifth woman to pass the half-billion total as reported to Billboard Boxscore,[236][486] receiving the Pollstar Award for Pop Touring Artist of the Decade (2010s).[487] She is also among the top digital singles artists in the US, with 87.5 million equivalent units certified according to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA),[d] was the first woman to receive the Digital Diamond Award certification from RIAA, one of the few artists with at least three Diamond certified songs (\"Bad Romance\", \"Poker Face\" and \"Just Dance\"),[489][490] and the first and only artist to have two songs pass seven million downloads (\"Poker Face\" and \"Just Dance\").[491] In 2020, she became the first female artist to have four singles (\"Just Dance\", \"Poker Face\", \"Bad Romance\" and \"Shallow\") sell at least 10 million copies globally.[492]According to Guinness World Records, she was the most followed person on Twitter from 2011 to 2013,[94][493] the most famous celebrity in 2013,[494] and the most powerful popstar in 2014.[495] She was included on Forbes' Celebrity 100 from 2010 to 2015 and then from 2018 to 2020, having topped the list in 2011. She earned $62 million, $90 million, $52 million, $80 million, $33 million, and $59 million from 2010 through 2015, and $50 million, $39 million and $38 million between 2018 and 2020.[496][497] Gaga also appeared on their list of the World's Most Powerful Women from 2010 to 2014.[498][499] She was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time magazine in 2010 and 2019,[500][501] and ranked second in its most influential people of the past ten years readers' poll in 2013.[502]In March 2012, Gaga was ranked fourth on Billboard's list of top moneymakers of 2011 with earnings of $25 million, which included sales from Born This Way and her Monster Ball Tour.[503] The following year, she topped Forbes' List of Top-Earning Celebs Under 30,[497] which she also topped in 2011,[504] and in February 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth to be $275 million.[505] In December 2019, Gaga placed 10th on Forbes' list of Top-Earning Musicians of the Decade with earnings of $500 million in the 2010s. She was the fourth highest-earning female musician on the list.[506]","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame"},{"link_name":"The Fame Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame_Monster"},{"link_name":"Born This Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_This_Way_(album)"},{"link_name":"Artpop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artpop"},{"link_name":"Joanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne_(album)"},{"link_name":"Chromatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatica"},{"link_name":"Cheek to Cheek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek_(album)"},{"link_name":"Tony Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Love for Sale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_for_Sale_(Tony_Bennett_and_Lady_Gaga_album)"},{"link_name":"A Star Is Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Bradley Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradley_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Top Gun: Maverick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Gun:_Maverick_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Lorne Balfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorne_Balfe"},{"link_name":"Harold Faltermeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Faltermeyer"},{"link_name":"Hans Zimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Zimmer"}],"text":"Solo studio albums\n\nThe Fame (2008) (reissued in 2009 as The Fame Monster)\nBorn This Way (2011)\nArtpop (2013)\nJoanne (2016)\nChromatica (2020)\n\n\nCollaborative studio albums\n\nCheek to Cheek (with Tony Bennett) (2014)\nLove for Sale (with Tony Bennett) (2021)\nSoundtrack albums\n\nA Star Is Born (with Bradley Cooper) (2018)\nTop Gun: Maverick (with Lorne Balfe, Harold Faltermeyer and Hans Zimmer) (2022)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Lady Gaga live performances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Lady_Gaga_live_performances"},{"link_name":"The Fame Ball Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fame_Ball_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Monster Ball Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monster_Ball_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Born This Way Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Born_This_Way_Ball"},{"link_name":"ArtRave: The Artpop Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArtRave:_The_Artpop_Ball"},{"link_name":"Joanne World Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne_World_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Chromatica Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chromatica_Ball"},{"link_name":"Cheek to Cheek Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek_Tour"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_Live_at_Roseland_Ballroom"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_Enigma_%2B_Jazz_%26_Piano"}],"text":"See also: List of Lady Gaga live performancesHeadlining tours\n\nThe Fame Ball Tour (2009)\nThe Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011)\nThe Born This Way Ball (2012–2013)\nArtRave: The Artpop Ball (2014)\nJoanne World Tour (2017–2018)\nThe Chromatica Ball (2022)\n\n\nCo-headlining tours\n\nCheek to Cheek Tour (with Tony Bennett) (2014–2015)\nResidencies\n\nLady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom (2014)\nLady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano (2018–2024)","title":"Tours and residencies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lady Gaga videography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga_videography"},{"link_name":"Machete Kills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machete_Kills"},{"link_name":"Sin City: A Dame to Kill For","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_City:_A_Dame_to_Kill_For"},{"link_name":"A Star Is Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_film)"},{"link_name":"House of Gucci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gucci"},{"link_name":"Joker: Folie à Deux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker:_Folie_%C3%A0_Deux"}],"text":"See also: Lady Gaga videographyMachete Kills (2013)\nSin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014)\nA Star Is Born (2018)\nHouse of Gucci (2021)\nJoker: Folie à Deux (2024)","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-92"},{"link_name":"New York Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-119"},{"link_name":"Coty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coty"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pressrelease-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-396"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rsannual-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-492"},{"link_name":"[488]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-491"}],"text":"^ In 2010, Fusari claimed he was entitled to a 20% share of the company's earnings, but the New York Supreme Court dismissed both the lawsuit and a counter-suit by Gaga.[90][91]\n\n^ Both of the fragrances were released in association with Coty[116][117]\n\n^ Gaga says that the song \"Poker Face\" was about her bisexuality, and she openly speaks about how her past boyfriends were uncomfortable with her sexual orientation.[28]\n\n^ As of February 2024, Gaga has had cumulative single certifications of 82.5 million digital downloads and on-demand streaming as a solo artist, and 5 million with Bradley Cooper.[488]","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Gaga performing at Lollapalooza in 2007","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Lady_Gaga_at_Lollapalooza_2007_-_cropped.jpg/130px-Lady_Gaga_at_Lollapalooza_2007_-_cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga on The Monster Ball Tour in 2010; it grossed $227 million and became the highest-grossing concert tour for a debut headlining artist[58]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Monster_Ball_-_Poker_Face_revamped2_cropped.jpg/170px-The_Monster_Ball_-_Poker_Face_revamped2_cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga promoting Born This Way with performances in Sydney, Australia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lady_Gaga_%286891780238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Lady_Gaga_%286891780238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"With the Cheek to Cheek era, Gaga (seen here performing on the Cheek to Cheek Tour alongside Tony Bennett) ushered in an overhaul of her image.[133]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Tony_Bennett_%26_Lady_GaGa%2C_Cheek_to_Cheek_Tour_04_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Tony_Bennett_%26_Lady_GaGa%2C_Cheek_to_Cheek_Tour_04_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga performing on the Joanne World Tour in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lady_Gaga_JWT_Toronto%2C_2017-09-06_%28cropped2%29.jpg/170px-Lady_Gaga_JWT_Toronto%2C_2017-09-06_%28cropped2%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival prior to the screening of A Star Is Born, which was her first lead role in a film[196]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/TIFF_2018_Lady_Gaga_%281_of_1%29_%28cropped_2%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-TIFF_2018_Lady_Gaga_%281_of_1%29_%28cropped_2%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga performing on The Chromatica Ball in 2022, which is her first all-stadium concert tour[236]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/GagaSpurs290722_%2833_of_39%29_%2852250248117%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/170px-GagaSpurs290722_%2833_of_39%29_%2852250248117%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga during a \"blood soaked\" performance in 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Lady_Gaga_covered_in_blood.jpg/170px-Lady_Gaga_covered_in_blood.jpg"},{"image_text":"In 2010, eight wax figures of Gaga were installed at the museum Madame Tussauds.[334]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Gaga_vax_at_Madame_Tussauds_London.jpg/170px-Gaga_vax_at_Madame_Tussauds_London.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga during an event for the Born This Way Foundation in Europe, 2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/LadyGagaBornBraveBus.jpg/220px-LadyGagaBornBraveBus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga speaking against \"don't ask, don't tell\" in Portland, Maine (2010)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Gagaspeechdontask.jpg/220px-Gagaspeechdontask.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gaga performing on the ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour in 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Lady_Gaga%2C_ARTPOP_Ball_Tour%2C_Bell_Center%2C_Montr%C3%A9al%2C_2_July_2014_%2860%29_%2814376655959%29.jpg/220px-Lady_Gaga%2C_ARTPOP_Ball_Tour%2C_Bell_Center%2C_Montr%C3%A9al%2C_2_July_2014_%2860%29_%2814376655959%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Artists with the most number-ones on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists_with_the_most_number-ones_on_the_U.S._Dance_Club_Songs_chart"},{"title":"Forbes list of highest-earning musicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_list_of_highest-earning_musicians"},{"title":"Honorific nicknames in popular music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music"},{"title":"LGBT culture in New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_culture_in_New_York_City"},{"title":"List of actors with Academy Award nominations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actors_with_Academy_Award_nominations"},{"title":"List of LGBT people from New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_LGBT_people_from_New_York_City"},{"title":"List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Social_50_number-one_artists"},{"title":"List of most-followed Twitter accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most-followed_Twitter_accounts"},{"title":"List of organisms named after famous people (born 1950–present)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people_(born_1950%E2%80%93present)"}]

[{"reference":"\"Artists: Lady Gaga\". NME. Archived from the original on October 1, 2017. Retrieved September 19, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nme.com/artists/lady-gaga","url_text":"\"Artists: Lady Gaga\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NME","url_text":"NME"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171001023358/http://www.nme.com/artists/lady-gaga","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Spedding, Emma (March 28, 2013). \"It's Lady Gaga's 27th Birthday! We Celebrate With Her 10 Style Highlights Of The Year\". Grazia. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130402055054/http://www.graziadaily.co.uk/fashion/news/its-lady-gagas-27th-birthday-we-celebrate-with-her-10-crazy-style-highlights-of-the-year","url_text":"\"It's Lady Gaga's 27th Birthday! We Celebrate With Her 10 Style Highlights Of The Year\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grazia","url_text":"Grazia"},{"url":"http://www.graziadaily.co.uk/fashion/news/its-lady-gagas-27th-birthday-we-celebrate-with-her-10-crazy-style-highlights-of-the-year","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Graves-Fitzsimmons, Guthrie (February 5, 2017). \"The provocative faith of Lady Gaga\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 6, 2017. 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(@ladygaga)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)","url_text":"Tweet"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/G9fmy","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"}]},{"reference":"\"NU'EST's Ren Reveals What His Reaction Would Be If He Met His Role Model Lady Gaga—It's Super Adorable\". Koreaboo. March 10, 2021. Retrieved March 11, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.koreaboo.com/stories/nuest-ren-lady-gaga-first-meeting-reaction-allure-korea/","url_text":"\"NU'EST's Ren Reveals What His Reaction Would Be If He Met His Role Model Lady Gaga—It's Super Adorable\""}]},{"reference":"Michael, Michael (October 15, 2018). \"Slayyyter is 2018 Pop, Inspired by 2007 Britney, Lindsay, and Paris\". Paper. 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ISBN 978-1-908843-70-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rBd4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT172","url_text":"Guinness World Records 2015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Records","url_text":"Guinness World Records"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908843-70-8","url_text":"978-1-908843-70-8"}]},{"reference":"Allison, Scott T.; Goethals, George R. (2013). Heroic Leadership: An Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals. Routledge. 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ISBN 978-0-7864-9252-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0fT2wuIgY8IC&pg=PA183","url_text":"The Performance Identities of Lady Gaga: Critical Essays"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFarland_%26_Company","url_text":"McFarland & Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-9252-7","url_text":"978-0-7864-9252-7"}]},{"reference":"Jakubowski, Kelly; Finkel, Sebastian; Stewart, Lauren; Müllensiefen, Daniel (May 2017). \"Dissecting an earworm: Melodic features and song popularity predict involuntary musical imagery\" (PDF). Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. 11 (2): 122–135. doi:10.1037/aca0000090. Retrieved March 30, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/aca-aca0000090.pdf","url_text":"\"Dissecting an earworm: Melodic features and song popularity predict involuntary musical imagery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_Aesthetics,_Creativity,_and_the_Arts","url_text":"Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Faca0000090","url_text":"10.1037/aca0000090"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Paula (2012). Lady Gaga: A Biography. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-440-80109-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ladygagabiograph0000joha","url_text":"Lady Gaga: A Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIO","url_text":"ABC-CLIO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-440-80109-9","url_text":"978-1-440-80109-9"}]},{"reference":"Marsico, Katie (2012). Lady Gaga: Pop Singer & Songwriter. ABDO Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-61478-600-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ladygagapopsinge0000mars","url_text":"Lady Gaga: Pop Singer & Songwriter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61478-600-9","url_text":"978-1-61478-600-9"}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Johnny (2010). Gaga. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4027-8059-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781402780592","url_text":"Gaga"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterling_Publishing","url_text":"Sterling Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-8059-2","url_text":"978-1-4027-8059-2"}]},{"reference":"Parvis, Sarah (2010). Lady Gaga. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-9795-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_McMeel_Publishing","url_text":"Andrews McMeel Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7407-9795-8","url_text":"978-0-7407-9795-8"}]},{"reference":"Tracy, Kathleen A. (2013). Superstars of the 21st Century: Pop Favorites of America's Teens: Pop Favorites of America's Teens. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-37737-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37737-2","url_text":"978-0-313-37737-2"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy

Existential therapy

["1 Background","1.1 Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)","1.2 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)","1.3 Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)","1.4 Max Scheler (1874-1928)","1.5 Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)","1.6 Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)","1.7 Others","2 Development","2.1 Development in Europe","2.2 Development in Britain","2.3 Development in Canada","3 View of the human mind","4 Psychological dysfunction","5 The good life","6 Four worlds","6.1 Physical dimension","6.2 Social dimension","6.3 Psychological dimension","6.4 Spiritual dimension","7 Research support","8 See also","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]

It has been suggested that this article be merged with Existential counselling. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2024. Form of psychotherapy This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Existential therapy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Existential psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy based on the model of human nature and experience developed by the existential tradition of European philosophy. It focuses on concepts that are universally applicable to human existence including death, freedom, responsibility, and the meaning of life. Instead of regarding human experiences such as anxiety, alienation and depression as implying the presence of mental illness, existential psychotherapy sees these experiences as natural stages in a normal process of human development and maturation. In facilitating this process of development and maturation existential psychotherapy involves a philosophical exploration of an individual's experiences while stressing the individual's freedom and responsibility to facilitate a higher degree of meaning and well-being in his or her life. Background The philosophers who are especially pertinent to the development of existential psychotherapy are those whose works were directly aimed at making sense of human existence. For example, the fields of phenomenology and existential philosophy are especially and directly responsible for the generation of existential therapy. The starting point of existential philosophy (see Warnock 1970; Macquarrie 1972; Mace 1999; van Deurzen and Kenward 2005) can be traced back to the nineteenth century and the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Their works conflicted with the predominant ideologies of their time and committed to the exploration of reality as it can be experienced in a passionate and personal manner. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) Soren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) protested vehemently against popular misunderstanding and abuse of Christian dogma and the so-called 'objectivity' of science (Kierkegaard, 1841, 1844). He thought that both were ways of avoiding the anxiety inherent in human existence. He had great contempt for the way life was lived by those around him and believed truth could only be discovered subjectively by the individual in action. He felt people lacked the courage to take a leap of faith and live with passion and commitment from the inward depth of existence. This involved a constant struggle between the finite and infinite aspects of our nature as part of the difficult task of creating a self and finding meaning. As Kierkegaard lived by his word, he was lonely and much ridiculed during his lifetime. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) took this philosophy of life a step further. His starting point was the notion that God is dead, that is, the idea of God was outmoded and limiting (Nietzsche, 1861, 1874, 1886). Furthermore, the Enlightenment—with the newfound faith in reason and rationality—had killed or replaced God with a new Truth that was perhaps more pernicious than the one it replaced. Science and rationality were the new "God," but instead took the form of a deity that was colder and less comforting than before. Nietzsche exerted a significant impact upon the development of psychology in general, but he specifically influenced an approach which emphasized an understanding of life from a personal perspective. In exploring the various needs of the individual about the ontological conditions of being, Nietzsche asserted that all things are in a state of "ontological privation," in which they long to become more than they are. This state of deprivation has major implications for the physiological and psychological needs of the individual. Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) While Kierkegaard and Nietzsche drew attention to the human issues that needed to be addressed, Edmund Husserl's phenomenology (Husserl, 1960, 1962; Moran, 2000) provided the method to address them rigorously. He contended that natural sciences assume the separateness of subject and object and that this kind of dualism can only lead to error. He proposed a whole new mode of investigation and understanding of the world and our experience of it. He said that prejudice has to be put aside or 'bracketed,' for us to meet the world afresh and discover what is absolutely fundamental, and only directly available to us through intuition. If people want to grasp the essence of things, instead of explaining and analyzing them, they have to learn to describe and understand them. Max Scheler (1874-1928) Max Scheler (1874-1928) developed philosophical anthropology from a material ethic of values ("Materielle Wertethik") that opposed Immanuel Kant's ethics of duty ("Pflichtethik"). He described a hierarchical system of values that further developed phenomenological philosophy. Scheler described the human psyche as being composed of four layers analogous to the layers of organic nature. However, in his description, the human psyche is opposed by the principle of the human spirit. Scheler's philosophy forms the basis of Viktor Frankl's logotherapy and existential analysis. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) applied the phenomenological method to understanding the meaning of being (Heidegger, 1962, 1968). He argued that poetry and deep philosophical thinking could bring greater insight into what it means to be in the world than what can be achieved through scientific knowledge. He explored human beings in the world in a manner that revolutionized classical ideas about the self and psychology. He recognized the importance of time, space, death, and human relatedness. He also favored hermeneutics, an old philosophical method of investigation, which is the art of interpretation. Unlike interpretation as practiced in psychoanalysis (which consists of referring a person's experience to a pre-established theoretical framework), this kind of interpretation seeks to understand how the person himself/herself subjectively experiences something. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) contributed many other strands of existential exploration, particularly regarding emotions, imagination, and the person's insertion into a social and political world. The philosophy of existence, on the contrary, is carried by a wide-ranging literature, which includes many authors, such as Karl Jaspers (1951, 1963), Paul Tillich, Martin Buber, and Hans-Georg Gadamer within the Germanic tradition and Albert Camus, Gabriel Marcel, Paul Ricoeur, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Simone de Beauvoir and Emmanuel Lévinas within the French tradition (see for instance Spiegelberg, 1972, Kearney, 1986 or van Deurzen-Smith, 1997). Others From the start of the 20th century, some psychotherapists were, however, inspired by phenomenology and its possibilities for working with people. Otto Rank (1884–1939), an Austrian psychoanalyst who broke with Freud in the mid-1920s, was the first existential therapist. Ludwig Binswanger, in Switzerland, also attempted to bring existential insights to his work with patients, in the Kreuzlingen sanatorium where he was a psychiatrist. Much of his work was translated into English during the 1940s and 1950s and, together with the immigration to the USA of Paul Tillich (1886–1965) (Tillich, 1952) and others, this had a considerable effect on the popularization of existential ideas as a basis for therapy (Valle and King, 1978; Cooper, 2003). Rollo May (1909–1994) played an important role in this, and his writing (1969, 1983; May et al., 1958) kept the existential influence alive in America, leading eventually to a specific formulation of therapy (Bugental, 1981; May and Yalom, 1985; Yalom, 1980). Humanistic psychology was directly influenced by these ideas. Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) was possibly the individual most responsible for spreading existential psychology throughout the world. He was invited by over 200 universities worldwide and accomplished over 80 journeys to North America alone, first invited by Gordon Allport at Harvard University. In Europe, after Otto Rank, existential ideas were combined with some psychoanalytic principles and a method of existential analysis was developed by Medard Boss (1903–1990) (1957a, 1957b, 1979) in close co-operation with Heidegger. In France, the ideas of Sartre (1956, 1962) and Merleau-Ponty (1962) and of some practitioners (Minkowski, 1970) were important and influential, but no specific therapeutic method was developed from them. Development Development in Europe The European School of existential analysis is dominated by two forms of therapy: Logotherapy, and Daseinsanalysis. Logotherapy was developed by psychiatrist Viktor E. Frankl. Frankl was heavily influenced by existential philosophy, as well as his own experience in the Nazi concentration camps of World War II. The three main components to Logotherapy are Freedom of Will, which is the ability to change one's life to the degree that such change is possible, Will to Meaning, which places meaning at the center of well-being, and Meaning in Life, which asserts the objectivity of meaning. The primary techniques of Logotherapy involve helping the clients to identify and remove any barriers to the pursuit of meaning in their own lives, to determine what is personally meaningful, and to then help patients effectively pursue related goals. Daseinsanalysis is a psychotherapeutic system developed upon the ideas of Martin Heidegger, as well as the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud, that seeks to help the individual find autonomy and meaning in their "being in the world" (a rough translation of "Dasein"). Development in Britain Britain became a fertile ground for further development of the existential approach when R. D. Laing and David Cooper, often associated with the anti-psychiatry movement, took Sartre's existential ideas as the basis for their work (Laing, 1960, 1961; Cooper, 1967; Laing and Cooper, 1964). Without developing a concrete method of therapy, they critically reconsidered the notion of mental illness and its treatment. In the late 1960s, they established an experimental therapeutic community at Kingsley Hall in the East End of London, where people could come to live through their 'madness' without the usual medical treatment. They also founded the Philadelphia Association, an organization providing an alternative living, therapy, and therapeutic training from this perspective. The Philadelphia Association is still in existence today and is now committed to the exploration of the works of philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jacques Derrida, Levinas, and Michel Foucault as well as the work of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. It also runs some small therapeutic households along these lines. The Arbours Association is another group that grew out of the Kingsley Hall experiment. Founded by Joseph Berke and Schatzman in the 1970s, it now runs a training program in psychotherapy, a crisis center, and several therapeutic communities. The existential input in the Arbours has gradually been replaced with a more neo-Kleinian emphasis. The impetus for further development of the existential approach in Britain has primarily come from the development of some existentially based courses in academic institutions. This started with the programs created by Emmy van Deurzen, initially at Antioch University in London and subsequently at Regent's College, London and since then at the New School of Psychotherapy and Counseling, also located in London. The latter is a purely existentially based training institute, which offers postgraduate degrees validated by the University of Sheffield and Middlesex University. In the past few decades, the existential approach has spread rapidly and has become a welcome alternative to established methods. There are now many other, mostly academic, centers in Britain that provide training in existential counseling and psychotherapy and a rapidly growing interest in the approach in the voluntary sector and the National Health Service. British publications dealing with existential therapy include contributions by these authors: Jenner (de Koning and Jenner, 1982), Heaton (1988, 1994), Cohn (1994, 1997), Spinelli (1997), Cooper (1989, 2002), Eleftheriadou (1994), Lemma-Wright (1994), Du Plock (1997), Strasser and Strasser (1997), van Deurzen (1997, 1998, 2002), van Deurzen and Arnold-Baker (2005), and van Deurzen and Kenward (2005). Other writers such as Lomas (1981) and Smail (1978, 1987, 1993) have published work relevant to the approach, although not explicitly 'existential' in orientation. The journal of the British Society for Phenomenology regularly publishes work on existential and phenomenological psychotherapy. The Society for Existential Analysis was founded in 1988, initiated by van Deurzen. This society brings together psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, counselors, and philosophers working from an existential perspective. It offers regular fora for discussion and debate as well as significant annual conferences. It publishes the Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis twice a year. It is also a member of the International Federation of Daseinsanalysis, which stimulates international exchange between representatives of the approach from around the world. An International Society for Existential Therapists also exists. It was founded in 2006 by Emmy van Deurzen and Digby Tantam and is called the International Community of Existential Counsellors and Therapists (ICECAP). Development in Canada New developments in existential therapy in the last 20 years include existential positive psychology and meaning therapy. Different from the traditional approach to existential therapy, these new developments incorporate research findings from contemporary positive psychology. Existential positive psychology can reframe the traditional issues of existential concerns into positive psychology questions that can be subjected to empirical research. It also focuses on personal growth and transformation as much as on existential anxiety. Later, existential positive psychology was incorporated into the second wave of positive psychology. Meaning therapy (MT) is an extension of Frankl's logotherapy and America's humanistic-existential tradition; it is also pluralistic because it incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy, narrative therapy, and positive psychotherapy, with meaning as its central organizing construct. MT not only appeals to people's natural desires for happiness and significance but also makes skillful use of their innate capacity for meaning-seeking and meaning-making. MT strikes a balance between a person-centered approach and a psycho-educational approach. At the outset of therapy, clients are informed of the use of meaning-centered interventions appropriate for their predicaments because of the empirical evidence for the vital role of meaning in healing and thriving. MT is a comprehensive and pluralistic way to address all aspects of clients' existential concerns. Clients can benefit from MT in two ways: (1) a custom-tailored treatment to solve their presenting problems, and (2) a collaborative journey to create a preferred better future. View of the human mind Existential therapy (of the American, existential-humanistic tradition) starts with the belief that although humans are essentially alone in the world, they long to be connected to others. People want to have meaning in one another's lives, but ultimately they must come to realize that they cannot depend on others for validation, and with that realization, they finally acknowledge and understand that they are fundamentally alone. The result of this revelation is anxiety in the knowledge that our validation must come from within and not from others. Existential therapy is based on a theory of mind, and of psychology. In existentialism, personality is based on choosing to be, authentically, the real you, given an understanding based on a philosophical idea of what a person is. Therefore, practical therapeutic applications can be derived given a theory of personality, emotion, and “the good life.” This leads to practical therapeutic applications like dealing with personal choices in life that lead to personal happiness. Personal happiness based on a concept of yourself as having the freedom of directing your life and making necessary changes (so to speak, a radical freedom). So, a full philosophical understanding of existentialism is basic to methods implemented for emotional and life changes. That is, a background in philosophy is basic to existential therapy. Philosophical issues of the self, personality, philosophy of mind, meaning of life, personal development are all fundamentally relevant to any practical therapeutic expectations. Psychological dysfunction Because there is no single existential view, opinions about psychological dysfunction vary. For theorists aligned with Yalom, psychological dysfunction results from the individual's refusal or inability to deal with the normal existential anxiety that comes from confronting life's "givens": death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. For other theorists, there is no such thing as psychological dysfunction or mental illness. Every way of being is merely an expression of how one chooses to live one's life. However, one may feel unable to come to terms with the anxiety of being alone in the world. If so, an existential psychotherapist can assist one in accepting these feelings rather than trying to change them as if there is something wrong. Everyone has the freedom to choose how they are going to exist in life; however, this freedom may go unpracticed. It may appear easier and safer not to make decisions that one will be responsible for. Many people will remain unaware of alternative choices in life for various societal reasons. The good life Existentialism suggests that it is possible for individuals to face the anxieties of life head on, embrace the human condition of aloneness and to revel in the freedom to choose and take full responsibility for their choices. They can aim to take control of their lives and steer themselves in any direction they choose. There is no need to halt feelings of meaninglessness but instead to choose and focus on new meanings for the living. By building, loving and creating, life can be lived as one's own adventure. One can accept one's own mortality and overcome the fear of death. Although the French author Albert Camus denied the specific label of existentialist in his novel, L'Etranger, the novel's main character, Meursault, ends the novel by doing just this. He accepts his mortality and rejects the constrictions of society he previously placed on himself, leaving him unencumbered and free to live his life with an unclouded mind. Also, Gerd B. Achenbach has refreshed the Socratic tradition with his own blend of philosophical counseling, as has Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium. The strictly Sartrean perspective of existential psychotherapy is generally unconcerned with the client's past, but instead, the emphasis is on the choices to be made in the present and future. The counselor and the client may reflect upon how the client has answered life's questions in the past, but attention ultimately shifts to searching for a new and increased awareness in the present and enabling a new freedom and responsibility to act. The patient can then accept that they are not special and that their existence is simply coincidental, or without destiny or fate. By accepting this, they can overcome their anxieties and instead view life as moments in which they are fundamentally free. Four worlds Existential thinkers seek to avoid restrictive models that categorize or label people. Instead, they look for the universals that can be observed cross-culturally. There is no existential personality theory which divides humanity into types or reduces people to part components. Instead, there is a description of the different levels of experience and existence with which people are inevitably confronted. The way in which a person is in the world at a particular stage can be charted on this general map of human existence (Binswanger, 1963; Yalom, 1980; van Deurzen, 1984). In line with the view taken by van Deurzen, one can distinguish four basic dimensions of human existence: the physical, the social, the psychological, and the spiritual. On each of these dimensions, people encounter the world and shape their attitude out of their particular take on their experience. Their orientation towards the world defines their reality. The four dimensions are interwoven and provide a complex four-dimensional force field for their existence. Individuals are stretched between a positive pole of what they aspire to on each dimension and a negative pole of what they fear. Binswanger proposed the first three of these dimensions from Heidegger's description of Umwelt and Mitwelt and his further notion of Eigenwelt. The fourth dimension was added by van Deurzen from Heidegger's description of a spiritual world (Überwelt) in Heidegger's later work. Physical dimension On the physical dimension (Umwelt), individuals relate to their environment and the givens of the natural world around them. This includes their attitude to the body they have, to the concrete surroundings they find themselves in, to the climate and the weather, to objects and material possessions, to the bodies of other people, their own bodily needs, to health and illness and their mortality. The struggle on this dimension is, in general terms, between the search for domination over the elements and natural law (as in technology, or in sports) and the need to accept the limitations of natural boundaries (as in ecology or old age). While people generally aim for security on this dimension (through health and wealth), much of life brings a gradual disillusionment and realization that such security can only be temporary. Recognizing limitations can deliver a significant release of tension. Social dimension On the social dimension (Mitwelt), individuals relate to others as they interact with the public world around them. This dimension includes their response to the culture they live in, as well as to the class and race they belong to (and also those they do not belong to). Attitudes here range from love to hate and from cooperation to competition. The dynamic contradictions can be understood concerning acceptance versus rejection or belonging versus isolation. Some people prefer to withdraw from the world of others as much as possible. Others blindly chase public acceptance by going along with the rules and fashions of the moment. Otherwise, they try to rise above these by becoming trendsetters themselves. By acquiring fame or other forms of power, individuals can attain dominance over others temporarily. Sooner or later, however, everyone is confronted with both failure and aloneness. Psychological dimension On the psychological dimension (Eigenwelt), individuals relate to themselves and in this way create a personal world. This dimension includes views about their character, their past experience and their future possibilities. Contradictions here are often experienced regarding personal strengths and weaknesses. People search for a sense of identity, a feeling of being substantial and having a self. But inevitably many events will confront them with evidence to the contrary and plunge them into a state of confusion or disintegration. Activity and passivity are an important polarity here. Self-affirmation and resolution go with the former and surrender and yielding with the latter. Facing the final dissolution of self that comes with personal loss and the facing of death might bring anxiety and confusion to many who have not yet given up their sense of self-importance. Spiritual dimension On the spiritual dimension (Überwelt) (van Deurzen, 1984), individuals relate to the unknown and thus create a sense of an ideal world, an ideology, and a philosophical outlook. It is there that they find meaning by putting all the pieces of the puzzle together for themselves. For some people, this is done by adhering to a religion or other prescriptive worldview; for others, it is about discovering or attributing meaning in a more secular or personal way. The contradictions that must be faced on this dimension are often related to the tension between purpose and absurdity, hope and despair. People create their values in search of something that matters enough to live or die for, something that may even have ultimate and universal validity. Usually, the aim is the conquest of a soul or something that will substantially surpass mortality (as in having contributed something valuable to humankind). Facing the void and the possibility of nothingness are the indispensable counterparts of this quest for the eternal. Research support There has not been a tremendous amount of research on existential therapy. Much of the research focuses on people receiving therapy who also have medical concerns such as cancer. Despite this, some studies have indicated positive efficacy for existential therapies with certain populations. Overall, however, more research is needed before definitive scientific claims can be made. See also Ludwig Binswanger Medard Boss Gestalt Therapy Existentialism Viktor Frankl Paul T. P. Wong Martin Heidegger Thomas Hora Søren Kierkegaard R. D. Laing Rollo May Clark Moustakas Karlfried Graf Dürckheim Friedrich Nietzsche Otto Rank Jean-Paul Sartre Irvin D. Yalom Karl Jaspers Martin Buber Contextual therapy Emmy van Deurzen William Glasser Metapsychiatry Philosophical Consultancy Jan Hendrik van den Berg Martti Olavi Siirala Kirk J. Schneider References ^ Iacovou, Susan; Weixel-Dixon, Karen (2015). Existential therapy : 100 key points and techniques (Dual First ed.). London. ISBN 9780415644419. OCLC 907374350.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Comer, Ronald J. (5 February 2016). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (Eighth ed.). New York. ISBN 9781464176975. OCLC 914289944.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ "Existentialism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 19 September 2023. ^ Buchanan, Brett (2011). "Nietzsche-Studies-Psychology". Theory & Psychology. 11 (2): 283–286. doi:10.1177/0959354301112009. S2CID 210732018 – via Sage Journals. ^ Kaufmann, Walter (1974). Nietzsche, philosopher, psychologist, antichrist (4th ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691019835. OCLC 1246183. ^ Existential therapy : legacy, vibrancy, and dialogue. Barnett, Laura, 1953-, Madison, Greg. Hove, East Sussex: Routledge. 2012. ISBN 9780415564335. OCLC 701015521.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Saraswathi, K.N. (2013). "Logotherapy". Nursing Journal of India. 104 (1): 36–38. ^ Vincent, Randy. "Brief therapy". Retrieved 6 October 2023. ^ Craig, Erik (1988). "Daseinsanalysis: A quest for essentials". The Humanistic Psychologist. 16 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/08873267.1988.9976809. ^ Michel Weber, "Hans W. Cohn, Heidegger and the Roots of Existential Therapy, London, Continuum, 2002, SPC Series. Critical review," The Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, Volume 36/3, October 2005, pp. 336-337. ^ "Existential Psychotherapy". Retrieved 2007-08-29. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (2009). Existential positive psychology. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Encyclopedia of positive psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 361-368). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (2010). Meaning therapy: An integrative and positive existential psychotherapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 40(2), 85-99. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (2015). Meaning therapy: Assessments and interventions. Existential Analysis, 26(1), 154-167. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (2005). Existential and humanistic theories. In J. C. Thomas, & D. L. Segal (eds.), Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology (pp. 192-211). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (in press). Existential theoretical framework. In A. Wenzel (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of abnormal and clinical psychology. New York, NY: Sage. ^ Batthyany, A., & Russo-Netzer, P. (eds.). (2014). Meaning in positive and existential psychology. New York, NY: Springer. ^ Wong, P. T. P. (Ed.). (2012). The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. ^ Yalom, Irvin D. (8 December 1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York. ISBN 9780465021475. OCLC 6580323.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Yalom. 1980. Existential Psychotherapy ^ a b Richard Sharf (1 January 2015). Theories of Psychotherapy & Counseling: Concepts and Cases. Cengage Learning. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-1-305-53754-5. ^ Emmy van Deurzen; Raymond Kenward (12 May 2005). Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counselling. SAGE Publications. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4462-3993-3. ^ Vos, Joël; Craig, Meghan; Cooper, Mick (2015). "Existential therapies: A meta-analysis of their effects on psychological outcomes". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 83 (1): 115–128. doi:10.1037/a0037167. PMID 25045907. Further reading Frankl, Viktor (1997). Man's Search for Meaning. Pocket. Yalom, I. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. Basic Books. ISBN 0465021476. Cooper, Mick (2003). Existential Therapies. Sage Publications. ISBN 0761973214. Spinelli, Ernesto (2002). The Mirror and the Hammer: Challenging Orthodoxies in Therapeutic Thought. Sage Publications. ISBN 1412901782. Kierkegaard, Søren; The Concept of Dread and The Sickness Unto Death, Princeton University Press Längle, Alfried (1990); Existential Analysis Psychotherapy, The Internat. Forum Logotherapy, Berkeley, 13, 1, 17-19. Längle, Alfried (2003a); Special edition on Existential Analysis, European Psychotherapy 4, 1 Längle, Alfried (2003b); The Search for Meaning in Life and the Fundamental Existential Motivations, Psychotherapy in Australia, 10, 1, 22-27 Längle Silvia, Wurm CSE (2015); Living Your Own Life: Existential Analysis in Action, London: Karnac van Deurzen, E. (2002). Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy in Practice (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. ISBN 0761962247. ibid (1997) Everyday Mysteries: Existential Dimensions of Psychotherapy, London: Routledge. (2nd edition 2006) van Deurzen, E. (1998). Paradox and Passion in Psychotherapy. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0471961914. van Deurzen, E.; Kenward, R. (2005). Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counseling. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 0761970959. van Deurzen, E. and Arnold-Baker, C., eds. (2005) Existential Perspectives on Human Issues: a Handbook for Practice, London: Palgrave, Macmillan. van Deurzen, E. and M. Adams (2016). Skills in Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy, 2nd Edition (2016). London: Sage. Glasser, William (1998). Choice Theory. HarperPerennial. ISBN 0060930144. Willburg, Peter, "The Therapist as Listener: Martin Heidegger and the Missing Dimension of Counseling and Psychotherapy Training" Wilkes, R and Milton, M, (2006) Being an Existential Therapist: An IPA study of existential therapists' experiences, Existential Analysis. Jan 2006 Friedman, M. (1985). The Healing Dialogue in Psychotherapy. J. Aronson. ISBN 0876687303. Milton, M., Charles, L., Judd, D., O'Brien, Tipney, A. and Turner, A . (2003) The Existential-Phenomenological Paradigm: The Importance for Integration, Existential Analysis Judd, D. and Milton, M. (2001) Psychotherapy with Lesbian and Gay Clients: Existential-Phenomenological Contributions to Training, Lesbian and Gay Psychology Review, 2(1): 16-23 Corrie, S. and Milton, M . (2000) "The Relationship Between Existential-Phenomenological and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies", European Journal of Psychotherapy, Counseling and Health. May, R. (1994). The Discovery of Being: Writings in Existential Psychology. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393312402. May, R. (1991). The Cry for Myth. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393240770. May, R. (1998). Power and Innocence: A Search for the Sources of Violence. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039331703X. May, R. (2009). Man's Search for Himself. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393333152. Milton, M (2000) "Is Existential Psychotherapy A Lesbian and Gay Affirmative Psychotherapy?" Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, Milton, M. and Judd, D. (1999) "The Dilemma that is Assessment", Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 102-114. Milton, M. (1999) "Depression and the Uncertainty of Identity: An existential-phenomenological exploration in just twelve sessions", Changes: An International Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy, Milton, M (1997) "An Existential Approach to HIV Related Psychotherapy", Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, V8.1, 115-129 Milton, M (1994). "The Case for Existential Therapy in HIV Related Psychotherapy", Counselling Psychology Quarterly, V7 (4). 367-374 Milton, M. (1994). "HIV Related Psychotherapy and Its Existential Concerns", Counselling Psychology Review, V9 (4). 13-24 Milton, M (1993) "Existential Thought and Client Centred Therapy", Counselling Psychology Quarterly, V6 (3). 239-248 Sanders, Marc, Existential Depression. How to recognize and cure life-related sadness in gifted people, Self-Help Manual, 2013. Schneider, K.J. (2004). Rediscovery of Awe: Splendor, Mystery, and the Fluid Center of Life. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 1557788340. Schneider, K.J. (2008). Existential-integrative Psychotherapy: Guideposts to the Core of Practice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203941119. Schneider, K.J. (2009). "Awakening to Awe: Personal Stories of Profound Transformation." Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson. Schneider, K.J. and Krug, O.T. (2010). "Existential-Humanistic Therapy." Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press. Schneider, K.J. (2011). "Existential-Humanistic Therapies". In S.B. Messer and Alan Gurman (eds.), Essential Psychotherapies. (Third ed.). New York: Guilford. Seidner, Stanley S. (June 10, 2009) "A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology". Mater Dei Institute. pp 10–12. Sørensen, A. D. and K. D. Keller (eds.) (2015): Psykoterapi og eksistentiel fænomenologi." Aalborg: Aalborg Universitetsforlag Tillich, Paul (1952). The Courage to Be. Yale University Press. Wilberg, P. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy"},{"link_name":"existential tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism"},{"link_name":"meaning of life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"anxiety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety"},{"link_name":"alienation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Form of psychotherapyExistential psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy based on the model of human nature and experience developed by the existential tradition of European philosophy. It focuses on concepts that are universally applicable to human existence including death, freedom, responsibility, and the meaning of life.[1] Instead of regarding human experiences such as anxiety, alienation and depression as implying the presence of mental illness, existential psychotherapy sees these experiences as natural stages in a normal process of human development and maturation. In facilitating this process of development and maturation existential psychotherapy involves a philosophical exploration of an individual's experiences while stressing the individual's freedom and responsibility to facilitate a higher degree of meaning and well-being in his or her life.[2]","title":"Existential therapy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phenomenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"existential philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Søren Kierkegaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche"}],"text":"The philosophers who are especially pertinent to the development of existential psychotherapy are those whose works were directly aimed at making sense of human existence. For example, the fields of phenomenology and existential philosophy are especially and directly responsible for the generation of existential therapy.The starting point of existential philosophy (see Warnock 1970; Macquarrie 1972; Mace 1999; van Deurzen and Kenward 2005) can be traced back to the nineteenth century and the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Their works conflicted with the predominant ideologies of their time and committed to the exploration of reality as it can be experienced in a passionate and personal manner.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soren Kierkegaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"anxiety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety"},{"link_name":"leap of faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_of_faith"}],"sub_title":"Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)","text":"Soren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) protested vehemently against popular misunderstanding and abuse of Christian dogma and the so-called 'objectivity' of science (Kierkegaard, 1841, 1844).[3] He thought that both were ways of avoiding the anxiety inherent in human existence. He had great contempt for the way life was lived by those around him and believed truth could only be discovered subjectively by the individual in action. He felt people lacked the courage to take a leap of faith and live with passion and commitment from the inward depth of existence. This involved a constant struggle between the finite and infinite aspects of our nature as part of the difficult task of creating a self and finding meaning. As Kierkegaard lived by his word, he was lonely and much ridiculed during his lifetime.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Friedrich Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche"},{"link_name":"God is dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"ontological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)","text":"Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) took this philosophy of life a step further. His starting point was the notion that God is dead, that is, the idea of God was outmoded and limiting (Nietzsche, 1861, 1874, 1886). Furthermore, the Enlightenment—with the newfound faith in reason and rationality—had killed or replaced God with a new Truth that was perhaps more pernicious than the one it replaced. Science and rationality were the new \"God,\" but instead took the form of a deity that was colder and less comforting than before. Nietzsche exerted a significant impact upon the development of psychology in general, but he specifically influenced an approach which emphasized an understanding of life from a personal perspective.[4] In exploring the various needs of the individual about the ontological conditions of being, Nietzsche asserted that all things are in a state of \"ontological privation,\" in which they long to become more than they are. This state of deprivation has major implications for the physiological and psychological needs of the individual.[5]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edmund Husserl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl"},{"link_name":"dualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)"},{"link_name":"intuition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)"}],"sub_title":"Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)","text":"While Kierkegaard and Nietzsche drew attention to the human issues that needed to be addressed, Edmund Husserl's phenomenology (Husserl, 1960, 1962; Moran, 2000) provided the method to address them rigorously. He contended that natural sciences assume the separateness of subject and object and that this kind of dualism can only lead to error. He proposed a whole new mode of investigation and understanding of the world and our experience of it. He said that prejudice has to be put aside or 'bracketed,' for us to meet the world afresh and discover what is absolutely fundamental, and only directly available to us through intuition. If people want to grasp the essence of things, instead of explaining and analyzing them, they have to learn to describe and understand them.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Max Scheler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Scheler"},{"link_name":"anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"Viktor Frankl's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl"},{"link_name":"logotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logotherapy"}],"sub_title":"Max Scheler (1874-1928)","text":"Max Scheler (1874-1928) developed philosophical anthropology from a material ethic of values (\"Materielle Wertethik\") that opposed Immanuel Kant's ethics of duty (\"Pflichtethik\"). He described a hierarchical system of values that further developed phenomenological philosophy. Scheler described the human psyche as being composed of four layers analogous to the layers of organic nature. However, in his description, the human psyche is opposed by the principle of the human spirit. Scheler's philosophy forms the basis of Viktor Frankl's logotherapy and existential analysis.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Martin Heidegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger"},{"link_name":"death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death"},{"link_name":"hermeneutics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics"},{"link_name":"psychoanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis"}],"sub_title":"Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)","text":"Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) applied the phenomenological method to understanding the meaning of being (Heidegger, 1962, 1968). He argued that poetry and deep philosophical thinking could bring greater insight into what it means to be in the world than what can be achieved through scientific knowledge. He explored human beings in the world in a manner that revolutionized classical ideas about the self and psychology. He recognized the importance of time, space, death, and human relatedness. He also favored hermeneutics, an old philosophical method of investigation, which is the art of interpretation.Unlike interpretation as practiced in psychoanalysis (which consists of referring a person's experience to a pre-established theoretical framework), this kind of interpretation seeks to understand how the person himself/herself subjectively experiences something.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean-Paul Sartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre"},{"link_name":"Karl Jaspers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers"},{"link_name":"Paul Tillich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tillich"},{"link_name":"Martin Buber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buber"},{"link_name":"Hans-Georg Gadamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer"},{"link_name":"Albert Camus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Marcel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel"},{"link_name":"Paul Ricoeur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ricoeur"},{"link_name":"Maurice Merleau-Ponty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty"},{"link_name":"Simone de Beauvoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Lévinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_L%C3%A9vinas"},{"link_name":"full citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include"}],"sub_title":"Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)","text":"Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) contributed many other strands of existential exploration, particularly regarding emotions, imagination, and the person's insertion into a social and political world.The philosophy of existence, on the contrary, is carried by a wide-ranging literature, which includes many authors, such as Karl Jaspers (1951, 1963), Paul Tillich, Martin Buber, and Hans-Georg Gadamer within the Germanic tradition and Albert Camus, Gabriel Marcel, Paul Ricoeur, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Simone de Beauvoir and Emmanuel Lévinas within the French tradition (see for instance Spiegelberg, 1972, Kearney, 1986 or van Deurzen-Smith, 1997).[full citation needed]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Otto Rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Rank"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Binswanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Binswanger"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Kreuzlingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzlingen"},{"link_name":"Paul Tillich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tillich"},{"link_name":"Rollo May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May"},{"link_name":"Humanistic psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology"},{"link_name":"Viktor Frankl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl"},{"link_name":"Gordon Allport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allport"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Medard Boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Boss"}],"sub_title":"Others","text":"From the start of the 20th century, some psychotherapists were, however, inspired by phenomenology and its possibilities for working with people.Otto Rank (1884–1939), an Austrian psychoanalyst who broke with Freud in the mid-1920s, was the first existential therapist.\nLudwig Binswanger, in Switzerland, also attempted to bring existential insights to his work with patients, in the Kreuzlingen sanatorium where he was a psychiatrist.\nMuch of his work was translated into English during the 1940s and 1950s and, together with the immigration to the USA of Paul Tillich (1886–1965) (Tillich, 1952) and others, this had a considerable effect on the popularization of existential ideas as a basis for therapy (Valle and King, 1978; Cooper, 2003).\nRollo May (1909–1994) played an important role in this, and his writing (1969, 1983; May et al., 1958) kept the existential influence alive in America, leading eventually to a specific formulation of therapy (Bugental, 1981; May and Yalom, 1985; Yalom, 1980).\nHumanistic psychology was directly influenced by these ideas.\nViktor Frankl (1905–1997) was possibly the individual most responsible for spreading existential psychology throughout the world. He was invited by over 200 universities worldwide and accomplished over 80 journeys to North America alone, first invited by Gordon Allport at Harvard University.\nIn Europe, after Otto Rank, existential ideas were combined with some psychoanalytic principles and a method of existential analysis was developed by Medard Boss (1903–1990) (1957a, 1957b, 1979) in close co-operation with Heidegger.\nIn France, the ideas of Sartre (1956, 1962) and Merleau-Ponty (1962) and of some practitioners (Minkowski, 1970) were important and influential, but no specific therapeutic method was developed from them.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Logotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logotherapy"},{"link_name":"Daseinsanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daseinsanalysis"},{"link_name":"Viktor E. Frankl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Daseinsanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daseinsanalysis"},{"link_name":"Martin Heidegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger"},{"link_name":"Sigmund Freud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Development in Europe","text":"The European School of existential analysis is dominated by two forms of therapy: Logotherapy, and Daseinsanalysis. Logotherapy was developed by psychiatrist Viktor E. Frankl.[6] Frankl was heavily influenced by existential philosophy, as well as his own experience in the Nazi concentration camps of World War II. The three main components to Logotherapy are Freedom of Will, which is the ability to change one's life to the degree that such change is possible, Will to Meaning, which places meaning at the center of well-being, and Meaning in Life, which asserts the objectivity of meaning. The primary techniques of Logotherapy involve helping the clients to identify and remove any barriers to the pursuit of meaning in their own lives, to determine what is personally meaningful, and to then help patients effectively pursue related goals.[7][8]Daseinsanalysis is a psychotherapeutic system developed upon the ideas of Martin Heidegger, as well as the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud, that seeks to help the individual find autonomy and meaning in their \"being in the world\" (a rough translation of \"Dasein\").[9]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R. D. Laing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._D._Laing"},{"link_name":"David Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)"},{"link_name":"anti-psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry"},{"link_name":"Kingsley Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Association"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Wittgenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein"},{"link_name":"Jacques Derrida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida"},{"link_name":"Michel Foucault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"},{"link_name":"Jacques Lacan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lacan"},{"link_name":"Joseph Berke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Berke"},{"link_name":"Emmy van Deurzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen"},{"link_name":"Antioch University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch_University"},{"link_name":"Regent's College, London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_College,_London"},{"link_name":"University of Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sheffield"},{"link_name":"Middlesex University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex_University"},{"link_name":"existential counseling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_counselling"},{"link_name":"National Health Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Digby Tantam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digby_Tantam"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Development in Britain","text":"Britain became a fertile ground for further development of the existential approach when R. D. Laing and David Cooper, often associated with the anti-psychiatry movement, took Sartre's existential ideas as the basis for their work (Laing, 1960, 1961; Cooper, 1967; Laing and Cooper, 1964). Without developing a concrete method of therapy, they critically reconsidered the notion of mental illness and its treatment. In the late 1960s, they established an experimental therapeutic community at Kingsley Hall in the East End of London, where people could come to live through their 'madness' without the usual medical treatment. They also founded the Philadelphia Association, an organization providing an alternative living, therapy, and therapeutic training from this perspective. The Philadelphia Association is still in existence today and is now committed to the exploration of the works of philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jacques Derrida, Levinas, and Michel Foucault as well as the work of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. It also runs some small therapeutic households along these lines. The Arbours Association is another group that grew out of the Kingsley Hall experiment. Founded by Joseph Berke and Schatzman in the 1970s, it now runs a training program in psychotherapy, a crisis center, and several therapeutic communities. The existential input in the Arbours has gradually been replaced with a more neo-Kleinian emphasis.The impetus for further development of the existential approach in Britain has primarily come from the development of some existentially based courses in academic institutions. This started with the programs created by Emmy van Deurzen, initially at Antioch University in London and subsequently at Regent's College, London and since then at the New School of Psychotherapy and Counseling, also located in London. The latter is a purely existentially based training institute, which offers postgraduate degrees validated by the University of Sheffield and Middlesex University. In the past few decades, the existential approach has spread rapidly and has become a welcome alternative to established methods. There are now many other, mostly academic, centers in Britain that provide training in existential counseling and psychotherapy and a rapidly growing interest in the approach in the voluntary sector and the National Health Service.British publications dealing with existential therapy include contributions by these authors: Jenner (de Koning and Jenner, 1982), Heaton (1988, 1994), Cohn (1994, 1997),[10] Spinelli (1997), Cooper (1989, 2002), Eleftheriadou (1994), Lemma-Wright (1994), Du Plock (1997), Strasser and Strasser (1997), van Deurzen (1997, 1998, 2002), van Deurzen and Arnold-Baker (2005), and van Deurzen and Kenward (2005). Other writers such as Lomas (1981) and Smail (1978, 1987, 1993) have published work relevant to the approach, although not explicitly 'existential' in orientation. The journal of the British Society for Phenomenology regularly publishes work on existential and phenomenological psychotherapy. The Society for Existential Analysis was founded in 1988, initiated by van Deurzen. This society brings together psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, counselors, and philosophers working from an existential perspective. It offers regular fora for discussion and debate as well as significant annual conferences. It publishes the Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis twice a year. It is also a member of the International Federation of Daseinsanalysis, which stimulates international exchange between representatives of the approach from around the world. An International Society for Existential Therapists also exists. It was founded in 2006 by Emmy van Deurzen and Digby Tantam and is called the International Community of Existential Counsellors and Therapists (ICECAP).[11]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"second wave of positive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_wave_positive_psychology"},{"link_name":"cognitive-behavioral therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive-behavioral_therapy"},{"link_name":"narrative therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy"},{"link_name":"positive psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychotherapy"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Development in Canada","text":"New developments in existential therapy in the last 20 years include existential positive psychology[12] and meaning therapy.[13][14] Different from the traditional approach to existential therapy, these new developments incorporate research findings from contemporary positive psychology.Existential positive psychology can reframe the traditional issues of existential concerns into positive psychology questions that can be subjected to empirical research. It also focuses on personal growth and transformation as much as on existential anxiety.[15][16] Later, existential positive psychology was incorporated into the second wave of positive psychology.Meaning therapy (MT) is an extension of Frankl's logotherapy and America's humanistic-existential tradition; it is also pluralistic because it incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy, narrative therapy, and positive psychotherapy, with meaning as its central organizing construct. MT not only appeals to people's natural desires for happiness and significance but also makes skillful use of their innate capacity for meaning-seeking and meaning-making. MT strikes a balance between a person-centered approach and a psycho-educational approach. At the outset of therapy, clients are informed of the use of meaning-centered interventions appropriate for their predicaments because of the empirical evidence for the vital role of meaning in healing and thriving.[17][18] MT is a comprehensive and pluralistic way to address all aspects of clients' existential concerns. Clients can benefit from MT in two ways: (1) a custom-tailored treatment to solve their presenting problems, and (2) a collaborative journey to create a preferred better future.","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapy-types/existential-therapy"}],"text":"Existential therapy (of the American, existential-humanistic tradition) starts with the belief that although humans are essentially alone in the world, they long to be connected to others. People want to have meaning in one another's lives, but ultimately they must come to realize that they cannot depend on others for validation, and with that realization, they finally acknowledge and understand that they are fundamentally alone. The result of this revelation is anxiety in the knowledge that our validation must come from within and not from others.[19]Existential therapy is based on a theory of mind, and of psychology. In existentialism, personality is based on choosing to be, authentically, the real you, given an understanding based on a philosophical idea of what a person is. Therefore, practical therapeutic applications can be derived given a theory of personality, emotion, and “the good life.”This leads to practical therapeutic applications like dealing with personal choices in life that lead to personal happiness. Personal happiness based on a concept of yourself as having the freedom of directing your life and making necessary changes (so to speak, a radical freedom). So, a full philosophical understanding of existentialism is basic to methods implemented for emotional and life changes. That is, a background in philosophy is basic to existential therapy.Philosophical issues of the self, personality, philosophy of mind, meaning of life, personal development are all fundamentally relevant to any practical therapeutic expectations.[1]","title":"View of the human mind"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Because there is no single existential view, opinions about psychological dysfunction vary.For theorists aligned with Yalom, psychological dysfunction results from the individual's refusal or inability to deal with the normal existential anxiety that comes from confronting life's \"givens\": death, freedom, isolation,\nand meaninglessness.[20]For other theorists, there is no such thing as psychological dysfunction or mental illness.[citation needed] Every way of being is merely an expression of how one chooses to live one's life. However, one may feel unable to come to terms with the anxiety of being alone in the world. If so, an existential psychotherapist can assist one in accepting these feelings rather than trying to change them as if there is something wrong. Everyone has the freedom to choose how they are going to exist in life; however, this freedom may go unpracticed. It may appear easier and safer not to make decisions that one will be responsible for. Many people will remain unaware of alternative choices in life for various societal reasons.","title":"Psychological dysfunction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert Camus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus"},{"link_name":"L'Etranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stranger_(Camus_novel)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Gerd B. Achenbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerd_B._Achenbach"},{"link_name":"philosophical counseling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_counseling"},{"link_name":"Michel Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Weber"},{"link_name":"Chromatiques Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.chromatika.org"}],"text":"Existentialism suggests that it is possible for individuals to face the anxieties of life head on, embrace the human condition of aloneness and to revel in the freedom to choose and take full responsibility for their choices. They can aim to take control of their lives and steer themselves in any direction they choose. There is no need to halt feelings of meaninglessness but instead to choose and focus on new meanings for the living. By building, loving and creating, life can be lived as one's own adventure. One can accept one's own mortality and overcome the fear of death. Although the French author Albert Camus denied the specific label of existentialist in his novel, L'Etranger, the novel's main character, Meursault, ends the novel by doing just this. He accepts his mortality and rejects the constrictions of society he previously placed on himself, leaving him unencumbered and free to live his life with an unclouded mind.[citation needed] Also, Gerd B. Achenbach has refreshed the Socratic tradition with his own blend of philosophical counseling, as has Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium.The strictly Sartrean perspective of existential psychotherapy is generally unconcerned with the client's past, but instead, the emphasis is on the choices to be made in the present and future. The counselor and the client may reflect upon how the client has answered life's questions in the past, but attention ultimately shifts to searching for a new and increased awareness in the present and enabling a new freedom and responsibility to act. The patient can then accept that they are not special and that their existence is simply coincidental, or without destiny or fate. By accepting this, they can overcome their anxieties and instead view life as moments in which they are fundamentally free.","title":"The good life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharf-2015-p171-172-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharf-2015-p171-172-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deurzen-kenward-2005-p112-22"}],"text":"Existential thinkers seek to avoid restrictive models that categorize or label people. Instead, they look for the universals that can be observed cross-culturally.[citation needed] There is no existential personality theory which divides humanity into types or reduces people to part components. Instead, there is a description of the different levels of experience and existence with which people are inevitably confronted. The way in which a person is in the world at a particular stage can be charted on this general map of human existence (Binswanger, 1963; Yalom, 1980; van Deurzen, 1984).In line with the view taken by van Deurzen,[21] one can distinguish four basic dimensions of human existence: the physical, the social, the psychological, and the spiritual.On each of these dimensions, people encounter the world and shape their attitude out of their particular take on their experience. Their orientation towards the world defines their reality. The four dimensions are interwoven and provide a complex four-dimensional force field for their existence. Individuals are stretched between a positive pole of what they aspire to on each dimension and a negative pole of what they fear. Binswanger proposed the first three of these dimensions from Heidegger's description of Umwelt and Mitwelt and his further notion of Eigenwelt. The fourth dimension was added by van Deurzen from Heidegger's description of a spiritual world (Überwelt) in Heidegger's later work.[21][22]","title":"Four worlds"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Umwelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umwelt"}],"sub_title":"Physical dimension","text":"On the physical dimension (Umwelt), individuals relate to their environment and the givens of the natural world around them. This includes their attitude to the body they have, to the concrete surroundings they find themselves in, to the climate and the weather, to objects and material possessions, to the bodies of other people, their own bodily needs, to health and illness and their mortality. The struggle on this dimension is, in general terms, between the search for domination over the elements and natural law (as in technology, or in sports) and the need to accept the limitations of natural boundaries (as in ecology or old age). While people generally aim for security on this dimension (through health and wealth), much of life brings a gradual disillusionment and realization that such security can only be temporary. Recognizing limitations can deliver a significant release of tension.","title":"Four worlds"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mitwelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitwelt"}],"sub_title":"Social dimension","text":"On the social dimension (Mitwelt), individuals relate to others as they interact with the public world around them. This dimension includes their response to the culture they live in, as well as to the class and race they belong to (and also those they do not belong to). Attitudes here range from love to hate and from cooperation to competition. The dynamic contradictions can be understood concerning acceptance versus rejection or belonging versus isolation. Some people prefer to withdraw from the world of others as much as possible. Others blindly chase public acceptance by going along with the rules and fashions of the moment. Otherwise, they try to rise above these by becoming trendsetters themselves. By acquiring fame or other forms of power, individuals can attain dominance over others temporarily. Sooner or later, however, everyone is confronted with both failure and aloneness.","title":"Four worlds"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Psychological dimension","text":"On the psychological dimension (Eigenwelt), individuals relate to themselves and in this way create a personal world. This dimension includes views about their character, their past experience and their future possibilities. Contradictions here are often experienced regarding personal strengths and weaknesses. People search for a sense of identity, a feeling of being substantial and having a self.But inevitably many events will confront them with evidence to the contrary and plunge them into a state of confusion or disintegration. Activity and passivity are an important polarity here. Self-affirmation and resolution go with the former and surrender and yielding with the latter. Facing the final dissolution of self that comes with personal loss and the facing of death might bring anxiety and confusion to many who have not yet given up their sense of self-importance.","title":"Four worlds"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Spiritual dimension","text":"On the spiritual dimension (Überwelt) (van Deurzen, 1984), individuals relate to the unknown and thus create a sense of an ideal world, an ideology, and a philosophical outlook. It is there that they find meaning by putting all the pieces of the puzzle together for themselves. For some people, this is done by adhering to a religion or other prescriptive worldview; for others, it is about discovering or attributing meaning in a more secular or personal way. The contradictions that must be faced on this dimension are often related to the tension between purpose and absurdity, hope and despair. People create their values in search of something that matters enough to live or die for, something that may even have ultimate and universal validity. Usually, the aim is the conquest of a soul or something that will substantially surpass mortality (as in having contributed something valuable to humankind). Facing the void and the possibility of nothingness are the indispensable counterparts of this quest for the eternal.","title":"Four worlds"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"There has not been a tremendous amount of research on existential therapy. Much of the research focuses on people receiving therapy who also have medical concerns such as cancer. Despite this, some studies have indicated positive efficacy for existential therapies with certain populations. Overall, however, more research is needed before definitive scientific claims can be made.[23]","title":"Research support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frankl, Viktor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl"},{"link_name":"Man's Search for Meaning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27s_Search_for_Meaning"},{"link_name":"Yalom, I.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_Yalom"},{"link_name":"Existential Psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0465021476","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0465021476"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0761973214","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761973214"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1412901782","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1412901782"},{"link_name":"van Deurzen, E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0761962247","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761962247"},{"link_name":"van Deurzen, E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0471961914","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471961914"},{"link_name":"van Deurzen, E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0761970959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761970959"},{"link_name":"Glasser, William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Glasser"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0060930144","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060930144"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.heidegger.org.uk/theraslist.htm"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0876687303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0876687303"},{"link_name":"May, R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0393312402","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393312402"},{"link_name":"The Cry for Myth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cry_for_Myth"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0393240770","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393240770"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"039331703X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/039331703X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0393333152","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393333152"},{"link_name":"Schneider, K.J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1557788340","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1557788340"},{"link_name":"Schneider, K.J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0203941119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203941119"},{"link_name":"Awakening to Awe: Personal Stories of Profound Transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider,_PhD"},{"link_name":"Existential-Humanistic Therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider,_PhD"},{"link_name":"Existential-Humanistic Therapies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider,_PhD"},{"link_name":"\"A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:FrKYAo88ckkJ:www.materdei.ie/media/conferences/a-secular-age-parallel-sessions-timetable.pdf+%22Stan+Seidner%22&hl=en&gl=us"}],"text":"Frankl, Viktor (1997). Man's Search for Meaning. Pocket.\nYalom, I. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. Basic Books. ISBN 0465021476.\nCooper, Mick (2003). Existential Therapies. Sage Publications. ISBN 0761973214.\nSpinelli, Ernesto (2002). The Mirror and the Hammer: Challenging Orthodoxies in Therapeutic Thought. Sage Publications. ISBN 1412901782.\nKierkegaard, Søren; The Concept of Dread and The Sickness Unto Death, Princeton University Press\nLängle, Alfried (1990); Existential Analysis Psychotherapy, The Internat. Forum Logotherapy, Berkeley, 13, 1, 17-19.\nLängle, Alfried (2003a); Special edition on Existential Analysis, European Psychotherapy 4, 1\nLängle, Alfried (2003b); The Search for Meaning in Life and the Fundamental Existential Motivations, Psychotherapy in Australia, 10, 1, 22-27\nLängle Silvia, Wurm CSE (2015); Living Your Own Life: Existential Analysis in Action, London: Karnac\nvan Deurzen, E. (2002). Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy in Practice (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. ISBN 0761962247.\nibid (1997) Everyday Mysteries: Existential Dimensions of Psychotherapy, London: Routledge. (2nd edition 2006)\nvan Deurzen, E. (1998). Paradox and Passion in Psychotherapy. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0471961914.\nvan Deurzen, E.; Kenward, R. (2005). Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counseling. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 0761970959.\nvan Deurzen, E. and Arnold-Baker, C., eds. (2005) Existential Perspectives on Human Issues: a Handbook for Practice, London: Palgrave, Macmillan.\nvan Deurzen, E. and M. Adams (2016). Skills in Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy, 2nd Edition (2016). London: Sage.\nGlasser, William (1998). Choice Theory. HarperPerennial. ISBN 0060930144.\nWillburg, Peter, \"The Therapist as Listener: Martin Heidegger and the Missing Dimension of Counseling and Psychotherapy Training\"[2]\nWilkes, R and Milton, M, (2006) Being an Existential Therapist: An IPA study of existential therapists' experiences, Existential Analysis. Jan 2006\nFriedman, M. (1985). The Healing Dialogue in Psychotherapy. J. Aronson. ISBN 0876687303.\nMilton, M., Charles, L., Judd, D., O'Brien, Tipney, A. and Turner, A . (2003) The Existential-Phenomenological Paradigm: The Importance for Integration, Existential Analysis\nJudd, D. and Milton, M. (2001) Psychotherapy with Lesbian and Gay Clients: Existential-Phenomenological Contributions to Training, Lesbian and Gay Psychology Review, 2(1): 16-23\nCorrie, S. and Milton, M . (2000) \"The Relationship Between Existential-Phenomenological and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies\", European Journal of Psychotherapy, Counseling and Health.\nMay, R. (1994). The Discovery of Being: Writings in Existential Psychology. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393312402.\nMay, R. (1991). The Cry for Myth. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393240770.\nMay, R. (1998). Power and Innocence: A Search for the Sources of Violence. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039331703X.\nMay, R. (2009). Man's Search for Himself. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393333152.\nMilton, M (2000) \"Is Existential Psychotherapy A Lesbian and Gay Affirmative Psychotherapy?\" Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis,\nMilton, M. and Judd, D. (1999) \"The Dilemma that is Assessment\", Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 102-114.\nMilton, M. (1999) \"Depression and the Uncertainty of Identity: An existential-phenomenological exploration in just twelve sessions\", Changes: An International Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy,\nMilton, M (1997) \"An Existential Approach to HIV Related Psychotherapy\", Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, V8.1, 115-129\nMilton, M (1994). \"The Case for Existential Therapy in HIV Related Psychotherapy\", Counselling Psychology Quarterly, V7 (4). 367-374\nMilton, M. (1994). \"HIV Related Psychotherapy and Its Existential Concerns\", Counselling Psychology Review, V9 (4). 13-24\nMilton, M (1993) \"Existential Thought and Client Centred Therapy\", Counselling Psychology Quarterly, V6 (3). 239-248\nSanders, Marc, Existential Depression. How to recognize and cure life-related sadness in gifted people, Self-Help Manual, 2013.\nSchneider, K.J. (2004). Rediscovery of Awe: Splendor, Mystery, and the Fluid Center of Life. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 1557788340.\nSchneider, K.J. (2008). Existential-integrative Psychotherapy: Guideposts to the Core of Practice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203941119.\nSchneider, K.J. (2009). \"Awakening to Awe: Personal Stories of Profound Transformation.\" Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.\nSchneider, K.J. and Krug, O.T. (2010). \"Existential-Humanistic Therapy.\" Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.\nSchneider, K.J. (2011). \"Existential-Humanistic Therapies\". In S.B. Messer and Alan Gurman (eds.), Essential Psychotherapies. (Third ed.). New York: Guilford.\nSeidner, Stanley S. (June 10, 2009) \"A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology\". Mater Dei Institute. pp 10–12.\nSørensen, A. D. and K. D. Keller (eds.) (2015): Psykoterapi og eksistentiel fænomenologi.\" Aalborg: Aalborg Universitetsforlag\nTillich, Paul (1952). The Courage to Be. Yale University Press.\nWilberg, P. (2004) The Therapist as Listener - Martin Heidegger and the Missing Dimension of Counselling and Psychotherapy Training","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Ludwig Binswanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Binswanger"},{"title":"Medard Boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Boss"},{"title":"Gestalt Therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_Therapy"},{"title":"Existentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism"},{"title":"Viktor Frankl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl"},{"title":"Paul T. P. Wong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_T._P._Wong"},{"title":"Martin Heidegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger"},{"title":"Thomas Hora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hora"},{"title":"Søren Kierkegaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"title":"R. D. Laing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._D._Laing"},{"title":"Rollo May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May"},{"title":"Clark Moustakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Moustakas"},{"title":"Karlfried Graf Dürckheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlfried_Graf_D%C3%BCrckheim"},{"title":"Friedrich Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche"},{"title":"Otto Rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Rank"},{"title":"Jean-Paul Sartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre"},{"title":"Irvin D. Yalom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom"},{"title":"Karl Jaspers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers"},{"title":"Martin Buber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buber"},{"title":"Contextual therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_therapy"},{"title":"Emmy van Deurzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen"},{"title":"William Glasser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Glasser"},{"title":"Metapsychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapsychiatry"},{"title":"Philosophical Consultancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Consultancy"},{"title":"Jan Hendrik van den Berg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Hendrik_van_den_Berg"},{"title":"Martti Olavi Siirala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martti_Olavi_Siirala"},{"title":"Kirk J. Schneider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider"}]

[{"reference":"Iacovou, Susan; Weixel-Dixon, Karen (2015). Existential therapy : 100 key points and techniques (Dual First ed.). London. ISBN 9780415644419. OCLC 907374350.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907374350","url_text":"Existential therapy : 100 key points and techniques"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415644419","url_text":"9780415644419"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907374350","url_text":"907374350"}]},{"reference":"Comer, Ronald J. (5 February 2016). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (Eighth ed.). New York. ISBN 9781464176975. OCLC 914289944.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/914289944","url_text":"Fundamentals of abnormal psychology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781464176975","url_text":"9781464176975"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/914289944","url_text":"914289944"}]},{"reference":"\"Existentialism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\". Retrieved 19 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://iep.utm.edu/existent/#SH2a","url_text":"\"Existentialism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\""}]},{"reference":"Buchanan, Brett (2011). \"Nietzsche-Studies-Psychology\". Theory & Psychology. 11 (2): 283–286. doi:10.1177/0959354301112009. S2CID 210732018 – via Sage Journals.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0959354301112009","url_text":"10.1177/0959354301112009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210732018","url_text":"210732018"}]},{"reference":"Kaufmann, Walter (1974). Nietzsche, philosopher, psychologist, antichrist (4th ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691019835. OCLC 1246183.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1246183","url_text":"Nietzsche, philosopher, psychologist, antichrist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691019835","url_text":"0691019835"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1246183","url_text":"1246183"}]},{"reference":"Existential therapy : legacy, vibrancy, and dialogue. Barnett, Laura, 1953-, Madison, Greg. Hove, East Sussex: Routledge. 2012. ISBN 9780415564335. OCLC 701015521.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701015521","url_text":"Existential therapy : legacy, vibrancy, and dialogue"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415564335","url_text":"9780415564335"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701015521","url_text":"701015521"}]},{"reference":"Saraswathi, K.N. (2013). \"Logotherapy\". Nursing Journal of India. 104 (1): 36–38.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Vincent, Randy. \"Brief therapy\". Retrieved 6 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://therapie-aix.fr/","url_text":"\"Brief therapy\""}]},{"reference":"Craig, Erik (1988). \"Daseinsanalysis: A quest for essentials\". The Humanistic Psychologist. 16 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/08873267.1988.9976809.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08873267.1988.9976809","url_text":"\"Daseinsanalysis: A quest for essentials\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08873267.1988.9976809","url_text":"10.1080/08873267.1988.9976809"}]},{"reference":"\"Existential Psychotherapy\". Retrieved 2007-08-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.existentialpsychotherapy.net/","url_text":"\"Existential Psychotherapy\""}]},{"reference":"Yalom, Irvin D. (8 December 1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York. ISBN 9780465021475. OCLC 6580323.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6580323","url_text":"Existential psychotherapy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465021475","url_text":"9780465021475"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6580323","url_text":"6580323"}]},{"reference":"Richard Sharf (1 January 2015). Theories of Psychotherapy & Counseling: Concepts and Cases. Cengage Learning. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-1-305-53754-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171","url_text":"Theories of Psychotherapy & Counseling: Concepts and Cases"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-53754-5","url_text":"978-1-305-53754-5"}]},{"reference":"Emmy van Deurzen; Raymond Kenward (12 May 2005). Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counselling. SAGE Publications. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-4462-3993-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AMPaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT112","url_text":"Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counselling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-3993-3","url_text":"978-1-4462-3993-3"}]},{"reference":"Vos, Joël; Craig, Meghan; Cooper, Mick (2015). \"Existential therapies: A meta-analysis of their effects on psychological outcomes\". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 83 (1): 115–128. doi:10.1037/a0037167. PMID 25045907.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037167","url_text":"\"Existential therapies: A meta-analysis of their effects on psychological outcomes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0037167","url_text":"10.1037/a0037167"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25045907","url_text":"25045907"}]},{"reference":"Frankl, Viktor (1997). Man's Search for Meaning. Pocket.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl","url_text":"Frankl, Viktor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27s_Search_for_Meaning","url_text":"Man's Search for Meaning"}]},{"reference":"Yalom, I. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. Basic Books. 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ISBN 0471961914.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen","url_text":"van Deurzen, E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471961914","url_text":"0471961914"}]},{"reference":"van Deurzen, E.; Kenward, R. (2005). Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counseling. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 0761970959.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_van_Deurzen","url_text":"van Deurzen, E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761970959","url_text":"0761970959"}]},{"reference":"Glasser, William (1998). Choice Theory. HarperPerennial. ISBN 0060930144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Glasser","url_text":"Glasser, William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060930144","url_text":"0060930144"}]},{"reference":"Friedman, M. (1985). The Healing Dialogue in Psychotherapy. J. Aronson. ISBN 0876687303.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0876687303","url_text":"0876687303"}]},{"reference":"May, R. (1994). The Discovery of Being: Writings in Existential Psychology. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393312402.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May","url_text":"May, R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393312402","url_text":"0393312402"}]},{"reference":"May, R. (1991). The Cry for Myth. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393240770.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cry_for_Myth","url_text":"The Cry for Myth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393240770","url_text":"0393240770"}]},{"reference":"May, R. (1998). Power and Innocence: A Search for the Sources of Violence. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039331703X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/039331703X","url_text":"039331703X"}]},{"reference":"May, R. (2009). Man's Search for Himself. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393333152.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393333152","url_text":"978-0393333152"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, K.J. (2004). Rediscovery of Awe: Splendor, Mystery, and the Fluid Center of Life. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 1557788340.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider","url_text":"Schneider, K.J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1557788340","url_text":"1557788340"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, K.J. (2008). Existential-integrative Psychotherapy: Guideposts to the Core of Practice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203941119.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider","url_text":"Schneider, K.J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203941119","url_text":"978-0203941119"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_All_(in_ICT)

Design for All (in ICT)

["1 Benefits and challenges","2 Legislative and regulative background","2.1 Equality and non-discrimination","2.2 Telecommunications and information society","2.3 Public procurement","2.4 Copyright","2.5 Protection of privacy","3 Relevant guidelines and standards","3.1 Standardisation: general overview","3.2 Recent developments in DfA related standardisation (formal standards)","3.3 DfA in ICT related standards","4 Application domains","5 Education and training","6 Examples of good practice","7 Related networks and projects","7.1 European Design for all eAccessibility Network","7.2 Design for All Europe","7.3 Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Design for All in the context of information and communications technology (ICT) is the conscious and systematic effort to proactively apply principles, methods and tools to promote universal design in computer-related technologies, including Internet-based technologies, thus avoiding the need for a posteriori adaptations, or specialised design. Design for All is design for human diversity (such as that described in the diversity in the workplace or business), social inclusion and equality. It should not be conceived of as an effort to advance a single solution for everybody, but as a user-centred approach to providing products that can automatically address the possible range of human abilities, skills, requirements, and preferences. Consequently, the outcome of the design process is not intended to be a singular design, but a design space populated with appropriate alternatives, together with the rationale underlying each alternative, that is, the specific user and usage context characteristics for which each alternative has been designed. Traditionally, accessibility problems have been solved with adaptations and the use of assistive technology products has been a technical approach to obtain adaptations. Universal Access implies the accessibility and usability of information and telecommunications technologies by anyone at any place and at any time and their inclusion in any living context. It aims to enable equitable access and active participation of potentially all people in existing and emerging computer-mediated human activities, by developing universally accessible and usable products and services and suitable support functionalities in the environment. These products and services must be capable of accommodating individual user requirements in different contexts of use, independent of location, target machine, or runtime environment. Therefore, the approach aiming to grant the use of equipment or services is generalized, seeking to give access to the Information Society as such. Citizens are supposed to live in environments populated with intelligent objects, where the tasks to be performed and the way of performing them are completely redefined, involving a combination of activities of access to information, interpersonal communication, and environmental control. Citizens must be given the possibility of carrying them out easily and pleasantly. For a thorough discussion of the challenges and benefits of Design for All in the context of ICT, see also the EDeAN White Paper (2005) and the "Report on the impact of technological developments on eAccessibility" of the DfA@eInclusion project. Benefits and challenges The European Commission Communication on e-Accessibility, identified a core of practical challenges, as well as market, legal and policy issues towards improving eAccessibility and e-Inclusion in Europe, and elaborated a three-fold approach based on: accessibility requirements in public procurement accessibility certification and better use of existing legislation. In that respect, the challenges that need to be addressed include: the introduction of specific legislative measures to complement and enhance existing legislation, addressing and motivating the industry, effective benchmarking, providing harmonised standardisation, the creation of a curriculum for DfA and, addressing future research activities. Legislative and regulative background The present policy context of accessibility in the Information Society in Europe is the i2010 initiative. The "i2010 – A European Information Society for growth and employment" initiative was launched by the European Commission as a framework for addressing the main challenges and developments in the information society and media sectors up to 2010. It promotes an open and competitive digital economy and emphasises ICT as a driver of inclusion and quality of life. The initiative contains a range of EU policy instruments to encourage the development of the digital economy, such as regulatory instruments, research and partnerships with stakeholders. Equality and non-discrimination The goal of the European Union Disability Strategy is a society that is open and accessible to all. The barriers need to be identified and removed. The European Union Disability Strategy has three main focuses: co-operation between the Commission and the Member States, full participation of people with disabilities, and mainstreaming disability in policy formulation. Non-discrimination is also one of the general principles of the "Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities", adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006 and was opened for signatures on 30 March 2007. Telecommunications and information society There is a long tradition of European legislation with regard to telecommunications. In 2002, the European Union adopted a new regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services, covering all forms of fixed and wireless telecoms, data transmission and broadcasting. From a Design for All perspective, the most important Directives are the Directive on a common regulatory framework and the Directive on universal service and users' rights relating to electronic communications networks and services (Universal Service Directive). Public procurement Public procurement is an important economic force, and therefore it is an important tool to promote accessibility. The legislative package of public procurement Directives, approved in 2004 by the European Parliament and the EU's Council of Ministers, will help simplify and modernize procurement procedures. The new directives make it possible to take accessibility needs into account at several stages of a procurement process. It is most convenient to refer to standards when making technical specifications. There are already many CEN, ETSI and ITU standards which can be used for this purpose and many sources which can be useful in practice. Likewise, guidelines like the WAI guidelines, for example, or national guidelines have been used. In the future it will be easier to find suitable standards. Mandate M/376 has been given by the European Commission to the European Standardisation Organisations CEN, CENELEC and ETSI, to come up with a solution for common requirements and conformance assessment. Copyright Not all products are accessible for persons with disabilities. When producing audio books, or certain other accessible works, an additional copy is created, and copyright can be a problem in this situation. On the other hand, copyright is an essential part of the sustainability of a creative society. This conflict of interests must be solved somehow in order to ensure the Information Society is a Society for All. There is international and European legislation in this field. The objectives of the Directive on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society are to adapt legislation on copyright and related rights to reflect technological developments and to transpose into Community law the main international obligations arising from the two treaties on copyright and related rights adopted within the framework of the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) in December 1996. Protection of privacy The relationship between design and privacy is not necessarily obvious. Modern technology, which is a result of design, is able to collect significant amounts of personal information. The user has an interest in that information being correct and in it being used appropriately. The person may want to keep something confidential and have access to the information that has been collected. In other words, privacy is desired. In 1995 the European Union adopted a Directive on the processing of personal data. This directive established the basic principles for the collection, storage and use of personal data which should be respected by governments, businesses and any other organizations or individuals engaged in handling personal data. Within the context of Design for All (in ICT), privacy protection is called Privacy by Design. Relevant guidelines and standards In the US, Australia, Japan and in the European Union more and more legislative actions are put in place to require public bodies and companies to make sure that their products and services are accessible and usable not only by "standard" users but also by others such as elderly persons or people with an impairment. As it would be unwise to write down technical – and therefore time-bound – requirements into a law, legislative texts preferably refer to (international) standards. Standardisation: general overview Standardisation, i.e., in very general terms, producing a "standard" (French: norme, standard; German: Norm; Spanish: norma) is a voluntary action set up in the past, almost uniquely, by commercial partners who believe that the standardisation will permit easier exchanges of products and goods. This implied very often that the acceptance of the standards is also voluntary and triggered by expected commercial benefits. Only to a very limited extent consumer representatives did participate in standardisation. On the other hand, laws in many countries are referring more and more to the required acceptance of several standards (e.g. on safety or on ecological aspects). The net result of this need for standards is that nowadays many standardisation initiatives are stimulated (= subsidised) by public bodies or, in Europe, directly and indirectly by the European Commission. Also many guidelines have been created by stakeholder groups. Recent developments in DfA related standardisation (formal standards) As DfA standardisation was explicitly mentioned in the eEurope2002 and i2010 Action Plans of the European Union, several new actions were established since then. Four major recent strategies can be distinguished: the set up of coordinating working groups and organisations; the democratisation of the standardisation processes themselves; the increasing impact of non-formal standardisation bodies and; the establishment of standardisation related discussion fora open for non-specialists. DfA in ICT related standards ETSI EG 202 116 V1.2.2 (2009-03) ETSI Guide Human Factors (HF); Guidelines for ICT products and services; "Design for All". Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 is a technical standard that covers a wide range of recommendations for making Web content more accessible. Following these guidelines will make content accessible to a wider range of people with disabilities, including blindness and low vision, deafness and hearing loss, learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech disabilities, photosensitivity and combinations of these. Following these guidelines will also often make your Web content more usable to users in general. BS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of Practice BS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of Practice provides guidance on how to embed accessibility concerns into organisation's policies and digital production processes. The Standard provides non-technical website owners a better understanding of the value of inclusive design, and a framework for how to use guidelines like WCAG 2.0 to help them create products which are Designed for All. The Standard's lead-author, Jonathan Hassell, has created a summary of BS 8878 to help organisations better understand how the standard can help them. Application domains The application domains of Design for All in the context of ICT, practically include every field involving Information and Communication Technologies. The significance of the application domains reflects their role in establishing a coherent and socially acceptable Information Society, but also the diverse range of human activities affected. The critical application domains for Design for All, can be summarised as follows: Life-long learning Public information systems, terminals and information appliances (e.g. kiosks, smart home environments) Transaction services (e.g., banking) Electronic commerce applications and services Social services for the citizens (e.g., administration, elderly, transport, health care, awareness) Tools to allow for added-value information services (e.g., creation, storage, retrieval and exchange of user experiences, traces and views) Security The White Paper "Toward an Information Society for All: An International R&D Agenda" (1998) published by the International Scientific Forum "Towards an Information Society for All" (ISF-IS4ALL), has discussed the significance of these application domains: "Life-long learning is a critical area where emphasis should be placed, in the "knowledge" society of the future. It entails a continuous engagement in the acquisition of knowledge and skills to facilitate and sustain equitable participation in the Information Society. New technologies may play a catalytic role in providing new educational mechanisms and structures, thus allowing learning to become an inseparable part of life-long human activities in the context of knowledge-intensive learning communities, and social interaction amongst groups of people. Another important application area and a critical short-term target is the development of general purpose public information systems, terminals and information appliances, (e.g., information kiosks for access to community-wide information services). These are expected to be used in increasingly different contexts, including public places, homes, classrooms, etc., and provide the means for ubiquitous and nomadic access. Environmental control will also become increasingly important. Smart environments will progressively penetrate a wide range of human activities in hospitals, hotels, public administration buildings, etc. Teleoperation of such environments will also gain increasing attention to facilitate responsiveness to unforeseen events, enhanced mobility and security. Finally, a broad range of transaction services (e.g., banking, advertising, entertainment), social services for the citizens (e.g., administration, health care, education, transport), and electronic commerce applications, will become increasingly important in reshaping business and residential human activities (...) security, privacy and control are central themes in the evolution of a socially acceptable Information Society and should receive immediate attention. At the same time, they will increasingly constitute more complex targets to accomplish, as they span across different levels of the telecommunications infrastructure, from network services to application services (such as business transactions and entertainment), terminals and information appliances." Education and training One major lever to improve awareness and practice in Design for All is the development of education and training programs. Professionals are needed who have acquired comprehensive specialist knowledge and skills in Design for All; in addition those professionals who currently work in ICT industry need to acquire additional knowledge and skills concerning Design for All. Little evidence can be found of university degree programmes that specialize in Design for All (or Universal Design) or that explicitly includes a module about this. This lack was tackled in the project DfA@eInclusion, which devised curricula: A bachelor level introductory course which aims to enable students to have an understanding of the ethical and social issues of Design for All, and the role of Design for All as an enabler of accessibility and participation in the information society A masters level programme which aims to enable students to have the relevant knowledge, personal and professional skills & competencies to design, develop, implement, evaluate and manage a wide range of ICT systems products and services that adhere to the principles and practices of Design for All. The implementation of such programmes is already under way in a few places, for example at Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences, the Middlesex University, UK, University of Linz, Austria and the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. Core topics include an understanding of the principles of human rights, the development of standards, regulations and legislation, the design and development of assistive technologies as well as improved access of mainstream products and services. Web accessibility is an important component of accessing the information society and information and guidance is offered by the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) as well as online tutorials (for example, Opera's Web Standards Curriculum). The complementary approach of training for professionals in ICT industry has also been tackled by the DfA@eInclusion project. A comprehensive curriculum for such trainings has been recommended and is currently subject to a CEN workshop negotiation. The CEN workshop "Curriculum for training professionals in Universal Design (UD-Prof)" has been implemented in May 2009. Following the general rules for CEN workshops, it offers all interested stakeholders an opportunity to discuss and improve this DfA curriculum for ICT professionals. Examples of good practice Opera (web browser) was designed with the commitment to be used by as many people as possible thus following a Design for All approach. Audiobooks are good examples for Design for All because they enable people to read a book. Virtually anyone who does not have a hearing disability can use audiobooks for leisure, learning, and information. e-Government uses information and communication (ICT) technology to provide and improve government services, transactions and interactions with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. Elevators provide an alternative way to reach different floor levels. Modern accessible elevators use information and communication technology to adapt themselves to any user imaginable. The closing speed of the doors is adjustable so people can safely enter quickly or slowly as required. Controls of the elevator provide visual and audible feedback to the user so that people with different sensory abilities can operate the elevator without assistance. Blind people profit from tactile keys. Braille labeling is located besides the keys so that they are not accidentally pushed while reading them. The emergency intercom system operates aurally and visually. Wireless tagging (e.g. RFID), facial recognition, remote controls further enhance the capabilities of a modern elevator which can be used by almost anyone. The Inclusive Design Toolkit presents examples of how Design for All principles can be implemented. Other examples of Design for All in ICT are presented in EDeAN's Education and Training Resource. Related networks and projects European Design for all eAccessibility Network The European Design for All e-Accessibility Network – EDeAN is a network of 160 organisations in European Union member states. The goal of the network is to support all citizens' access to the Information Society. EDeAN provides: a European forum for Design for All issues, supporting EU's e-inclusion goals awareness raising in the public and private sectors online resources on Design for All The network is coordinated by the EDeAN Secretariat, which rotates annually and the corresponding National Contact Centres which are the contact points for EDeAN in each EU member state. Design for All Europe EIDD – Design for All Europe is a 100% self-financed European organisation that covers the entire area of theory and practice of Design for All, from the built environment and tangible products to communication, service and system design. Originally set up in 1993 as the European Institute for Design and Disability (EIDD),to enhance the quality of life through Design for All, it changed its name in 2006 to bring it into line with its core business. EIDD – Design for All Europe disseminates the application of Design for All to business and administration communities previously unaware of its benefits and currently (2009) has active member organisations in 22 European countries. The aim of EIDD is to encourage active interaction and communication between professionals interested in the theory and practice of Design for All and to build bridges between, on the one hand, these and other members of the design community and, on the other hand, all those other communities where Design for All can make a real difference to the quality of life for everyone. Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion Design for all for e-Inclusion This is a support project to EDeAN. The project aims to develop an exemplary training course for Design for all targeted to the Industry, course structures and curricula for studying Design for All in undergraduate and postgraduate levels as well as an online knowledge base on Design for All. DIADEM: Delivering Inclusive Access for Disabled or Elderly Members of the Community The project aims to develop an adaptable web browser interface for people with reduced cognitive skills, which can be used at home and at work. I2Home: Intuitive interaction for everyone with home appliances based on industry standards The project seeks to develop a universal remote console that will allow networked access to everyday appliances in the home. SHARE-IT: Supported Human Autonomy for Recovery and Enhancement of cognitive and motor abilities using Information Technologies This project is developing scalable and adaptive 'add-ons' which will allow assistive technologies to be integrated into intelligent ICTs for the home. HaH: Hearing at Home This project is looking at the next generation of assistive devices which will help hearing-impaired people to participate fully in the Information Society. CogKnow: Helping people with mild dementia navigate their day CogKnow aims to develop and prototype a cognitive prosthetic device to help those struggling with dementia to perform their daily activities. MonAmi: Mainstreaming Ambient Intelligence The project seeks to mainstream the accessibility of consumer goods and services. The aim is to develop technology platforms that allow elderly and disabled people to continue living in their own homes and stay in their communities. USEM: User Empowerment in Standardisation The project aims to train end-users in standardisation related issues and to enable them to participate in standardisation activities in the area of ICT. VAALID: Accessibility and Usability Validation Framework for AAL Interaction Design Process The project aims at creating modeling and simulation supporting tools to optimize user interaction design and accessibility and usability validation process when developing Ambient Assisted Living solutions. PERSONA: Perceptive Spaces promoting Independent Aging The project aims at further develop Ambient Assisted Living products and services that are affordable, easy to use and commercially viable. The project develops an integrated technological platform that seamlessly links up the different products and services for social inclusion, for support in daily life activities, for early risk detection, for personal protection from health and environmental risks, for support in mobility and displacements within his neighbourhood/town, all of which make a life of freedom worth living within their families and within the society. See also Design for All (design philosophy) Universal Design Computer accessibility Accessibility Knowbility References ^ User Interfaces for All: Concepts, Methods and Tools. Constantine Stephanidis, (Ed.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001, Accessed 2019-05-14. ^ EIDD Stockholm Declaration, 2004 ^ Klironomos, Iosif; Antona, Margherita; Basdekis, Ioannis; Stephanidis, Constantine (2006). "White Paper: Promoting Design for All and e-Accessibility in Europe". Universal Access in the Information Society. 5: 105–119. doi:10.1007/s10209-006-0021-4. S2CID 31000149. ^ Report on the impact of technological developments on eAccessibility Archived 25 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ DfA@eInclusion project website Archived 25 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: e Accessibility, Brussels 2005, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ The i2010 initiative website, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Directive 2002/21/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services (Framework Directive) Archived 20 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Directive 2002/22/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on universal service and users' rights relating to electronic communications networks and services (Universal Service Directive) , Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ European Commission Enterprise and Industry Directorate-General (2005): Standardisation Mandate to CEN, CENELEC, and ETSI in support of European accessibility requirements for public procurement of products and services in the ICT domain, Accessed 2009-10-09. ^ Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society., Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ World Intellectual Property Organisation, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2002 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector (Directive on privacy and electronic communications), Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Council of The European Union Commission of the European Communities: E-Europe2002: An Information Society For All Action Plan prepared by the Council and the European Commission for the Feira European Council, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – “i2010 – A European Information Society for growth and employment” {SEC(2005) 717}, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ ETSI EG 202 116 V1.2.1 (2002-09): Human Factors (HF); Guidelines for ICT products and services; "Design for All" Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0. Accessed 2009-07-24. ^ BS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of Practice Archived 29 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 2010-12-07. ^ Stephanidis, C. (Ed.), Salvendy, G., Akoumianakis, D., Bevan, N., Brewer, J., Emiliani, P.L., Galetsas, A., Haataja, S., Iakovidis, I., Jacko, J., Jenkins, P., Karshmer, A., Korn, P., Marcus, A., Murphy, H., Stary, C., Vanderheiden, G., Weber, G., & Ziegler, J. (1998): Towards an Information Society for All: An International R&D Agenda. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 10 (2), 107-134, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ International Scientific Forum "Towards an Information Society for All", Accessed 2009-10-05 ^ Whitney G, Keith S (2008) European Developments in the Design and Implementation of Training for eInclusion. Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science: Computers Helping People with Special Needs (Book) Volume 5105/2008 pp. 156–161 ^ Keith S., Whitney G. The production of syllabi for a range of DfA courses in ICT, November 2008. Accessed 2009-06-20. ^ Keith, S., G. Whitney, and J. Wilson, Design For All @ eInclusion: Best Practice in Education And Training, in AAATE '09. 2009: Florence. ^ Master of Universal Design of ICT Archived 6 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2014-06.02. ^ MSc Digital Inclusion at Middlesex University Archived 27 May 2012 at archive.today, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ 'Institut Integriert Studieren' at the University of Linz Archived 12 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ Licenciatura and master degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility at UTAD Accessed 2013-11-12. ^ W3C-WAI, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Opera Web Standards Curriculum, Accessed 2009-10-05. ^ Schmidt-Belz, B. and Y. Mohamad, Exemplary Training Modules on eAccessibility for industry training, 2009, Accessed 2009-06-20. ^ CEN Workshop on 'Curriculum for training professionals in Universal Design' (WS/UD-PROF) Archived 13 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-06-09. ^ Austrian e-Government portal. Accessed 2009-08-17 ^ Greek e-Government Portal, Accessed 2009-08-17. ^ Inclusive Design Toolkit Archived 26 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ Education and Training Resource Archived 2 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ European Design for All e-Accessibility Network – EDeAN Archived 11 December 2003 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-08-04. ^ DfA@eInclusion project website Archived 31 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ DIADEM project website Archived 30 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ I2Home project website Archived 27 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ SHARE-IT project website Archived 15 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ HaH project website Archived 3 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ CogKnow project website Archived 3 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-10-06. ^ VAALID project website Archived 26 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed 2009-12-10. ^ PERSONA project website, Accessed 2009-12-10 External links Website of the EU-funded Project "DfA@eInclusion" Website of the European Design for All e-Accessibility Network (EDeAN) Website of EIDD – Design for All Europe European Commission – Information Society Portal, Design for All vteDesign Outline Designer DisciplinesCommunicationdesign Advertising Book design Brand design Exhibit design Film title design Graphic design Motion Postage stamp design Print design Illustration Information design Instructional design News design Photography Retail design Signage / Traffic sign design Typography / Type design Video design Visual merchandising Environmentaldesign Architecture Architectural lighting design Building design Passive solar Ecological design Environmental impact design Garden design Computer-aided Healthy community design Hotel design Interior architecture Interior design EID Keyline design Landscape 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KISS principle Low-level Metadesign Mind mapping Modular New Wave Object-oriented Open Parametric Participatory Platform-based Policy-based Process-centered Public interest Rational Regenerative Reliability engineering Research-based Responsibility-driven RWD Safe-life Sustainable Systemic SOD Tableless web Theory of constraints Top-down and bottom-up Transformation Transgenerational TRIZ Universal Design for All Usage-centered Use-centered User-centered Empathic User innovation Value-driven Value sensitive Privacy by Design choice computing controls culture flow leadership management marker methods pattern research science sprint strategy theory thinking ToolsIntellectual propertyOrganizationsAwardsTools AAD Architectural model Blueprint Comprehensive layout CAD CAID Virtual home design software CAutoD Design quality indicator Electronic design automation Flowchart Mockup Design specification Prototype Sketch Storyboard Technical drawing HTML editor Website wireframe 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"information and communications technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology"},{"link_name":"universal design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_design"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephanidis-1"},{"link_name":"diversity in the workplace or business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_(business)"},{"link_name":"social inclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_inclusion"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"accessibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessibility"},{"link_name":"assistive technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive_technology"},{"link_name":"usability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability"},{"link_name":"intelligent objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intelligent_objects&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"access to information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_to_information"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Design for All in the context of information and communications technology (ICT) is the conscious and systematic effort to proactively apply principles, methods and tools to promote universal design in computer-related technologies, including Internet-based technologies, thus avoiding the need for a posteriori adaptations, or specialised design.[1]Design for All is design for human diversity (such as that described in the diversity in the workplace or business), social inclusion and equality.[2] It should not be conceived of as an effort to advance a single solution for everybody, but as a user-centred approach to providing products that can automatically address the possible range of human abilities, skills, requirements, and preferences. Consequently, the outcome of the design process is not intended to be a singular design, but a design space populated with appropriate alternatives, together with the rationale underlying each alternative, that is, the specific user and usage context characteristics for which each alternative has been designed.Traditionally, accessibility problems have been solved with adaptations and the use of assistive technology products has been a technical approach to obtain adaptations. Universal Access implies the accessibility and usability of information and telecommunications technologies by anyone at any place and at any time and their inclusion in any living context. It aims to enable equitable access and active participation of potentially all people in existing and emerging computer-mediated human activities, by developing universally accessible and usable products and services and suitable support functionalities in the environment. These products and services must be capable of accommodating individual user requirements in different contexts of use, independent of location, target machine, or runtime environment. Therefore, the approach aiming to grant the use of equipment or services is generalized, seeking to give access to the Information Society as such. Citizens are supposed to live in environments populated with intelligent objects, where the tasks to be performed and the way of performing them are completely redefined, involving a combination of activities of access to information, interpersonal communication, and environmental control. Citizens must be given the possibility of carrying them out easily and pleasantly.For a thorough discussion of the challenges and benefits of Design for All in the context of ICT, see also the EDeAN White Paper (2005)[3] and the \"Report on the impact of technological developments on eAccessibility\"[4] of the DfA@eInclusion project.[5]","title":"Design for All (in ICT)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"e-Inclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E-Inclusion&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"public procurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_procurement"},{"link_name":"certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certification"},{"link_name":"benchmarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benchmarking"},{"link_name":"standardisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardisation"}],"text":"The European Commission Communication on e-Accessibility,[6] identified a core of practical challenges, as well as market, legal and policy issues towards improving eAccessibility and e-Inclusion in Europe, and elaborated a three-fold approach based on:accessibility requirements in public procurement\naccessibility certification and\nbetter use of existing legislation.In that respect, the challenges that need to be addressed include:the introduction of specific legislative measures to complement and enhance existing legislation,\naddressing and motivating the industry,\neffective benchmarking,\nproviding harmonised standardisation,\nthe creation of a curriculum for DfA and,\naddressing future research activities.","title":"Benefits and challenges"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Information Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Society"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-i2010_initiative-7"}],"text":"The present policy context of accessibility in the Information Society in Europe is the i2010 initiative.[7] The \"i2010 – A European Information Society for growth and employment\" initiative was launched by the European Commission as a framework for addressing the main challenges and developments in the information society and media sectors up to 2010. It promotes an open and competitive digital economy and emphasises ICT as a driver of inclusion and quality of life. The initiative contains a range of EU policy instruments to encourage the development of the digital economy, such as regulatory instruments, research and partnerships with stakeholders.","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Member States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_States"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"}],"sub_title":"Equality and non-discrimination","text":"The goal of the European Union Disability Strategy is a society that is open and accessible to all. The barriers need to be identified and removed. The European Union Disability Strategy has three main focuses: co-operation between the Commission and the Member States, full participation of people with disabilities, and mainstreaming disability in policy formulation.\nNon-discrimination is also one of the general principles of the \"Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities\",[8] adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006 and was opened for signatures on 30 March 2007.","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmission"},{"link_name":"Directives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_directive"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Directive1-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-directive2-10"},{"link_name":"Universal Service Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Service_Directive"}],"sub_title":"Telecommunications and information society","text":"There is a long tradition of European legislation with regard to telecommunications. In 2002, the European Union adopted a new regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services, covering all forms of fixed and wireless telecoms, data transmission and broadcasting. From a Design for All perspective, the most important Directives are the Directive on a common regulatory framework[9] and the Directive on universal service and users' rights relating to electronic communications networks and services[10] (Universal Service Directive).","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Public procurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_procurement"},{"link_name":"European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"CEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"ETSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSI"},{"link_name":"ITU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU"},{"link_name":"WAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAI"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M/376-11"},{"link_name":"CEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"CENELEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CENELEC"},{"link_name":"ETSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSI"}],"sub_title":"Public procurement","text":"Public procurement is an important economic force, and therefore it is an important tool to promote accessibility. The legislative package of public procurement Directives, approved in 2004 by the European Parliament and the EU's Council of Ministers, will help simplify and modernize procurement procedures.The new directives make it possible to take accessibility needs into account at several stages of a procurement process.\nIt is most convenient to refer to standards when making technical specifications. There are already many CEN, ETSI and ITU standards which can be used for this purpose and many sources which can be useful in practice. Likewise, guidelines like the WAI guidelines, for example, or national guidelines have been used.\nIn the future it will be easier to find suitable standards. Mandate M/376[11] has been given by the European Commission to the European Standardisation Organisations CEN, CENELEC and ETSI, to come up with a solution for common requirements and conformance assessment.","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"copyright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-copyright_directive-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Copyright","text":"Not all products are accessible for persons with disabilities. When producing audio books, or certain other accessible works, an additional copy is created, and copyright can be a problem in this situation. On the other hand, copyright is an essential part of the sustainability of a creative society. This conflict of interests must be solved somehow in order to ensure the Information Society is a Society for All. There is international and European legislation in this field. The objectives of the Directive on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society[12] are to adapt legislation on copyright and related rights to reflect technological developments and to transpose into Community law the main international obligations arising from the two treaties on copyright and related rights adopted within the framework of the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)[13] in December 1996.","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Personal_data_dir-14"},{"link_name":"Privacy by Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_by_Design"}],"sub_title":"Protection of privacy","text":"The relationship between design and privacy is not necessarily obvious. Modern technology, which is a result of design, is able to collect significant amounts of personal information. The user has an interest in that information being correct and in it being used appropriately. The person may want to keep something confidential and have access to the information that has been collected. In other words, privacy is desired.\nIn 1995 the European Union adopted a Directive on the processing of personal data.[14]This directive established the basic principles for the collection, storage and use of personal data which should be respected by governments, businesses and any other organizations or individuals engaged in handling personal data.\nWithin the context of Design for All (in ICT), privacy protection is called Privacy by Design.","title":"Legislative and regulative background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"}],"text":"In the US, Australia, Japan and in the European Union more and more legislative actions are put in place to require public bodies and companies to make sure that their products and services are accessible and usable not only by \"standard\" users but also by others such as elderly persons or people with an impairment. As it would be unwise to write down technical – and therefore time-bound – requirements into a law, legislative texts preferably refer to (international) standards.","title":"Relevant guidelines and standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standardisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardisation"}],"sub_title":"Standardisation: general overview","text":"Standardisation, i.e., in very general terms, producing a \"standard\" (French: norme, standard; German: Norm; Spanish:\nnorma) is a voluntary action set up in the past, almost uniquely, by commercial partners who believe that the standardisation will permit easier exchanges of products and goods. This implied very often that the acceptance of the standards is also voluntary and triggered by expected commercial benefits. Only to a very limited extent consumer representatives did participate in standardisation.\nOn the other hand, laws in many countries are referring more and more to the required acceptance of several standards (e.g. on safety or on ecological aspects). The net result of this need for standards is that nowadays many standardisation initiatives are stimulated (= subsidised) by public bodies or, in Europe, directly and indirectly by the European Commission. Also many guidelines have been created by stakeholder groups.","title":"Relevant guidelines and standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eEurope2002-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-i2010-16"}],"sub_title":"Recent developments in DfA related standardisation (formal standards)","text":"As DfA standardisation was explicitly mentioned in the eEurope2002[15] and i2010[16] Action Plans\nof the European Union, several new actions were established since then. Four major recent strategies can be distinguished:the set up of coordinating working groups and organisations;\nthe democratisation of the standardisation processes themselves;\nthe increasing impact of non-formal standardisation bodies and;\nthe establishment of standardisation related discussion fora open for non-specialists.","title":"Relevant guidelines and standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ETSI_DfA-17"},{"link_name":"Web Content Accessibility Guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Content_Accessibility_Guidelines"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"BS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of Practice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BS_8878:2010_Web_accessibility_%E2%80%93_Code_of_Practice&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"summary of BS 8878","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.hassellinclusion.com/bs8878/"}],"sub_title":"DfA in ICT related standards","text":"ETSI EG 202 116 V1.2.2 (2009-03)ETSI Guide Human Factors (HF); Guidelines for ICT products and services; \"Design for All\".[17]Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0[18] is a technical standard that covers a wide range of recommendations for making Web content more accessible. Following these guidelines will make content accessible to a wider range of people with disabilities, including blindness and low vision, deafness and hearing loss, learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech disabilities, photosensitivity and combinations of these. Following these guidelines will also often make your Web content more usable to users in general.BS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of PracticeBS 8878:2010 Web accessibility – Code of Practice[19] provides guidance on how to embed accessibility concerns into organisation's policies and digital production processes. The Standard provides non-technical website owners a better understanding of the value of inclusive design, and a framework for how to use guidelines like WCAG 2.0 to help them create products which are Designed for All. The Standard's lead-author, Jonathan Hassell, has created a summary of BS 8878 to help organisations better understand how the standard can help them.","title":"Relevant guidelines and standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Life-long learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-long_learning"},{"link_name":"Electronic commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_commerce"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Paper_1998-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The application domains of Design for All in the context of ICT, practically include every field involving Information and Communication Technologies.The significance of the application domains reflects their role in establishing a coherent and socially acceptable Information Society, but also the diverse range of human activities affected.\nThe critical application domains for Design for All, can be summarised as follows:Life-long learning\nPublic information systems, terminals and information appliances (e.g. kiosks, smart home environments)\nTransaction services (e.g., banking)\nElectronic commerce applications and services\nSocial services for the citizens (e.g., administration, elderly, transport, health care, awareness)\nTools to allow for added-value information services (e.g., creation, storage, retrieval and exchange of user experiences, traces and views)\nSecurityThe White Paper \"Toward an Information Society for All: An International R&D Agenda\" (1998)[20] published by the International Scientific Forum \"Towards an Information Society for All\" (ISF-IS4ALL),[21] has discussed the significance of these application domains:\"Life-long learning is a critical area where emphasis should be placed, in the \"knowledge\" society of the future. It entails a continuous engagement in the acquisition of knowledge and skills to facilitate and sustain equitable participation in the Information Society. New technologies may play a catalytic role in providing new educational mechanisms and structures, thus allowing learning to become an inseparable part of life-long human activities in the context of knowledge-intensive learning communities, and social interaction amongst groups of people.\nAnother important application area and a critical short-term target is the development of general purpose public information systems, terminals and information appliances, (e.g., information kiosks for access to community-wide information services). These are expected to be used in increasingly different contexts, including public places, homes, classrooms, etc., and provide the means for ubiquitous and nomadic access. Environmental control will also become increasingly important. Smart environments will progressively penetrate a wide range of human activities in hospitals, hotels, public administration buildings, etc. Teleoperation of such environments will also gain increasing attention to facilitate responsiveness to unforeseen events, enhanced mobility and security.\nFinally, a broad range of transaction services (e.g., banking, advertising, entertainment), social services for the citizens (e.g., administration, health care, education, transport), and electronic commerce applications, will become increasingly important in reshaping business and residential human activities (...) security, privacy and control are central themes in the evolution of a socially acceptable Information Society and should receive immediate attention. At the same time, they will increasingly constitute more complex targets to accomplish, as they span across different levels of the telecommunications infrastructure, from network services to application services (such as business transactions and entertainment), terminals and information appliances.\"","title":"Application domains"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitney20008-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Del6.3-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAATE-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Web accessibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_accessibility"},{"link_name":"Web Accessibility Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Accessibility_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D5.2-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CEN_Workshop-32"}],"text":"One major lever to improve awareness and practice in Design for All is the development of education and training programs. Professionals are needed who have acquired comprehensive specialist knowledge and skills in Design for All; in addition those professionals who currently work in ICT industry need to acquire additional knowledge and skills concerning Design for All.Little evidence can be found of university degree programmes that specialize in Design for All (or Universal Design) or that explicitly includes a module about this.[22] This lack was tackled in the project DfA@eInclusion, which devised curricula:[23]A bachelor level introductory course which aims to enable students to have an understanding of the ethical and social issues of Design for All, and the role of Design for All as an enabler of accessibility and participation in the information society\nA masters level programme which aims to enable students to have the relevant knowledge, personal and professional skills & competencies to design, develop, implement, evaluate and manage a wide range of ICT systems products and services that adhere to the principles and practices of Design for All.[24]The implementation of such programmes is already under way in a few places, for example at Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences,[25] the Middlesex University,[26] UK, University of Linz,[27] Austria and the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro,[28] Portugal. Core topics include an understanding of the principles of human rights, the development of standards, regulations and legislation, the design and development of assistive technologies as well as improved access of mainstream products and services.Web accessibility is an important component of accessing the information society and information and guidance is offered by the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI)[29] as well as online tutorials (for example, Opera's Web Standards Curriculum[30]).The complementary approach of training for professionals in ICT industry has also been tackled by the DfA@eInclusion project.[31]\nA comprehensive curriculum for such trainings has been recommended and is currently subject to a CEN workshop negotiation. The CEN workshop \"Curriculum for training professionals in Universal Design (UD-Prof)\"[32] has been implemented in May 2009. Following the general rules for CEN workshops, it offers all interested stakeholders an opportunity to discuss and improve this DfA curriculum for ICT professionals.","title":"Education and training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Opera (web browser)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)"},{"link_name":"Audiobooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiobook"},{"link_name":"e-Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Government"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Elevators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator"},{"link_name":"Braille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille"},{"link_name":"RFID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFID"},{"link_name":"facial recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_recognition_system"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Opera (web browser) was designed with the commitment to be used by as many people as possible thus following a Design for All approach.\nAudiobooks are good examples for Design for All because they enable people to read a book. Virtually anyone who does not have a hearing disability can use audiobooks for leisure, learning, and information.\ne-Government uses information and communication (ICT) technology to provide and improve government services, transactions and interactions with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government.[33][34]\nElevators provide an alternative way to reach different floor levels. Modern accessible elevators use information and communication technology to adapt themselves to any user imaginable. The closing speed of the doors is adjustable so people can safely enter quickly or slowly as required. Controls of the elevator provide visual and audible feedback to the user so that people with different sensory abilities can operate the elevator without assistance. Blind people profit from tactile keys. Braille labeling is located besides the keys so that they are not accidentally pushed while reading them. The emergency intercom system operates aurally and visually. Wireless tagging (e.g. RFID), facial recognition, remote controls further enhance the capabilities of a modern elevator which can be used by almost anyone.\nThe Inclusive Design Toolkit[35] presents examples of how Design for All principles can be implemented.\nOther examples of Design for All in ICT are presented in EDeAN's Education and Training Resource.[36]","title":"Examples of good practice"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related networks and projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"European Design for all eAccessibility Network","text":"The European Design for All e-Accessibility Network – EDeAN[37] is a network of 160 organisations in European Union member states. The goal of the network is to support all citizens' access to the Information Society. EDeAN provides:a European forum for Design for All issues, supporting EU's e-inclusion goals\nawareness raising in the public and private sectors\nonline resources on Design for AllThe network is coordinated by the EDeAN Secretariat, which rotates annually and the corresponding National Contact Centres which are the contact points for EDeAN in each EU member state.","title":"Related networks and projects"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Design for All Europe","text":"EIDD – Design for All Europe is a 100% self-financed European organisation that covers the entire area of theory and practice of Design for All, from the built environment and tangible products to communication, service and system design. Originally set up in 1993 as the European Institute for Design and Disability (EIDD),to enhance the quality of life through Design for All, it changed its name in 2006 to bring it into line with its core business. EIDD – Design for All Europe disseminates the application of Design for All to business and administration communities previously unaware of its benefits and currently (2009) has active member organisations in 22 European countries. The aim of EIDD is to encourage active interaction and communication between professionals interested in the theory and practice of Design for All and to build bridges between, on the one hand, these and other members of the design community and, on the other hand, all those other communities where Design for All can make a real difference to the quality of life for everyone.","title":"Related networks and projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"MonAmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cordis.europa.eu/project/id/035147"},{"link_name":"Ambient Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_intelligence"},{"link_name":"USEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cordis.europa.eu/project/id/22751"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion","text":"Design for all for e-Inclusion[38]This is a support project to EDeAN. The project aims to develop an exemplary training course for Design for all targeted to the Industry, course structures and curricula for studying Design for All in undergraduate and postgraduate levels as well as an online knowledge base on Design for All.DIADEM:[39] Delivering Inclusive Access for Disabled or Elderly Members of the CommunityThe project aims to develop an adaptable web browser interface for people with reduced cognitive skills, which can be used at home and at work.I2Home:[40] Intuitive interaction for everyone with home appliances based on industry standardsThe project seeks to develop a universal remote console that will allow networked access to everyday appliances in the home.SHARE-IT:[41] Supported Human Autonomy for Recovery and Enhancement of cognitive and motor abilities using Information TechnologiesThis project is developing scalable and adaptive 'add-ons' which will allow assistive technologies to be integrated into intelligent ICTs for the home.HaH:[42] Hearing at HomeThis project is looking at the next generation of assistive devices which will help hearing-impaired people to participate fully in the Information Society.CogKnow:[43] Helping people with mild dementia navigate their dayCogKnow aims to develop and prototype a cognitive prosthetic device to help those struggling with dementia to perform their daily activities.MonAmi: Mainstreaming Ambient IntelligenceThe project seeks to mainstream the accessibility of consumer goods and services. The aim is to develop technology platforms that allow elderly and disabled people to continue living in their own homes and stay in their communities.USEM: User Empowerment in StandardisationThe project aims to train end-users in standardisation related issues and to enable them to participate in standardisation activities in the area of ICT.VAALID:[44] Accessibility and Usability Validation Framework for AAL Interaction Design ProcessThe project aims at creating modeling and simulation supporting tools to optimize user interaction design and accessibility and usability validation process when developing Ambient Assisted Living solutions.PERSONA:[45] Perceptive Spaces promoting Independent AgingThe project aims at further develop Ambient Assisted Living products and services that are affordable, easy to use and commercially viable. The project develops an integrated technological platform that seamlessly links up the different products and services for social inclusion, for support in daily life activities, for early risk detection, for personal protection from health and environmental risks, for support in mobility and displacements within his neighbourhood/town, all of which make a life of freedom worth living within their families and within the society.","title":"Related networks and projects"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Altdorf

University of Altdorf

["1 History","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "University of Altdorf" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The University of Altdorf in 1714 The University of Altdorf (German: Universität Altdorf) was a university in Altdorf bei Nürnberg, a small town outside the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg. It was founded in 1578 and received university privileges in 1622 and was closed in 1809 by Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. History In the period 1614–1618,Altdorf was briefly the centre of Socinianism in Germany. Encouraged by the connections of German Antitrinitarians to the Racovian Academy in Poland, German and Polish Socinians attempted to establish in Altdorf a similar Academy. Among the notable Socinian students was the 26-year-old Samuel Przypkowski. He was admitted as student on March 22, 1614, three weeks after Thomas Seget, but was expelled from Altdorf in 1616 "Crypto-Socinianism" was widely suspected among the student body. In January 1617 the syndicus Jacob Weigel brought two students Joachim Peuschel and Johann Vogel back to Altdorf and the college made them give a public recantation. This recantation was answered by Valentin Schmalz, one the German professors of the Academy in Poland. Notable instructors include Hugues Doneau, Scipione Gentili, and Daniel Schwenter. Notable students include later imperial field marshals Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634) and Gottfried Heinrich zu Pappenheim (1594–1632); Generalfeldwachtmeister Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch (1595–1635); the polymath Johann Schreck (1576–1630); the composers Wolfgang Carl Briegel (1626–1712) and Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706); and the theologian David Caspari (1648–1702). The polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), perhaps most famous for co-discovering calculus, received his Dr. jur. from the University of Altdorf in 1666. After the University of Leipzig refused to grant him the degree, likely on account of his relative youth. See also The University building in the year of 2014 (Altenheim) List of early modern universities in Europe Notes ^ Moran, Bruce. The Universe of Philip Melanchthon: Criticism and Use of the Copernican Theory, 1973, p. 1. ^ "Kryptosozinianismus und Altdorf" in Siegfried Wollgast, Philosophie in Deutschland zwischen Reformation und Aufklärung, 1550-1650, 1993, p. 378 et seq. ^ The Polish Review, Volume 11, 1966, p. 33. ^ Krebs 1885, pp. 541–542. References Julius Krebs (1890), "Schaffgotsch, Hans Ulrich Freiherr von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (in German), vol. 30, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 541–545 Moran, Bruce T., The Universe of Philip Melanchthon: Criticism and Use of the Copernican Theory, Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4(1), 1973., pp. 1–23. Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Italy Israel United States Czech Republic Other IdRef This German university, college or other education institution article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a Bavarian building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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It was founded in 1578[1] and received university privileges in 1622 and was closed in 1809 by Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria.","title":"University of Altdorf"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Socinianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socinianism"},{"link_name":"Antitrinitarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitrinitarians"},{"link_name":"Racovian Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racovian_Academy"},{"link_name":"Socinians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socinians"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Samuel Przypkowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Przypkowski"},{"link_name":"Thomas Seget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Seget"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Valentin Schmalz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinus_Smalcius"},{"link_name":"Hugues Doneau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugues_Doneau"},{"link_name":"Scipione Gentili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipione_Gentili"},{"link_name":"Daniel Schwenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Schwenter"},{"link_name":"Albrecht von Wallenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Heinrich zu Pappenheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Heinrich_Graf_zu_Pappenheim"},{"link_name":"Generalfeldwachtmeister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalfeldwachtmeister"},{"link_name":"Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Ulrich_von_Schaffgotsch"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebs1885541%E2%80%93542-4"},{"link_name":"Johann Schreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Schreck"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Carl Briegel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Carl_Briegel"},{"link_name":"Johann Pachelbel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Pachelbel"},{"link_name":"David Caspari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Caspari"},{"link_name":"polymath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus"},{"link_name":"Dr. jur.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._jur."},{"link_name":"University of Leipzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leipzig"}],"text":"In the period 1614–1618,Altdorf was briefly the centre of Socinianism in Germany. Encouraged by the connections of German Antitrinitarians to the Racovian Academy in Poland, German and Polish Socinians attempted to establish in Altdorf a similar Academy.[2] Among the notable Socinian students was the 26-year-old Samuel Przypkowski. He was admitted as student on March 22, 1614, three weeks after Thomas Seget, but was expelled from Altdorf in 1616[3] \"Crypto-Socinianism\" was widely suspected among the student body. In January 1617 the syndicus Jacob Weigel brought two students Joachim Peuschel and Johann Vogel back to Altdorf and the college made them give a public recantation. This recantation was answered by Valentin Schmalz, one the German professors of the Academy in Poland.Notable instructors include Hugues Doneau, Scipione Gentili, and Daniel Schwenter.Notable students include later imperial field marshals Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634) and Gottfried Heinrich zu Pappenheim (1594–1632); Generalfeldwachtmeister Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch (1595–1635);[4] the polymath Johann Schreck (1576–1630); the composers Wolfgang Carl Briegel (1626–1712) and Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706); and the theologian David Caspari (1648–1702).The polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), perhaps most famous for co-discovering calculus, received his Dr. jur. from the University of Altdorf in 1666. After the University of Leipzig refused to grant him the degree, likely on account of his relative youth.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebs1885541%E2%80%93542_4-0"},{"link_name":"Krebs 1885","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKrebs1885"}],"text":"^ Moran, Bruce. The Universe of Philip Melanchthon: Criticism and Use of the Copernican Theory, 1973, p. 1.\n\n^ \"Kryptosozinianismus und Altdorf\" in Siegfried Wollgast, Philosophie in Deutschland zwischen Reformation und Aufklärung, 1550-1650, 1993, p. 378 et seq.\n\n^ The Polish Review, Volume 11, 1966, p. 33.\n\n^ Krebs 1885, pp. 541–542.","title":"Notes"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_NEX-5

Sony NEX-5

["1 Features","2 Lenses","3 Model definitions","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

2010 digital camera model Sony α NEX-5OverviewTypeMirrorless interchangeable lens cameraIntro price$649.99 (with 16mm f2.8 lens) $699.99 (with 18-55mm 3.5-5.6 lens)LensLensSony E-mountSensor/mediumSensor23.4 × 15.6 mm Exmor APS-C HD CMOS SensorMaximum resolution4592 × 3056 (14.2 megapixels)Film speedAuto, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, 6400, 12800Storage mediaMemory Stick Pro Duo, Pro-HG Duo, SD, SDHC, SDXCFocusingFocus modesContrast-detection auto-focus, 25 multi-point, Centre-weighted, Flexible SpotExposure/meteringExposure modesIntelligent Auto, Program, Aperture priority, Shutter priority, Manual, Scene modesExposure meteringMulti-segment, Center-weighted, SpotMetering modesMulti-segment, Centre-weighted, SpotFlashFlashExternal flash (bundled)ShutterShutter speed range1/4000 - 30 sec, BULBContinuous shooting2.3 frame/s, 7 frame/s in speed priority modeViewfinderViewfinderOptional external optical viewfinderGeneralLCD screen3.0 in (76 mm) XtraFine TruBlack LCD, 920,000 pixelsBatteryNP-FW50, InfoLITHIUM, 7.2 V, 1080 mAh, 7.7 Wh, Lithium-Ion rechargeable batteryDimensions111 mm × 59 mm × 38 mmWeightApprox. 287 g (10.1 oz) (camera body, card and battery)Made inJapan The Sony α NEX-5 is a digital camera launched on 11 May 2010. It is a mirrorless interchangeable lens camera with the body size of a larger model fairly compact point-and-shoot camera with a larger sensor size (APS-C) comparable to that of some digital single-lens reflex cameras. Its major competitors in the market are the cameras based on the micro 4/3 standard created by Panasonic and Olympus, and a few low end Canon, Nikon, and even Sony α DSLRs. The NEX-5 shoots 14.2 megapixel stills and has a 7 frame/s continuous shotmode. It has the capability to shoot 1920×1080i at 60 frame/s in AVCHD or 1440×1080p at 30 frame/s in MPEG4. The NEX-5 was replaced by the 16 megapixel NEX-5N in August 2011. Features The α NEX-5 has features found in SLR cameras but also some that are normally found in point and shoots. The body of the α NEX-5 is made of magnesium alloy that separates the NEX-5 from the less expensive polymer NEX-3. Also different from the NEX-3 is video quality. The NEX-5 can shoot in AVCHD 1080/60i HD. There is a 7 frame/s continuous shot mode, with autofocus disabled after the first frame. The APS-C sized sensor has an ISO sensitivity up to 12,800. The camera software has special features like twilight mode and sweep panorama. The latter lets the photographer sweep across a city-sky line or similar long view and have the photos automatically stitched into a JPEG image on camera. Lenses Sony NEX-5N with an E-mount SEL1855 lens The NEX-5 along with its sister, the NEX-3, and also the Sony Handycam NEX-VG10 use a new lens mount system developed by Sony for NEX series and known as the Sony E-mount. Initially, there were three available lenses: an all-purpose 18–55 mm lens, an ultra wide pancake 16 mm lens, and a wide range 18–200 mm E-mount lens. With the post-November 2010 firmware version 3 installed, and by using the (roughly US$200) Sony LA-EA1 adapter, the NEX series of cameras is able to electronically control the aperture and autofocus of Sony SSM/SAM A-mount lenses, and control the aperture of the other Sony/Minolta A-mount lenses with manual focus only. The (roughly US$400) Sony LA-EA2 adapter also supports autofocus with screw-drive A-mount lenses, firmware version 5 is required for this adapter. Minolta MD 2/85 mm adapted to NEX 5 Other third-party mechanical tube adapters are also available. These adapters enable the use of Canon FD-mount, Canon EF-mount (without aperture control), Contax G, M42 screw mount, Konica Hexanon AR-mount, Minolta SR-mount (MC/MD), Leica M and screw mount, Nikon F-mount (non-G), Pentax K-mount (non-DA), Olympus OM mount, T2 screw mount and Minolta/Konica Minolta/Sony A-mount lenses. The E-mount flange register is so short that it is possible to mount 45 mm or longer-focal-length non-focusing enlarging lenses on the NEX body, with the use of an intermediate focusing helicoid behind them. Certain third-party mechanical adapters also provide circular control rings that provide some mechanical control of the aperture of Nikon G, Pentax DA and Canon EF lenses, as these do not have a mechanical aperture control ring on their lens barrels. Model definitions The incomplete model number of NEX-3/NEX-5 series may include letter(s) at end. The definitions are: C: Not compatible with Eye-Fi function (NEX-3C and NEX-5C only) A: Supplied with E 2.8/16mm (SEL-16F28) D: Supplied with E 2.8/16mm (SEL-16F28) and E 3,5-5,6/18-55mm OSS (SEL-1855) H: Supplied with E 3.5-6.3/18-200mm OSS (SEL-18200) K: Supplied with E 3.5-5.6/18-55mm OSS (SEL-1855) L: Supplied with E 3.5-5.6/16-50mm OSS (SEL-1650) B: Body color is black N: Body color is black /N: Body color is gold (NEX-5D/N, Japan only) /P: Body color is pink (NEX-3D/P, Asia only) R: Body color is red S: Body color is silver /T: Body color is brown (NEX-3D/T, Asia only) 50i: 50 frames interlaced model 60i: 60 frames interlaced model For example, NEX-5CK/B 50i is a NEX-5 supplied with E 18–55 mm zoom lens, not compatible with Eye-Fi function, body color black, and with 50i (not 60i) video support. See also Sony NEX-7 List of smallest mirrorless cameras References ^ YouTube, a Google company. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2016-04-17. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ Grunin, Lori. "Sony Alpha NEX-5 review: Sony Alpha NEX-5". CNET. ^ a b "NEX-5K/S | α NEX-5 with 18-55mm Lens | Sony USA". Archived from the original on 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2010-07-29. ^ http://www.sony.co.uk/hub/nex-compact-camera-system/range/nex-5 NEX-5 ^ "E-mount lens: Sony Asia". Retrieved 2011-02-09. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sony NEX-5. SonyStyle product description – official Sony website Sony UK product presentation – official Sony UK website DP Review (Digital Photography Review) – June 2010, an in-depth review of the two cameras Pop Photo Review – May 2010 review vteSony E-mount MILC timeline Family Level Format '10 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 '25 Alpha (α) Industrial FF ILX-LR1 ● Cinema Line m FX6 ● m FX3 A T ● Flagship m α1 F T ● Speed m α9 F T ● m α9 II F T ● m α9 III F A T ● Sensitivity m α7S ● m α7S II F ● m α7S III A T ● Resolution m α7R ● m α7R II F ● m α7R III F T ● m α7R IV F T ● m α7R V F A T ● Basic m α7 F● m α7 II F● m α7 III F T ● m α7 IV A T ● Compact m α7CR A T ● m α7C A T ● m α7C II A T ● Vlogging m ZV-E1 A T ● Cinema Line APS-C m FX30 A T ● Advanced s NEX-7 F m α6500 F T ● m α6600 F T ● m α6700 A T ● Mid-range m NEX-6 F ● m α6300 F ● m α6400 F+ T ● m α6000 F ● m α6100 F T ● Vlogging m ZV-E10 A T ● Upper-entry NEX-5 F ● NEX-5N F T ● NEX-5R F+ T ● NEX-5T F+ T ● α5100 F+ T ● Entry-level NEX-3 F ● NEX-C3 F ● NEX-F3 F+ ● NEX-3N F+ ● α5000 F+ ● DSLR-style m α3000 ● m α3500 ● SmartShot Mobile accessory QX1 M ● 1/2.3 inch QX10 M ● QX30 M ● 1.0 inch QX100 M ● CineAlta Cinema Line FF VENICE VENICE 2 BURANO XDCAM m FX9 Documentary S35 m FS7 m FS7 II Mobility m FS5 m FS5 II NXCAM Professional NEX-FS100 NEX-FS700 NEX-FS700R Entry-level APS-C NEX-EA50 Handycam High-End FF m NEX-VG900 Advanced APS-C s NEX-VG10 s NEX-VG20 m NEX-VG30 Security Professional FF SNC-VB770 UMC-S3C Family Level Format '10 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 '25 SENSOR: EXMOR | EXMOR-R | EXMOR-RS   ‧   PROCESSOR: BIONZ ● | BIONZ X ● | BIONZ XR ● VIDEO: 4K , 6K , 8K   ‧   SCREEN: Flip F, Front Flip F+, Articulating A, Touchscreen T SHOE: s Auto-lock Accessory Shoe, m Multi Interface Shoe   ‧   BODY FEATURE: Mountable M, 5-axis In-Body Image Stabilization, Weather Sealed

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sony_Press_Conference_on_YouTube-1"},{"link_name":"mirrorless interchangeable lens camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorless_interchangeable_lens_camera"},{"link_name":"point-and-shoot camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-and-shoot_camera"},{"link_name":"APS-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APS-C"},{"link_name":"digital single-lens reflex cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_cameras"},{"link_name":"micro 4/3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Four_Thirds_system"},{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"Olympus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(company)"},{"link_name":"Nikon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon"},{"link_name":"Sony α","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"frame/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sonystyle.com-3"},{"link_name":"AVCHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVCHD"},{"link_name":"MPEG4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG4"}],"text":"The Sony α NEX-5 is a digital camera launched on 11 May 2010.[1] It is a mirrorless interchangeable lens camera with the body size of a larger model fairly compact point-and-shoot camera with a larger sensor size (APS-C) comparable to that of some digital single-lens reflex cameras. Its major competitors in the market are the cameras based on the micro 4/3 standard created by Panasonic and Olympus, and a few low end Canon, Nikon, and even Sony α DSLRs.[2] The NEX-5 shoots 14.2 megapixel stills and has a 7 frame/s continuous shotmode.[3] It has the capability to shoot 1920×1080i at 60 frame/s in AVCHD or 1440×1080p at 30 frame/s in MPEG4. The NEX-5 was replaced by the 16 megapixel NEX-5N in August 2011.","title":"Sony NEX-5"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AVCHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVCHD"},{"link_name":"APS-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APS-C"},{"link_name":"ISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sonystyle.com-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The α NEX-5 has features found in SLR cameras but also some that are normally found in point and shoots. The body of the α NEX-5 is made of magnesium alloy that separates the NEX-5 from the less expensive polymer NEX-3. Also different from the NEX-3 is video quality. The NEX-5 can shoot in AVCHD 1080/60i HD. There is a 7 frame/s continuous shot mode, with autofocus disabled after the first frame. The APS-C sized sensor has an ISO sensitivity up to 12,800.[3] The camera software has special features like twilight mode and sweep panorama. The latter lets the photographer sweep across a city-sky line or similar long view and have the photos automatically stitched into a JPEG image on camera.[4]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:121013_Sony_NEX-5N_SEL1855_01s.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sony Handycam NEX-VG10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Handycam_NEX-VG10"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"NEX series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_NEX"},{"link_name":"Sony E-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_E-mount"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nex_5_w_rokkor_f2_85mm_IMGP1332_wp.jpg"}],"text":"Sony NEX-5N with an E-mount SEL1855 lensThe NEX-5 along with its sister, the NEX-3, and also the Sony Handycam NEX-VG10 use a new lens mount system developed by Sony for NEX series and known as the Sony E-mount. Initially, there were three available lenses: an all-purpose 18–55 mm lens, an ultra wide pancake 16 mm lens, and a wide range 18–200 mm E-mount lens.[5]With the post-November 2010 firmware version 3 installed, and by using the (roughly US$200) Sony LA-EA1 adapter, the NEX series of cameras is able to electronically control the aperture and autofocus of Sony SSM/SAM A-mount lenses, and control the aperture of the other Sony/Minolta A-mount lenses with manual focus only. The (roughly US$400) Sony LA-EA2 adapter also supports autofocus with screw-drive A-mount lenses, firmware version 5 is required for this adapter.Minolta MD 2/85 mm adapted to NEX 5Other third-party mechanical tube adapters are also available. These adapters enable the use of Canon FD-mount, Canon EF-mount (without aperture control), Contax G, M42 screw mount, Konica Hexanon AR-mount, Minolta SR-mount (MC/MD), Leica M and screw mount, Nikon F-mount (non-G), Pentax K-mount (non-DA), Olympus OM mount, T2 screw mount and Minolta/Konica Minolta/Sony A-mount lenses. The E-mount flange register is so short that it is possible to mount 45 mm or longer-focal-length non-focusing enlarging lenses on the NEX body, with the use of an intermediate focusing helicoid behind them.Certain third-party mechanical adapters also provide circular control rings that provide some mechanical control of the aperture of Nikon G, Pentax DA and Canon EF lenses, as these do not have a mechanical aperture control ring on their lens barrels.","title":"Lenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eye-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye-Fi"}],"text":"The incomplete model number of NEX-3/NEX-5 series may include letter(s) at end. The definitions are:C: Not compatible with Eye-Fi function (NEX-3C and NEX-5C only)\nA: Supplied with E 2.8/16mm (SEL-16F28)\nD: Supplied with E 2.8/16mm (SEL-16F28) and E 3,5-5,6/18-55mm OSS (SEL-1855)\nH: Supplied with E 3.5-6.3/18-200mm OSS (SEL-18200)\nK: Supplied with E 3.5-5.6/18-55mm OSS (SEL-1855)\nL: Supplied with E 3.5-5.6/16-50mm OSS (SEL-1650)\nB: Body color is black\nN: Body color is black\n/N: Body color is gold (NEX-5D/N, Japan only)\n/P: Body color is pink (NEX-3D/P, Asia only)\nR: Body color is red\nS: Body color is silver\n/T: Body color is brown (NEX-3D/T, Asia only)\n50i: 50 frames interlaced model\n60i: 60 frames interlaced modelFor example, NEX-5CK/B 50i is a NEX-5 supplied with E 18–55 mm zoom lens, not compatible with Eye-Fi function, body color black, and with 50i (not 60i) video support.","title":"Model definitions"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computer

Mobile computing

["1 Main principles","2 Devices","3 Limitations","4 In-vehicle computing and fleet computing","5 Security issues involved in mobile","6 Portable computing devices","7 Mobile data communication","8 See also","9 References","9.1 Footnotes","9.2 Bibliography","10 Further reading"]

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Mobile computing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Human–computer interaction in which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage Foldable Samsung Galaxy smartphones, capable of web browsing, e-mail access, video playback, document editing, file transfer, image editing, and other tasks common on smartphones. A smartphone is a tool of mobile computing. Mobile computing is human–computer interaction in which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage and allow for transmission of data, which can include voice and video transmissions. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software. Communication issues include ad hoc networks and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats, and concrete technologies. Hardware includes mobile devices or device components. Mobile software deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. Main principles The Telxon PTC-710 is a 16-bit mobile computer PTC-710 with MP 830-42 microprinter 42-column version. Portability: Devices/nodes connected within the mobile computing system should facilitate mobility. These devices may have limited device capabilities and limited power supply but should have a sufficient processing capability and physical portability to operate in a movable environment. Connectivity: This defines the quality of service (QoS) of the network connectivity. In a mobile computing system, the network availability is expected to be maintained at a high level with a minimal amount of lag/downtime without being affected by the mobility of the connected nodes. Interactivity: The nodes belonging to a mobile computing system are connected with one another to communicate and collaborate through active transactions of data. Individuality: A portable device or a mobile node connected to a mobile network often denotes an individual; a mobile computing system should be able to adopt the technology to cater to the individual needs and also to obtain contextual information of each node. Devices Some of the most common forms of mobile computing devices are as given below: Portable computers, compact, lightweight units including a full character set keyboard and primarily intended as hosts for software that may be parameterized, such as laptops/desktops, smartphones/tablets, etc. Smart cards that can run multiple applications but are typically used for payment, travel, and secure area access. Mobile phones, telephony devices which can call from a distance through cellular networking technology. Wearable computers, mostly limited to functional keys and primarily intended for the incorporation of software agents, such as bracelets, keyless implants, etc. The wearable computer, Apple Watch, released in 2015 These classes are expected to endure and to complement each other, none replacing another completely. Other types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including the: Portable computer (discontinued) Personal digital assistant/Enterprise digital assistant (discontinued) Ultra-Mobile PC (discontinued) Laptop Tablet computer Wearable computer E-reader Carputer Handheld PC Limitations Expandability, replaceability and modularity: In contrast to the common traditional motherboard-based PC the SoC architecture in which they are embedded makes these features impossible. Lack of a BIOS: As most smart devices lack a proper BIOS, their bootloading capabilities are limited as they can only boot into the single operative system with which it came, in contrast with the PC BIOS model. Range and bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently HSDPA, HSUPA, 3G and 4G networks and also the proposed 5G network. These networks are usually available within a range of commercial cell phone towers. High-speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have a very limited range. Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line. Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life. Transmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor. Potential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents. (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving reduces accidents.) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised. Human interface with device: Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training. In-vehicle computing and fleet computing MOBIDIC mobile computer of 1959 Many commercial and government field forces deploy a rugged portable computer with their fleet of vehicles. This requires the units to be anchored to the vehicle for driver safety, device security, and ergonomics. Rugged computers are rated for severe vibration associated with large service vehicles and off-road driving and the harsh environmental conditions of constant professional use such as in emergency medical services, fire, and public safety. The Compaq Portable - circa 1982 pre-laptop Other elements affecting function in the vehicle: Operating temperature: A vehicle cabin can often experience temperature swings from −30–60 °C (−22–140 °F). Computers typically must be able to withstand these temperatures while operating. Typical fan-based cooling has stated limits of 35–38 °C (95–100 °F) of ambient temperature and temperatures below freezing require localized heaters to bring components up to operating temperature (based on independent studies by the SRI Group and by Panasonic R&D). Vibration can decrease the life expectancy of computer components, notably rotational storage such as HDDs. Visibility of standard screens becomes an issue in bright sunlight. Touchscreen users easily interact with the units in the field without removing gloves. High-temperature battery settings: Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive to high-temperature conditions for charging. A computer designed for the mobile environment should be designed with a high-temperature charging function that limits the charge to 85% or less of capacity. External antenna connections go through the typical metal cabins of vehicles which would block wireless reception and take advantage of much more capable external communication and navigation equipment. Security issues involved in mobile Main article: Mobile security Mobile security has become increasingly important in mobile computing. It is of particular concern as it relates to the security of personal information now stored on the smartphone. Mobile applications might copy user data from these devices to a remote server without the users’ permission and often without the users’ consent. The user profiles automatically created in the cloud for smartphone users raise privacy concerns on all major platforms, in terms of, including, but not limited to, location tracking and personal data collection, regardless of user settings on the device. More and more users and businesses use smartphones as a means of planning and organizing their work and private life. Within companies, these technologies are causing profound changes in the organization of information systems and therefore they have become the source of new risks. Indeed, smartphones collect and compile an increasing amount of sensitive information to which access must be controlled to protect the privacy of the user and the intellectual property of the company. All smartphones are preferred targets of attacks. These attacks exploit weaknesses related to smartphones that can come from means of wireless telecommunication like WiFi networks and GSM. There are also attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities from both the web browser and operating system. Finally, there are forms of malicious software that rely on the weak knowledge of average users. Different security counter-measures are being developed and applied to smartphones, from security in different layers of software to the dissemination of information to end-users. There are good practices to be observed at all levels, from design to use, through the development of operating systems, software layers, and downloadable apps. Portable computing devices Main articles: Mobile device and Portable computer Several categories of portable computing devices can run on batteries but are not usually classified as laptops: portable computers, PDAs, ultra mobile PCs (UMPCs), tablets, and smartphones. A portable computer (discontinued) is a general-purpose computer that can be easily moved from place to place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because it requires some "setting-up" and an AC power source. The most famous example is Osborne 1. Portable computers are also called a "transportable" or a "luggable" PC. A personal digital assistant (PDA) (discontinued) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer, giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail, and other features.A Palm TX PDA An ultra mobile PC (discontinued) is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose operating system. Tablets/phones: a slate tablet is shaped like a paper notebook. Smartphones are the same devices as tablets, however, the only difference with smartphones is that they are much smaller and pocketable. Instead of a physical keyboard, these devices have a touchscreen including a combination of a virtual keyboard but can also link to a physical keyboard via wireless Bluetooth or USB. These devices include features other computer systems would not be able to incorporate, such as built-in cameras, because of their portability - although some laptops possess camera integration, and desktops and laptops can connect to a webcam by way of USB. A carputer is installed in an automobile. It operates as a wireless computer, sound system, GPS, and DVD player. It also contains word processing software and is Bluetooth compatible. A Pentop (discontinued) is a computing device the size and shape of a pen. It functions as a writing utensil, MP3 player, language translator, digital storage device, and calculator. An application-specific computer is one that is tailored to a particular application. For example, Ferranti introduced a handheld application-specific mobile computer (the MRT-100) in the form of a clipboard for conducting opinion polls. Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications. Mobile data communication Wireless data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms. Cellular data service uses technologies GSM, CDMA or GPRS, 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000. and more recently 4G and 5G networks. These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell towers. Wi-Fi connections offer higher performance, may be either on a private business network or accessed through public hotspots, and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors. Satellite Internet access covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available and may be set up anywhere the user has a line of sight to the satellite's location, which for satellites in geostationary orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky. Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite. When using a mix of networks, a mobile virtual private network (mobile VPN) not only handles the security concerns, but also performs the multiple network logins automatically and keeps the application connections alive to prevent crashes or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mobile computers. Lists of mobile computers Mobile cloud computing Mobile Computing and Communications Review Mobile development Mobile device management Mobile identity management Mobile interaction Mobile software Ubiquitous computing References Footnotes ^ andrew.currin.ctr@dot.gov (8 September 2016). "U Drive. U Text. U Pay". NHTSA. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2018. ^ "Hands Free Cell Phones No Safer, Insurance Study Claims". Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015. ^ "Study: Distractions, not phones, cause car crashes". CNET. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 16 July 2015. ^ Sikos, Leslie F.; Haskell-Dowland, Paul (5 Sep 2019). "Apple iPhones could have been hacked for years — here's what to do about it". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2019-12-10. ^ Hautala, Laura (20 August 2018). "Google sued over tracking user location amid privacy concerns". CNET. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ Lindsey, Nicole (10 April 2019). "Pre-Installed Apps on Android Represent a Threat to User Privacy and Security". CPO Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ "Google records your location even when you tell it not to". The Guardian. 14 August 2018. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. ^ "Carputer Articles on Engadget". Engadget. AOL. Archived from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2015. ^ "Gear Diary » The FLY Fusion Pentop Computer Review". 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2015. ^ G Rowley, K Barker, and V Callaghan “ The Questronic Project and the Ferranti MRT 100 A Boon For Survey Research”, The Professional Geographer, Volume 37, Issue 4, pages 459–463, November 1985 ^ a b "Wireless Data Communications for Beginners". Ositech Communications. Archived from the original on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2011-07-12. ^ Lachu Aravamudhan, Stefano Faccin, Risto Mononen, Basavaraj Patil, Yousuf Saifullah, Sarvesh Sharma, Srinivas Sreemanthula. "Getting to Know Wireless Networks and Technology" Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine, InformIT ^ "What really is a Third Generation (3G) Mobile Technology" Archived 2011-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, ITU ^ Gier, Jim. "Wireless Network Industry Report" Archived 2012-10-12 at the Wayback Machine, Wireless Nets, Ltd. ^ "Wi-Fi" Archived 2012-03-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ Mitchell, Bradley. "Satellite Internet". about.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. ^ "Introduction to Global Satellite Systems" Archived 2011-10-23 at the Wayback Machine, CompassRose International Publications ^ Case studies Archived 2012-03-31 at the Wayback Machine, netmotionwireless.com ^ Phifer, Lisa. "Mobile VPN: Closing the Gap" Archived 2020-07-06 at the Wayback Machine, SearchMobileComputing.com, July 16, 2006. ^ Cheng, Roger. "Lost Connections" Archived 2018-03-28 at the Wayback Machine, The Wall Street Journal, December 11, 2007. Bibliography GH Forman, J Zahorjan - Computer, 1994 - doi.ieeecomputersociety.org David P. Helmbold, "A dynamic disk spin-down technique for mobile computing", citeseer.ist.psu.edu, 1996 MH Repacholi, "health risks from the use of mobile phones", Toxicology Letters, 2001 - Elsevier Landay, J.A. Kaufmann, T.R., "user interface issues in mobile computing", Workstation Operating Systems, 1993. Imieliński, T.; Badrinath, B.R. (Oct 1994). "Mobile wireless computing, challenges in data management". Communications of the ACM. 37 (10): 18–28. doi:10.1145/194313.194317. S2CID 20233082. Imieliński, T.; Badrinath, B.R. (1992). "Querying in highly mobile distributed environments" (PDF). Proceedings VLDB '92: 41–52. T. Imielinski; H.F. Korth (Eds.) (1996). Mobile Computing. Springer. Imieliński, T.; Viswanathan, S.; Badrinath, B.R. (May–June 1997). "Data on Air: Organization and Access" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering. 9 (3): 353–372. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.569.2573. doi:10.1109/69.599926. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-05. Retrieved 2017-02-04. Roth, J. "Mobile Computing - Grundlagen, Technik, Konzepte", 2005, dpunkt.verlag, Germany Pullela, Srikanth. "Security Issues in Mobile Computing" http://crystal.uta.edu/~kumar/cse6392/termpapers/Srikanth_paper.pdf Zimmerman, James B. "Mobile Computing: Characteristics, Business Benefits, and Mobile Framework" April 2, 1999. https://web.archive.org/web/20111126105426/http://ac-support.europe.umuc.edu/~meinkej/inss690/zimmerman/INSS%20690%20CC%20-%20Mobile%20Computing.htm Koudounas, Vasilis. Iqbal, Omar. "Mobile Computing: Past, Present, and Future" https://web.archive.org/web/20181110210750/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_96/journal/vol4/vk5/report.html Further reading B'Far, Reza (2004). Mobile Computing Principles: Designing and Developing Mobile Applications with UML and XML. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81733-2. Poslad, Stefan (2009). Ubiquitous Computing: Smart Devices, Environments and Interactions. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-03560-3. Rhoton, John (2001). The Wireless Internet Explained. Digital Press. ISBN 978-1-55558-257-9. Talukder, Asoke; Yavagal, Roopa (2006). Mobile Computing: Technology, Applications, and Service Creation. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-147733-8. vteComputer sizes and classesMicroStaticAppliances Arcade cabinet Diskless node Video game console Home console Microconsole Internet appliance Intelligent terminal Interactive kiosk Rich client Simulator Smart speaker Smart TV Thin client ComputersBy use Gaming Home Industrial Personal Personal super Public Server Home server Workstation By size All-in-one Panel Tabletop Surface Desktop Deskside Pizza box Tower Portable Small form factor Mini PC Plug Rack Blade server Blade PC MobileLaptop 2-in-1 Convertible Detachable Cloudbook Mobile workstation Notebook Subnotebook Netbook Smartbook Handheld Electronic organizer E-reader Handheld game console Handheld PC Mobile data terminal Mobile phone Camera Feature Smartphone Palmtop PC Personal digital assistant Phablet Pocket Portable data terminal Portable media player Siftable Tablet Ultra-mobile PC Virtual pet Calculator Graphing Programmable Scientific Wearable Activity tracker Smart band Digital wristwatch Calculator watch Smartwatch Sportwatch Smartglasses Smart ring Midrange Mini Supermini Large Grid Mainframe Minisuper Super Others Embedded system Information appliance Microcontroller Nano Rugged Rugged smartphone Single-board Computer-on-module Smartdust Wireless sensor network  Category

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principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hosts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminal"},{"link_name":"laptops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"desktops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphones"},{"link_name":"tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"Smart cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_card"},{"link_name":"Mobile phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_call"},{"link_name":"Wearable computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer"},{"link_name":"software agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_agent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_Watch-.jpg"},{"link_name":"Apple Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch"},{"link_name":"Portable computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"Personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Enterprise digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Ultra-Mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-Mobile_PC"},{"link_name":"Laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"Tablet computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"Wearable computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer"},{"link_name":"E-reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-reader"},{"link_name":"Carputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carputer"},{"link_name":"Handheld PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_PC"}],"text":"Some of the most common forms of mobile computing devices are as given below:Portable computers, compact, lightweight units including a full character set keyboard and primarily intended as hosts for software that may be parameterized, such as laptops/desktops, smartphones/tablets, etc.Smart cards that can run multiple applications but are typically used for payment, travel, and secure area access.Mobile phones, telephony devices which can call from a distance through cellular networking technology.Wearable computers, mostly limited to functional keys and primarily intended for the incorporation of software agents, such as bracelets, keyless implants, etc.The wearable computer, Apple Watch, released in 2015These classes are expected to endure and to complement each other, none replacing another completely.Other types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including the:Portable computer (discontinued)\nPersonal digital assistant/Enterprise digital assistant (discontinued)\nUltra-Mobile PC (discontinued)\nLaptop\nTablet computer\nWearable computer\nE-reader\nCarputer\nHandheld PC","title":"Devices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"replaceability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replaceability_(technology)"},{"link_name":"modularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"SoC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"bootloading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bootloading&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"operative system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operative_system"},{"link_name":"GPRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS"},{"link_name":"EDGE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDGE"},{"link_name":"HSDPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSDPA"},{"link_name":"HSUPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSUPA"},{"link_name":"3G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G"},{"link_name":"4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G"},{"link_name":"5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G"},{"link_name":"VPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"mobile phone radiation and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_radiation_and_health"},{"link_name":"handwriting recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting_recognition"}],"text":"Expandability, replaceability and modularity: In contrast to the common traditional motherboard-based PC the SoC architecture in which they are embedded makes these features impossible.\nLack of a BIOS: As most smart devices lack a proper BIOS, their bootloading capabilities are limited as they can only boot into the single operative system with which it came, in contrast with the PC BIOS model.\nRange and bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently HSDPA, HSUPA, 3G and 4G networks and also the proposed 5G network. These networks are usually available within a range of commercial cell phone towers. High-speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have a very limited range.\nSecurity standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line.\nPower consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.\nTransmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.\nPotential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents.[1] (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving reduces accidents.[2][3]) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised.\nHuman interface with device: Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MOBIDIC_cutaway.jpg"},{"link_name":"MOBIDIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOBIDIC"},{"link_name":"ergonomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomics"},{"link_name":"Rugged computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computer"},{"link_name":"emergency medical services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_services"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compaq_portable.jpg"},{"link_name":"Compaq Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq_Portable"},{"link_name":"laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"Operating temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature"},{"link_name":"HDDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"}],"text":"MOBIDIC mobile computer of 1959Many commercial and government field forces deploy a rugged portable computer with their fleet of vehicles. This requires the units to be anchored to the vehicle for driver safety, device security, and ergonomics. Rugged computers are rated for severe vibration associated with large service vehicles and off-road driving and the harsh environmental conditions of constant professional use such as in emergency medical services, fire, and public safety.The Compaq Portable - circa 1982 pre-laptopOther elements affecting function in the vehicle:Operating temperature: A vehicle cabin can often experience temperature swings from −30–60 °C (−22–140 °F). Computers typically must be able to withstand these temperatures while operating. Typical fan-based cooling has stated limits of 35–38 °C (95–100 °F) of ambient temperature and temperatures below freezing require localized heaters to bring components up to operating temperature (based on independent studies by the SRI Group and by Panasonic R&D).\nVibration can decrease the life expectancy of computer components, notably rotational storage such as HDDs.\nVisibility of standard screens becomes an issue in bright sunlight.\nTouchscreen users easily interact with the units in the field without removing gloves.\nHigh-temperature battery settings: Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive to high-temperature conditions for charging. A computer designed for the mobile environment should be designed with a high-temperature charging function that limits the charge to 85% or less of capacity.\nExternal antenna connections go through the typical metal cabins of vehicles which would block wireless reception and take advantage of much more capable external communication and navigation equipment.","title":"In-vehicle computing and fleet computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mobile security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_security"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security"},{"link_name":"smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy"},{"link_name":"location tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_tracking"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems"},{"link_name":"privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_privacy"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"WiFi networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiFi"},{"link_name":"GSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"},{"link_name":"malicious software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"}],"text":"Mobile security has become increasingly important in mobile computing. It is of particular concern as it relates to the security of personal information now stored on the smartphone. Mobile applications might copy user data from these devices to a remote server without the users’ permission and often without the users’ consent.[4] The user profiles automatically created in the cloud for smartphone users raise privacy concerns on all major platforms, in terms of, including, but not limited to, location tracking[5] and personal data collection,[6] regardless of user settings on the device.[7]More and more users and businesses use smartphones as a means of planning and organizing their work and private life. Within companies, these technologies are causing profound changes in the organization of information systems and therefore they have become the source of new risks. Indeed, smartphones collect and compile an increasing amount of sensitive information to which access must be controlled to protect the privacy of the user and the intellectual property of the company.All smartphones are preferred targets of attacks. These attacks exploit weaknesses related to smartphones that can come from means of wireless telecommunication like WiFi networks and GSM. There are also attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities from both the web browser and operating system. Finally, there are forms of malicious software that rely on the weak knowledge of average users.Different security counter-measures are being developed and applied to smartphones, from security in different layers of software to the dissemination of information to end-users. There are good practices to be observed at all levels, from design to use, through the development of operating systems, software layers, and downloadable apps.","title":"Security issues involved in mobile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PDAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"portable computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"Osborne 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_1"},{"link_name":"personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PalmTX.jpg"},{"link_name":"Palm TX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_TX"},{"link_name":"ultra mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_mobile_PC"},{"link_name":"Tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen"},{"link_name":"virtual keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_keyboard"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"webcam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcam"},{"link_name":"carputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carputer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Ferranti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti"},{"link_name":"MRT-100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_MRT"},{"link_name":"clipboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipboard"},{"link_name":"opinion polls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polls"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"OQO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OQO"},{"link_name":"Apple eMate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMate_300"},{"link_name":"HP Omnibook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Omnibook"},{"link_name":"Nokia 770","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_770"},{"link_name":"Zaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Zaurus"},{"link_name":"PIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_information_manager"}],"text":"Several categories of portable computing devices can run on batteries but are not usually classified as laptops: portable computers, PDAs, ultra mobile PCs (UMPCs), tablets, and smartphones.A portable computer (discontinued) is a general-purpose computer that can be easily moved from place to place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because it requires some \"setting-up\" and an AC power source. The most famous example is Osborne 1. Portable computers are also called a \"transportable\" or a \"luggable\" PC.\nA personal digital assistant (PDA) (discontinued) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer, giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail, and other features.A Palm TX PDA\nAn ultra mobile PC (discontinued) is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose operating system.\nTablets/phones: a slate tablet is shaped like a paper notebook. Smartphones are the same devices as tablets, however, the only difference with smartphones is that they are much smaller and pocketable. Instead of a physical keyboard, these devices have a touchscreen including a combination of a virtual keyboard but can also link to a physical keyboard via wireless Bluetooth or USB. These devices include features other computer systems would not be able to incorporate, such as built-in cameras, because of their portability - although some laptops possess camera integration, and desktops and laptops can connect to a webcam by way of USB.\nA carputer is installed in an automobile. It operates as a wireless computer, sound system, GPS, and DVD player. It also contains word processing software and is Bluetooth compatible.[8]\nA Pentop (discontinued) is a computing device the size and shape of a pen. It functions as a writing utensil, MP3 player, language translator, digital storage device, and calculator.[9]\nAn application-specific computer is one that is tailored to a particular application. For example, Ferranti introduced a handheld application-specific mobile computer (the MRT-100) in the form of a clipboard for conducting opinion polls.[10]Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small enough to be called ultra mobile PCs. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it does not have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.","title":"Portable computing devices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ositech-11"},{"link_name":"Cellular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network"},{"link_name":"GSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"},{"link_name":"CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access"},{"link_name":"GPRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service"},{"link_name":"3G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G"},{"link_name":"W-CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-CDMA"},{"link_name":"EDGE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution"},{"link_name":"CDMA2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G"},{"link_name":"5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G"},{"link_name":"cell towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_site"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"hotspots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_(Wi-Fi)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Satellite Internet access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"line of sight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"geostationary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ositech-11"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"mobile virtual private network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"mobile VPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"logins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Login"},{"link_name":"application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"crashes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cheng-20"}],"text":"Wireless data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms.[11] Cellular data service uses technologies GSM, CDMA or GPRS, 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000.[12][13] and more recently 4G and 5G networks. These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell towers. Wi-Fi connections offer higher performance,[14] may be either on a private business network or accessed through public hotspots, and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors.[15] Satellite Internet access covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available[16] and may be set up anywhere the user has a line of sight to the satellite's location,[17] which for satellites in geostationary orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky.[11] Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite.[18] When using a mix of networks, a mobile virtual private network (mobile VPN) not only handles the security concerns, but also performs the multiple network logins automatically and keeps the application connections alive to prevent crashes or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss.[19][20]","title":"Mobile data communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-81733-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81733-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-470-03560-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-03560-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-55558-257-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55558-257-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-147733-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-147733-8"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_sizes"},{"link_name":"Computer sizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories"},{"link_name":"classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classes_of_computers"},{"link_name":"Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer"},{"link_name":"Appliances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_appliance"},{"link_name":"Arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"Diskless node","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskless_node"},{"link_name":"Video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Home console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Microconsole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microconsole"},{"link_name":"Internet appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_appliance"},{"link_name":"Intelligent terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_terminal"},{"link_name":"Interactive kiosk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_kiosk"},{"link_name":"Rich client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich_client"},{"link_name":"Simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulator_ride"},{"link_name":"Smart speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_speaker"},{"link_name":"Smart TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_TV"},{"link_name":"Thin client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_client"},{"link_name":"Gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaming_computer"},{"link_name":"Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer"},{"link_name":"Industrial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_PC"},{"link_name":"Personal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"Personal super","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_supercomputer"},{"link_name":"Public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_computer"},{"link_name":"Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Home server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_server"},{"link_name":"Workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workstation"},{"link_name":"All-in-one","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-in-one_computer"},{"link_name":"Panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_PC"},{"link_name":"Tabletop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_computer"},{"link_name":"Surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_computer"},{"link_name":"Desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer"},{"link_name":"Deskside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskside_computer"},{"link_name":"Pizza box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza-box_form_factor"},{"link_name":"Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_tower"},{"link_name":"Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer"},{"link_name":"Small form factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_form-factor_PC"},{"link_name":"Mini PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini_PC"},{"link_name":"Plug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_computer"},{"link_name":"Rack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19-inch_rack"},{"link_name":"Blade server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_server"},{"link_name":"Blade PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_PC"},{"link_name":"Mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Laptop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"2-in-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop"},{"link_name":"Convertible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_convertible"},{"link_name":"Detachable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-in-1_laptop#2-in-1_detachable"},{"link_name":"Cloudbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudbook"},{"link_name":"Mobile workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_workstation"},{"link_name":"Notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook_form_factor"},{"link_name":"Subnotebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnotebook"},{"link_name":"Netbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook"},{"link_name":"Smartbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartbook"},{"link_name":"Handheld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device"},{"link_name":"Electronic organizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_organizer"},{"link_name":"E-reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-reader"},{"link_name":"Handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"Handheld PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_PC"},{"link_name":"Mobile data terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal"},{"link_name":"Mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_phone"},{"link_name":"Feature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_phone"},{"link_name":"Smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"link_name":"Personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Phablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phablet"},{"link_name":"Pocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_computer"},{"link_name":"Portable data terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_data_terminal"},{"link_name":"Portable media player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"Siftable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siftable"},{"link_name":"Tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"Ultra-mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC"},{"link_name":"Virtual pet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_pet"},{"link_name":"Calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"Graphing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphing_calculator"},{"link_name":"Programmable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_calculator"},{"link_name":"Scientific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_calculator"},{"link_name":"Wearable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer"},{"link_name":"Activity tracker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_tracker"},{"link_name":"Smart band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_band"},{"link_name":"Digital wristwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch#Digital"},{"link_name":"Calculator watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator_watch"},{"link_name":"Smartwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartwatch"},{"link_name":"Sportwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_watch"},{"link_name":"Smartglasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartglasses"},{"link_name":"Smart ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_ring"},{"link_name":"Midrange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrange_computer"},{"link_name":"Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"Supermini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superminicomputer"},{"link_name":"Grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_computing"},{"link_name":"Mainframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"Minisuper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minisupercomputer"},{"link_name":"Super","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"Embedded system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Information appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_appliance"},{"link_name":"Microcontroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocomputer"},{"link_name":"Rugged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computer"},{"link_name":"Rugged smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_smartphone"},{"link_name":"Single-board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-board_computer"},{"link_name":"Computer-on-module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-on-module"},{"link_name":"Smartdust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartdust"},{"link_name":"Wireless sensor network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Classes_of_computers"}],"text":"B'Far, Reza (2004). Mobile Computing Principles: Designing and Developing Mobile Applications with UML and XML. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81733-2.\nPoslad, Stefan (2009). Ubiquitous Computing: Smart Devices, Environments and Interactions. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-03560-3.\nRhoton, John (2001). The Wireless Internet Explained. Digital Press. ISBN 978-1-55558-257-9.\nTalukder, Asoke; Yavagal, Roopa (2006). Mobile Computing: Technology, Applications, and Service Creation. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-147733-8.vteComputer sizes and classesMicroStaticAppliances\nArcade cabinet\nDiskless node\nVideo game console\nHome console\nMicroconsole\nInternet appliance\nIntelligent terminal\nInteractive kiosk\nRich client\nSimulator\nSmart speaker\nSmart TV\nThin client\nComputersBy use\nGaming\nHome\nIndustrial\nPersonal\nPersonal super\nPublic\nServer\nHome server\nWorkstation\nBy size\nAll-in-one\nPanel\nTabletop\nSurface\nDesktop\nDeskside\nPizza box\nTower\nPortable\nSmall form factor\nMini PC\nPlug\nRack\nBlade server\nBlade PC\nMobileLaptop\n2-in-1\nConvertible\nDetachable\nCloudbook\nMobile workstation\nNotebook\nSubnotebook\nNetbook\nSmartbook\nHandheld\nElectronic organizer\nE-reader\nHandheld game console\nHandheld PC\nMobile data terminal\nMobile phone\nCamera\nFeature\nSmartphone\nPalmtop PC\nPersonal digital assistant\nPhablet\nPocket\nPortable data terminal\nPortable media player\nSiftable\nTablet\nUltra-mobile PC\nVirtual pet\nCalculator\nGraphing\nProgrammable\nScientific\nWearable\nActivity tracker\nSmart band\nDigital wristwatch\nCalculator watch\nSmartwatch\nSportwatch\nSmartglasses\nSmart ring\nMidrange\nMini\nSupermini\nLarge\nGrid\nMainframe\nMinisuper\nSuper\nOthers\nEmbedded system\nInformation appliance\nMicrocontroller\nNano\nRugged\nRugged smartphone\nSingle-board\nComputer-on-module\nSmartdust\nWireless sensor network\n\n Category","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Foldable Samsung Galaxy smartphones, capable of web browsing, e-mail access, video playback, document editing, file transfer, image editing, and other tasks common on smartphones. A smartphone is a tool of mobile computing.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Galaxy_Z_series.jpg/250px-Galaxy_Z_series.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Telxon PTC-710 is a 16-bit mobile computer PTC-710 with MP 830-42 microprinter 42-column version.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Telxon_PTC-710_with_MP_830-42.jpg/170px-Telxon_PTC-710_with_MP_830-42.jpg"},{"image_text":"The wearable computer, Apple Watch, released in 2015","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Apple_Watch-.jpg/250px-Apple_Watch-.jpg"},{"image_text":"MOBIDIC mobile computer of 1959","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/MOBIDIC_cutaway.jpg/220px-MOBIDIC_cutaway.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Compaq Portable - circa 1982 pre-laptop","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Compaq_portable.jpg/220px-Compaq_portable.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Palm TX PDA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PalmTX.jpg/220px-PalmTX.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Mobile computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mobile_computers"},{"title":"Lists of mobile computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mobile_computers"},{"title":"Mobile cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_cloud_computing"},{"title":"Mobile Computing and Communications Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Computing_and_Communications_Review"},{"title":"Mobile development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_development"},{"title":"Mobile device management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device_management"},{"title":"Mobile identity management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_identity_management"},{"title":"Mobile interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_interaction"},{"title":"Mobile software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_software"},{"title":"Ubiquitous computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(Amsterdam)

World Trade Center (Amsterdam)

["1 References","2 External links"]

Coordinates: 52°20′24″N 4°52′23″E / 52.340°N 4.873°E / 52.340; 4.873Commercial center located at the Zuidas in the Netherlands WTC Amsterdam The World Trade Center Amsterdam is a commercial center located at the Zuidas in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It was officially opened in 1985, and renovated between 1998 and 2004. The center consists of nine buildings—labeled from A to I—with 120,000 square meters (1,300,000 sq ft) of offices and office facilities. Tower H is the highest building, it has 27 levels and measures 104 meters (341 ft). The center is a member of the international World Trade Centers Association. References ^ a b (in Dutch) Renovatie en nieuwbouw World Trade Center. Retrieved on 2008-01-21. ^ Corporate Brochure. Retrieved on 2008-01-21. ^ H-Tower. Retrieved on 2008-01-21. ^ World Trade Center Amsterdam Details. Retrieved on 2008-01-25. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Trade Center Amsterdam. World Trade Center Amsterdam Authority control databases International VIAF National United States Geographic Structurae 52°20′24″N 4°52′23″E / 52.340°N 4.873°E / 52.340; 4.873 This article about a Dutch building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_McGeady

Steven McGeady

["1 Early life","2 Intel","3 Microsoft trials","4 Other activities","5 Mike Hawash case","6 References","7 External links"]

American computer programmer Steven McGeadyBorn (1957-03-17) March 17, 1957 (age 67)Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.NationalityAmericanEducationReed CollegeOccupation(s)Chairman, ShiftWise, Corporate Vice President of Intel (retired 2000) Steven McGeady is a former Intel executive best known as a witness in the Microsoft antitrust trial. His notes and testimony contained colorful quotes by Microsoft executives threatening to "cut off Netscape's air supply" and Bill Gates' guess that "this antitrust thing will blow over". Attorney David Boies said that McGeady's testimony showed him to be "an extremely conscientious, capable and honest witness", while Microsoft portrayed him as someone with an "axe to grind". McGeady left Intel in 2000, but later again gained notoriety for defending his former employee Mike Hawash after his arrest on federal terrorism charges. From its founding in 2002 until its sale in November 2013, he was Chairman of Portland-based healthcare technology firm ShiftWise. He is a member of the Reed College Board of Trustees, the Portland Art Museum Board of Trustees, and the PNCA Board of Governors, and lives in Portland, Oregon. Early life Steven McGeady was born in Baltimore, Maryland. His father was a manager for Bethlehem Steel. After high school in Michigan City, Indiana he briefly attended Purdue University. Then in 1976, he enrolled at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. While attending Reed College from 1976 to 1980, he studied Physics and Philosophy but did not graduate. The majority of his time was occupied at the school's computer center where he and friends would experiment with a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-11/70 computer donated by Howard Vollum, the founder of Tektronix. Reed's computer was the first in the Northwest to run the Unix operating system, allowing McGeady to become an early developer in that environment. After college, McGeady was a software engineering manager at Ann Arbor Terminals and Oregon based Tektronix. In 1985 he joined Intel, and in 1991 he co-founded the Intel Architecture Labs in Hillsboro. In 1993, he was promoted to a vice president position at the company. Intel At the time of his departure in June 2000, McGeady was Vice President of Intel's New Business Group. During 15 years at Intel, he led a variety of software, marketing, and investment initiatives for Intel, including the i960 RISC microprocessor software development, Intel's digital video and multimedia research, Intel's first Internet development group, and a group focused on Internet-based healthcare delivery. McGeady was a co-founder of the Intel Architecture Labs, a research and development group focused on advancing the personal-computer platform. McGeady ran the software, multimedia, data security, and Internet programs within this group for most of the 1990s. His group developed Intel's ProShare video-conferencing technology, the Indeo video compression technology, and Intel's Display Control Interface and VxD graphics software, later licensed to Microsoft to form the core of DirectX. His research group worked with the MIT Media Lab, Xerox PARC, and other groups, and developed early prototypes of digital video recorders (DVRs), video broadcast servers, and other technologies. As manager of the i960 software development tools team from 1986 to 1996, McGeady was an early developer and promoter of open-source software, beginning with Richard Stallman's GNU C compiler and tools. McGeady wrote the i960 target for GNU Compiler Collection (gcc) and led the team that developed a suite of tools including a globally optimizing, trace-driven optimizer for gcc and the first GNU Debugger (gdb) port to a remote, stand-alone system. He hired Cygnus Support to integrate those changes into the mainline GNU tools and to improve the tools' ability to deal with many object file formats. McGeady was Vice-President of Intel's Multimedia, Communications, and Internet activities from 1990 through 1996, where he led the development of the first desktop video-compression software for the PC, Intel's early implementations of multimedia network broadcast protocols, the first products to combine television and web pages, online virtual communities, the Java language, and data security infrastructure. As a software engineer and developer, McGeady was often a minority voice at hardware-dominated Intel. In 1996 he was asked by then-CEO Andy Grove to take a job as Grove's assistant and is the only known person to turn the job down. Grove later said that he and Intel would have grasped the importance of the Internet to the company more quickly had McGeady taken the job. McGeady had a less positive relationship with succeeding CEO Craig Barrett, reportedly telling Barrett to "pound sand" when Barrett instructed him not to testify in the Microsoft case. Microsoft trials In 1998, McGeady was a witness for the US Department of Justice in the U.S. vs. Microsoft antitrust case, where he testified about Microsoft's attempts to control Intel's software efforts as well as their behavior toward Netscape and Sun's Javasoft. He was the only executive from the PC industry to testify for the government. McGeady testified that Microsoft opposed Intel's 1995 work on a new technology called Native Signal Processing, which would have used instructions from Intel's chips, rather than software code from Microsoft, to run multimedia and communications programs more quickly. McGeady testified for the government and against Microsoft despite pressure from inside Intel. Intel's then-COO Craig Barrett instructed McGeady not to cooperate with Department of Justice attorneys, but "He Barrett to go stuff it". McGeady also claimed in his testimony that Microsoft Vice-President Paul Maritz had described, in a meeting at Intel, Microsoft's plan to "embrace, extend, extinguish" the HTML standard until it would be incompatible with the Netscape browser. While this term had some currency before his 1998 testimony, this was its first prominent public exposure. Documents presented by the government showed Microsoft was concerned about McGeady: "Steve McGeady remains an issue for us. He is a champion of Java and a believer that the day of bloatware is over", wrote Microsoft VP Paul Maritz in an email to Bill Gates. "He has more IQ than most ". In November 1998, McGeady testified that Microsoft leveraged its monopoly power in Windows to impede Intel's ability to compete with Microsoft in areas involving system software and influence of OEMs: McGeady testified that Microsoft feared competition from Intel's software development: At an August 2, 1995 meeting Bill Gates allegedly threatened to terminate Windows support for Intel's new microprocessors unless they were able to "get alignment" between Intel and MS on Intel's Internet and communications software programs, and Gates allegedly told Andy Grove to shut down the Intel Architecture Labs, the organization driving Intel's Internet program. McGeady testified that Microsoft was upset that Intel "shifting the software boundary" without Microsoft's permission: IAL's development of Native Signal Processing (NSP) program caused this concern. NSP was a layer of software that interfaced with both the Windows OS and the hardware in order to support real-time audio, real-time video, and 3D graphics. According to McGeady, NSP threatened Microsoft because it was software at the operating system level, while Microsoft believed they "owned software to the metal", (i.e., to the hardware level). (10AM17, 12PM13) Ultimately, Andy Grove admitted that Intel "caved" by retracting NSP. Microsoft was concerned about IAL: Gates allegedly said regarding Intel Architecture Labs: "Having 700 software engineers running around in the industry is an okay thing as long as Microsoft knows what they're doing first". According to McGeady, they did not want to relinquish control over any application interfaces to Intel. To take advantage of multimedia hardware, Intel was writing device drivers that allowed application developers direct control of (e.g.) graphics and video devices. To prevent this Microsoft threatened to continue bad-mouthing IAL's software and to withhold support for Intel's MMX microprocessor. McGeady testified that Microsoft used its monopoly power in Windows to restrict support for Netscape and Java, and to their plans to compete with Netscape through predatory pricing, through the leveraging of their Windows OS monopoly, and through the creation of incompatible HTML standards: Netscape: McGeady testified that Microsoft generally discouraged Intel from working with Netscape, and that Gates allegedly urged Grove to push Intel's internal information technology group away from Netscape's server toward Microsoft's IIS, and stressed that it was "very important" that Intel "NOT ever publicly say they are standardizing on Netscape browsers". McGeady testified to Microsoft's three-prong strategy to defeat Netscape: they allegedly stated that they would "cut off Netscape's air supply" by giving away Internet Explorer for free, preventing Netscape from deriving any revenue from its browser; that Microsoft asserted they would "fight with the OS and the apps arm", meaning they would create dependencies between Windows and the browser that would create advantages for their browser over Netscape's; and MS's professed strategy of "embrace, extend, extinguish", planning to "extend" the HTML standard to the point where it would be incompatible with the Netscape browser. Java: McGeady testified that Microsoft made it clear to Intel that support for Java would be a "show stopper" in Intel's relationship with Microsoft, threatening to terminate cooperation that Intel required for new microprocessors. Microsoft allegedly proposed that Intel help them prevent the Java component model from becoming a de facto standard by developing a Java system incompatible with Sun's, defeating Java's "write once, run anywhere" capabilities, and tying Java to Windows. Microsoft would distribute this Java virtual machine as part of Internet Explorer, a variant of MS's "embrace, extend, extinguish" strategy. When Microsoft learned that McGeady's group at Intel had implemented its own Java VM and multimedia class libraries that ran very fast on the Intel architecture, Microsoft became very upset. McGeady testified that Microsoft pressed Intel to stop this work. The DoJ made four major arguments based on McGeady's testimony: Intel and its software development effort were hampered by Microsoft's bully tactics; Microsoft used Intel against Netscape in the "Browser Wars"; McGeady was an expert witness on software standards, innovation and competition; and McGeady felt Microsoft hampered Java development. Microsoft, in their response to McGeady's testimony, made the point that his testimony contained several pro-Microsoft threads and that Intel practiced similar cross-product subsidization, distributing free Intel Architecture Labs software funded by microprocessor revenues. They also claimed that Microsoft's influence over Intel and its microprocessors was unrelated to the downstream software segment. Cross-examination of McGeady revealed conflicting interpretations of many Microsoft/Intel meetings, differing reasons for Intel's decisions, and for McGeady's anti-Microsoft bias: Microsoft defended its attempts to coordinate strategy with Intel and tried to dispel the bully image; Microsoft presented reasons for the discontinuation of Intel's Native Signal Processing initiative; Microsoft highlighted Intel practices that resemble Microsoft's alleged anti-competitive behavior; Microsoft defended its Java program; and Microsoft aggressively attacked McGeady to discredit him as a witness. McGeady's notes suggested that portions of his testimony could be considered embellishments or stories heard in other contexts, and he was frequently forced to suggest that he had a recollection of meetings and conversations superior to that of other Intel officials, as well as Netscape officers. Microsoft revealed Intel documents that painted McGeady as a "prima donna" who was criticized for his department's belligerence toward Microsoft. Microsoft claimed that McGeady's actions suggested that he considered himself above Intel policy and an extra-corporate defender of truth and justice in the Internet world, and McGeady openly suggested that Intel's interference with Microsoft would aid the industry. McGeady admitted leaking confidential information to The New York Times journalist John Markoff and met with Netscape's Jim Clark to keep Netscape from being complacent about the threat from Microsoft. Documents show McGeady envisioning entrapping Microsoft in an antitrust suit, and later he indirectly volunteered to testify against Microsoft. McGeady was called again to testify in the 2001 remedy phase of the Microsoft trial. Other activities During 1996/97, McGeady was a visiting researcher at the MIT Media Lab, pursuing research on emergent and self-organizing behavior in computer networks. During this time he was a keynote speaker at the first Harvard Conference on the Internet and Society. His speech from the event, "The Digital Reformation: Freedom, Risk, Responsibility" was reprinted in the Harvard Journal of Law and Technology, and is credited by some as formulating early theories regarding what became social media. During 1997 and 1998, McGeady was a member of the National Research Council Computer Science and Technology Board Committee on Information Systems Trustworthiness, and is a co-author of its book on the subject. Mike Hawash case This section of a biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately.Find sources: "Steven McGeady" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) McGeady entered the news again in 2003 because of his defense of his former Intel employee Mike Hawash who was arrested at Intel in early 2003. McGeady organized a defense fund and protested Hawash's 6-week incommunicado detention without charge. Hawash ultimately pleaded guilty to conspiring to aid the Taliban in fighting against U.S. forces in Afghanistan, and received a reduced sentence in the so-called Portland Seven case in exchange for testifying against some of his co-conspirators. References ^ Computer Business Review Online, 13 November 1998 ^ "Stocks". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ Spencer, Malia (November 21, 2013). "AMN Healthcare acquires ShiftWise". Portland Business Journal. Retrieved October 16, 2019. ^ a b c d e Manning, Jeff (November 23, 1998). "Intel's Steven McGeady Bold Testimony, Uncertain Future". The Oregonian. Portland, Oregon. ^ "WWW5 Conference: Invited Presentations". www.w3.org. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ a b Markoff, John (July 2, 2001). "Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication". The New York Times. Retrieved October 16, 2019. ^ Heilemann, John (November 1, 2000). "The Truth, The Whole Truth, and Nothing But The Truth: The untold story of the Microsoft antitrust case and what it means for the future of Bill Gates and his company". Wired. Retrieved October 16, 2019. ^ "Summaries: The Microsoft Case". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ "US Dept. of Justice: Microsoft Engaged In A Predatory Campaign To Crush The Browser Threat To Its Operating System Monopoly" (PDF). Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ "Technology News, Analysis, Comments and Product Reviews for IT Professionals". ZDNet. Archived from the original on Jul 14, 2006. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ Paul Thurrott: Antitrust trial this week: Intel exec testifies Archived 2007-03-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Trial: The Microsoft Case". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ McGeady, Steven (Fall 1996). "The Digital Reformation: Total Freedom, Risk, and Responsibility" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Technology. 10 (1). Retrieved October 17, 2019. ^ "Cyberspace as tool and theatre in the struggle for social change". Sep 3, 2011. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. ^ "Trust In Cyberspace, Executive Summary, Nat'l Academy Press, 1999". Archived from the original on March 9, 2007. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020. External links Markoff, John (July 2, 2001). "Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication". The New York Times. Chandrasekaran, Rajiv (November 13, 1998). "Microsoft Attacks Credibility of Intel Exec". The Washington Post. McGeady: Microsoft threats killed Intel's multimedia software twice

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His notes and testimony contained colorful quotes by Microsoft executives threatening to \"cut off Netscape's air supply\" and Bill Gates' guess that \"this antitrust thing will blow over\". Attorney David Boies said that McGeady's testimony showed him to be \"an extremely conscientious, capable and honest witness\", while Microsoft portrayed him as someone with an \"axe to grind\".[1] McGeady left Intel in 2000, but later again gained notoriety for defending his former employee Mike Hawash after his arrest on federal terrorism charges. From its founding in 2002 until its sale in November 2013, he was Chairman of Portland-based healthcare technology firm ShiftWise.[2][3] He is a member of the Reed College Board of Trustees, the Portland Art Museum Board of Trustees, and the PNCA Board of Governors, and lives in Portland, Oregon.","title":"Steven McGeady"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baltimore, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Bethlehem Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel"},{"link_name":"Michigan City, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_City,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"Purdue University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oregonian-4"},{"link_name":"Reed College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_College"},{"link_name":"Portland, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oregonian-4"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"PDP-11/70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11/70"},{"link_name":"Howard Vollum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Vollum"},{"link_name":"Tektronix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektronix"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oregonian-4"},{"link_name":"Intel Architecture Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Architecture_Labs"},{"link_name":"Hillsboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsboro,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oregonian-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oregonian-4"}],"text":"Steven McGeady was born in Baltimore, Maryland. His father was a manager for Bethlehem Steel. After high school in Michigan City, Indiana he briefly attended Purdue University.[4] Then in 1976, he enrolled at Reed College in Portland, Oregon.[4] While attending Reed College from 1976 to 1980, he studied Physics and Philosophy but did not graduate. The majority of his time was occupied at the school's computer center where he and friends would experiment with a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-11/70 computer donated by Howard Vollum, the founder of Tektronix. Reed's computer was the first in the Northwest to run the Unix operating system, allowing McGeady to become an early developer in that environment.[4]After college, McGeady was a software engineering manager at Ann Arbor Terminals and Oregon based Tektronix. In 1985 he joined Intel, and in 1991 he co-founded the Intel Architecture Labs in Hillsboro.[4] In 1993, he was promoted to a vice president position at the company.[4]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"i960","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I960"},{"link_name":"Intel Architecture Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Architecture_Labs"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"multimedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia"},{"link_name":"data security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_security"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"Indeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeo"},{"link_name":"VxD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxD"},{"link_name":"DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX"},{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"Xerox PARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_PARC"},{"link_name":"digital video recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video_recorder"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Richard Stallman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"GNU Compiler Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection"},{"link_name":"GNU Debugger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Debugger"},{"link_name":"Cygnus Support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_Solutions"},{"link_name":"file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format"},{"link_name":"Andy Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Grove"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes_2001-07-02-6"},{"link_name":"Craig Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Barrett_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"At the time of his departure in June 2000, McGeady was Vice President of Intel's New Business Group. During 15 years at Intel, he led a variety of software, marketing, and investment initiatives for Intel, including the i960 RISC microprocessor software development, Intel's digital video and multimedia research, Intel's first Internet development group, and a group focused on Internet-based healthcare delivery.McGeady was a co-founder of the Intel Architecture Labs, a research and development group focused on advancing the personal-computer platform. McGeady ran the software, multimedia, data security, and Internet programs within this group for most of the 1990s. His group developed Intel's ProShare video-conferencing technology, the Indeo video compression technology, and Intel's Display Control Interface and VxD graphics software, later licensed to Microsoft to form the core of DirectX. His research group worked with the MIT Media Lab, Xerox PARC, and other groups, and developed early prototypes of digital video recorders (DVRs), video broadcast servers, and other technologies.[5]As manager of the i960 software development tools team from 1986 to 1996, McGeady was an early developer and promoter of open-source software, beginning with Richard Stallman's GNU C compiler and tools. McGeady wrote the i960 target for GNU Compiler Collection (gcc) and led the team that developed a suite of tools including a globally optimizing, trace-driven optimizer for gcc and the first GNU Debugger (gdb) port to a remote, stand-alone system. He hired Cygnus Support to integrate those changes into the mainline GNU tools and to improve the tools' ability to deal with many object file formats.McGeady was Vice-President of Intel's Multimedia, Communications, and Internet activities from 1990 through 1996, where he led the development of the first desktop video-compression software for the PC, Intel's early implementations of multimedia network broadcast protocols, the first products to combine television and web pages, online virtual communities, the Java language, and data security infrastructure.As a software engineer and developer, McGeady was often a minority voice at hardware-dominated Intel. In 1996 he was asked by then-CEO Andy Grove to take a job as Grove's assistant and is the only known person to turn the job down. Grove later said that he and Intel would have grasped the importance of the Internet to the company more quickly had McGeady taken the job.[6] McGeady had a less positive relationship with succeeding CEO Craig Barrett, reportedly telling Barrett to \"pound sand\" when Barrett instructed him not to testify in the Microsoft case.[7]","title":"Intel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Netscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape"},{"link_name":"Javasoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javasoft"},{"link_name":"Craig Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Barrett_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes_2001-07-02-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Paul Maritz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Maritz"},{"link_name":"embrace, extend, [and] extinguish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embrace,_extend,_and_extinguish"},{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"Netscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Paul Maritz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Maritz"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Andy Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Grove"},{"link_name":"Intel Architecture Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Architecture_Labs"},{"link_name":"IAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Architecture_Labs"},{"link_name":"Native Signal Processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Signal_Processing"},{"link_name":"MMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMX_(instruction_set)"},{"link_name":"predatory pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_pricing"},{"link_name":"IIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Services"},{"link_name":"Java virtual machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"John Markoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Markoff"}],"text":"In 1998, McGeady was a witness for the US Department of Justice in the U.S. vs. Microsoft antitrust case, where he testified about Microsoft's attempts to control Intel's software efforts as well as their behavior toward Netscape and Sun's Javasoft. He was the only executive from the PC industry to testify for the government. McGeady testified that Microsoft opposed Intel's 1995 work on a new technology called Native Signal Processing, which would have used instructions from Intel's chips, rather than software code from Microsoft, to run multimedia and communications programs more quickly.McGeady testified for the government and against Microsoft despite pressure from inside Intel. Intel's then-COO Craig Barrett instructed McGeady not to cooperate with Department of Justice attorneys, but \"He [told] Barrett to go stuff it\".[6]McGeady also claimed in his testimony[8] that Microsoft Vice-President Paul Maritz had described, in a meeting at Intel, Microsoft's plan to \"embrace, extend, [and] extinguish\" the HTML standard until it would be incompatible with the Netscape browser.[9] While this term had some currency before his 1998 testimony, this was its first prominent public exposure.[10] Documents presented by the government showed Microsoft was concerned about McGeady: \"Steve McGeady remains an issue for us. He is a champion of Java and a believer that the day of bloatware is over\", wrote Microsoft VP Paul Maritz in an email to Bill Gates. \"He has more IQ than most [people at Intel]\".[11]In November 1998, McGeady testified that Microsoft leveraged its monopoly power in Windows to impede Intel's ability to compete with Microsoft in areas involving system software and influence of OEMs:[12]McGeady testified that Microsoft feared competition from Intel's software development: At an August 2, 1995 meeting Bill Gates allegedly threatened to terminate Windows support for Intel's new microprocessors unless they were able to \"get alignment\" between Intel and MS on Intel's Internet and communications software programs, and Gates allegedly told Andy Grove to shut down the Intel Architecture Labs, the organization driving Intel's Internet program.\nMcGeady testified that Microsoft was upset that Intel \"shifting the software boundary\" without Microsoft's permission: IAL's development of Native Signal Processing (NSP) program caused this concern. NSP was a layer of software that interfaced with both the Windows OS and the hardware in order to support real-time audio, real-time video, and 3D graphics. According to McGeady, NSP threatened Microsoft because it was software at the operating system level, while Microsoft believed they \"owned software to the metal\", (i.e., to the hardware level). (10AM17, 12PM13) Ultimately, Andy Grove admitted that Intel \"caved\" by retracting NSP.\nMicrosoft was concerned about IAL: Gates allegedly said regarding Intel Architecture Labs: \"Having 700 software engineers running around in the industry is an okay thing as long as Microsoft knows what they're doing first\". According to McGeady, they did not want to relinquish control over any application interfaces to Intel. To take advantage of multimedia hardware, Intel was writing device drivers that allowed application developers direct control of (e.g.) graphics and video devices. To prevent this Microsoft threatened to continue bad-mouthing IAL's software and to withhold support for Intel's MMX microprocessor.\nMcGeady testified that Microsoft used its monopoly power in Windows to restrict support for Netscape and Java, and to their plans to compete with Netscape through predatory pricing, through the leveraging of their Windows OS monopoly, and through the creation of incompatible HTML standards:\nNetscape: McGeady testified that Microsoft generally discouraged Intel from working with Netscape, and that Gates allegedly urged Grove to push Intel's internal information technology group away from Netscape's server toward Microsoft's IIS, and stressed that it was \"very important\" that Intel \"NOT ever publicly say they are standardizing on Netscape browsers\". McGeady testified to Microsoft's three-prong strategy to defeat Netscape: they allegedly stated that they would \"cut off Netscape's air supply\" by giving away Internet Explorer for free, preventing Netscape from deriving any revenue from its browser; that Microsoft asserted they would \"fight with the OS and the apps arm\", meaning they would create dependencies between Windows and the browser that would create advantages for their browser over Netscape's; and MS's professed strategy of \"embrace, extend, extinguish\", planning to \"extend\" the HTML standard to the point where it would be incompatible with the Netscape browser.\nJava: McGeady testified that Microsoft made it clear to Intel that support for Java would be a \"show stopper\" in Intel's relationship with Microsoft, threatening to terminate cooperation that Intel required for new microprocessors. Microsoft allegedly proposed that Intel help them prevent the Java component model from becoming a de facto standard by developing a Java system incompatible with Sun's, defeating Java's \"write once, run anywhere\" capabilities, and tying Java to Windows. Microsoft would distribute this Java virtual machine as part of Internet Explorer, a variant of MS's \"embrace, extend, extinguish\" strategy. When Microsoft learned that McGeady's group at Intel had implemented its own Java VM and multimedia class libraries that ran very fast on the Intel architecture, Microsoft became very upset. McGeady testified that Microsoft pressed Intel to stop this work.The DoJ made four major arguments based on McGeady's testimony:Intel and its software development effort were hampered by Microsoft's bully tactics;\nMicrosoft used Intel against Netscape in the \"Browser Wars\";\nMcGeady was an expert witness on software standards, innovation and competition; and\nMcGeady felt Microsoft hampered Java development.Microsoft, in their response to McGeady's testimony, made the point that his testimony contained several pro-Microsoft threads and that Intel practiced similar cross-product subsidization, distributing free Intel Architecture Labs software funded by microprocessor revenues. They also claimed that Microsoft's influence over Intel and its microprocessors was unrelated to the downstream software segment.Cross-examination of McGeady revealed conflicting interpretations of many Microsoft/Intel meetings, differing reasons for Intel's decisions, and for McGeady's anti-Microsoft bias:Microsoft defended its attempts to coordinate strategy with Intel and tried to dispel the bully image;\nMicrosoft presented reasons for the discontinuation of Intel's Native Signal Processing initiative;\nMicrosoft highlighted Intel practices that resemble Microsoft's alleged anti-competitive behavior;\nMicrosoft defended its Java program; and\nMicrosoft aggressively attacked McGeady to discredit him as a witness.McGeady's notes suggested that portions of his testimony could be considered embellishments or stories heard in other contexts, and he was frequently forced to suggest that he had a recollection of meetings and conversations superior to that of other Intel officials, as well as Netscape officers. Microsoft revealed Intel documents that painted McGeady as a \"prima donna\" who was criticized for his department's belligerence toward Microsoft.Microsoft claimed that McGeady's actions suggested that he considered himself above Intel policy and an extra-corporate defender of truth and justice in the Internet world, and McGeady openly suggested that Intel's interference with Microsoft would aid the industry. McGeady admitted leaking confidential information to The New York Times journalist John Markoff and met with Netscape's Jim Clark to keep Netscape from being complacent about the threat from Microsoft. Documents show McGeady envisioning entrapping Microsoft in an antitrust suit, and later he indirectly volunteered to testify against Microsoft.McGeady was called again to testify in the 2001 remedy phase of the Microsoft trial.","title":"Microsoft trials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"National Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"During 1996/97, McGeady was a visiting researcher at the MIT Media Lab, pursuing research on emergent and self-organizing behavior in computer networks. During this time he was a keynote speaker at the first Harvard Conference on the Internet and Society. His speech from the event, \"The Digital Reformation: Freedom, Risk, Responsibility\" was reprinted in the Harvard Journal of Law and Technology,[13] and is credited by some as formulating early theories regarding what became social media.[14]During 1997 and 1998, McGeady was a member of the National Research Council Computer Science and Technology Board Committee on Information Systems Trustworthiness, and is a co-author of its book on the subject.[15]","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mike Hawash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Hawash"},{"link_name":"Taliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Portland Seven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Seven"}],"text":"McGeady entered the news again in 2003 because of his defense of his former Intel employee Mike Hawash who was arrested at Intel in early 2003. McGeady organized a defense fund and protested Hawash's 6-week incommunicado detention without charge. Hawash ultimately pleaded guilty to conspiring to aid the Taliban in fighting against U.S. forces in Afghanistan, and received a reduced sentence in the so-called Portland Seven case in exchange for testifying against some of his co-conspirators.","title":"Mike Hawash case"}]

[]

[{"reference":"\"Stocks\". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/markets/stocks","url_text":"\"Stocks\""}]},{"reference":"Spencer, Malia (November 21, 2013). \"AMN Healthcare acquires ShiftWise\". Portland Business Journal. Retrieved October 16, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/portland/blog/2013/11/amn-healthcare-acquires-shiftwise.html","url_text":"\"AMN Healthcare acquires ShiftWise\""}]},{"reference":"Manning, Jeff (November 23, 1998). \"Intel's Steven McGeady Bold Testimony, Uncertain Future\". The Oregonian. Portland, Oregon.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"WWW5 Conference: Invited Presentations\". www.w3.org. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.w3.org/Conferences/WWW5/fich_html/invited-speakers.html","url_text":"\"WWW5 Conference: Invited Presentations\""}]},{"reference":"Markoff, John (July 2, 2001). \"Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 16, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Markoff","url_text":"Markoff, John"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/02/business/star-witness-against-microsoft-finds-a-wary-vindication.html","url_text":"\"Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication\""}]},{"reference":"Heilemann, John (November 1, 2000). \"The Truth, The Whole Truth, and Nothing But The Truth: The untold story of the Microsoft antitrust case and what it means for the future of Bill Gates and his company\". Wired. Retrieved October 16, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Heilemann","url_text":"Heilemann, John"},{"url":"https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.11/microsoft_pr.html","url_text":"\"The Truth, The Whole Truth, and Nothing But The Truth: The untold story of the Microsoft antitrust case and what it means for the future of Bill Gates and his company\""}]},{"reference":"\"Summaries: The Microsoft Case\". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://cyber.harvard.edu/msdoj/transcript/summaries2.html","url_text":"\"Summaries: The Microsoft Case\""}]},{"reference":"\"US Dept. of Justice: Microsoft Engaged In A Predatory Campaign To Crush The Browser Threat To Its Operating System Monopoly\" (PDF). Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f2600/v-a.pdf","url_text":"\"US Dept. of Justice: Microsoft Engaged In A Predatory Campaign To Crush The Browser Threat To Its Operating System Monopoly\""}]},{"reference":"\"Technology News, Analysis, Comments and Product Reviews for IT Professionals\". ZDNet. Archived from the original on Jul 14, 2006. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060714161912/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9595_22-512681.html?legacy=zdnn","url_text":"\"Technology News, Analysis, Comments and Product Reviews for IT Professionals\""},{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Trial: The Microsoft Case\". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://cyber.harvard.edu/msdoj/trial.html","url_text":"\"Trial: The Microsoft Case\""}]},{"reference":"McGeady, Steven (Fall 1996). \"The Digital Reformation: Total Freedom, Risk, and Responsibility\" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Technology. 10 (1). Retrieved October 17, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v10/10HarvJLTech137.pdf","url_text":"\"The Digital Reformation: Total Freedom, Risk, and Responsibility\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cyberspace as tool and theatre in the struggle for social change\". Sep 3, 2011. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://socialresistance.wordpress.com/2011/09/03/cyberspace-as-tool-and-theatre-in-the-struggle-for-social-change/","url_text":"\"Cyberspace as tool and theatre in the struggle for social change\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trust In Cyberspace, Executive Summary, Nat'l Academy Press, 1999\". Archived from the original on March 9, 2007. Retrieved Oct 30, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20070309113838/http://books.nap.edu//html/trust/trustsum.htm","url_text":"\"Trust In Cyberspace, Executive Summary, Nat'l Academy Press, 1999\""},{"url":"http://books.nap.edu//html/trust/trustsum.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Markoff, John (July 2, 2001). \"Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Markoff","url_text":"Markoff, John"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/02/business/star-witness-against-microsoft-finds-a-wary-vindication.html","url_text":"\"Star Witness Against Microsoft Finds a Wary Vindication\""}]},{"reference":"Chandrasekaran, Rajiv (November 13, 1998). \"Microsoft Attacks Credibility of Intel Exec\". The Washington Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/business/longterm/microsoft/stories/1998/microsoft111398.htm","url_text":"\"Microsoft Attacks Credibility of Intel Exec\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEMO_(museum)

NEMO (museum)

["1 History","2 Exhibitions","3 References","4 External links"]

Coordinates: 52°22′26.69″N 4°54′44.46″E / 52.3740806°N 4.9123500°E / 52.3740806; 4.9123500Science centre in Amsterdam, Netherlands This article is about the science centre in Amsterdam. For other uses, see Nemo. This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "NEMO" museum – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)NEMO Science MuseumNemo's building was designed by Renzo PianoLocation within the city center of AmsterdamEstablished1923LocationOosterdok 2Amsterdam, NetherlandsCoordinates52°22′26.69″N 4°54′44.46″E / 52.3740806°N 4.9123500°E / 52.3740806; 4.9123500TypeScience centerVisitors670,000 (2017 est.)DirectorMichiel BuchelPresidentAnnemieke RoobeekPublic transit accessAmsterdam CentraalNearest car parkParkeergarage OosterdokWebsitewww.e-nemo.nl NEMO Science Museum (from Latin: Nemo, lit. 'Nobody') is a science centre in Amsterdam, Netherlands. It is located in the Oosterdokseiland neighbourhood in the Amsterdam-Centrum borough, situated between the Oosterdokseiland and the Kattenburg. The museum has its origins in 1923, and is housed in a building designed by Renzo Piano since 1997. It contains five floors of hands-on science exhibitions and is the largest science center in the Netherlands. It attracts around 670,000 visitors annually, which makes it the eighth most visited museum in the Netherlands. History The museum has its origins in 1923, when the Museum van den Arbeid (English: Museum of Labor) was opened by the artist Herman Heijenbrock on the Rozengracht in Amsterdam. In 1954 the name was changed to the NINT or Nederlands Instituut voor Nijverheid en Techniek (English: Dutch Institute for Labor and Technology), and in 1997 it changed again to newMetropolis. The name Science Center Nemo was introduced in 2000. In 2016, the name was changed to NEMO Science Museum. Exhibitions Set-up of the 'chain reaction' on the first floor of the museum. Exhibition about animal brains on the fourth floor of the museum. Inside the lobby there is a small cafeteria and a gift shop which sells small scale copies of some of the attractions at Nemo like the giant domino set and the DNA experiments. The main concepts on the first floor are DNA and chain reactions which include a room with giant dominoes with contraptions like a giant bell and a flying car. Also on the first floor is a show on the half-hour, which features a large chain reaction circuit. On the second floor is a ball factory where small plastic balls are sent on a circuit where participants are to group them in weight, size, and color and then send them to a packing facility where the balls go into a small metal box. There are five stations at which the people stick magnetic barcodes on the boxes and send them off to start the circuit again. On the second level, there is also a small cafeteria and a movie and performance hall where various acts and movies about science are shown. The second floor also features a display on the water cycle a display on electricity and a display on metals and buildings. The third floor has a giant science lab in which people can do science experiments such as testing vitamin C in certain substances and looking at DNA. There is also a small section on money and business. On the fourth floor is a section about the human mind, it has such experiments as memory tests, mind problems, and sense testers. The fourth floor is quite dark which adds to the eeriness of the surroundings. The fifth floor or upper deck has a cafeteria, a children's play area and a great view of the city surroundings. References ^ "Record aantal bezoekers voor NEMO Science Museum in 2017 Archived 2018-09-08 at the Wayback Machine" (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum press release, 11 December 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2018. ^ a b Feiten & cijfers Archived 2012-05-11 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum. Retrieved 24 January 2012. ^ Openbaar vervoer Archived 2011-11-12 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum. Retrieved 24 April 2012. ^ Met de auto Archived 2012-01-19 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum. Retrieved 24 January 2012. ^ Geschiedenis Archived 2013-08-06 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum. Retrieved 24 January 2012. ^ Nieuwe visuele stijl Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch), NEMO Science Museum. Retrieved 20 April 2016. External links Media related to NEMO at Wikimedia Commons Official website Authority control databases ISNI

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_file_support

Large-file support

["1 Details","2 Adoption","3 Related problems","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (February 2020) Large-file support (LFS) is the term frequently applied to the ability to create files larger than either 2 or 4 GiB on 32-bit filesystems. Details Traditionally, many operating systems and their underlying file system implementations used 32-bit integers to represent file sizes and positions. Consequently, no file could be larger than 232 − 1 bytes (4 GiB − 1). In many implementations, the problem was exacerbated by treating the sizes as signed numbers, which further lowered the limit to 231 − 1 bytes (2 GiB − 1). Files that were too large for 32-bit operating systems to handle came to be known as large files. While the limit was quite acceptable at a time when hard disks were smaller, the general increase in storage capacity combined with increased server and desktop file usage, especially for database and multimedia files, led to intense pressure for OS vendors to overcome the limitation. In 1996, multiple vendors responded by forming an industry initiative known as the Large File Summit to support large files on POSIX (at the time Windows NT already supported large files on NTFS), an obvious backronym of "LFS". The summit was tasked to define a standardized way to switch to 64-bit numbers to represent file sizes. This switch caused deployment issues and required design modifications, the consequences of which can still be seen: The change to 64-bit file sizes frequently required incompatible changes to file system layout, which meant that large-file support sometimes necessitated a file system change. For example, the FAT32 file system does not support files larger than 4 GiB−1 (with older applications even only 2 GiB−1); the variant FAT32+ does support larger files (up to 256 GiB−1), but (so far) is only supported in some versions of DR-DOS, so users of Microsoft Windows have to use NTFS or exFAT instead. To support binary compatibility with old applications, operating system interfaces had to retain their use of 32-bit file sizes and new interfaces had to be designed specifically for large-file support. To support writing portable code that makes use of LFS where possible, C standard library authors devised mechanisms that, depending on preprocessor constants, transparently redefined the functions to the 64-bit large-file aware ones. Many old interfaces, especially C-based ones, explicitly specified argument types in a way that did not allow straightforward or transparent transition to 64-bit types. For example, the C functions fseek and ftell operate on file positions of type long int, which is typically 32 bits wide on 32-bit platforms, and cannot be made larger without sacrificing backward compatibility. (This was resolved by introducing new functions fseeko and ftello in POSIX. On Windows machines, under Visual C++, functions _fseeki64 and _ftelli64 are used.) Adoption The usage of the large-file API in 32-bit programs had been incomplete for a long time. An analysis did show in 2002 that many base libraries of operating systems were still shipped without large-file support thereby limiting applications using them. The much-used zlib library started to support 64-bit large-files on 32-bit platform not before 2006. The problem disappeared slowly with PCs and workstations moving completely to 64-bit computing. Microsoft Windows Server 2008 has been the last server version to be shipped in 32-bit. Redhat Enterprise Linux 7 was published in 2014 only as a 64-bit operating system. Ubuntu Linux stopped delivering a 32-bit variant in 2019. Nvidia stopped to develop 32-bit drivers in 2018 and deliver updates after January 2019. Apple stopped developing 32-bit Mac OS versions in 2018 delivering macOS Mojave only as a 64-bit operating system. The end-of-life for Windows 10 has been set to 2025 on the desktop which is related to the latest upgrades from old systems like Windows 7 & Windows 8 in January 2020 as some of those system ran on old computers built on the i386 architecture. Windows 11 however will ship only as a 64-bit operating system since its first version in 2021. A similar development can be seen in the mobile area. Google required to support 64-bit versions of applications in their app store by August 2019, which allows to discontinue 32-bit support for Android later. The shift towards 64-bit started in 2014 when all new processors were designed to a 64-bit architecture and Android 5 ("Lollipop") was published in that year providing a fitting 64-bit variant of the operating system. Apple had made shift in the year before starting to produce the 64-Bit Apple A7 by 2013. Google started to deliver the development environment for Linux only in 64-bit by 2015. In May 2019 the share of Android versions below 5 had fallen to ten percent. As app developers concentrate on a single compilation variant, many manufacturers started to require Android 5 as the minimum version by mid 2019, for example Niantic. Subsequently the 32-bit versions were hard to get. Except for embedded systems with their special programs, the consideration of varying large-file support becomes obsolete in program code after 2020. Related problems The year 2038 problem is well known for another case where a 32-bit "long" on 32-bit platforms will lead into problems. Just like the large-file limitation it will get obsolete when systems move to 64-bit only. In the meantime a 64-bit timestamp was introduced. In the Win32 API it is visible in functions having a "64" suffix along the earlier "32" suffix. When large-file support was added to the Win32 API it has led to functions having an additional "i64" suffix which sometimes makes for four combinations.(findfirst32, findfirst64, findfirst32i64, findfirst64i32). By comparison the UNIX98 API introduces functions with a "64" suffix when "_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE" is used. Related to the large-file API there is a limitation of block numbers for mass storage media. With a common size of 512 bytes per data block the barrier resulting from 32-bit numbers did occur later. When hard disk drives reached a size of 2 terabyte (around 2010) the master boot record had to be replaced by the GUID Partition Table which uses 64-bit for the LBA numbers (logical block address). On Unix-like operating systems it did also require to enlarge the inode numbers which are used in some functions (stat64, setrlimit64). The Linux kernel introduced that in 2001 leading to version 2.4 which was picked up by the glibc in that year. As the large-file support and large-disk support was introduced at the same time the GNU C Library exports 64-bit inode structures on 32-bit architectures at the same time when the Unix LFS API is activated in program code. When the kernel moved to 64-bit inodes the file system ext3 used them internally in the driver by 2001. However the inode format on the storage media itself was stuck at 32-bit numbers. As mass storage devices moved to the Advanced Format of 4 kilobyte per block the actual limit of that file system format is at 8 or 16 terabyte. Handling larger disk partitions requires the usage of a different file system like XFS which was designed with 64-bit inodes from the start allowing for exabyte files and partitions. The first 16 terabyte magnetic disk drives were delivered by mid 2019. Solid-state drive with 32 TiB for data centers were available as early as 2016 with some manufacturers forecasting 100 TiB SSD by 2020. See also 2 GB limit RF64 – 64-bit support for BWF WAV audio files Comparison of large-file support in text editors FAT32+ File size Long filename support (LFN) Year 2038 problem References ^ Solaris OS group (March 1996). "Large Files in Solaris: A White Paper" (PDF). Sun Microsystems. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-28. ^ Kuhnt, Udo; Georgiev, Luchezar I.; Davis, Jeremy (2007). "FAT+ draft revision 2" (2 ed.). Archived from the original (FATPLUS.TXT) on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2015-08-05. ^ Kuhnt, Udo (2011-07-21). "DR-DOS/OpenDOS Enhancement Project". Archived from the original on 2016-06-04. Retrieved 2015-04-20. ^ "Adding Large File Support to the Single UNIX Specification". X/Open Base Working Group. 1996-08-14. Retrieved 2006-09-10. ^ "Distro Makers". 2002-01-13. ^ https://www.zlib.net/ChangeLog.txt ^ Kolokythas, Panagiotis (2007-05-28). "Windows Server 2008: Microsofts letztes 32-Bit-Betriebssystem für Server" (in German). PC Welt. ^ "Are 32-bit applications supported in RHEL 7 or later releases?". Red Hat. February 2014. ^ Cooke, Will (2019-06-02). "Intel 32bit packages on Ubuntu from 19.10 onwards". Canonical. ^ Addams, Matthew (2018-04-12). "Nvidia discontinues support for 32-bit Windows platforms". Windows Report. ^ Silver, Steven (2018-06-05). "Mojave is Apple's last version of macOS to support 32-bit apps". Apple Insider. ^ "Der Support für Windows 7 endet am 14. Januar 2020" (in German). Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-02-09. ^ Sebayang, Andreas (2019-01-17). "Auf dem Weg zu reinen 64-Bit-Android-Apps" (in German). Golem. ^ a b mw (2019-01-17). "Google kündigt Ende von 32-Bit-Android-Apps per 2021 an" (in German). IT Magazin. ^ "64-Bit-Android: Diese Prozessoren gibt es, diese Veränderungen kommen" (in German). Android User. 2014-08-26. ^ "Platform-tools 23.1.0 Linux changed to 64-bit without notice". Android Public Tracker. 2015-12-11. It turns out the android-sdk-linux/platform-tools content is 32-bit ELF in 23.0.1 but 64-bit ELF in 23.1_rc1 and 23.1.0. I set ANDROID_EMULATOR_FORCE_32BIT=true 23.0.1 is the last 32-bit Linux build. ^ Tenzer, F. (2019-11-14). "Anteile der verschiedenen Android-Versionen an allen Geräten mit Android OS weltweit im Zeitraum 01. bis 07. Mai 2019" (in German). Statista. ^ Del Favero, Elia (2019-06-10). "Ingress und Pokémon Go brauchen bald mindestens Android 5". ^ "Why is 32bit 0.159.0 version apk still not available?". TheSilphRoad/. Reddit. December 2019. ^ "C Run-time library (CRT) reference: findfirst". Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-02-17. ^ a b c Jaeger, Andreas (2015-02-15). "Large File Support in Linux". SuSE GmbH. ^ linux/bits/stat.h: /* Note stat64 has the same shape as stat for x86-64. */ ^ Rutter, M. J. "The 64 bit inode problem". Retrieved 2020-02-10. ^ "Ext4 Howto". kernel.org. 2019-02-11. Although very large fileystems are on ext4's feature list, current e2fsprogs currently still limits the filesystem size to 2^32 blocks (16TiB for a 4KiB block filesystem). Allowing filesystems larger than 16T is one of the very next high-priority features to complete for ext4. ^ Scherer, Thomas (2016-08-15). "Samsungs 32-TB-SSD: Der Anfang vom Ende der Festplatte" (in German). Elektor. External links Jaeger, Andreas (2005-02-15). "Large File Support in Linux". SuSE GmbH. Retrieved 2006-09-10.

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Consequently, no file could be larger than 232 − 1 bytes (4 GiB − 1). In many implementations, the problem was exacerbated by treating the sizes as signed numbers, which further lowered the limit to 231 − 1 bytes (2 GiB − 1). Files that were too large for 32-bit operating systems to handle came to be known as large files.While the limit was quite acceptable at a time when hard disks were smaller, the general increase in storage capacity combined with increased server and desktop file usage, especially for database and multimedia files, led to intense pressure for OS vendors to overcome the limitation.In 1996, multiple vendors responded by forming an industry initiative known as the Large File Summit to support large files on POSIX (at the time Windows NT already supported large files on NTFS), an obvious backronym of \"LFS\". The summit was tasked to define a standardized way to switch to 64-bit numbers to represent file sizes.[1]This switch caused deployment issues and required design modifications, the consequences of which can still be seen:The change to 64-bit file sizes frequently required incompatible changes to file system layout, which meant that large-file support sometimes necessitated a file system change. For example, the FAT32 file system does not support files larger than 4 GiB−1 (with older applications even only 2 GiB−1); the variant FAT32+ does support larger files (up to 256 GiB−1), but (so far) is only supported in some versions of DR-DOS,[2][3] so users of Microsoft Windows have to use NTFS or exFAT instead.\nTo support binary compatibility with old applications, operating system interfaces had to retain their use of 32-bit file sizes and new interfaces had to be designed specifically for large-file support.\nTo support writing portable code that makes use of LFS where possible, C standard library authors devised mechanisms that, depending on preprocessor constants, transparently redefined the functions to the 64-bit large-file aware ones.\nMany old interfaces, especially C-based ones, explicitly specified argument types in a way that did not allow straightforward or transparent transition to 64-bit types. For example, the C functions fseek and ftell operate on file positions of type long int, which is typically 32 bits wide on 32-bit platforms, and cannot be made larger without sacrificing backward compatibility. (This was resolved by introducing new functions fseeko and ftello in POSIX.[4] On Windows machines, under Visual C++, functions _fseeki64 and _ftelli64 are used.)","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largefile_Distros-5"},{"link_name":"zlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlib"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZLib_Changelog-6"},{"link_name":"64-bit computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit_computing"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kolokythas_2007-7"},{"link_name":"Redhat Enterprise Linux 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux#Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux_7.x"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RHEL_2014_32bit-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cooke_2019_32bit-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Addams_2018_Nvidia-10"},{"link_name":"macOS Mojave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS_Mojave"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Silver_2018_Apple-11"},{"link_name":"end-of-life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-of-life_(product)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_Windows7-12"},{"link_name":"Windows 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sebayang_2019_Android-13"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW_2014-14"},{"link_name":"Android 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_Lollipop"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Android_User_2014-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW_2014-14"},{"link_name":"Apple A7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A7"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APT_2015-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tenzer_2019-17"},{"link_name":"app","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_app"},{"link_name":"compilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Favero_2019-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reddit_2019-19"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systems"}],"text":"The usage of the large-file API in 32-bit programs had been incomplete for a long time. An analysis did show in 2002 that many base libraries of operating systems were still shipped without large-file support thereby limiting applications using them.[5] The much-used zlib library started to support 64-bit large-files on 32-bit platform not before 2006.[6]The problem disappeared slowly with PCs and workstations moving completely to 64-bit computing. Microsoft Windows Server 2008 has been the last server version to be shipped in 32-bit.[7] Redhat Enterprise Linux 7 was published in 2014 only as a 64-bit operating system.[8] Ubuntu Linux stopped delivering a 32-bit variant in 2019.[9] Nvidia stopped to develop 32-bit drivers in 2018 and deliver updates after January 2019.[10] Apple stopped developing 32-bit Mac OS versions in 2018 delivering macOS Mojave only as a 64-bit operating system.[11] The end-of-life for Windows 10 has been set to 2025 on the desktop which is related to the latest upgrades from old systems like Windows 7 & Windows 8 in January 2020 as some of those system ran on old computers built on the i386 architecture.[12] Windows 11 however will ship only as a 64-bit operating system since its first version in 2021.A similar development can be seen in the mobile area. Google required to support 64-bit versions of applications in their app store by August 2019,[13] which allows to discontinue 32-bit support for Android later.[14] The shift towards 64-bit started in 2014 when all new processors were designed to a 64-bit architecture and Android 5 (\"Lollipop\") was published in that year providing a fitting 64-bit variant of the operating system.[15][14] Apple had made shift in the year before starting to produce the 64-Bit Apple A7 by 2013. Google started to deliver the development environment for Linux only in 64-bit by 2015.[16] In May 2019 the share of Android versions below 5 had fallen to ten percent.[17] As app developers concentrate on a single compilation variant, many manufacturers started to require Android 5 as the minimum version by mid 2019, for example Niantic.[18] Subsequently the 32-bit versions were hard to get.[19]Except for embedded systems with their special programs, the consideration of varying large-file support becomes obsolete in program code after 2020.","title":"Adoption"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"year 2038 problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_2038_problem"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2019_CRT-20"},{"link_name":"mass storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_storage"},{"link_name":"data block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_(data_storage)"},{"link_name":"hard disk drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"master boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_boot_record"},{"link_name":"GUID Partition Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"},{"link_name":"logical block address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing"},{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"inode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inode"},{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lfs_2015-21"},{"link_name":"GNU C Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_C_Library"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Linux_stat.h-22"},{"link_name":"ext3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ext3"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lfs_2015-21"},{"link_name":"Advanced Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Format"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lfs_2015-21"},{"link_name":"XFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XFS"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rutter_2020_inode-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ext4_2019-24"},{"link_name":"Solid-state drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scherer_2016-25"}],"text":"The year 2038 problem is well known for another case where a 32-bit \"long\" on 32-bit platforms will lead into problems. Just like the large-file limitation it will get obsolete when systems move to 64-bit only. In the meantime a 64-bit timestamp was introduced. In the Win32 API it is visible in functions having a \"64\" suffix along the earlier \"32\" suffix. When large-file support was added to the Win32 API it has led to functions having an additional \"i64\" suffix which sometimes makes for four combinations.(findfirst32, findfirst64, findfirst32i64, findfirst64i32).[20] By comparison the UNIX98 API introduces functions with a \"64\" suffix when \"_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE\" is used.Related to the large-file API there is a limitation of block numbers for mass storage media. With a common size of 512 bytes per data block the barrier resulting from 32-bit numbers did occur later. When hard disk drives reached a size of 2 terabyte (around 2010) the master boot record had to be replaced by the GUID Partition Table which uses 64-bit for the LBA numbers (logical block address). On Unix-like operating systems it did also require to enlarge the inode numbers which are used in some functions (stat64, setrlimit64). The Linux kernel introduced that in 2001 leading to version 2.4 which was picked up by the glibc in that year.[21] As the large-file support and large-disk support was introduced at the same time the GNU C Library exports 64-bit inode structures on 32-bit architectures at the same time when the Unix LFS API is activated in program code.[22]When the kernel moved to 64-bit inodes the file system ext3 used them internally in the driver by 2001. However the inode format on the storage media itself was stuck at 32-bit numbers.[21] As mass storage devices moved to the Advanced Format of 4 kilobyte per block the actual limit of that file system format is at 8 or 16 terabyte.[21] Handling larger disk partitions requires the usage of a different file system like XFS which was designed with 64-bit inodes from the start allowing for exabyte files and partitions.[23][24] The first 16 terabyte magnetic disk drives were delivered by mid 2019. Solid-state drive with 32 TiB for data centers were available as early as 2016 with some manufacturers forecasting 100 TiB SSD by 2020.[25]","title":"Related problems"}]

[]

[{"title":"2 GB limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_GB_limit"},{"title":"RF64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF64"},{"title":"BWF WAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Wave_Format"},{"title":"Comparison of large-file support in text editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_text_editors#Extra_features"},{"title":"FAT32+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT32%2B"},{"title":"File size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_size"},{"title":"Long filename support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_filename_support"},{"title":"Year 2038 problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_2038_problem"}]

[{"reference":"Solaris OS group (March 1996). \"Large Files in Solaris: A White Paper\" (PDF). Sun Microsystems. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070228204423/http://www.sun.com/software/whitepapers/wp-largefiles/largefiles.pdf","url_text":"\"Large Files in Solaris: A White Paper\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems","url_text":"Sun Microsystems"},{"url":"http://www.sun.com/software/whitepapers/wp-largefiles/largefiles.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kuhnt, Udo; Georgiev, Luchezar I.; Davis, Jeremy (2007). \"FAT+ draft revision 2\" (2 ed.). Archived from the original (FATPLUS.TXT) on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2015-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150219123449/http://www.fdos.org/kernel/fatplus.txt","url_text":"\"FAT+ draft revision 2\""},{"url":"http://www.fdos.org/kernel/fatplus.txt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kuhnt, Udo (2011-07-21). \"DR-DOS/OpenDOS Enhancement Project\". Archived from the original on 2016-06-04. Retrieved 2015-04-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160604014846/http://www.drdosprojects.de/","url_text":"\"DR-DOS/OpenDOS Enhancement Project\""},{"url":"http://www.drdosprojects.de/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Adding Large File Support to the Single UNIX Specification\". X/Open Base Working Group. 1996-08-14. Retrieved 2006-09-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://opengroup.org/platform/lfs.html","url_text":"\"Adding Large File Support to the Single UNIX Specification\""}]},{"reference":"\"Distro Makers\". 2002-01-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://ac-archive.sourceforge.net/largefile/distros.html","url_text":"\"Distro Makers\""}]},{"reference":"Kolokythas, Panagiotis (2007-05-28). \"Windows Server 2008: Microsofts letztes 32-Bit-Betriebssystem für Server\" (in German). PC Welt.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcwelt.de/news/Windows-Server-2008-Microsofts-letztes-32-Bit-Betriebssystem-fuer-Server-334946.html","url_text":"\"Windows Server 2008: Microsofts letztes 32-Bit-Betriebssystem für Server\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Welt","url_text":"PC Welt"}]},{"reference":"\"Are 32-bit applications supported in RHEL 7 or later releases?\". Red Hat. February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://access.redhat.com/solutions/509373","url_text":"\"Are 32-bit applications supported in RHEL 7 or later releases?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat","url_text":"Red Hat"}]},{"reference":"Cooke, Will (2019-06-02). \"Intel 32bit packages on Ubuntu from 19.10 onwards\". Canonical.","urls":[{"url":"https://discourse.ubuntu.com/t/intel-32bit-packages-on-ubuntu-from-19-10-onwards/11263","url_text":"\"Intel 32bit packages on Ubuntu from 19.10 onwards\""}]},{"reference":"Addams, Matthew (2018-04-12). \"Nvidia discontinues support for 32-bit Windows platforms\". Windows Report.","urls":[{"url":"https://windowsreport.com/nvidia-32-bit-windows-end-support/","url_text":"\"Nvidia discontinues support for 32-bit Windows platforms\""}]},{"reference":"Silver, Steven (2018-06-05). \"Mojave is Apple's last version of macOS to support 32-bit apps\". Apple Insider.","urls":[{"url":"https://appleinsider.com/articles/18/06/05/mojave-is-apples-last-version-of-macos-to-support-32-bit-apps","url_text":"\"Mojave is Apple's last version of macOS to support 32-bit apps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Insider","url_text":"Apple Insider"}]},{"reference":"\"Der Support für Windows 7 endet am 14. Januar 2020\" (in German). Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-02-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://support.microsoft.com/de-de/help/4057281/windows-7-support-ended-on-january-14-2020","url_text":"\"Der Support für Windows 7 endet am 14. Januar 2020\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Sebayang, Andreas (2019-01-17). \"Auf dem Weg zu reinen 64-Bit-Android-Apps\" (in German). Golem.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.golem.de/news/google-auf-dem-weg-zum-reinen-64-bit-android-1901-138792.html","url_text":"\"Auf dem Weg zu reinen 64-Bit-Android-Apps\""}]},{"reference":"mw (2019-01-17). \"Google kündigt Ende von 32-Bit-Android-Apps per 2021 an\" (in German). IT Magazin.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itmagazine.ch/Artikel/68830/Google_kuendigt_Ende_von_32-Bit-Android-Apps_per_2021_an.html","url_text":"\"Google kündigt Ende von 32-Bit-Android-Apps per 2021 an\""}]},{"reference":"\"64-Bit-Android: Diese Prozessoren gibt es, diese Veränderungen kommen\" (in German). Android User. 2014-08-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.android-user.de/64-bit-android-diese-prozessoren-gibt-es-diese-veraenderungen-kommen/","url_text":"\"64-Bit-Android: Diese Prozessoren gibt es, diese Veränderungen kommen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Platform-tools 23.1.0 Linux changed to 64-bit without notice\". Android Public Tracker. 2015-12-11. It turns out the android-sdk-linux/platform-tools content is 32-bit ELF in 23.0.1 but 64-bit ELF in 23.1_rc1 and 23.1.0. […] I set ANDROID_EMULATOR_FORCE_32BIT=true […] 23.0.1 is the last 32-bit Linux build.","urls":[{"url":"https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/37074522","url_text":"\"Platform-tools 23.1.0 Linux changed to 64-bit without notice\""}]},{"reference":"Tenzer, F. (2019-11-14). \"Anteile der verschiedenen Android-Versionen an allen Geräten mit Android OS weltweit im Zeitraum 01. bis 07. Mai 2019\" (in German). Statista.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/180113/umfrage/anteil-der-verschiedenen-android-versionen-auf-geraeten-mit-android-os/","url_text":"\"Anteile der verschiedenen Android-Versionen an allen Geräten mit Android OS weltweit im Zeitraum 01. bis 07. Mai 2019\""}]},{"reference":"Del Favero, Elia (2019-06-10). \"Ingress und Pokémon Go brauchen bald mindestens Android 5\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nau.ch/news/games/ingress-und-pokemon-go-brauchen-bald-mindestens-android-5-65541520","url_text":"\"Ingress und Pokémon Go brauchen bald mindestens Android 5\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why is 32bit 0.159.0 version apk still not available?\". TheSilphRoad/. Reddit. December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reddit.com/r/TheSilphRoad/comments/dm6c51/why_is_32bit_01590_version_apk_still_not_available/","url_text":"\"Why is 32bit 0.159.0 version apk still not available?\""}]},{"reference":"\"C Run-time library (CRT) reference: findfirst\". Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-02-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/reference/findfirst-functions?view=vs-2019","url_text":"\"C Run-time library (CRT) reference: findfirst\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Jaeger, Andreas (2015-02-15). \"Large File Support in Linux\". SuSE GmbH.","urls":[{"url":"https://users.suse.com/~aj/linux_lfs.html","url_text":"\"Large File Support in Linux\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUSE_S.A.","url_text":"SuSE GmbH"}]},{"reference":"Rutter, M. J. \"The 64 bit inode problem\". Retrieved 2020-02-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mjr19.org.uk/sw/inodes64.html","url_text":"\"The 64 bit inode problem\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ext4 Howto\". kernel.org. 2019-02-11. Although very large fileystems are on ext4's feature list, current e2fsprogs currently still limits the filesystem size to 2^32 blocks (16TiB for a 4KiB block filesystem). Allowing filesystems larger than 16T is one of the very next high-priority features to complete for ext4.","urls":[{"url":"https://ext4.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Ext4_Howto","url_text":"\"Ext4 Howto\""}]},{"reference":"Scherer, Thomas (2016-08-15). \"Samsungs 32-TB-SSD: Der Anfang vom Ende der Festplatte\" (in German). Elektor.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elektormagazine.de/news/samsungs-32-tb-ssd-der-anfang-vom-ende-der-festplatte","url_text":"\"Samsungs 32-TB-SSD: Der Anfang vom Ende der Festplatte\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektor","url_text":"Elektor"}]},{"reference":"Jaeger, Andreas (2005-02-15). \"Large File Support in Linux\". SuSE GmbH. Retrieved 2006-09-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.suse.de/~aj/linux_lfs.html","url_text":"\"Large File Support in Linux\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUSE_S.A.","url_text":"SuSE GmbH"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070228204423/http://www.sun.com/software/whitepapers/wp-largefiles/largefiles.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Large Files in Solaris: A White Paper\""},{"Link":"http://www.sun.com/software/whitepapers/wp-largefiles/largefiles.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150219123449/http://www.fdos.org/kernel/fatplus.txt","external_links_name":"\"FAT+ draft revision 2\""},{"Link":"http://www.fdos.org/kernel/fatplus.txt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160604014846/http://www.drdosprojects.de/","external_links_name":"\"DR-DOS/OpenDOS Enhancement Project\""},{"Link":"http://www.drdosprojects.de/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://opengroup.org/platform/lfs.html","external_links_name":"\"Adding Large File Support to the Single UNIX Specification\""},{"Link":"http://ac-archive.sourceforge.net/largefile/distros.html","external_links_name":"\"Distro Makers\""},{"Link":"https://www.zlib.net/ChangeLog.txt","external_links_name":"https://www.zlib.net/ChangeLog.txt"},{"Link":"https://www.pcwelt.de/news/Windows-Server-2008-Microsofts-letztes-32-Bit-Betriebssystem-fuer-Server-334946.html","external_links_name":"\"Windows Server 2008: Microsofts letztes 32-Bit-Betriebssystem für Server\""},{"Link":"https://access.redhat.com/solutions/509373","external_links_name":"\"Are 32-bit applications supported in RHEL 7 or later releases?\""},{"Link":"https://discourse.ubuntu.com/t/intel-32bit-packages-on-ubuntu-from-19-10-onwards/11263","external_links_name":"\"Intel 32bit packages on Ubuntu from 19.10 onwards\""},{"Link":"https://windowsreport.com/nvidia-32-bit-windows-end-support/","external_links_name":"\"Nvidia discontinues support for 32-bit Windows platforms\""},{"Link":"https://appleinsider.com/articles/18/06/05/mojave-is-apples-last-version-of-macos-to-support-32-bit-apps","external_links_name":"\"Mojave is Apple's last version of macOS to support 32-bit apps\""},{"Link":"https://support.microsoft.com/de-de/help/4057281/windows-7-support-ended-on-january-14-2020","external_links_name":"\"Der Support für Windows 7 endet am 14. Januar 2020\""},{"Link":"https://www.golem.de/news/google-auf-dem-weg-zum-reinen-64-bit-android-1901-138792.html","external_links_name":"\"Auf dem Weg zu reinen 64-Bit-Android-Apps\""},{"Link":"https://www.itmagazine.ch/Artikel/68830/Google_kuendigt_Ende_von_32-Bit-Android-Apps_per_2021_an.html","external_links_name":"\"Google kündigt Ende von 32-Bit-Android-Apps per 2021 an\""},{"Link":"https://www.android-user.de/64-bit-android-diese-prozessoren-gibt-es-diese-veraenderungen-kommen/","external_links_name":"\"64-Bit-Android: Diese Prozessoren gibt es, diese Veränderungen kommen\""},{"Link":"https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/37074522","external_links_name":"\"Platform-tools 23.1.0 Linux changed to 64-bit without notice\""},{"Link":"https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/180113/umfrage/anteil-der-verschiedenen-android-versionen-auf-geraeten-mit-android-os/","external_links_name":"\"Anteile der verschiedenen Android-Versionen an allen Geräten mit Android OS weltweit im Zeitraum 01. bis 07. Mai 2019\""},{"Link":"https://www.nau.ch/news/games/ingress-und-pokemon-go-brauchen-bald-mindestens-android-5-65541520","external_links_name":"\"Ingress und Pokémon Go brauchen bald mindestens Android 5\""},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/TheSilphRoad/comments/dm6c51/why_is_32bit_01590_version_apk_still_not_available/","external_links_name":"\"Why is 32bit 0.159.0 version apk still not available?\""},{"Link":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/reference/findfirst-functions?view=vs-2019","external_links_name":"\"C Run-time library (CRT) reference: findfirst\""},{"Link":"https://users.suse.com/~aj/linux_lfs.html","external_links_name":"\"Large File Support in Linux\""},{"Link":"https://www.mjr19.org.uk/sw/inodes64.html","external_links_name":"\"The 64 bit inode problem\""},{"Link":"https://ext4.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Ext4_Howto","external_links_name":"\"Ext4 Howto\""},{"Link":"https://www.elektormagazine.de/news/samsungs-32-tb-ssd-der-anfang-vom-ende-der-festplatte","external_links_name":"\"Samsungs 32-TB-SSD: Der Anfang vom Ende der Festplatte\""},{"Link":"http://www.suse.de/~aj/linux_lfs.html","external_links_name":"\"Large File Support in Linux\""}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)

Insulator (electricity)

["1 Physics of conduction in solids","2 Uses","3 Insulation in electrical apparatus","3.1 Class I and Class II insulation","4 Telegraph and power transmission insulators","4.1 Materials","4.2 Design","4.3 Types","4.4 Sheath insulator","4.5 Suspension insulators","4.6 History","5 Insulation of antennas","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]

Material that does not conduct an electric current This article is about electrical insulation. For insulation of heat, see thermal insulation. Articles aboutElectromagnetism Electricity Magnetism Optics History Computational Textbooks Phenomena Electrostatics Charge density Conductor Coulomb law Electret Electric charge Electric dipole Electric field Electric flux Electric potential Electrostatic discharge Electrostatic induction Gauss law Insulator Permittivity Polarization Potential energy Static electricity Triboelectricity Magnetostatics Ampère law Biot–Savart law Gauss magnetic law Magnetic dipole Magnetic field Magnetic flux Magnetic scalar potential Magnetic vector potential Magnetization Permeability Right-hand rule Electrodynamics Bremsstrahlung Cyclotron radiation Displacement current Eddy current Electromagnetic field Electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic pulse Electromagnetic radiation Faraday law Jefimenko equations Larmor formula Lenz law Liénard–Wiechert potential London equations Lorentz force Maxwell equations Maxwell tensor Poynting vector Synchrotron radiation Electrical network Alternating current Capacitance Current density Direct current Electric current Electrolysis Electromotive force Impedance Inductance Joule heating Kirchhoff laws Network analysis Ohm law Parallel circuit Resistance Resonant cavities Series circuit Voltage Waveguides Magnetic circuit AC motor DC motor Electric machine Electric motor Gyrator–capacitor Induction motor Linear motor Magnetomotive force Permeance Reluctance (complex) Reluctance (real) Rotor Stator Transformer Covariant formulation Electromagnetic tensor Electromagnetism and special relativity Four-current Four-potential Mathematical descriptions Maxwell equations in curved spacetime Relativistic electromagnetism Stress–energy tensor Scientists Ampère Biot Coulomb Davy Einstein Faraday Fizeau Gauss Heaviside Helmholtz Henry Hertz Hopkinson Jefimenko Joule Kelvin Kirchhoff Larmor Lenz Liénard Lorentz Maxwell Neumann Ohm Ørsted Poisson Poynting Ritchie Savart Singer Steinmetz Tesla Volta Weber Wiechert vte Ceramic insulator used on an electrified railway Three-core copper wire power cable, each core with an individual colour-coded insulating sheath, all contained within an outer protective sheath An electrical insulator is a material in which electric current does not flow freely. The atoms of the insulator have tightly bound electrons which cannot readily move. Other materials—semiconductors and conductors—conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors. The most common examples are non-metals. A perfect insulator does not exist because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as electrical breakdown, and the voltage at which it occurs is called the breakdown voltage of an insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and PTFE, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics which can be thermoset or thermoplastic in nature. Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground. Physics of conduction in solids Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) explains that electric charge flows when quantum states of matter are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor, such as a metal, if an electric potential difference is applied to the material. If no such states are available, the material is an insulator. Most insulators have a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that gives electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded, electrical breakdown occurs, and the material ceases being an insulator, passing charge. This is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material and its insulating properties. When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance, the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an electric arc through the substance. Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. When corona discharge occurs, the air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current. However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself. In addition, all insulators become conductors at very high temperatures as the thermal energy of the valence electrons is sufficient to put them in the conduction band. In certain capacitors, shorts between electrodes formed due to dielectric breakdown can disappear when the applied electric field is reduced. Uses A flexible coating of an insulator is often applied to electric wire and cable; this assembly is called insulated wire. Wires sometimes don't use an insulating coating, just air, when a solid (e.g. plastic) coating may be impractical. Wires that touch each other produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported precisely in the middle of the hollow shield to prevent electro-magnetic wave reflections. Wires that expose high voltages can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Most insulated wire and cable products have maximum ratings for voltage and conductor temperature. The product may not have an ampacity (current-carrying capacity) rating, since this is dependent on the surrounding environment (e.g. ambient temperature). In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fibreglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings. In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is normally a conductor because of doping, but it can easily be selectively transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and oxygen. Oxidised silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide, the primary component of glass. In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil is the typical method used for preventing arcs. The oil replaces air in spaces that must support significant voltage without electrical breakdown. Other high voltage system insulation materials include ceramic or glass wire holders, gas, vacuum, and simply placing wires far enough apart to use air as insulation. Insulation in electrical apparatus PVC-sheathed mineral-insulated copper-clad cable with two conducting cores The most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators, and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film-insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape. Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical corona and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with paper, wood, varnish, and mineral oil; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material. In older apparatus made up to the early 1970s, boards made of compressed asbestos may be found; while this is an adequate insulator at power frequencies, handling or repairs to asbestos material can release dangerous fibers into the air and must be carried out cautiously. Wire insulated with felted asbestos was used in high-temperature and rugged applications from the 1920s. Wire of this type was sold by General Electric under the trade name "Deltabeston." Live-front switchboards up to the early part of the 20th century were made of slate or marble. Some high voltage equipment is designed to operate within a high pressure insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride. Insulation materials that perform well at power and low frequencies may be unsatisfactory at radio frequency, due to heating from excessive dielectric dissipation. Electrical wires may be insulated with polyethylene, crosslinked polyethylene (either through electron beam processing or chemical crosslinking), PVC, Kapton, rubber-like polymers, oil impregnated paper, Teflon, silicone, or modified ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic powder, depending on the application. Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate the circuit and prevent human contact with a 'live' wire – one having voltage of 600 volts or less. Alternative materials are likely to become increasingly used due to EU safety and environmental legislation making PVC less economic. In electrical apparatus such as motors, generators, and transformers, various insulation systems are used, classified by their maximum recommended working temperature to achieve acceptable operating life. Materials range from upgraded types of paper to inorganic compounds. Class I and Class II insulation Main article: Appliance classes All portable or hand-held electrical devices are insulated to protect their user from harmful shock. Class I insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device be connected to earth via a grounding wire that is earthed at the main service panel—but only needs basic insulation on the conductors. This equipment needs an extra pin on the power plug for the grounding connection. Class II insulation means that the device is double insulated. This is used on some appliances such as electric shavers, hair dryers and portable power tools. Double insulation requires that the devices have both basic and supplementary insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. All internal electrically energized components are totally enclosed within an insulated body that prevents any contact with "live" parts. In the EU, double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of two squares, one inside the other. It has been suggested that this article should be split into articles titled electrical insulation and electrical insulator. (discuss) (June 2021) Telegraph and power transmission insulators Pin-type glass insulator for long-distance open-wire transmission for telephone communication, manufactured for AT&T in the period from c. 1890 to WW-I; It is secured to its support structure with a screw-like metal or wood pin matching the threading in the hollow internal space. The transmission wire is tied into the groove around the insulator just below the dome. Conductors for overhead high-voltage electric power transmission are bare, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Conductors for lower voltages in distribution may have some insulation but are often bare as well. Insulating supports are required at the points where they are supported by utility poles or transmission towers. Insulators are also required where wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, for insulation from the case. Often these are bushings, which are hollow insulators with the conductor inside them. Materials Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain or composite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed water. Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain has a dielectric strength of about 4–10 kV/mm. Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and the thick irregular shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains. Some insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic materials. Some electric utilities use polymer composite materials for some types of insulators. These are typically composed of a central rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone rubber or ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM). Composite insulators are less costly, lighter in weight, and have excellent hydrophobic properties. This combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas. However, these materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain. Power lines supported by ceramic pin-type insulators in California, USA 10 kV ceramic insulator, showing sheds Design High voltage ceramic bushing during manufacture, before glazing (1977) The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways: A puncture arc is a breakdown and conduction of the material of the insulator, causing an electric arc through the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting from the arc usually damages the insulator irreparably. Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) that causes a puncture arc. A flashover arc is a breakdown and conduction of the air around or along the surface of the insulator, causing an arc along the outside of the insulator. Insulators are usually designed to withstand flashover without damage. Flashover voltage is the voltage that causes a flash-over arc. Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they flash over before they puncture, to avoid damage. Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it, causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be reduced by more than 50% when the insulator is wet. High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximise the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimise these leakage currents. To accomplish this the surface is moulded into a series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes. These usually include one or more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather. Minimum creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or airborne sea-salt areas. Types A three-phase insulator used on distribution lines, typically 13.8 kV phase to phase. The lines are held in a diamond pattern, multiple insulators used between poles. Insulators are characterized in several common classes: Pin insulator - The pin-type insulator is mounted on a pin affixed on the cross-arm of the pole. The insulator has a groove near the top just below the crown. The conductor passes through this groove and is tied to the insulator with annealed wire of the same material as the conductor. Pin-type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of communication signals, and electric power at voltages up to 33 kV. Insulators made for operating voltages between 33 kV and 69 kV tend to be bulky and have become uneconomical. Post insulator - A type of insulator in the 1930s that is more compact than traditional pin-type insulators and which has rapidly replaced many pin-type insulators on lines up to 69 kV and in some configurations, can be made for operation at up to 115 kV. Suspension insulator - For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators, consisting of a number of glass or porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the top end is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The number of disc units used depends on the voltage. Strain insulator - A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a straight section of line ends, or angles off in another direction. These poles must withstand the lateral (horizontal) tension of the long straight section of wire. To support this lateral load, strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin (suspension) insulators are used, attached to the crossarm in a horizontal direction. When the tension load in lines is exceedingly high, such as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel. Shackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But nowaday, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. Bushing - enables one or several conductors to pass through a partition such as a wall or a tank, and insulates the conductors from it. Line post insulator Station post insulator Cut-out Sheath insulator Bottom-contact third rail in a sheath insulator An insulator that protects a full length of bottom-contact third rail. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2021) Suspension insulators Typical number of disc insulator units for standard line voltages Line voltage(kV) Discs 34.5 3 69 4 115 6 138 8 161 11 230 14 287 15 345 18 360 23 400 24 500 34 600 44 750 59 765 60 Pin-type insulators are unsuitable for voltages greater than about 69 kV line-to-line. Higher voltage transmission lines usually use modular suspension insulator designs. The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disc-shaped insulators that attach to each other with metal clevis pin or ball-and-socket links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic units. String insulators can be made for any practical transmission voltage by adding insulator elements to the string. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire string. Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass disc with a metal cap and pin cemented to opposite sides. To make defective units obvious, glass units are designed so that an overvoltage causes a puncture arc through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass is heat-treated so it shatters, making the damaged unit visible. However the mechanical strength of the unit is unchanged, so the insulator string stays together. Standard suspension disc insulator units are 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in diameter and 15 cm (6 in) long, can support a load of 80–120 kilonewtons (18,000–27,000 lbf), have a dry flashover voltage of about 72 kV, and are rated at an operating voltage of 10–12 kV. However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum of its component discs, because the electric field is not distributed evenly across the string but is strongest at the disc nearest to the conductor, which flashes over first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added around the disc at the high voltage end, to reduce the electric field across that disc and improve flashover voltage. In very high voltage lines the insulator may be surrounded by corona rings. These typically consist of toruses of aluminium (most commonly) or copper tubing attached to the line. They are designed to reduce the electric field at the point where the insulator is attached to the line, to prevent corona discharge, which results in power losses. Suspension insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon Suspended glass disc insulator unit used in suspension insulator strings for high voltage transmission lines History The Brookfield Glass Company gained widespread recognition for their prolific production of CD145 insulators, commonly known as "Beehive" insulators, owing to their superior craftsmanship and extensive distribution. The first electrical systems to make use of insulators were telegraph lines; direct attachment of wires to wooden poles was found to give very poor results, especially during damp weather. The first glass insulators used in large quantities had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were positioned on a tapered wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires tied to these "threadless insulators" resulted in insulators unseating from their pins, requiring manual reseating. Amongst the first to produce ceramic insulators were companies in the United Kingdom, with Stiff and Doulton using stoneware from the mid-1840s, Joseph Bourne (later renamed Denby) producing them from around 1860 and Bullers from 1868. Utility patent number 48,906 was granted to Louis A. Cauvet on 25 July 1865 for a process to produce insulators with a threaded pinhole: pin-type insulators still have threaded pinholes. The invention of suspension-type insulators made high-voltage power transmission possible. As transmission line voltages reached and passed 60,000 volts, the insulators required become very large and heavy, with insulators made for a safety margin of 88,000 volts being about the practical limit for manufacturing and installation. Suspension insulators, on the other hand, can be connected into strings as long as required for the line's voltage. A large variety of telephone, telegraph and power insulators have been made; some people collect them, both for their historic interest and for the aesthetic quality of many insulator designs and finishes. One collectors organisation is the US National Insulator Association, which has over 9,000 members. Insulation of antennas Egg-shaped strain insulator Often a broadcasting radio antenna is built as a mast radiator, which means that the entire mast structure is energised with high voltage and must be insulated from the ground. Steatite mountings are used. They have to withstand not only the voltage of the mast radiator to ground, which can reach values up to 400 kV at some antennas, but also the weight of the mast construction and dynamic forces. Arcing horns and lightning arresters are necessary because lightning strikes to the mast are common. Guy wires supporting antenna masts usually have strain insulators inserted in the cable run, to keep the high voltages on the antenna from short circuiting to ground or creating a shock hazard. Often guy cables have several insulators, placed to break up the cable into lengths that prevent unwanted electrical resonances in the guy. These insulators are usually ceramic and cylindrical or egg-shaped (see picture). This construction has the advantage that the ceramic is under compression rather than tension, so it can withstand greater load, and that if the insulator breaks, the cable ends are still linked. These insulators also have to be equipped with overvoltage protection equipment. For the dimensions of the guy insulation, static charges on guys have to be considered. For high masts, these can be much higher than the voltage caused by the transmitter, requiring guys divided by insulators in multiple sections on the highest masts. In this case, guys which are grounded at the anchor basements via a coil - or if possible, directly - are the better choice. Feedlines attaching antennas to radio equipment, particularly twin-lead type, often must be kept at a distance from metal structures. The insulated supports used for this purpose are called standoff insulators. See also Electronics portal Stephen Gray – English physicist Electrical conductor Dielectric material Electrical conductivity Notes ^ S. L. Kakani (1 January 2005). Electronics Theory and Applications. New Age International. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-224-1536-0. ^ Waygood, Adrian (19 June 2013). An Introduction to Electrical Science. Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-135-07113-4. ^ Klein, N.; Gafni, H. (1966). "The maximum dielectric strength of thin silicon oxide films". IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. 13 (2): 281. Bibcode:1966ITED...13..281K. doi:10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681. ^ Inuishi, Y.; Powers, D.A. (1957). "Electric breakdown and conduction through Mylar films". J. Appl. Phys. 58 (9): 1017–1022. Bibcode:1957JAP....28.1017I. doi:10.1063/1.1722899. ^ Belkin, A.; et., al. (2017). "Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 932. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7..932B. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9. PMC 5430567. PMID 28428625. ^ Bernhard, Frank; Bernhard, Frank H. (1921). EMF Electrical Year Book. Electrical Trade Pub. Co. p. 822. ^ "Understanding IEC Appliance Insulation Classes: I, II and III". Fidus Power. 6 July 2018. Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2018. ^ "Electrical Porcelain Insulators" (PDF). Product spec sheet. Universal Clay Products, Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2008-10-19. ^ Cotton, H. (1958). The Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy. London: English Univ. Press. copied on Insulator Usage, A.C. Walker's Insulator Information page ^ Hu, Yi; Liu, Kai (2017). "Transmission lines detection technology". Inspection and Monitoring Technologies of Transmission Lines with Remote Sensing: 205–279. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7. ISBN 978-0-12-812644-8. Composite insulators can take wind and rain and have good self-cleaning performance under wind and rain, so need checking for pollution only once every 4–5 years, and requiring less time for the repair and power interruption. ^ Holtzhausen, J.P. "High Voltage Insulators" (PDF). IDC Technologies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2008-10-17. ^ IEC 60137:2003. 'Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1,000 V.' IEC, 2003. ^ Diesendorf, W. (1974). Insulation Coordination in High Voltage Power Systems. UK: Butterworth & Co. ISBN 0-408-70464-0. reprinted on Overvoltage and flashovers, A. C. Walker's Insulator Information website ^ Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beaty (ed).,Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978, ISBN 0-07-020974-X, pages 14-153, 14-154 ^ Grigsby, Leonard L. (2001). The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8578-4. ^ Bakshi, M (2007). Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution. Technical Publications. ISBN 978-81-8431-271-3. ^ "Insulators : National Insulator Association Home Page". www.nia.org. Retrieved 2017-12-12. References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electric insulators. Taylor, Sue (May 2003). Bullers of Milton. Churnet Valley Books. ISBN 978-1-897949-96-2. Function of Grading rings to Composite Insulator M. Shakiba, F.; M, S. Azizi; M., Zhou (Oct 2022). "A Transfer Learning-Based Method to Detect Insulator Faults of High-Voltage Transmission Lines via Aerial Images: Distinguishing Intact and Broken Insulator Images". Artificial Intelligence Review. 8 (4): 15–25. doi:10.1109/MSMC.2022.3198027. ISSN 2333-942X. S2CID 252999399. vteCondensed matter physicsStates of matter solid liquid gas plasma Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Fermi gas supersolid superfluid Luttinger liquid time crystal Phase phenomena order parameter phase transition spontaneous symmetry breaking critical phenomena Electrons in solidsPhenomena Hall effect quantum Hall effect spin Hall effect quantum spin Hall effect Berry phase Aharonov–Bohm effect Josephson effect Kondo effect Theory Drude model free electron model nearly free electron model Bloch's theorem Fermi liquid theory electronic band structure Anderson localization BCS theory tight binding model Hubbard model density functional theory Conduction insulator Mott insulator semiconductor semimetal conductor superconductor topological insulator spin gapless semiconductor Couplings thermoelectricity piezoelectricity ferroelectricity flexoelectricity electrostriction Magnetic phases amorphous magnet diamagnet superdiamagnet paramagnet superparamagnet ferromagnet antiferromagnet metamagnet spin glass Quasiparticles anyon Bogoliubov quasiparticle hole exciton magnon phonon Pines' demon plasmon polariton exciton-polariton phonon polariton polaron Soft matter amorphous solid granular matter liquid crystal polymer colloids Category Commons Physics Portal Physics WikiProject Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic

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For insulation of heat, see thermal insulation.Ceramic insulator used on an electrified railwayThree-core copper wire power cable, each core with an individual colour-coded insulating sheath, all contained within an outer protective sheathAn electrical insulator is a material in which electric current does not flow freely. The atoms of the insulator have tightly bound electrons which cannot readily move. Other materials—semiconductors and conductors—conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors. The most common examples are non-metals.A perfect insulator does not exist because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as electrical breakdown, and the voltage at which it occurs is called the breakdown voltage of an insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and PTFE, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough to prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics which can be thermoset or thermoplastic in nature.Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.","title":"Insulator (electricity)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electrical conduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conduction"},{"link_name":"band theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"band gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"breakdown voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage"},{"link_name":"electric arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"charge carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrier"},{"link_name":"ionizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance"},{"link_name":"band gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"corona discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge"},{"link_name":"electric arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"vacuum arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_arc"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kakani2005-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waygood2013-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"relevant?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic"}],"text":"Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) explains that electric charge flows when quantum states of matter are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor, such as a metal, if an electric potential difference is applied to the material. If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.Most insulators have a large band gap. This occurs because the \"valence\" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that gives electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded, electrical breakdown occurs, and the material ceases being an insulator, passing charge. This is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material and its insulating properties.When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance, the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an electric arc through the substance. Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. When corona discharge occurs, the air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current. However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.In addition, all insulators become conductors at very high temperatures as the thermal energy of the valence electrons is sufficient to put them in the conduction band.[1][2]In certain capacitors, shorts between electrodes formed due to dielectric breakdown can disappear when the applied electric field is reduced.[3][4][5][relevant?]","title":"Physics of conduction in solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"short circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit"},{"link_name":"coaxial cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable"},{"link_name":"electrocution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_shock"},{"link_name":"ampacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampacity"},{"link_name":"printed circuit boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"epoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy"},{"link_name":"phenolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolic_resin"},{"link_name":"microelectronic components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"ICs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"silicon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"high voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage"},{"link_name":"transformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"capacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitors"},{"link_name":"electrical breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_breakdown"}],"text":"A flexible coating of an insulator is often applied to electric wire and cable; this assembly is called insulated wire. Wires sometimes don't use an insulating coating, just air, when a solid (e.g. plastic) coating may be impractical. Wires that touch each other produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported precisely in the middle of the hollow shield to prevent electro-magnetic wave reflections. Wires that expose high voltages can cause human shock and electrocution hazards.Most insulated wire and cable products have maximum ratings for voltage and conductor temperature. The product may not have an ampacity (current-carrying capacity) rating, since this is dependent on the surrounding environment (e.g. ambient temperature).In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fibreglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings.In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is normally a conductor because of doping, but it can easily be selectively transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and oxygen. Oxidised silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide, the primary component of glass.In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil is the typical method used for preventing arcs. The oil replaces air in spaces that must support significant voltage without electrical breakdown. Other high voltage system insulation materials include ceramic or glass wire holders, gas, vacuum, and simply placing wires far enough apart to use air as insulation.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MICCCable.jpg"},{"link_name":"mineral-insulated copper-clad cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral-insulated_copper-clad_cable"},{"link_name":"gaseous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_gas"},{"link_name":"transformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generator"},{"link_name":"electric motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"magnet wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_wire"},{"link_name":"insulating tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulating_tape"},{"link_name":"electrical corona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulation_paper"},{"link_name":"mineral oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_oil"},{"link_name":"Busbars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busbar"},{"link_name":"circuit breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker"},{"link_name":"switchgear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchgear"},{"link_name":"asbestos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbestos"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"insulating gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulating_gas"},{"link_name":"sulfur hexafluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride"},{"link_name":"radio frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"},{"link_name":"polyethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene"},{"link_name":"electron beam processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam_processing"},{"link_name":"PVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"Kapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapton"},{"link_name":"Teflon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene"},{"link_name":"ETFE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETFE"},{"link_name":"power cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_cable"},{"link_name":"compressed inorganic powder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral-insulated_copper-clad_cable"},{"link_name":"PVC (polyvinyl chloride)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"insulation systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulation_system"}],"text":"PVC-sheathed mineral-insulated copper-clad cable with two conducting coresThe most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators, and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of polymer varnish film. Film-insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape. Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical corona and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer windings are still mostly insulated with paper, wood, varnish, and mineral oil; although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material.In older apparatus made up to the early 1970s, boards made of compressed asbestos may be found; while this is an adequate insulator at power frequencies, handling or repairs to asbestos material can release dangerous fibers into the air and must be carried out cautiously. Wire insulated with felted asbestos was used in high-temperature and rugged applications from the 1920s. Wire of this type was sold by General Electric under the trade name \"Deltabeston.\"[6]Live-front switchboards up to the early part of the 20th century were made of slate or marble. Some high voltage equipment is designed to operate within a high pressure insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride. Insulation materials that perform well at power and low frequencies may be unsatisfactory at radio frequency, due to heating from excessive dielectric dissipation.Electrical wires may be insulated with polyethylene, crosslinked polyethylene (either through electron beam processing or chemical crosslinking), PVC, Kapton, rubber-like polymers, oil impregnated paper, Teflon, silicone, or modified ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic powder, depending on the application.Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate the circuit and prevent human contact with a 'live' wire – one having voltage of 600 volts or less. Alternative materials are likely to become increasingly used due to EU safety and environmental legislation making PVC less economic.In electrical apparatus such as motors, generators, and transformers, various insulation systems are used, classified by their maximum recommended working temperature to achieve acceptable operating life. Materials range from upgraded types of paper to inorganic compounds.","title":"Insulation in electrical apparatus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"earthed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"power plug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plug"},{"link_name":"electric shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_shock"},{"link_name":"EU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Class I and Class II insulation","text":"All portable or hand-held electrical devices are insulated to protect their user from harmful shock.Class I insulation requires that the metal body and other exposed metal parts of the device be connected to earth via a grounding wire that is earthed at the main service panel—but only needs basic insulation on the conductors. This equipment needs an extra pin on the power plug for the grounding connection.Class II insulation means that the device is double insulated. This is used on some appliances such as electric shavers, hair dryers and portable power tools. Double insulation requires that the devices have both basic and supplementary insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. All internal electrically energized components are totally enclosed within an insulated body that prevents any contact with \"live\" parts. In the EU, double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of two squares, one inside the other.[7]","title":"Insulation in electrical apparatus"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open-wire_glass_insulator_for_telephone_transmission_lines_20221225_kbrose.jpg"},{"link_name":"open-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_wire"},{"link_name":"electric power transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission"},{"link_name":"distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution"},{"link_name":"utility poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_pole"},{"link_name":"transmission towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_tower"},{"link_name":"transformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"circuit breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker"},{"link_name":"bushings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushing_(electrical)"}],"text":"Pin-type glass insulator for long-distance open-wire transmission for telephone communication, manufactured for AT&T in the period from c. 1890 to WW-I; It is secured to its support structure with a screw-like metal or wood pin matching the threading in the hollow internal space. The transmission wire is tied into the groove around the insulator just below the dome.Conductors for overhead high-voltage electric power transmission are bare, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Conductors for lower voltages in distribution may have some insulation but are often bare as well. Insulating supports are required at the points where they are supported by utility poles or transmission towers. Insulators are also required where wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, for insulation from the case. Often these are bushings, which are hollow insulators with the conductor inside them.","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"porcelain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain"},{"link_name":"composite polymer materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material"},{"link_name":"clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"alumina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alumina"},{"link_name":"feldspar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cotton-9"},{"link_name":"composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material"},{"link_name":"fibre reinforced plastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_reinforced_plastic"},{"link_name":"silicone rubber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone"},{"link_name":"EPDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPDM_rubber"},{"link_name":"hydrophobic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Power_line_with_ceramic_insulators.jpg"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceramic_electric_insulator.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Materials","text":"Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain or composite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth glaze to shed water. Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain has a dielectric strength of about 4–10 kV/mm.[8] Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and the thick irregular shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains.[9] Some insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic materials.Some electric utilities use polymer composite materials for some types of insulators. These are typically composed of a central rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone rubber or ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM). Composite insulators are less costly, lighter in weight, and have excellent hydrophobic properties. This combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas.[10] However, these materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain.Power lines supported by ceramic pin-type insulators in California, USA\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t10 kV ceramic insulator, showing sheds","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-15_0000283_Facharbeiter_f%C3%BCr_Sintererzeugnisse.jpg"},{"link_name":"glazing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_glaze"},{"link_name":"breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage"},{"link_name":"electric arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Design","text":"High voltage ceramic bushing during manufacture, before glazing (1977)The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two ways:A puncture arc is a breakdown and conduction of the material of the insulator, causing an electric arc through the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting from the arc usually damages the insulator irreparably. Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal manner) that causes a puncture arc.\nA flashover arc is a breakdown and conduction of the air around or along the surface of the insulator, causing an arc along the outside of the insulator. Insulators are usually designed to withstand flashover without damage. Flashover voltage is the voltage that causes a flash-over arc.Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they flash over before they puncture, to avoid damage.Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it, causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be reduced by more than 50% when the insulator is wet. High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximise the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimise these leakage currents.[11] To accomplish this the surface is moulded into a series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes. These usually include one or more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather. Minimum creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or airborne sea-salt areas.","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3phceramicins.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pin insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_insulator"},{"link_name":"annealed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)"},{"link_name":"Strain insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_insulator"},{"link_name":"crossarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossarm_(utility_pole)"},{"link_name":"Bushing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushing_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Types","text":"A three-phase insulator used on distribution lines, typically 13.8 kV phase to phase. The lines are held in a diamond pattern, multiple insulators used between poles.Insulators are characterized in several common classes:Pin insulator - The pin-type insulator is mounted on a pin affixed on the cross-arm of the pole. The insulator has a groove near the top just below the crown. The conductor passes through this groove and is tied to the insulator with annealed wire of the same material as the conductor. Pin-type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of communication signals, and electric power at voltages up to 33 kV. Insulators made for operating voltages between 33 kV and 69 kV tend to be bulky and have become uneconomical.\nPost insulator - A type of insulator in the 1930s that is more compact than traditional pin-type insulators and which has rapidly replaced many pin-type insulators on lines up to 69 kV and in some configurations, can be made for operation at up to 115 kV.\nSuspension insulator - For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators, consisting of a number of glass or porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the top end is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The number of disc units used depends on the voltage.\nStrain insulator - A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a straight section of line ends, or angles off in another direction. These poles must withstand the lateral (horizontal) tension of the long straight section of wire. To support this lateral load, strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin (suspension) insulators are used, attached to the crossarm in a horizontal direction. When the tension load in lines is exceedingly high, such as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.\nShackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But nowaday, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.\nBushing - enables one or several conductors to pass through a partition such as a wall or a tank, and insulates the conductors from it.[12]\nLine post insulator\nStation post insulator\nCut-out","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Third_rail_vienna_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"third rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_rail#Safety"}],"sub_title":"Sheath insulator","text":"Bottom-contact third rail in a sheath insulatorAn insulator that protects a full length of bottom-contact third rail.","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"transmission lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line"},{"link_name":"clevis pin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clevis_pin"},{"link_name":"breakdown voltages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STDHBK-14"},{"link_name":"kilonewtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"lbf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(force)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grigsby-15"},{"link_name":"grading rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_ring"},{"link_name":"corona rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_ring"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"toruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"corona discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pylon.detail.arp.750pix.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LIC_U70.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Suspension insulators","text":"Pin-type insulators are unsuitable for voltages greater than about 69 kV line-to-line. Higher voltage transmission lines usually use modular suspension insulator designs. The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disc-shaped insulators that attach to each other with metal clevis pin or ball-and-socket links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic units. String insulators can be made for any practical transmission voltage by adding insulator elements to the string.[14] Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire string.Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass disc with a metal cap and pin cemented to opposite sides. To make defective units obvious, glass units are designed so that an overvoltage causes a puncture arc through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass is heat-treated so it shatters, making the damaged unit visible. However the mechanical strength of the unit is unchanged, so the insulator string stays together.Standard suspension disc insulator units are 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in diameter and 15 cm (6 in) long, can support a load of 80–120 kilonewtons (18,000–27,000 lbf), have a dry flashover voltage of about 72 kV, and are rated at an operating voltage of 10–12 kV.[15] However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum of its component discs, because the electric field is not distributed evenly across the string but is strongest at the disc nearest to the conductor, which flashes over first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added around the disc at the high voltage end, to reduce the electric field across that disc and improve flashover voltage.In very high voltage lines the insulator may be surrounded by corona rings.[16] These typically consist of toruses of aluminium (most commonly) or copper tubing attached to the line. They are designed to reduce the electric field at the point where the insulator is attached to the line, to prevent corona discharge, which results in power losses.Suspension insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSuspended glass disc insulator unit used in suspension insulator strings for high voltage transmission lines","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CD145.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brookfield Glass Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookfield_Glass_Company"},{"link_name":"telegraph lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph_line"},{"link_name":"Doulton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Doulton"},{"link_name":"stoneware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoneware"},{"link_name":"Denby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denby_Pottery_Company"},{"link_name":"Utility patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"48,906","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//reference.insulators.info/patents/detail/?patent=48906&type=U"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"The Brookfield Glass Company gained widespread recognition for their prolific production of CD145 insulators, commonly known as \"Beehive\" insulators, owing to their superior craftsmanship and extensive distribution.The first electrical systems to make use of insulators were telegraph lines; direct attachment of wires to wooden poles was found to give very poor results, especially during damp weather.The first glass insulators used in large quantities had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were positioned on a tapered wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires tied to these \"threadless insulators\" resulted in insulators unseating from their pins, requiring manual reseating.Amongst the first to produce ceramic insulators were companies in the United Kingdom, with Stiff and Doulton using stoneware from the mid-1840s, Joseph Bourne (later renamed Denby) producing them from around 1860 and Bullers from 1868. Utility patent number 48,906 was granted to Louis A. Cauvet on 25 July 1865 for a process to produce insulators with a threaded pinhole: pin-type insulators still have threaded pinholes.The invention of suspension-type insulators made high-voltage power transmission possible. As transmission line voltages reached and passed 60,000 volts, the insulators required become very large and heavy, with insulators made for a safety margin of 88,000 volts being about the practical limit for manufacturing and installation. Suspension insulators, on the other hand, can be connected into strings as long as required for the line's voltage.A large variety of telephone, telegraph and power insulators have been made; some people collect them, both for their historic interest and for the aesthetic quality of many insulator designs and finishes. One collectors organisation is the US National Insulator Association, which has over 9,000 members.[17]","title":"Telegraph and power transmission insulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tamagaishi.jpg"},{"link_name":"broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting"},{"link_name":"radio antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_antenna"},{"link_name":"mast radiator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mast_radiator"},{"link_name":"Steatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatite"},{"link_name":"Arcing horns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcing_horns"},{"link_name":"lightning arresters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_arrester"},{"link_name":"Guy wires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_wire"},{"link_name":"strain insulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_insulator"},{"link_name":"resonances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance"},{"link_name":"Feedlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedline"},{"link_name":"twin-lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin-lead"}],"text":"Egg-shaped strain insulatorOften a broadcasting radio antenna is built as a mast radiator, which means that the entire mast structure is energised with high voltage and must be insulated from the ground. Steatite mountings are used. They have to withstand not only the voltage of the mast radiator to ground, which can reach values up to 400 kV at some antennas, but also the weight of the mast construction and dynamic forces. Arcing horns and lightning arresters are necessary because lightning strikes to the mast are common.Guy wires supporting antenna masts usually have strain insulators inserted in the cable run, to keep the high voltages on the antenna from short circuiting to ground or creating a shock hazard. Often guy cables have several insulators, placed to break up the cable into lengths that prevent unwanted electrical resonances in the guy. These insulators are usually ceramic and cylindrical or egg-shaped (see picture). This construction has the advantage that the ceramic is under compression rather than tension, so it can withstand greater load, and that if the insulator breaks, the cable ends are still linked.These insulators also have to be equipped with overvoltage protection equipment. For the dimensions of the guy insulation, static charges on guys have to be considered. For high masts, these can be much higher than the voltage caused by the transmitter, requiring guys divided by insulators in multiple sections on the highest masts. In this case, guys which are grounded at the anchor basements via a coil - or if possible, directly - are the better choice.Feedlines attaching antennas to radio equipment, particularly twin-lead type, often must be kept at a distance from metal structures. The insulated supports used for this purpose are called standoff insulators.","title":"Insulation of antennas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Kakani2005_1-0"},{"link_name":"Electronics Theory and Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=XrSI2C9NlDIC&pg=PA7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-224-1536-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1536-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Waygood2013_2-0"},{"link_name":"An Introduction to Electrical Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=8qHGRTC7h-MC&pg=PT41"},{"link_name":"Routledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-135-07113-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-07113-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1966ITED...13..281K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966ITED...13..281K"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FT-ED.1966.15681"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1957JAP....28.1017I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957JAP....28.1017I"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1063/1.1722899","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1722899"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2017NatSR...7..932B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...7..932B"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5430567","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"28428625","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28428625"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"EMF Electrical Year Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=pf5MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA822"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Understanding IEC Appliance Insulation Classes: I, II and III\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200217041731/http://www.fiduspower.com/news/understanding-iec-appliance-insulation-classes-i-ii-and-iii"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fiduspower.com/news/understanding-iec-appliance-insulation-classes-i-ii-and-iii"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Electrical Porcelain Insulators\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090220025021/http://www.ucp.net/pdf/Electrical%20Catalogue.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ucp.net/pdf/Electrical%20Catalogue.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cotton_9-0"},{"link_name":"Insulator Usage, A.C. Walker's Insulator Information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.myinsulators.com/acw/bookref/insulator/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/B978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-12-812644-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-812644-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"High Voltage Insulators\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140514000839/http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_engineering/highvoltage.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_engineering/highvoltage.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-408-70464-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-408-70464-0"},{"link_name":"Overvoltage and flashovers, A. C. Walker's Insulator Information website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.myinsulators.com/acw/bookref/overvoltage/index.html#dies"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-STDHBK_14-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-020974-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-020974-X"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Grigsby_15-0"},{"link_name":"The Electric Power Engineering Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=wiv1tuMDbTEC&pg=PA1346"},{"link_name":"CRC Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8493-8578-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-8578-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=REww2ZF2RwwC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-8431-271-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8431-271-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Insulators : National Insulator Association Home Page\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nia.org/"}],"text":"^ S. L. Kakani (1 January 2005). Electronics Theory and Applications. New Age International. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-224-1536-0.\n\n^ Waygood, Adrian (19 June 2013). An Introduction to Electrical Science. Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-135-07113-4.\n\n^ Klein, N.; Gafni, H. (1966). \"The maximum dielectric strength of thin silicon oxide films\". IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. 13 (2): 281. Bibcode:1966ITED...13..281K. doi:10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681.\n\n^ Inuishi, Y.; Powers, D.A. (1957). \"Electric breakdown and conduction through Mylar films\". J. Appl. Phys. 58 (9): 1017–1022. Bibcode:1957JAP....28.1017I. doi:10.1063/1.1722899.\n\n^ Belkin, A.; et., al. (2017). \"Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown\". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 932. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7..932B. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9. PMC 5430567. PMID 28428625.\n\n^ Bernhard, Frank; Bernhard, Frank H. (1921). EMF Electrical Year Book. Electrical Trade Pub. Co. p. 822.\n\n^ \"Understanding IEC Appliance Insulation Classes: I, II and III\". Fidus Power. 6 July 2018. Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2018.\n\n^ \"Electrical Porcelain Insulators\" (PDF). Product spec sheet. Universal Clay Products, Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2008-10-19.\n\n^ Cotton, H. (1958). The Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy. London: English Univ. Press. copied on Insulator Usage, A.C. Walker's Insulator Information page\n\n^ Hu, Yi; Liu, Kai (2017). \"Transmission lines detection technology\". Inspection and Monitoring Technologies of Transmission Lines with Remote Sensing: 205–279. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7. ISBN 978-0-12-812644-8. Composite insulators can take wind and rain and have good self-cleaning performance under wind and rain, so need checking for pollution only once every 4–5 years, and requiring less time for the repair and power interruption.\n\n^ Holtzhausen, J.P. \"High Voltage Insulators\" (PDF). IDC Technologies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2008-10-17.\n\n^ IEC 60137:2003. 'Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1,000 V.' IEC, 2003.\n\n^ Diesendorf, W. (1974). Insulation Coordination in High Voltage Power Systems. UK: Butterworth & Co. ISBN 0-408-70464-0. reprinted on Overvoltage and flashovers, A. C. Walker's Insulator Information website\n\n^ Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beaty (ed).,Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978, ISBN 0-07-020974-X, pages 14-153, 14-154\n\n^ Grigsby, Leonard L. (2001). The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8578-4.\n\n^ Bakshi, M (2007). Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution. Technical Publications. ISBN 978-81-8431-271-3.\n\n^ \"Insulators : National Insulator Association Home Page\". www.nia.org. Retrieved 2017-12-12.","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Ceramic insulator used on an electrified railway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Insulator_railways.jpg/220px-Insulator_railways.jpg"},{"image_text":"Three-core copper wire power cable, each core with an individual colour-coded insulating sheath, all contained within an outer protective sheath","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/600V_CV_5.5sqmm.jpg/220px-600V_CV_5.5sqmm.jpg"},{"image_text":"PVC-sheathed mineral-insulated copper-clad cable with two conducting cores","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/MICCCable.jpg/220px-MICCCable.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pin-type glass insulator for long-distance open-wire transmission for telephone communication, manufactured for AT&T in the period from c. 1890 to WW-I; It is secured to its support structure with a screw-like metal or wood pin matching the threading in the hollow internal space. The transmission wire is tied into the groove around the insulator just below the dome.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Open-wire_glass_insulator_for_telephone_transmission_lines_20221225_kbrose.jpg/200px-Open-wire_glass_insulator_for_telephone_transmission_lines_20221225_kbrose.jpg"},{"image_text":"High voltage ceramic bushing during manufacture, before glazing (1977)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Fotothek_df_n-15_0000283_Facharbeiter_f%C3%BCr_Sintererzeugnisse.jpg/220px-Fotothek_df_n-15_0000283_Facharbeiter_f%C3%BCr_Sintererzeugnisse.jpg"},{"image_text":"A three-phase insulator used on distribution lines, typically 13.8 kV phase to phase. The lines are held in a diamond pattern, multiple insulators used between poles.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/3phceramicins.jpg/180px-3phceramicins.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bottom-contact third rail in a sheath insulator","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Third_rail_vienna_1.jpg/220px-Third_rail_vienna_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Brookfield Glass Company gained widespread recognition for their prolific production of CD145 insulators, commonly known as \"Beehive\" insulators, owing to their superior craftsmanship and extensive distribution.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/CD145.jpg/220px-CD145.jpg"},{"image_text":"Egg-shaped strain insulator","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Tamagaishi.jpg/220px-Tamagaishi.jpg"}]

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[{"reference":"S. L. Kakani (1 January 2005). Electronics Theory and Applications. New Age International. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-224-1536-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XrSI2C9NlDIC&pg=PA7","url_text":"Electronics Theory and Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1536-0","url_text":"978-81-224-1536-0"}]},{"reference":"Waygood, Adrian (19 June 2013). An Introduction to Electrical Science. Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-135-07113-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8qHGRTC7h-MC&pg=PT41","url_text":"An Introduction to Electrical Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-07113-4","url_text":"978-1-135-07113-4"}]},{"reference":"Klein, N.; Gafni, H. (1966). \"The maximum dielectric strength of thin silicon oxide films\". IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. 13 (2): 281. Bibcode:1966ITED...13..281K. doi:10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966ITED...13..281K","url_text":"1966ITED...13..281K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FT-ED.1966.15681","url_text":"10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681"}]},{"reference":"Inuishi, Y.; Powers, D.A. (1957). \"Electric breakdown and conduction through Mylar films\". J. Appl. Phys. 58 (9): 1017–1022. 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PMID 28428625.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567","url_text":"\"Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...7..932B","url_text":"2017NatSR...7..932B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9","url_text":"10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567","url_text":"5430567"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28428625","url_text":"28428625"}]},{"reference":"Bernhard, Frank; Bernhard, Frank H. (1921). EMF Electrical Year Book. Electrical Trade Pub. Co. p. 822.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pf5MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA822","url_text":"EMF Electrical Year Book"}]},{"reference":"\"Understanding IEC Appliance Insulation Classes: I, II and III\". Fidus Power. 6 July 2018. Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200217041731/http://www.fiduspower.com/news/understanding-iec-appliance-insulation-classes-i-ii-and-iii","url_text":"\"Understanding IEC Appliance Insulation Classes: I, II and III\""},{"url":"http://www.fiduspower.com/news/understanding-iec-appliance-insulation-classes-i-ii-and-iii","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Electrical Porcelain Insulators\" (PDF). Product spec sheet. Universal Clay Products, Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2008-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090220025021/http://www.ucp.net/pdf/Electrical%20Catalogue.pdf","url_text":"\"Electrical Porcelain Insulators\""},{"url":"http://www.ucp.net/pdf/Electrical%20Catalogue.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cotton, H. (1958). The Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy. London: English Univ. Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hu, Yi; Liu, Kai (2017). \"Transmission lines detection technology\". Inspection and Monitoring Technologies of Transmission Lines with Remote Sensing: 205–279. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7. ISBN 978-0-12-812644-8. Composite insulators can take wind and rain and have good self-cleaning performance under wind and rain, so need checking for pollution only once every 4–5 years, and requiring less time for the repair and power interruption.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7","url_text":"10.1016/B978-0-12-812644-8.00004-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-812644-8","url_text":"978-0-12-812644-8"}]},{"reference":"Holtzhausen, J.P. \"High Voltage Insulators\" (PDF). IDC Technologies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2008-10-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140514000839/http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_engineering/highvoltage.pdf","url_text":"\"High Voltage Insulators\""},{"url":"http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_engineering/highvoltage.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Diesendorf, W. (1974). Insulation Coordination in High Voltage Power Systems. UK: Butterworth & Co. ISBN 0-408-70464-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-408-70464-0","url_text":"0-408-70464-0"}]},{"reference":"Grigsby, Leonard L. (2001). The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. 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Retrieved 2017-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nia.org/","url_text":"\"Insulators : National Insulator Association Home Page\""}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Sue (May 2003). Bullers of Milton. Churnet Valley Books. ISBN 978-1-897949-96-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897949-96-2","url_text":"978-1-897949-96-2"}]},{"reference":"M. Shakiba, F.; M, S. Azizi; M., Zhou (Oct 2022). \"A Transfer Learning-Based Method to Detect Insulator Faults of High-Voltage Transmission Lines via Aerial Images: Distinguishing Intact and Broken Insulator Images\". Artificial Intelligence Review. 8 (4): 15–25. doi:10.1109/MSMC.2022.3198027. ISSN 2333-942X. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_of_Mathematics

Men of Mathematics

["1 Publication","2 Contents","3 Reception","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]

Popular history book of mathematics by E.T. Bell Men of Mathematics First editionAuthorE. T. BellLanguageEnglishSubjectHistory of mathematicsPublished1937PublisherSimon and SchusterPublication placeUSAPages608 (1986 edition)ISBN978-0671628185 Men of Mathematics: The Lives and Achievements of the Great Mathematicians from Zeno to Poincaré is a book on the history of mathematics published in 1937 by Scottish-born American mathematician and science fiction writer E. T. Bell (1883–1960). After a brief chapter on three ancient mathematicians, it covers the lives of about forty mathematicians who flourished in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries. The book is illustrated by mathematical discussions, with emphasis on mainstream mathematics. To keep the interest of readers, the book typically focuses on unusual or dramatic aspects of its subjects' lives. Men of Mathematics has inspired many young people, including John Forbes Nash Jr., Julia Robinson, and Freeman Dyson, to become mathematicians. It is not intended as a rigorous history, and includes many anecdotal accounts. Publication In July 1935, Bell signed a contract with Simon and Schuster, for a book to be titled The Lives of Mathematicians. He delivered the manuscript at the beginning of November 1935 as promised, but was unhappy when the publishers made him cut about a third of it (125,000 words), and, in order to tie in with their book Men of Art (by Thomas Craven), gave it the title Men of Mathematics which he did not like. He was also unhappy with how long they took to print it: even before he had received his first printed copy in March 1937, he had written and got into print another book, The Handmaiden of the Sciences. Contents Eudoxus (408–355 BC) Archimedes (287?–212 BC) Descartes (1596–1650) Fermat (1601–1665) Pascal (1623–1662) Newton (1642–1727) Leibniz (1646–1716) The Bernoullis (17th and 18th century) Euler (1707–1783) Lagrange (1736–1813) Laplace (1749–1827) Monge (1746–1818) Fourier (1768–1830) Poncelet (1788–1867) Gauss (1777–1855) Cauchy (1789–1857) Lobachevsky (1793–1856) Abel (1802–1829) Hamilton (1805–1865) Galois (1811–1832) Sylvester (1814–1897) Cayley (1821–1895) Weierstrass (1815–1897) Sonja Kowalewski (1850–1891) Boole (1815–1864) Hermite (1822–1901) Kronecker (1823–1891) Riemann (1826–1866) Kummer (1810–1893) Dedekind (1831–1916) Poincaré (1854–1912) Cantor (1845–1918) Reception Men of Mathematics remains widely read. It has received general praise and some criticism. In the opinion of Ivor Grattan-Guinness the mathematics profession was poorly served by Bell's book: ...perhaps the most widely read modern book on the history of mathematics. As it is also one of the worst, it can be said to have done a considerable disservice to the profession. Eric Bell was criticized in 1983 for incorrectly ascribing the origin of spacetime to Joseph Lagrange: There is a general impression based on the widely read book of E.T. Bell that Lagrange, in his Méchanique Analytique, was the first to have connected time to space as a fourth coordinate. ...However, Lagrange did not express these thoughts quite as precisely as Bell seems to imply....Thus, it is far from certain after consulting the original text whether or not Lagrange came close to formulating, even in his own mind, the concept credited to him by Bell. In reviewing the faculty that served with Harry Bateman at Caltech, Clifford Truesdell wrote: ... was admired for his science fiction and his Men of Mathematics. I was shocked when, just a few years later, Walter Pitts told me the latter was nothing but a string of Hollywood scenarios; my own subsequent study of the sources has shown me that Pitts was right, and I now find the contents of that still popular book to be little more than rehashes enlivened by nasty gossip and banal or indecent fancy. An impression of the book was given by Rebecca Goldstein in her novel 36 Arguments for the Existence of God. Describing a character Cass Seltzer, she wrote on page 105: Right now he was reading E. T. Bell’s Men of Mathematics, which was the best yet, even though it had real mathematics in to slow him down. Some of these people sounded as if they had to be changelings, non-human visitors from some other sphere, with powers so prodigious they burst the boundaries of developmental psychology, lisping out profundities while other children were playing with their toes. Theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson called his encounter with the book one of the decisive moments in his early career path, noting its ability to present famous mathematicians not as saints, but as flawed individuals of mixed qualities who nevertheless accomplished great mathematics. Notes ^ Reid, p. 273 ^ Reid, pp. 276–277 ^ Reid, pp. 276–277 ^ Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (1971). "Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor". Annals of Science. 27: 345–391. doi:10.1080/00033797100203837. ^ Van Oss, Rosiene G. (1983). "D'Alembert and the Fourth Dimension". Historia Mathematica. 10 (4): 455–7. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(83)90007-1. ^ Truesdell, C. (1984). "Genius and the establishment at a polite standstill in the modern university: Bateman". An idiot's fugitive essays on science: methods, criticism, training, circumstances. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 423–4. ISBN 0-387-90703-3. ^ Quoted in the College Mathematics Journal 43(3):231 (May 2010) ^ Interview with Quanta Magazine (June 2015) References Constance Reid (1993), The Search for E. T. Bell: Also Known as John Taine, Mathematical Association of America. External links Men of Mathematics (Volume 2) on archive.org. Reviews: Men of Mathematics from Goodreads.

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After a brief chapter on three ancient mathematicians, it covers the lives of about forty mathematicians who flourished in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries. The book is illustrated by mathematical discussions, with emphasis on mainstream mathematics.To keep the interest of readers, the book typically focuses on unusual or dramatic aspects of its subjects' lives. Men of Mathematics has inspired many young people, including John Forbes Nash Jr., Julia Robinson, and Freeman Dyson, to become mathematicians. 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received his first printed copy in March 1937, he had written and got into print another book, The Handmaiden of the Sciences.[3]","title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eudoxus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"Fermat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal"},{"link_name":"Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Bernoullis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_family"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"Lagrange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange"},{"link_name":"Laplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace"},{"link_name":"Monge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Monge"},{"link_name":"Fourier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier"},{"link_name":"Poncelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Victor_Poncelet"},{"link_name":"Gauss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss"},{"link_name":"Cauchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Louis_Cauchy"},{"link_name":"Lobachevsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky"},{"link_name":"Abel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Henrik_Abel"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Galois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_Galois"},{"link_name":"Sylvester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester"},{"link_name":"Cayley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayley"},{"link_name":"Weierstrass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Weierstrass"},{"link_name":"Sonja Kowalewski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Kovalevskaya"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"Boole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole"},{"link_name":"Hermite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hermite"},{"link_name":"Kronecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker"},{"link_name":"Riemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann"},{"link_name":"Kummer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Kummer"},{"link_name":"Dedekind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind"},{"link_name":"Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Cantor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Cantor"}],"text":"Eudoxus (408–355 BC)\nArchimedes (287?–212 BC)\nDescartes (1596–1650)\nFermat (1601–1665)\nPascal (1623–1662)\nNewton (1642–1727)\nLeibniz (1646–1716)\nThe Bernoullis (17th and 18th century)\nEuler (1707–1783)\nLagrange 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It has received general praise and some criticism.In the opinion of Ivor Grattan-Guinness the mathematics profession was poorly served by Bell's book:...perhaps the most widely read modern book on the history of mathematics. As it is also one of the worst, it can be said to have done a considerable disservice to the profession.[4]Eric Bell was criticized in 1983 for incorrectly ascribing the origin of spacetime to Joseph Lagrange:There is a general impression based on the widely read book of E.T. Bell that Lagrange, in his Méchanique Analytique, was the first to have connected time to space as a fourth coordinate. ...However, Lagrange did not express these thoughts quite as precisely as Bell seems to imply....Thus, it is far from certain after consulting the original text whether or not Lagrange came close to formulating, even in his own mind, the concept credited to him by Bell.[5]In reviewing the faculty that served with Harry Bateman at Caltech, Clifford Truesdell wrote:...[Bell] was admired for his science fiction and his Men of Mathematics. I was shocked when, just a few years later, Walter Pitts told me the latter was nothing but a string of Hollywood scenarios; my own subsequent study of the sources has shown me that Pitts was right, and I now find the contents of that still popular book to be little more than rehashes enlivened by nasty gossip and banal or indecent fancy.[6]An impression of the book was given by Rebecca Goldstein in her novel 36 Arguments for the Existence of God. Describing a character Cass Seltzer, she wrote on page 105:Right now he was reading E. T. Bell’s Men of Mathematics, which was the best yet, even though it had real mathematics in to slow him down. Some of these people sounded as if they had to be changelings, non-human visitors from some other sphere, with powers so prodigious they burst the boundaries of developmental psychology, lisping out profundities while other children were playing with their toes.[7]Theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson called his encounter with the book one of the decisive moments in his early career path, noting its ability to present famous mathematicians not as saints, but as flawed individuals of mixed qualities who nevertheless accomplished great mathematics.[8]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Grattan-Guinness, Ivor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness"},{"link_name":"Annals of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Science"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/00033797100203837","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F00033797100203837"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"D'Alembert and the Fourth Dimension\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2883%2990007-1"},{"link_name":"Historia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0315-0860(83)90007-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2883%2990007-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-387-90703-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-90703-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"College Mathematics Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Mathematics_Journal"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Interview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlaPLvETBug"},{"link_name":"Quanta Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Magazine"}],"text":"^ Reid, p. 273\n\n^ Reid, pp. 276–277\n\n^ Reid, pp. 276–277\n\n^ Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (1971). \"Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor\". Annals of Science. 27: 345–391. doi:10.1080/00033797100203837.\n\n^ Van Oss, Rosiene G. (1983). \"D'Alembert and the Fourth Dimension\". Historia Mathematica. 10 (4): 455–7. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(83)90007-1.\n\n^ Truesdell, C. (1984). \"Genius and the establishment at a polite standstill in the modern university: Bateman\". An idiot's fugitive essays on science: methods, criticism, training, circumstances. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 423–4. ISBN 0-387-90703-3.\n\n^ Quoted in the College Mathematics Journal 43(3):231 (May 2010)\n\n^ Interview with Quanta Magazine (June 2015)","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelty_song

Novelty song

["1 History","1.1 Late 19th century – 1960s","1.2 1970s–2000s","1.3 2010s to date","2 Top 10 chartings in the U.S.","2.1 1930s and 1940s","2.2 1950s","2.3 1960s","2.4 1970s through 2020","3 See also","4 Notes","5 Sources","6 References","7 Bibliography"]

Musical genre Novelty songsStylistic originsPopular musicCultural origins1910s, United StatesDerivative formsWizard rockOther topicsParody musiccomedy rock A poster for "K-K-K-Katy," a popular novelty song released in 1918 "K-K-K-Katy" Performed by Billy Murray recorded in 1918 Problems playing this file? See media help. Charlotte Greenwood, "Oh By Jingo!" (1919) "The Sheik of Araby" (1921) A novelty song is a type of song built upon some form of novel concept, such as a gimmick, a piece of humor, or a sample of popular culture. Novelty songs partially overlap with comedy songs, which are more explicitly based on humor, and with musical parody, especially when the novel gimmick is another popular song. Novelty songs achieved great popularity during the 1920s and 1930s. They had a resurgence of interest in the 1950s and 1960s. The term arose in Tin Pan Alley to describe one of the major divisions of popular music; the other two divisions were ballads and dance music. Humorous songs, or those containing humorous elements, are not necessarily novelty songs. Novelty songs are often a parody or humor song, and may apply to a current event such as a holiday or a fad such as a dance or TV program. Many use unusual lyrics, subjects, sounds, or instrumentation, and may not even be musical. For example, the 1966 novelty song "They're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha-Haaa!", by Napoleon XIV, has little music and is set to a rhythm tapped out on a snare drum, a tambourine, and the bare sides of the musicians' legs. A book on achieving an attention-grabbing novelty single is The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way), written by The KLF. It is based on their achievement of a UK number-one single with "Doctorin' the Tardis", a 1988 dance remix mashup of the Doctor Who theme music released under the name of 'The Timelords'. It argued that (at the time) achieving a number one single could be achieved less by musical talent than through market research, sampling and gimmicks matched to an underlying danceable groove. History Late 19th century – 1960s Novelty songs were a major staple of Tin Pan Alley from its start in the late 19th century. They continued to proliferate in the early years of the 20th century, some rising to be among the biggest hits of the era. Varieties included songs with an unusual gimmick, such as the stuttering in "K-K-K-Katy" or the playful boop-boop-a-doops of "I Wanna Be Loved By You", which made a star out of Helen Kane and inspired the creation of Betty Boop; silly lyrics like "Yes! We Have No Bananas"; playful songs with a bit of double entendre, such as "Don't Put a Tax on All the Beautiful Girls"; and invocations of foreign lands with emphasis on general feel of exoticism rather than geographic or anthropological accuracy, such as "Oh By Jingo!", "The Sheik of Araby", and "The Yodeling Chinaman". These songs were perfect for the medium of Vaudeville, and performers such as Eddie Cantor and Sophie Tucker became well known for such songs. Zez Confrey's 1920s instrumental compositions, which involved gimmicky approaches (such as "Kitten on the Keys") or maniacally rapid tempos ("Dizzy Fingers"), were popular enough to start a fad of novelty piano pieces that lasted through the decade. The fad was brought about by the increasing availability of audio recordings by way of the player piano and the phonograph; whereas much of Tin Pan Alley's repertoire was sold in the form of sheet music and thus had to be simple enough for an amateur pianist to play, novelty piano brought virtuoso-level performance to the home and to those who would not normally attend classical concerts. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, "Hitler Has Only Got One Ball" (set to the tune of British Army bandmaster F. J. Ricketts's popular World War I–era "Colonel Bogey March") was sung by British troops. A 1940s novelty song was Spike Jones' 1942 "Der Fuehrer's Face", which included raspberries in its chorus. Tex Williams's "Smoke! Smoke! Smoke! (That Cigarette)" topped the Billboard best-sellers chart for six weeks and the country music chart for 16 weeks in 1947 and 1948. Hank Williams Sr.'s "Move It On Over", his first hit song, has some humor and novelty elements (about a man having to share the doghouse when his lover kicks him out of the house), but contemporaries (among them Jerry Rivers) disputed this and noted that many men had been faced with eviction under similar circumstances. The 1953 #1 single "(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?" became notable both for its extensive airplay and the backlash from listeners who found it increasingly annoying. Satirists such as Stan Freberg, Allan Sherman, and Tom Lehrer used novelty songs to poke fun at contemporary pop culture in the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1951, Frank Sinatra was paired in a CBS television special with TV personality Dagmar. Mitch Miller at Columbia Records became intrigued with the pairing and compelled songwriter Dick Manning to compose a song for the two of them. The result was "Mama Will Bark", a novelty song performed by Sinatra with interspersed spoken statements by Dagmar, saying things like "mama will bark", "mama will spank", and "papa will spank". The recording even includes the sound of a dog yowling. It is regarded by both music scholars and Sinatra enthusiasts to be perhaps the worst song he ever recorded. Sinatra would record few others before he left Columbia and joined Capitol Records in 1952. Dickie Goodman faced a lawsuit for his 1956 novelty song "The Flying Saucer", which sampled snippets of contemporary hits without permission and arranged them to resemble interviews with an alien landing on Earth. Goodman released more hit singles in the same vein for the next two decades including his gold record RIAA certified hit "Mr. Jaws" in 1975, which charted #1 in Cash Box and Record World and was based on the movie Jaws. Among the more far out songs of this genre were the two released in 1956 by Nervous Norvus, "Transfusion" and "Ape Call". The Coasters had novelty songs such as "Charlie Brown" and "Yakety Yak". "Yakety Yak" became a #1 single on July 21, 1958, and is the only novelty song (#346) included in the Songs of the Century. "Lucky Ladybug" by Billy and Lillie was popular in December 1958. Lonnie Donegan's 1959 cover of the 1924 novelty song "Does Your Chewing Gum Lose Its Flavour (On the Bedpost Overnight?)" was a transatlantic hit, reaching #5 on the Billboard charts two years after its release; it was one of the earliest top-5 hits to come from the United Kingdom in the rock era, preceding the British Invasion. Three songs using a sped-up recording technique became #1 hits in the United States in 1958–59: David Seville's "Witch Doctor" and Ragtime Cowboy Joe, Sheb Wooley's "The Purple People Eater", and Seville's "The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)", which used a speeded-up voice technique to simulate three chipmunks' voices. The technique (which Dickie Goodman had also used on "The Flying Saucer") would inspire a number of other knockoffs, including The Nutty Squirrels and Russ Regan's one-off group Dancer, Prancer and Nervous. In 1960, 16-year-old Brian Hyland had a novelty hit with the song "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini", by Paul Vance and Lee Pockriss, which topped the Billboard single chart. The Trashmen reached the top 5 with "Surfin' Bird", a surf rock medley of two novelty songs originally recorded by The Rivingtons. In 1964, the Grammy for Best Country and Western Album was awarded to Roger Miller. Miller was known to sing novelty songs. In 1965, "A Windmill in Old Amsterdam", a song written by Ted Dicks and Myles Rudge, became a UK hit for Ronnie Hilton. The song spent a total of 13 weeks on the UK Singles Chart peaking at No. 23 in the chart of 17 February 1965. The song's composers were granted an Ivor Novello Award in 1966 for the Year's Outstanding Novelty Composition. 1970s–2000s Chuck Berry's "My Ding-a-Ling" reached #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1972, and Ray Stevens, known for such novelty hits as "Ahab the Arab", "Gitarzan", and "Mississippi Squirrel Revival", had a #1 hit with "The Streak" in 1974. Comedy act Cheech & Chong recorded a number of musical bits that can be classified as novelty songs, including "Basketball Jones"(1973) and "Earache My Eye" (1974). Warren Zevon's lone chart hit was the novelty number "Werewolves of London". Other novelty songs in the '70s are Jimmy Castor Bunch "King Kong"(1975), Rick Dees' "Disco Duck" (1976) and The Fools' "Psycho Chicken" (1978). "Weird Al" Yankovic would emerge as one of the most prolific parody acts of all time in the 1980s, with a career that would span four decades; he would join Cliff Richard in being one of the few acts to have at least one top-40 hit in the U.S. in four consecutive decades (1950s through the 1980s for Richard, 1980s to 2010s for Yankovic). Randy Brooks wrote a Christmas novelty song and it was originally recorded by the duo Elmo Shropshire and his then-wife Patsy in 1979, called "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer". It tells the tragic-comic story of a family grandmother (loosely based on Brooks's uncle Foster Brooks) who meets her end on Christmas Eve. After having drunk too much eggnog and forgetting to take her medicine, she staggers out of her family's house late Christmas Eve, is run over by Santa Claus' entourage, and found trampled at the scene the next morning. It has become a staple of Christmas music playlists on American radio since its original release. An underground novelty music scene began to emerge in the 1960s, beginning with the homosexually themed songs of Camp Records and the racist humor of Johnny Rebel, then in the 1970s and 1980s with X-rated albums by David Allan Coe and Clarence "Blowfly" Reid. Novelty songs have been popular in the UK as well. In 1991, "The Stonk" novelty song raised over £100,000 for the Comic Relief charity. In 1993, "Mr Blobby" became the second novelty song to reach the coveted Christmas number one slot in the UK, following Benny Hill's 1971 chart-topper "Ernie (The Fastest Milkman in the West)". Many popular children's TV characters would try to claim the Christmas number one spot after this. In 1997, the Teletubbies who reached number one the previous week failed to gain it with their single "Say Eh-oh!". They came second in the charts to The Spice Girls second of three consecutive Christmas number ones, with "Too Much". Later on at the turn of the millennium, Bob the Builder was successful in achieving a Christmas number one in 2000, with "Can We Fix It?". However, Bob the Builder did have another number one single a year later with a cover of Lou Bega's "Mambo No.5", and also had another less successful single in 2008 with "Big Fish Little Fish". Some novelty music draws its appeal from its unintentional novelty; so-called "outsider musicians" with little or no formal musical training often will produce comical results (see for instance, Florence Foster Jenkins, Mrs. Miller, the Portsmouth Sinfonia, The Shaggs, and William Hung). After the fictitious composer P.D.Q. Bach repeatedly won the "Best Comedy Album" Grammy from 1990 to 1993, the category was changed to "Best Spoken Comedy Album". When "Best Comedy Album" was reinstated in 2004, "Weird Al" Yankovic won for Poodle Hat. Novelty songs were popular on U.S. radio throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the point where it was not uncommon for novelty songs to break into the top 40. Freeform and album-oriented rock stations made use of novelty songs; some of the best-known work from progressive rocker Frank Zappa, for instance, is his extensive body of mostly adult-oriented novelty music. Zappa's "Bobby Brown (Goes Down)" was a smash hit in Europe despite its sexually explicit storyline, and "Valley Girl" was a Top 40 hit in the US, while his "Don't Eat the Yellow Snow" and "Dancin' Fool" also reached the top 100 in his native United States. Beginning in 1970, Dr. Demento's nationally syndicated radio show gave novelty songs an outlet for much of the country; this lasted through the mid-2000s, when the show (mirroring trends in the genre) faded in popularity until its terrestrial cancellation in June 2010. 2010s to date In the 21st century, novelty songs found a new audience online; the hit song "The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)" by Norwegian comedy duo Ylvis was featured on the kids compilation album So Fresh Pop Party 13 in 2014. Likewise, rapper Big Shaq's 2017 hit "Man's Not Hot", which depicts a man who refuses to take off his jacket, received widespread attention and inspired countless memes as a result of its success, with the man behind the song being British comedian Michael Dapaah. The children's novelty song "Baby Shark" received widespread attention when Korean education brand Pinkfong's cover version from an online viral video reached the top 40 in the U.S. and several other countries. In the United Kingdom, the novelty hit has mainly become a feature of the "Christmas chart battle" (apart from a few viral hits found earlier in a year), with novelty act LadBaby reaching Number One five times in a row, with all five songs being parodies of other popular songs reworked to incorporate a running gag that revolves around sausage rolls. More often than not, the UK Christmas novelty records were recorded for charity, with LadBaby's Christmas chart rivals in 2020 also including The Dancing Binmen (Jack Johnson, Henry Wright and Adrian Breakwell) with their song "Boogie Round The Bins At Christmas Time", and "Merry Christmas, Baked Potato" from comedian Matt Lucas, with fellow chart contender "Raise The Woof!" being promoted as the first ever Christmas record for dogs. Top 10 chartings in the U.S. 1930s and 1940s Title Artist Highestcharting Date “Three Little Fishes” Kay Kyser 1 1939 “The Hut-Sut Song” Freddy Martin 2 May 1941 "Der Fuehrer's Face" Spike Jones 3 October 1942 "Mairzy Doats" the Merry Macs 2 February 1944 "Cocktails for Two" Spike Jones 4 January 1945 “Chickery Chick” Sammy Kaye 1 October 1945 “Cement Mixer (Put-Ti-Put-Ti)” Alvino Rey 6 May 1946 “Open the Door, Richard!” Count Basie, vocals by Harry "Sweets" Edison and Bill Johnson 1 February 1947 "Smoke! Smoke! Smoke! (That Cigarette)" Tex Williams 1 August 1947 “Bongo, Bongo, Bongo (I Don't Want to Leave the Congo)” Danny Kaye and The Andrews Sisters 3 September 1947 “Too Fat Polka!” Arthur Godfrey 2 October 1947 “Temptation (Tim-Tayshun)” Red Ingle and The Natural Seven and Jo Stafford (under the name "Cinderella G. Stump") 2 October 1947 “Feudin' and Fightin' Jo Stafford 10 October 1947 “Mañana (Is Soon Enough for Me)” Peggy Lee 1 January 1948 “Woody Woodpecker Song" Kay Kyser vocals by Gloria Wood & Harry Babbitt 1 May 1948 “Woody Woodpecker Song" Mel Blanc & the Sportsmen 2 July 1948 "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth" Spike Jones 1 November 1948 "I Yust Go Nuts at Christmas" Yogi Yorgesson 5 December 1949 "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" Gene Autry 1 December 1949 1950s Title Artist Highestcharting Date “If I Knew You Were Comin' I'd've Baked a Cake” Eileen Barton 1 March 1950 "The Thing" Phil Harris 1 December 1950 “Aba Daba Honeymoon” Debbie Reynolds & Carleton Carpenter, first recorded in 1914 by the comic duo team of Collins & Harlan 3 February 1951 “I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus” Jimmy Boyd 1 November 1952 “I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus” Spike Jones 7 December 1952 "(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?" Patti Page 1 January 1953 “Eh, Cumpari!” Julius La Rosa 2 September 1953 “Santa Baby” Eartha Kitt 4 November 1953 “Nuttin' for Christmas” Barry Gordon with the Art Mooney Orchestra 6 December 1955 “Blue Suede Shoes” Carl Perkins (Elvis Presley reached number 20 with the song later in 1956) 2 March 1956 "The Flying Saucer" Buchanan & Goodman 3 August 1956 “Searchin'” The Coasters 3 May 1957 “Young Blood” The Coasters 8 May 1957 "Short Shorts" The Royal Teens 3 February 1958 "Witch Doctor" David Seville 1 April 1958 "Splish Splash" Bobby Darin 2 May 1958 "The Purple People Eater" Sheb Wooley (sax solo by Plas Johnson) 1 June 1958 "Yakety Yak" The Coasters (sax solo by King Curtis) 1 June 1958 “Chantilly Lace” The Big Bopper 6 August 1958 "Beep Beep (The Little Nash Rambler)" The Playmates 4 November 1958 “The All American Boy” Bobby Bare 2 December 1958 "The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)" The Chipmunks 1 December 1958 “Charlie Brown” The Coasters (sax solo by King Curtis) 2 February 1959 “Alvin's Harmonica” Alvin and the Chipmunks 3 February 1959 "Kookie, Kookie (Lend Me Your Comb)" Edd 'Kookie' Byrnes & Connie Stevens 4 April 1959 “Pink Shoe Laces" Dodie Stevens 3 April 1959 “Along Came Jones” The Coasters 9 June 1959 “Poison Ivy” The Coasters 7 September 1959 1960s Title Artist Highestcharting Date "Alley Oop" The Hollywood Argyles 1 June 1960 "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polkadot Bikini" Brian Hyland 1 August 1960 “Yogi” The Ivy Three 8 August 1960 "Mr. Custer" Larry Verne 1 September 1960 “Baby Sittin' Boogie” Buzz Clifford 6 January 1961 “Mother-In-Law” Ernie K-Doe 1 April 1961 “Boll Weevil Song” Brook Benton 2 June 1961 "Does Your Chewing Gum Lose Its Flavor" Lonnie Donegan 5 August 1961 “Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp)” Barry Mann 7 August 1961 “Speedy Gonzales” Pat Boone 6 June 1962 "Ahab The Arab" Ray Stevens 5 August 1962 "Monster Mash" Bobby "Boris" Pickett & the Crypt-Kickers 1 September 1962 "Pepino the Italian Mouse" Lou Monte 5 December 1962 "Tie Me Kangaroo Down Sport" Rolf Harris 3 June 1963 "Hello Muddah, Hello Faddah" Allan Sherman 2 August 1963 "Surfin' Bird" The Trashmen 4 December 1963 “Dang Me” Roger Miller 7 July 1964 “Chug-a-Lug” Roger Miller 9 October 1964 “Love Potion No. 9” The Searchers 3 December 1964 "The Name Game" Shirley Ellis 3 January 1965 “The Jolly Green Giant” The Kingsmen 4 January 1965 “King of the Road” Roger Miller 4 February 1965 “I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" Herman's Hermits 1 July 1965 “England Swings” Roger Miller 8 November 1965 "They're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha-Haaa!" Napoleon XIV 3 August 13, 1966 “Winchester Cathedral” The New Vaudeville Band 1 November 1966 "Snoopy vs. the Red Baron" The Royal Guardsmen 2 December 1966 “Gitarzan” Ray Stevens 8 May 1969 “A Boy Named Sue” Johnny Cash, written by Shel Silverstein 2 August 1969 1970s through 2020 Title Artist Highestcharting Date “Gimme Dat Ding” The Pipkins 9 June 1970 “Amos Moses” Jerry Reed 8 January 1971 “When You're Hot, You're Hot” Jerry Reed 9 May 1971 “Hot Rod Lincoln” Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen 9 April 1972 “Coconut” Harry Nilsson 8 July 1972 "My Ding-a-Ling" Chuck Berry, first recorded by Dave Bartholomew in 1952 1 September 1972 “The Cover of "Rolling Stone"” Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show, written by Shel Silverstein 6 March 1973 “Uneasy Rider” Charlie Daniels 9 July 1973 “Spiders and Snakes” Jim Stafford 3 December 1973 "The Streak" Ray Stevens 1 April 1974 “Wildwood Weed” Jim Stafford 7 July 1974 "Convoy" C. W. McCall 1 January 1976 “Junk Food Junkie” Larry Groce 9 February 1976 "Disco Duck" Rick Dees and his Cast Of Idiots 1 September 1976 “Short People” Randy Newman 2 December 1977 “Barbie Girl” Aqua 7 April 1997 “The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)” Ylvis 6 October 2013 See also Novelty Comedy Wizard rock Notes ^ Donegan's version was recorded live at the New Theatre Oxford on December 13, 1958, and was first released in his native U.K. in 1959. Sources Otfinoski, Steve, The Golden Age of Novelty Songs, Billboard Books, New York, NY, 2000 References ^ Axford, Song Sheets to Software, p. 20: "As sentimental songs were the mainstay of Tin Pan Alley, novelty and comical songs helped to break the monotony, developing in the twenties and thirties as signs of the times." ^ Tawa, Supremely American, p. 55: "... in the 1920s, novelty songs offset the intensely serious and lachrymose ballads. nonsensical novelty songs, reproducing the irrational and meaningless side of the twenties, made frequent appearances." ^ "Way Back Attack – Top 100 Novelty Hits of the '50s and '60s". Waybackattack.com. Retrieved December 22, 2017. ^ Hamm, Irving Berlin Early Songs, p. xxxiv: "The text of a novelty song sketches a vignette or a brief story of an amusing or provocative nature. ... noted for portraying characters of specific ethnicity or those finding themselves in certain comic or melodramatic situations, ..." ^ "Words and Music: Our 60 Favorite Music Books". Pitchfork Music. July 11, 2011. Retrieved October 21, 2015. ^ The KLF (1988). The Manual (how to have a number one the easy way). : KLF. ISBN 0-86359-616-9. ^ Russell 1997, pp. 105–120. ^ Greg Kelley (2020), "Colonel Bogey's Parade of Parody", Chapter 1 in Unruly Audience, Utah State University Press, pp. 27, ISBN 9781607329909, previously published as "Colonel Bogey's March through Folk and Popular Culture", Chapter 10 in Eric A. Eliason and Tad Tuleja, eds., Warrior Ways: Explorations in Modern Military Folklore (2012), Utah State University Press, ISBN 9781492000426. ^ "New Case for Old 'Napster'; Dickie Goodman's Son Reveals Father's Legacy in Book and Fights for It in Lawsuit". PR Newswire. Retrieved November 25, 2014. ^ "The Coasters Charlie Brown | Daily Doo Wop". ^ The first Best Comedy Recording Grammy was awarded to David Seville's Hoffman, Dr Frank. "Novelty Songs". Jeff O's Retro Music. Jeff O'Corbett. Archived from the original on February 25, 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2008. ^ "Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini by Brian Hyland Songfacts". Songfacts.com. Retrieved December 22, 2017. ^ "Ronnie Hilton – A Windmill In Old Amsterdam / Dear Heart". Discogs.com. Retrieved December 20, 2017. ^ "A Windmill In Old Amsterdam". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved December 20, 2017. ^ "The Ivors 1966". Theivors.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2017. ^ "Chuck Berry: Charts & Awards – Billboard Singles". AllMusic. United States: Rovi Corporation. Retrieved March 28, 2011. ^ "Music: Top 100 Songs – Billboard Hot 100 Chart". Billboard. Retrieved December 22, 2017. ^ George Plasketes (June 15, 2016). The Secret Inspiration Behind Warren Zevon’s ‘Werewolves of London’, Medium.com, accessed 30 July 2018 ^ "'Psycho Chicken': Plucked-up Talking Heads parody, 1979". Dangerousminds.net. February 3, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2017. ^ Farhi, Paul (December 14, 2007). "All I Want for Christmas Is Not To Hear That Song". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 24, 2017. ^ Knopper, Steve (December 20, 2022). "'Grandma Got Run Over By a Reindeer': How a Holiday Gag Became a Christmas Standard". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2023. ^ Bromley, Tom We Could Have Been the Wombles: The Weird and Wonderful World of One-Hit Wonders p.51. Penguin books ltd, 2006 ^ "Big Shaq | full Official Chart History | Official Charts Company". www.officialcharts.com. ^ "Christmas number one: Why is the festive chart-topper such a big deal? - CBBC Newsround". BBC Newsround. December 13, 2018. ^ Beaumont-Thomas, Ben (December 20, 2019). "LadBaby takes Christmas No 1 with I Love Sausage Rolls". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com. ^ Gorman, Rachel (December 9, 2019). "LadBaby to release new novelty sausage roll song in bid for second Xmas No. 1". NottinghamshireLive. ^ "LadBaby claims Christmas number one". ITV News. December 21, 2018. ^ Parkes, Thomas (November 13, 2020). "Wolverhampton's famous binmen swap dancing for singing with shot at Christmas number one". www.expressandstar.com. ^ Parkes, Thomas (November 20, 2020). "Wolverhampton's famous dancing binmen release their Christmas song". www.expressandstar.com. ^ "Christmas Number 1 2020: The contenders". www.officialcharts.com. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 72. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 398. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 411. ^ Whitburn, Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004, Record Research, 2004 p. 145 ^ Otfinoski, Steve, The Golden Age of Novelty Songs, Billboard Books, New York, NY, 2000 p.31-32 ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 502. ^ Whitburn, Joel (1992). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits. New York: Billboard Books. p. 104. ^ a b Whitburn 1992, p. 361. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 223. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 146. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 357. ^ "Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2018". Recordresearch. Archived from the original on October 1, 2020. Retrieved November 28, 2021. ^ a b Whitburn 1992, p. 326. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 414. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 159. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 397. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 51. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 438. ^ Whitburn 1992, p. 132. Bibliography Aquila, Richard, That Old-time Rock & Roll: A Chronicle of an Era, 1954–1963. University of Illinois Press, 2000. ISBN 0-252-06919-6 Arias, Enrique Alberto (2001), Comedy in Music: A Historical Bibliographical Resource Guide, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 9780313299803 Axford, Elizabeth C. Song Sheets to Software: A Guide to Print Music, Software, and Web Sites for Musicians. Scarecrow Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8108-5027-3 Hamm, Charles (ed.). Irving Berlin Early Songs. Marcel Dekker, 1995. ISBN 0-89579-305-9 Russell, Dave (1997), Popular music in England, 1840–1914, Manchester University Press, ISBN 9780719052613 Tawa, Nicholas E. Supremely American: Popular Song in the 20th Century . Scarecrow Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8108-5295-0 Otfonoski, Steve, The Golden Age of Novelty Songs. Billboard Books, 2000 ISBN 0-8230-7694-6 vteMusical composition and songRoles Composer List Lyricist Songwriter Singer-songwriter Hymnwriter Components Instrumentation Libretto Electronic libretto Lyrics Musical form Musical notation Orchestration Song cycle Song types Answer song Art song Ballad Execution ballad Murder ballad Sentimental ballad Car song Children's song Campfire song Cumulative song Repetitive song Christmas carol Advent song Drinking song Hit song Sleeper hit Summer hit List song Love song Torch song Breakup song Novelty song Nonsense song Patter song Plainsong Hymn tune Political or revolutionary song Campaign song Freedom song Protest song War song Show tune "I Want" song Signature song Sporting song Fight song Football chant Theme song Tragedy song Work song Sea shanty Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K-K-K-Katy_Cover.jpg"},{"link_name":"K-K-K-Katy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-K-K-Katy"},{"link_name":"\"K-K-K-Katy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Billy_Murray_-_K-K-K-Katy.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OhByJingoCoverParlor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Greenwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Greenwood"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sheik_of_Araby.pdf"},{"link_name":"gimmick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimmick"},{"link_name":"humor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_music"},{"link_name":"comedy songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_music"},{"link_name":"musical parody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_parody"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Tin Pan Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley"},{"link_name":"popular music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music"},{"link_name":"ballads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballad_(music)"},{"link_name":"dance music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_music"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"parody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody_song"},{"link_name":"dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelty_and_fad_dances"},{"link_name":"They're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha-Haaa!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They%27re_Coming_to_Take_Me_Away,_Ha-Haaa!"},{"link_name":"Napoleon XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_XIV"},{"link_name":"snare drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snare_drum"},{"link_name":"tambourine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tambourine"},{"link_name":"The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manual"},{"link_name":"The KLF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_KLF"},{"link_name":"Doctorin' the Tardis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorin%27_the_Tardis"},{"link_name":"Doctor Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who"},{"link_name":"theme music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_theme_music"},{"link_name":"market research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_research"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Words_and_Music:_Our_60_Favorite_Music_Books-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Manual_(how_to_have_a_number_one_the_easy_way)-6"}],"text":"A poster for \"K-K-K-Katy,\" a popular novelty song released in 1918\"K-K-K-Katy\"\n\nPerformed by Billy Murray recorded in 1918\nProblems playing this file? See media help.Charlotte Greenwood, \"Oh By Jingo!\" (1919)\"The Sheik of Araby\" (1921)A novelty song is a type of song built upon some form of novel concept, such as a gimmick, a piece of humor, or a sample of popular culture. Novelty songs partially overlap with comedy songs, which are more explicitly based on humor, and with musical parody, especially when the novel gimmick is another popular song. Novelty songs achieved great popularity during the 1920s and 1930s.[1][2] They had a resurgence of interest in the 1950s and 1960s.[3] The term arose in Tin Pan Alley to describe one of the major divisions of popular music; the other two divisions were ballads and dance music.[4] Humorous songs, or those containing humorous elements, are not necessarily novelty songs.Novelty songs are often a parody or humor song, and may apply to a current event such as a holiday or a fad such as a dance or TV program. Many use unusual lyrics, subjects, sounds, or instrumentation, and may not even be musical. For example, the 1966 novelty song \"They're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha-Haaa!\", by Napoleon XIV, has little music and is set to a rhythm tapped out on a snare drum, a tambourine, and the bare sides of the musicians' legs.A book on achieving an attention-grabbing novelty single is The Manual (How to Have a Number One the Easy Way), written by The KLF. It is based on their achievement of a UK number-one single with \"Doctorin' the Tardis\", a 1988 dance remix mashup of the Doctor Who theme music released under the name of 'The Timelords'. It argued that (at the time) achieving a number one single could be achieved less by musical talent than through market research, sampling and gimmicks matched to an underlying danceable groove.[5][6]","title":"Novelty song"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tin Pan Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell1997105%E2%80%93120-7"},{"link_name":"K-K-K-Katy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-K-K-Katy"},{"link_name":"I Wanna Be Loved By You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Wanna_Be_Loved_By_You"},{"link_name":"Helen Kane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Kane"},{"link_name":"Betty Boop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Boop"},{"link_name":"Yes! We Have No Bananas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yes!_We_Have_No_Bananas"},{"link_name":"Oh By Jingo!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh_By_Jingo!"},{"link_name":"The Sheik of Araby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sheik_of_Araby"},{"link_name":"Vaudeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaudeville"},{"link_name":"Eddie Cantor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Cantor"},{"link_name":"Sophie Tucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Tucker"},{"link_name":"Zez Confrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zez_Confrey"},{"link_name":"novelty piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelty_piano"},{"link_name":"player piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_piano"},{"link_name":"sheet music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music"},{"link_name":"virtuoso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuoso"},{"link_name":"Hitler Has Only Got One Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler_Has_Only_Got_One_Ball"},{"link_name":"bandmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandmaster"},{"link_name":"F. J. Ricketts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_J._Alford"},{"link_name":"Colonel Bogey March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_Bogey_March"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Spike Jones'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_Jones"},{"link_name":"Der Fuehrer's Face","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_Jones#%22Der_Fuehrer's_Face%22"},{"link_name":"raspberries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowing_a_raspberry"},{"link_name":"Tex Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tex_Williams"},{"link_name":"Smoke! Smoke! Smoke! (That Cigarette)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke!_Smoke!_Smoke!_(That_Cigarette)"},{"link_name":"country music chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Country_Songs"},{"link_name":"Hank Williams Sr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Williams_Sr."},{"link_name":"Move It On Over","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Move_It_On_Over_(song)"},{"link_name":"Jerry Rivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Rivers"},{"link_name":"(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(How_Much_Is)_That_Doggie_in_the_Window%3F"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Stan Freberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Freberg"},{"link_name":"Allan Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Sherman"},{"link_name":"Tom Lehrer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Lehrer"},{"link_name":"Dagmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagmar_(American_actress)"},{"link_name":"Mitch Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitch_Miller"},{"link_name":"Columbia Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"Dick Manning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Manning"},{"link_name":"Mama Will Bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mama_Will_Bark"},{"link_name":"Capitol Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Records"},{"link_name":"Dickie Goodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickie_Goodman"},{"link_name":"The Flying Saucer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flying_Saucer_(song)"},{"link_name":"sampled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Mr. Jaws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Jaws"},{"link_name":"Jaws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaws_(film)"},{"link_name":"Nervous Norvus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_Norvus"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Yakety Yak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakety_Yak"},{"link_name":"#1 single on July 21, 1958","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_100_number-one_hits_of_1958_(USA)#Hot_100"},{"link_name":"Songs of the Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songs_of_the_Century"},{"link_name":"Billy and Lillie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_and_Lillie"},{"link_name":"Lonnie Donegan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonnie_Donegan"},{"link_name":"Does Your Chewing Gum Lose Its Flavour (On the Bedpost Overnight?)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_Your_Chewing_Gum_Lose_Its_Flavour_(On_the_Bedpost_Overnight%3F)"},{"link_name":"British Invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Invasion"},{"link_name":"David Seville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Bagdasarian"},{"link_name":"Witch Doctor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch_Doctor_(song)"},{"link_name":"Sheb Wooley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheb_Wooley"},{"link_name":"The Purple People Eater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Purple_People_Eater"},{"link_name":"The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chipmunk_Song_(Christmas_Don%27t_Be_Late)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoffman-11"},{"link_name":"The Nutty Squirrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nutty_Squirrels"},{"link_name":"Russ Regan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Regan"},{"link_name":"Brian Hyland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Hyland"},{"link_name":"Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Teenie_Weenie_Yellow_Polka_Dot_Bikini"},{"link_name":"Paul Vance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Vance"},{"link_name":"Lee Pockriss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Pockriss"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Surfin' Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfin%27_Bird"},{"link_name":"surf rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surf_rock"},{"link_name":"The Rivingtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rivingtons"},{"link_name":"Grammy for Best Country and Western Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Album#1960s"},{"link_name":"Roger Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Miller"},{"link_name":"A Windmill in Old Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Windmill_in_Old_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Ted Dicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Dicks"},{"link_name":"Myles Rudge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Rudge"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Hilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Hilton"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Ivor Novello Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor_Novello_Awards"},{"link_name":"the Year's Outstanding Novelty Composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ivor_Novello_Award_winners"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Late 19th century – 1960s","text":"Novelty songs were a major staple of Tin Pan Alley from its start in the late 19th century. They continued to proliferate in the early years of the 20th century, some rising to be among the biggest hits of the era.[7] Varieties included songs with an unusual gimmick, such as the stuttering in \"K-K-K-Katy\" or the playful boop-boop-a-doops of \"I Wanna Be Loved By You\", which made a star out of Helen Kane and inspired the creation of Betty Boop; silly lyrics like \"Yes! We Have No Bananas\"; playful songs with a bit of double entendre, such as \"Don't Put a Tax on All the Beautiful Girls\"; and invocations of foreign lands with emphasis on general feel of exoticism rather than geographic or anthropological accuracy, such as \"Oh By Jingo!\", \"The Sheik of Araby\", and \"The Yodeling Chinaman\". These songs were perfect for the medium of Vaudeville, and performers such as Eddie Cantor and Sophie Tucker became well known for such songs.Zez Confrey's 1920s instrumental compositions, which involved gimmicky approaches (such as \"Kitten on the Keys\") or maniacally rapid tempos (\"Dizzy Fingers\"), were popular enough to start a fad of novelty piano pieces that lasted through the decade. The fad was brought about by the increasing availability of audio recordings by way of the player piano and the phonograph; whereas much of Tin Pan Alley's repertoire was sold in the form of sheet music and thus had to be simple enough for an amateur pianist to play, novelty piano brought virtuoso-level performance to the home and to those who would not normally attend classical concerts.At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, \"Hitler Has Only Got One Ball\" (set to the tune of British Army bandmaster F. J. Ricketts's popular World War I–era \"Colonel Bogey March\") was sung by British troops.[8] A 1940s novelty song was Spike Jones' 1942 \"Der Fuehrer's Face\", which included raspberries in its chorus. Tex Williams's \"Smoke! Smoke! Smoke! (That Cigarette)\" topped the Billboard best-sellers chart for six weeks and the country music chart for 16 weeks in 1947 and 1948. Hank Williams Sr.'s \"Move It On Over\", his first hit song, has some humor and novelty elements (about a man having to share the doghouse when his lover kicks him out of the house), but contemporaries (among them Jerry Rivers) disputed this and noted that many men had been faced with eviction under similar circumstances. The 1953 #1 single \"(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?\" became notable both for its extensive airplay and the backlash from listeners who found it increasingly annoying.[citation needed] Satirists such as Stan Freberg, Allan Sherman, and Tom Lehrer used novelty songs to poke fun at contemporary pop culture in the 1950s and early 1960s.In 1951, Frank Sinatra was paired in a CBS television special with TV personality Dagmar. Mitch Miller at Columbia Records became intrigued with the pairing and compelled songwriter Dick Manning to compose a song for the two of them. The result was \"Mama Will Bark\", a novelty song performed by Sinatra with interspersed spoken statements by Dagmar, saying things like \"mama will bark\", \"mama will spank\", and \"papa will spank\". The recording even includes the sound of a dog yowling. It is regarded by both music scholars and Sinatra enthusiasts to be perhaps the worst song he ever recorded. Sinatra would record few others before he left Columbia and joined Capitol Records in 1952.Dickie Goodman faced a lawsuit for his 1956 novelty song \"The Flying Saucer\", which sampled snippets of contemporary hits without permission and arranged them to resemble interviews with an alien landing on Earth.[9] Goodman released more hit singles in the same vein for the next two decades including his gold record RIAA certified hit \"Mr. Jaws\" in 1975, which charted #1 in Cash Box and Record World and was based on the movie Jaws.Among the more far out songs of this genre were the two released in 1956 by Nervous Norvus, \"Transfusion\" and \"Ape Call\".The Coasters had novelty songs such as \"Charlie Brown\"[10] and \"Yakety Yak\". \"Yakety Yak\" became a #1 single on July 21, 1958, and is the only novelty song (#346) included in the Songs of the Century. \"Lucky Ladybug\" by Billy and Lillie was popular in December 1958. Lonnie Donegan's 1959 cover of the 1924 novelty song \"Does Your Chewing Gum Lose Its Flavour (On the Bedpost Overnight?)\" was a transatlantic hit, reaching #5 on the Billboard charts two years after its release; it was one of the earliest top-5 hits to come from the United Kingdom in the rock era, preceding the British Invasion.Three songs using a sped-up recording technique became #1 hits in the United States in 1958–59: David Seville's \"Witch Doctor\" and Ragtime Cowboy Joe, Sheb Wooley's \"The Purple People Eater\", and Seville's \"The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)\", which used a speeded-up voice technique to simulate three chipmunks' voices.[11] The technique (which Dickie Goodman had also used on \"The Flying Saucer\") would inspire a number of other knockoffs, including The Nutty Squirrels and Russ Regan's one-off group Dancer, Prancer and Nervous.In 1960, 16-year-old Brian Hyland had a novelty hit with the song \"Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini\", by Paul Vance and Lee Pockriss, which topped the Billboard single chart.[12] The Trashmen reached the top 5 with \"Surfin' Bird\", a surf rock medley of two novelty songs originally recorded by The Rivingtons. In 1964, the Grammy for Best Country and Western Album was awarded to Roger Miller. Miller was known to sing novelty songs.In 1965, \"A Windmill in Old Amsterdam\", a song written by Ted Dicks and Myles Rudge, became a UK hit for Ronnie Hilton.[13] The song spent a total of 13 weeks on the UK Singles Chart peaking at No. 23 in the chart of 17 February 1965.[14] The song's composers were granted an Ivor Novello Award in 1966 for the Year's Outstanding Novelty Composition.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chuck Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Berry"},{"link_name":"My Ding-a-Ling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Ding-a-Ling"},{"link_name":"Billboard Hot 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AM-16"},{"link_name":"Ray Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Stevens"},{"link_name":"Ahab the Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahab_the_Arab"},{"link_name":"Gitarzan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitarzan"},{"link_name":"Mississippi Squirrel Revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Squirrel_Revival"},{"link_name":"The Streak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(song)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Cheech & Chong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheech_%26_Chong"},{"link_name":"Basketball Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball_Jones"},{"link_name":"Earache My Eye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earache_My_Eye"},{"link_name":"Warren Zevon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Zevon"},{"link_name":"Werewolves of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werewolves_of_London"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Medium-18"},{"link_name":"Rick Dees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Dees"},{"link_name":"Disco Duck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco_Duck"},{"link_name":"The Fools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fools"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"\"Weird Al\" Yankovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Weird_Al%22_Yankovic"},{"link_name":"Cliff Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Richard"},{"link_name":"Elmo Shropshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmo_Shropshire"},{"link_name":"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandma_Got_Run_Over_by_a_Reindeer"},{"link_name":"Foster Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_Brooks"},{"link_name":"Christmas music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_music"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nottohearthatsong-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holidaygag-21"},{"link_name":"Camp Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Records"},{"link_name":"Johnny Rebel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Rebel_(singer)"},{"link_name":"David Allan Coe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Allan_Coe"},{"link_name":"Clarence \"Blowfly\" Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowfly_(artist)"},{"link_name":"The Stonk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stonk"},{"link_name":"Comic Relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_Relief_(charity)"},{"link_name":"Mr Blobby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr_Blobby_(song)"},{"link_name":"Christmas number one","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christmas_number_one_singles_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Benny Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Hill"},{"link_name":"Ernie (The Fastest Milkman in the West)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie_(The_Fastest_Milkman_in_the_West)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Teletubbies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletubbies"},{"link_name":"Say Eh-oh!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletubbies_say_Eh-oh!"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Spice Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spice_Girls"},{"link_name":"Too Much","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too_Much_(Spice_Girls_song)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"millennium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium"},{"link_name":"Bob the Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_the_Builder"},{"link_name":"Can We Fix It?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_We_Fix_It%3F"},{"link_name":"Lou Bega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou_Bega"},{"link_name":"Mambo No.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mambo_No.5"},{"link_name":"Big Fish Little Fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Fish_Little_Fish_(song)"},{"link_name":"outsider musicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsider_music"},{"link_name":"Florence Foster Jenkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Foster_Jenkins"},{"link_name":"Mrs. Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._Elva_Miller"},{"link_name":"Portsmouth Sinfonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth_Sinfonia"},{"link_name":"The Shaggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shaggs"},{"link_name":"William Hung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hung"},{"link_name":"P.D.Q. Bach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.D.Q._Bach"},{"link_name":"Best Comedy Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Comedy_Album"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"\"Weird Al\" Yankovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Weird_Al%22_Yankovic"},{"link_name":"Poodle Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poodle_Hat"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"Freeform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeform_(radio_format)"},{"link_name":"album-oriented rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Album-oriented_rock"},{"link_name":"Frank Zappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Zappa"},{"link_name":"Bobby Brown (Goes Down)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Brown_(Goes_Down)"},{"link_name":"Valley Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_Girl_(song)"},{"link_name":"Top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"Don't Eat the Yellow Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Eat_the_Yellow_Snow"},{"link_name":"Dancin' Fool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancin%27_Fool"},{"link_name":"Dr. Demento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Demento"}],"sub_title":"1970s–2000s","text":"Chuck Berry's \"My Ding-a-Ling\" reached #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1972,[16] and Ray Stevens, known for such novelty hits as \"Ahab the Arab\", \"Gitarzan\", and \"Mississippi Squirrel Revival\", had a #1 hit with \"The Streak\" in 1974.[17] Comedy act Cheech & Chong recorded a number of musical bits that can be classified as novelty songs, including \"Basketball Jones\"(1973) and \"Earache My Eye\" (1974). Warren Zevon's lone chart hit was the novelty number \"Werewolves of London\".[18] Other novelty songs in the '70s are Jimmy Castor Bunch \"King Kong\"(1975), Rick Dees' \"Disco Duck\" (1976) and The Fools' \"Psycho Chicken\"[19] (1978). \"Weird Al\" Yankovic would emerge as one of the most prolific parody acts of all time in the 1980s, with a career that would span four decades; he would join Cliff Richard in being one of the few acts to have at least one top-40 hit in the U.S. in four consecutive decades (1950s through the 1980s for Richard, 1980s to 2010s for Yankovic).Randy Brooks wrote a Christmas novelty song and it was originally recorded by the duo Elmo Shropshire and his then-wife Patsy in 1979, called \"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer\". It tells the tragic-comic story of a family grandmother (loosely based on Brooks's uncle Foster Brooks) who meets her end on Christmas Eve. After having drunk too much eggnog and forgetting to take her medicine, she staggers out of her family's house late Christmas Eve, is run over by Santa Claus' entourage, and found trampled at the scene the next morning. It has become a staple of Christmas music playlists on American radio since its original release.[20][21]An underground novelty music scene began to emerge in the 1960s, beginning with the homosexually themed songs of Camp Records and the racist humor of Johnny Rebel, then in the 1970s and 1980s with X-rated albums by David Allan Coe and Clarence \"Blowfly\" Reid.Novelty songs have been popular in the UK as well. In 1991, \"The Stonk\" novelty song raised over £100,000 for the Comic Relief charity. In 1993, \"Mr Blobby\" became the second novelty song to reach the coveted Christmas number one slot in the UK, following Benny Hill's 1971 chart-topper \"Ernie (The Fastest Milkman in the West)\".[22] Many popular children's TV characters would try to claim the Christmas number one spot after this. In 1997, the Teletubbies who reached number one the previous week failed to gain it with their single \"Say Eh-oh!\".[citation needed] They came second in the charts to The Spice Girls second of three consecutive Christmas number ones, with \"Too Much\".[citation needed] Later on at the turn of the millennium, Bob the Builder was successful in achieving a Christmas number one in 2000, with \"Can We Fix It?\". However, Bob the Builder did have another number one single a year later with a cover of Lou Bega's \"Mambo No.5\", and also had another less successful single in 2008 with \"Big Fish Little Fish\".Some novelty music draws its appeal from its unintentional novelty; so-called \"outsider musicians\" with little or no formal musical training often will produce comical results (see for instance, Florence Foster Jenkins, Mrs. Miller, the Portsmouth Sinfonia, The Shaggs, and William Hung).After the fictitious composer P.D.Q. Bach repeatedly won the \"Best Comedy Album\" Grammy from 1990 to 1993, the category was changed to \"Best Spoken Comedy Album\".[citation needed] When \"Best Comedy Album\" was reinstated in 2004, \"Weird Al\" Yankovic won for Poodle Hat.[citation needed]Novelty songs were popular on U.S. radio throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the point where it was not uncommon for novelty songs to break into the top 40. Freeform and album-oriented rock stations made use of novelty songs; some of the best-known work from progressive rocker Frank Zappa, for instance, is his extensive body of mostly adult-oriented novelty music. Zappa's \"Bobby Brown (Goes Down)\" was a smash hit in Europe despite its sexually explicit storyline, and \"Valley Girl\" was a Top 40 hit in the US, while his \"Don't Eat the Yellow Snow\" and \"Dancin' Fool\" also reached the top 100 in his native United States. Beginning in 1970, Dr. Demento's nationally syndicated radio show gave novelty songs an outlet for much of the country; this lasted through the mid-2000s, when the show (mirroring trends in the genre) faded in popularity until its terrestrial cancellation in June 2010.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fox_(What_Does_the_Fox_Say%3F)"},{"link_name":"Ylvis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylvis"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Man's Not Hot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27s_Not_Hot"},{"link_name":"memes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memes"},{"link_name":"Michael Dapaah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dapaah"},{"link_name":"Baby Shark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_Shark"},{"link_name":"Pinkfong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkfong"},{"link_name":"cover version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_version"},{"link_name":"viral video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_video"},{"link_name":"Christmas chart battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UK_Singles_Chart_Christmas_number_ones"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"LadBaby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LadBaby"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"running gag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running_gag"},{"link_name":"sausage rolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sausage_roll"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"2010s to date","text":"In the 21st century, novelty songs found a new audience online; the hit song \"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)\" by Norwegian comedy duo Ylvis was featured on the kids compilation album So Fresh Pop Party 13 in 2014. Likewise, rapper Big Shaq[23]'s 2017 hit \"Man's Not Hot\", which depicts a man who refuses to take off his jacket, received widespread attention and inspired countless memes as a result of its success, with the man behind the song being British comedian Michael Dapaah. The children's novelty song \"Baby Shark\" received widespread attention when Korean education brand Pinkfong's cover version from an online viral video reached the top 40 in the U.S. and several other countries.In the United Kingdom, the novelty hit has mainly become a feature of the \"Christmas chart battle\"[24] (apart from a few viral hits found earlier in a year), with novelty act LadBaby[25][26] reaching Number One five times in a row,[27] with all five songs being parodies of other popular songs reworked to incorporate a running gag that revolves around sausage rolls. More often than not, the UK Christmas novelty records were recorded for charity, with LadBaby's Christmas chart rivals in 2020 also including The Dancing Binmen (Jack Johnson, Henry Wright and Adrian Breakwell) with their song \"Boogie Round The Bins At Christmas Time\",[28][29] and \"Merry Christmas, Baked Potato\" from comedian Matt Lucas, with fellow chart contender \"Raise The Woof!\" being promoted as the first ever Christmas record for dogs.[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Top 10 chartings in the U.S."},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1930s and 1940s","title":"Top 10 chartings in the U.S."},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1950s","title":"Top 10 chartings in the U.S."},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1960s","title":"Top 10 chartings in the U.S."},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1970s through 2020","title":"Top 10 chartings in the U.S."},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"New Theatre Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Theatre_Oxford"}],"text":"^ Donegan's version was recorded live at the New Theatre Oxford on December 13, 1958, and was first released in his native U.K. in 1959.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Otfinoski, Steve, The Golden Age of Novelty Songs, Billboard Books, New York, NY, 2000","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-252-06919-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06919-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780313299803","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313299803"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8108-5027-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-5027-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89579-305-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89579-305-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780719052613","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719052613"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8108-5295-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-5295-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8230-7694-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8230-7694-6"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Musical_composition"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Musical_composition"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Musical_composition"},{"link_name":"Musical composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_composition"},{"link_name":"song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song"},{"link_name":"Composer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer"},{"link_name":"List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_composers"},{"link_name":"Lyricist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyricist"},{"link_name":"Songwriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriter"},{"link_name":"Singer-songwriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer-songwriter"},{"link_name":"Hymnwriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnwriter"},{"link_name":"Instrumentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_(music)"},{"link_name":"Libretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libretto"},{"link_name":"Electronic libretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_libretto"},{"link_name":"Lyrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics"},{"link_name":"Musical form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_form"},{"link_name":"Musical notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation"},{"link_name":"Orchestration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestration"},{"link_name":"Song cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_cycle"},{"link_name":"Answer song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answer_song"},{"link_name":"Art song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_song"},{"link_name":"Ballad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballad"},{"link_name":"Execution ballad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_ballad"},{"link_name":"Murder ballad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_ballad"},{"link_name":"Sentimental ballad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimental_ballad"},{"link_name":"Car song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_song"},{"link_name":"Children's song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_song"},{"link_name":"Campfire song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campfire_song"},{"link_name":"Cumulative song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_song"},{"link_name":"Repetitive song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repetitive_song"},{"link_name":"Christmas carol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_carol"},{"link_name":"Advent song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advent_song"},{"link_name":"Drinking song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_song"},{"link_name":"Hit song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_song"},{"link_name":"Sleeper hit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeper_hit"},{"link_name":"Summer hit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_hit"},{"link_name":"List song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_song"},{"link_name":"Love song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_song"},{"link_name":"Torch song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torch_song"},{"link_name":"Breakup song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakup_song"},{"link_name":"Novelty song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Nonsense song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonsense_song"},{"link_name":"Patter song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patter_song"},{"link_name":"Plainsong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainsong"},{"link_name":"Hymn tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn_tune"},{"link_name":"Political or revolutionary song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_song"},{"link_name":"Campaign song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_song"},{"link_name":"Freedom song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_songs"},{"link_name":"Protest song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protest_song"},{"link_name":"War song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_song"},{"link_name":"Show tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_tune"},{"link_name":"\"I Want\" song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22I_Want%22_song"},{"link_name":"Signature song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_signature_songs"},{"link_name":"Sporting song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporting_song"},{"link_name":"Fight song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight_song"},{"link_name":"Football chant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_chant"},{"link_name":"Theme song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_music"},{"link_name":"Tragedy song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teenage_tragedy_song"},{"link_name":"Work song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_song"},{"link_name":"Sea shanty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_shanty"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1151663#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4631866-5"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007556516405171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh99012891"}],"text":"Aquila, Richard, That Old-time Rock & Roll: A Chronicle of an Era, 1954–1963. University of Illinois Press, 2000. ISBN 0-252-06919-6\nArias, Enrique Alberto (2001), Comedy in Music: A Historical Bibliographical Resource Guide, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 9780313299803\nAxford, Elizabeth C. Song Sheets to Software: A Guide to Print Music, Software, and Web Sites for Musicians. Scarecrow Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8108-5027-3\nHamm, Charles (ed.). Irving Berlin Early Songs. Marcel Dekker, 1995. ISBN 0-89579-305-9\nRussell, Dave (1997), Popular music in England, 1840–1914, Manchester University Press, ISBN 9780719052613\nTawa, Nicholas E. Supremely American: Popular Song in the 20th Century . Scarecrow Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8108-5295-0\nOtfonoski, Steve, The Golden Age of Novelty Songs. Billboard Books, 2000 ISBN 0-8230-7694-6vteMusical composition and songRoles\nComposer\nList\nLyricist\nSongwriter\nSinger-songwriter\nHymnwriter\nComponents\nInstrumentation\nLibretto\nElectronic libretto\nLyrics\nMusical form\nMusical notation\nOrchestration\nSong cycle\nSong types\nAnswer song\nArt song\nBallad\nExecution ballad\nMurder ballad\nSentimental ballad\nCar song\nChildren's song\nCampfire song\nCumulative song\nRepetitive song\nChristmas carol\nAdvent song\nDrinking song\nHit song\nSleeper hit\nSummer hit\nList song\nLove song\nTorch song\nBreakup song\nNovelty song\nNonsense song\nPatter song\nPlainsong\nHymn tune\nPolitical or revolutionary song\nCampaign song\nFreedom song\nProtest song\nWar song\nShow tune\n\"I Want\" song\nSignature song\nSporting song\nFight song\nFootball chant\nTheme song\nTragedy song\nWork song\nSea shantyAuthority control databases: National \nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"A poster for \"K-K-K-Katy,\" a popular novelty song released in 1918","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/K-K-K-Katy_Cover.jpg/220px-K-K-K-Katy_Cover.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Charlotte Greenwood, \"Oh By Jingo!\" (1919)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/OhByJingoCoverParlor.jpg/220px-OhByJingoCoverParlor.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"The Sheik of Araby\" (1921)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sheik_of_Araby.pdf/page1-220px-Sheik_of_Araby.pdf.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Novelty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelty"},{"title":"Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy"},{"title":"Wizard rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizard_rock"}]

[{"reference":"\"Way Back Attack – Top 100 Novelty Hits of the '50s and '60s\". Waybackattack.com. Retrieved December 22, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.waybackattack.com/top100-noveltyhits.html","url_text":"\"Way Back Attack – Top 100 Novelty Hits of the '50s and '60s\""}]},{"reference":"\"Words and Music: Our 60 Favorite Music Books\". Pitchfork Music. July 11, 2011. Retrieved October 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://pitchfork.com/features/staff-lists/7967-words-and-music-our-60-favorite-music-books/2/","url_text":"\"Words and Music: Our 60 Favorite Music Books\""}]},{"reference":"The KLF (1988). The Manual (how to have a number one the easy way). [Great Britain]: KLF. ISBN 0-86359-616-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86359-616-9","url_text":"0-86359-616-9"}]},{"reference":"Greg Kelley (2020), \"Colonel Bogey's Parade of Parody\", Chapter 1 in Unruly Audience, Utah State University Press, pp. 27, ISBN 9781607329909, previously published as \"Colonel Bogey's March through Folk and Popular Culture\", Chapter 10 in Eric A. Eliason and Tad Tuleja, eds., Warrior Ways: Explorations in Modern Military Folklore (2012), Utah State University Press, ISBN 9781492000426.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press","url_text":"Utah State University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781607329909","url_text":"9781607329909"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781492000426","url_text":"9781492000426"}]},{"reference":"\"New Case for Old 'Napster'; Dickie Goodman's Son Reveals Father's Legacy in Book and Fights for It in Lawsuit\". PR Newswire. Retrieved November 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-case-for-old-napster-dickie-goodmans-son-reveals-fathers-legacy-in-book-and-fights-for-it-in-lawsuit-73270132.html","url_text":"\"New Case for Old 'Napster'; Dickie Goodman's Son Reveals Father's Legacy in Book and Fights for It in Lawsuit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PR_Newswire","url_text":"PR Newswire"}]},{"reference":"\"The Coasters Charlie Brown | Daily Doo Wop\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailydoowop.com/the-coasters-charlie-brown/","url_text":"\"The Coasters Charlie Brown | Daily Doo Wop\""}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Dr Frank. \"Novelty Songs\". Jeff O's Retro Music. Jeff O'Corbett. Archived from the original on February 25, 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080225053723/http://www.jeffosretromusic.com/novelty.html","url_text":"\"Novelty Songs\""},{"url":"http://www.jeffosretromusic.com/novelty.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini by Brian Hyland Songfacts\". Songfacts.com. Retrieved December 22, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=6099","url_text":"\"Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini by Brian Hyland Songfacts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ronnie Hilton – A Windmill In Old Amsterdam / Dear Heart\". Discogs.com. Retrieved December 20, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.discogs.com/Ronnie-Hilton-A-Windmill-In-Old-Amsterdam-Dear-Heart/release/1733514","url_text":"\"Ronnie Hilton – A Windmill In Old Amsterdam / Dear Heart\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Windmill In Old Amsterdam\". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved December 20, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/search/singles/a%20windmill%20in%20old%20amsterdam/","url_text":"\"A Windmill In Old Amsterdam\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Ivors 1966\". Theivors.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180815072315/http://theivors.com/archive/1960-1969/the-ivors-1966/","url_text":"\"The Ivors 1966\""},{"url":"http://theivors.com/archive/1960-1969/the-ivors-1966/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chuck Berry: Charts & Awards – Billboard Singles\". AllMusic. United States: Rovi Corporation. 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The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/dec/20/ladbaby-i-love-sausage-rolls-christmas-no-1","url_text":"\"LadBaby takes Christmas No 1 with I Love Sausage Rolls\""}]},{"reference":"Gorman, Rachel (December 9, 2019). \"LadBaby to release new novelty sausage roll song in bid for second Xmas No. 1\". NottinghamshireLive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nottinghampost.com/whats-on/music-nightlife/ladbaby-release-new-novelty-sausage-3622378","url_text":"\"LadBaby to release new novelty sausage roll song in bid for second Xmas No. 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"LadBaby claims Christmas number one\". ITV News. December 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itv.com/news/2018-12-21/ladbaby-claims-christmas-number-one-with-novelty-song-about-sausage-rolls","url_text":"\"LadBaby claims Christmas number one\""}]},{"reference":"Parkes, Thomas (November 13, 2020). \"Wolverhampton's famous binmen swap dancing for singing with shot at Christmas number one\". www.expressandstar.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/local-hubs/wolverhampton/2020/11/13/wolverhamptons-famous-binmen-swap-dancing-for-singing-with-shot-at-christmas-number-one/","url_text":"\"Wolverhampton's famous binmen swap dancing for singing with shot at Christmas number one\""}]},{"reference":"Parkes, Thomas (November 20, 2020). \"Wolverhampton's famous dancing binmen release their Christmas song\". www.expressandstar.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.expressandstar.com/entertainment/wolverhampton-entertainment/2020/11/20/wolverhamptons-famous-dancing-binmen-release-christmas-song/","url_text":"\"Wolverhampton's famous dancing binmen release their Christmas song\""}]},{"reference":"\"Christmas Number 1 2020: The contenders\". www.officialcharts.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/christmas-number-1-2020-the-contenders-revealed__31728/","url_text":"\"Christmas Number 1 2020: The contenders\""}]},{"reference":"Whitburn, Joel (1992). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits. New York: Billboard Books. p. 104.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2018\". Recordresearch. Archived from the original on October 1, 2020. Retrieved November 28, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201001015030/https://www.recordresearch.com/books/top-pop-singles-1955-2018/","url_text":"\"Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2018\""},{"url":"https://www.recordresearch.com/books/top-pop-singles-1955-2018/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Arias, Enrique Alberto (2001), Comedy in Music: A Historical Bibliographical Resource Guide, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 9780313299803","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313299803","url_text":"9780313299803"}]},{"reference":"Russell, Dave (1997), Popular music in England, 1840–1914, Manchester University Press, ISBN 9780719052613","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719052613","url_text":"9780719052613"}]}]

[{"Link":"http://www.waybackattack.com/top100-noveltyhits.html","external_links_name":"\"Way Back Attack – Top 100 Novelty Hits of the '50s and '60s\""},{"Link":"http://pitchfork.com/features/staff-lists/7967-words-and-music-our-60-favorite-music-books/2/","external_links_name":"\"Words and Music: Our 60 Favorite Music Books\""},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-case-for-old-napster-dickie-goodmans-son-reveals-fathers-legacy-in-book-and-fights-for-it-in-lawsuit-73270132.html","external_links_name":"\"New Case for Old 'Napster'; Dickie Goodman's Son Reveals Father's Legacy in Book and Fights for It in Lawsuit\""},{"Link":"https://www.dailydoowop.com/the-coasters-charlie-brown/","external_links_name":"\"The Coasters Charlie Brown | Daily Doo Wop\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080225053723/http://www.jeffosretromusic.com/novelty.html","external_links_name":"\"Novelty Songs\""},{"Link":"http://www.jeffosretromusic.com/novelty.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=6099","external_links_name":"\"Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini by Brian Hyland Songfacts\""},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/Ronnie-Hilton-A-Windmill-In-Old-Amsterdam-Dear-Heart/release/1733514","external_links_name":"\"Ronnie Hilton – A Windmill In Old Amsterdam / Dear Heart\""},{"Link":"http://www.officialcharts.com/search/singles/a%20windmill%20in%20old%20amsterdam/","external_links_name":"\"A Windmill In Old Amsterdam\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180815072315/http://theivors.com/archive/1960-1969/the-ivors-1966/","external_links_name":"\"The Ivors 1966\""},{"Link":"http://theivors.com/archive/1960-1969/the-ivors-1966/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/p3664/charts-awards/billboard-singles","external_links_name":"\"Chuck Berry: Charts & Awards – Billboard Singles\""},{"Link":"http://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100/1974-05-18","external_links_name":"\"Music: Top 100 Songs – Billboard Hot 100 Chart\""},{"Link":"https://medium.com/cuepoint/the-secret-inspiration-behind-warren-zevons-werewolves-of-london-4a5fa337a7f1","external_links_name":"The Secret Inspiration Behind Warren Zevon’s ‘Werewolves of London’"},{"Link":"http://dangerousminds.net/comments/psycho_chicken","external_links_name":"\"'Psycho Chicken': Plucked-up Talking Heads parody, 1979\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/13/AR2007121302192.html","external_links_name":"\"All I Want for Christmas Is Not To Hear That Song\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286","external_links_name":"0190-8286"},{"Link":"https://www.billboard.com/pro/grandma-got-run-over-christmas-song-history-taylor-swift-link/","external_links_name":"\"'Grandma Got Run Over By a Reindeer': How a Holiday Gag Became a Christmas Standard\""},{"Link":"https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/52279/big-shaq/","external_links_name":"\"Big Shaq | full Official Chart History | Official Charts Company\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/46546117","external_links_name":"\"Christmas number one: Why is the festive chart-topper such a big deal? - CBBC Newsround\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/dec/20/ladbaby-i-love-sausage-rolls-christmas-no-1","external_links_name":"\"LadBaby takes Christmas No 1 with I Love Sausage Rolls\""},{"Link":"https://www.nottinghampost.com/whats-on/music-nightlife/ladbaby-release-new-novelty-sausage-3622378","external_links_name":"\"LadBaby to release new novelty sausage roll song in bid for second Xmas No. 1\""},{"Link":"https://www.itv.com/news/2018-12-21/ladbaby-claims-christmas-number-one-with-novelty-song-about-sausage-rolls","external_links_name":"\"LadBaby claims Christmas number one\""},{"Link":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/local-hubs/wolverhampton/2020/11/13/wolverhamptons-famous-binmen-swap-dancing-for-singing-with-shot-at-christmas-number-one/","external_links_name":"\"Wolverhampton's famous binmen swap dancing for singing with shot at Christmas number one\""},{"Link":"https://www.expressandstar.com/entertainment/wolverhampton-entertainment/2020/11/20/wolverhamptons-famous-dancing-binmen-release-christmas-song/","external_links_name":"\"Wolverhampton's famous dancing binmen release their Christmas song\""},{"Link":"https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/christmas-number-1-2020-the-contenders-revealed__31728/","external_links_name":"\"Christmas Number 1 2020: The contenders\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201001015030/https://www.recordresearch.com/books/top-pop-singles-1955-2018/","external_links_name":"\"Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2018\""},{"Link":"https://www.recordresearch.com/books/top-pop-singles-1955-2018/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4631866-5","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007556516405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh99012891","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasso_Plattner_Institute

Hasso Plattner Institute

["1 History","2 Criticism","3 openHPI","4 Rankings and awards","5 References","6 External links"]

Coordinates: 52°23′37″N 13°07′56″E / 52.39361°N 13.13222°E / 52.39361; 13.13222 For the design thinking institute at Stanford University in the United States, see Hasso Plattner Institute of Design.Hasso Plattner InstituteHasso-Plattner-Institut für Digital Engineering gGmbHMottoDesign IT. Create Knowledge.Typeprivately financed university instituteEstablishedOctober 1998DirectorTobias Friedrich, Ralf Herbrich, Marcus KöllingAdministrative staffabout 120Studentsabout 800LocationPotsdam, GermanyCampusGriebnitzseeAffiliationsUniversity of PotsdamWebsitewww.hpi.de The Hasso Plattner Institute for Digital Engineering gGmbH (German: Hasso-Plattner-Institut für Digital Engineering gGmbH; HPI) is an information technology non-profit company affiliated with the University of Potsdam in Potsdam, Brandenburg, northeastern Germany. The teaching and research of HPI are focused on "IT-Systems Engineering". HPI was founded in 1998, and is the first, and as of 2018, the only entirely privately funded faculty in Germany. It is financed entirely through private funds donated by billionaire Hasso Plattner, who co-founded the software company SAP SE, and is currently the chairman of SAP's supervisory board. From 2004 to 2023 the institute was headed by Christoph Meinel. On April 1, 2023, a team consisting of Tobias Friedrich, Marcus Kölling and Ralf Herbrich took over the management of the institute.Lecture halls (old picture without main building in the background) Campus panorama viewA-B-C building (former main building) History The HPI was founded in October 1998 as a public–private partnership. The private partner is the Hasso Plattner Foundation, which is the administrative body responsible for the HPI and its only corporate member. The foundation's legal status is that of a GmbH, a limited-liability company according to German law. As the public part of the partnership, the State of Brandenburg provided the estate where several multi-storey buildings were built to form a nice campus. Hasso Plattner declared to provide at least 200 million Euros for the HPI within the first 20 years. He is also actively involved as a lecturer and head of the chair on Enterprise Platform and Integration Concepts, where the in-memory technology was developed. In 2004, he received his honorary professorship from the University of Potsdam. Since 2007, the HPI maintains a particularly close cooperation with the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, part of Stanford University's School of Engineering. In addition to the exchange of students and scientists, an annual workshop on Design Thinking is held in Germany. German companies are simultaneously involved in joint international development projects between Potsdam and Palo Alto aimed at simplifying the implementation of such projects on both sides of the Atlantic with the help of tele-teaching technology. Criticism In 2024 HPI was heavily criticized for Union busting against the founding activities of a Works council. Posters for workers' assemblies has been removed and about €200,000 been paid to the law firm Pusch Wahlig Workplace Law specialized for anti-union measurements. As a result, the institute founded an alternative committee which has been criticized for being a "fake council" only existing to bypass the right to organize. The association "aktion ./. arbeitsunrecht", which campaigns against labor injustice and for more democracy in business and industry, considers the actions of the Hasso Plattner Institute to be criminal within the meaning of § 119 of the Works Constitution Act. The law firm Pusch Wahlig Workplace Law had also already attracted attention through union busting at Flinkin Berlin as well as at the car rental company Sixt and the beverage supplier Flaschenpost. A spokesperson for the legal protection department of the German Trade Union Confederation judged the HPI's actions to be "clearly unlawful". The events were also discussed in the Brandenburg state parliament at the request of the Left Party. The Left Party, the SPD and the Greens took a clear stance in support of setting up a works council and against Union busting. The far right wing party AfD strongly questioned Correctiv's account and spoke out in favor of academic freedom. At the beginning of April 2024, HPI employees voted with a majority of 68% for the establishment of the Institute Council.Mr. Net: interactive sculpture designed by the Spanish artist Jaume Plensa openHPI In 2012, based on HPI's long lasting tele-TASK research project, openHPI has started to work. openHPI is an Internet educational platform for offering massive open online courses (MOOCs), which is embedded in a global social network. It offers free interactive online courses about different topics in information technology. Participants can become familiar with basic topics of computer science, and IT systems engineering as well as with advanced current research topics in IT. They also have the ability to discuss issues and to develop solutions in a virtual community with participants from around the globe. Rankings and awards The Center for Higher Education Development (CHE) is an independent private non-profit organization, founded by the German Rectors' Conference and the Bertelsmann Foundation. According to its university ranking in 2020, HPI's Bachelor's and Master's programs are among the four best-ranked computer science programs in the German-speaking countries with the Bachelor's program valued highest in 18 out of 28 analyzed categories and among the best in five additional categories. In 2012, HPI and SAP received the German Innovation Prize (Deutscher Innovationspreis), a prize awarded by Accenture, EnBW, Evonik and Wirtschaftswoche, for the development of the in-memory database SAP HANA. References ^ a b "Organization". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ...founded in October 1998 as part of a public-private partnership... ^ a b "People". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 18 December 2023. ...about 800 students are enrolled in the bachelor and master degree programs... ^ Mallwitz, Gudrun (4 April 2017). "Bundesweit erste privat finanzierte Fakultät an Uni". Berliner Morgenpost (in German). Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019. ^ roinsider (24 July 2018). "German billionaire makes biggest donation to a Romanian university in 30 years". Romania Insider. Retrieved 27 January 2023. ^ "Hasso-Plattner-Institut verabschiedet langjährigen Direktor Christoph Meinel". hpi.de (in German). Retrieved 30 May 2024. ^ Wilkens, Andreas (5 November 2004). "Hasso-Plattner-Institut soll "Weltklasse-Niveau" erreichen". heise online. Archived from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2018. ^ "Founder Hasso Plattner". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019. Plattner not only finances HPI, as head of the 'Enterprise Platform and Integration Concepts' department... ^ Dowideit, Anette (1 March 2024). "Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat – und lässt sich das über 200.000 Euro kosten" . correctiv.org (in German). Retrieved 13 March 2024. ^ "Für mehr als 200.000 Euro: Potsdamer Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat". Der Tagesspiegel Online (in German). ISSN 1865-2263. Retrieved 13 March 2024. ^ "Handelsblatt". www.handelsblatt.com. Retrieved 28 April 2024. ^ "Kehrtwende vor dem Berliner Arbeitsgericht: Vorerst kein Betriebsrat beim Lieferdienst Flink". Der Tagesspiegel Online (in German). ISSN 1865-2263. Retrieved 28 April 2024. ^ Wyputta, Andreas (24 November 2021). "Sixt verhindert Betriebsrat: Schluss mit lustig". Die Tageszeitung: taz (in German). ISSN 0931-9085. Retrieved 28 April 2024. ^ Pressemitteilung (4 March 2024). "Hasso-Plattner-Institut: Union Busting durch Pseudo-Betriebsrat. Wann ermittelt die Staatsanwaltschaft?". arbeitsunrecht in deutschland (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024. ^ Lelek, Christian. "Vorwürfe gegen Hasso Plattner Institut: Betriebsrat verhindert?". nd-aktuell.de (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024. ^ Vandre, Isabelle (26 March 2024). "Die Linksfraktion macht Verhinderung des Betriebsrates am Hasso-Plattner-Institut im Landtag zum Thema". Die Linke Fraktion im Landtag Brandenburg (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024. ^ "104. Sitzung des Brandenburger Landtags". www.rbb-online.de (in German). 21 March 2024. Retrieved 20 April 2024. ^ Damus, Sahra (21 March 2024). "Rede im Landtag: Mitbestimmung absichern - keine Ausnahme für das Hasso-Plattner-Institut!". Fraktion BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN im Brandenburger Landtag (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024. ^ Oeynhausen, Daniela. Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit! (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024 – via www.youtube.com. ^ "HPI staff votes for Institute Council". hpi.de. 12 April 2024. ^ HPI Internet Lecture Video Archive ^ openHPI: The MOOC platform of the HPI ^ Willems, Christian; Jasper, Johannes; Meinel, Christoph (26 August 2013). "Introducing hands-on experience to a Massive Open Online Course on openHPI". Proceedings of 2013 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering (TALE). pp. 307–313. doi:10.1109/TALE.2013.6654451. ISBN 978-1-4673-6355-6. S2CID 22137372. ^ "Funding of the Center for Higher Education Development (CHE)". ^ "HPI in the CHE ranking". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ^ "CHE 2020 ranking for computer science". Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ Behme, Henning (17 March 2012). "SAP und HPI erhalten Deutschen Innovationspreis 2012". heise online. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019. External links Media related to Hasso-Plattner-Institut at Wikimedia Commons Website – Hasso-Plattner-Institut für Softwaresystemtechnik GmbH Official website of openHPI Official website of tele-TASK Official website of HPI School of Design Thinking 52°23′37″N 13°07′56″E / 52.39361°N 13.13222°E / 52.39361; 13.13222 Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany ^ Oeynhausen, Daniela. "Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit!".

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On April 1, 2023, a team consisting of Tobias Friedrich, Marcus Kölling and Ralf Herbrich took over the management of the institute.[5]Lecture halls (old picture without main building in the background)Campus panorama viewA-B-C building (former main building)","title":"Hasso Plattner Institute"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"public–private partnership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hpi_organization-1"},{"link_name":"GmbH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GmbH"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hpi_heise_news-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hasso Plattner Institute of Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasso_Plattner_Institute_of_Design"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Design Thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Thinking"},{"link_name":"Palo Alto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Alto"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The HPI was founded in October 1998 as a public–private partnership.[1] The private partner is the Hasso Plattner Foundation, which is the administrative body responsible for the HPI and its only corporate member. The foundation's legal status is that of a GmbH, a limited-liability company according to German law. As the public part of the partnership, the State of Brandenburg provided the estate where several multi-storey buildings were built to form a nice campus. Hasso Plattner declared to provide at least 200 million Euros for the HPI within the first 20 years.[6] He is also actively involved as a lecturer and head of the chair on Enterprise Platform and Integration Concepts,[7] where the in-memory technology was developed. In 2004, he received his honorary professorship from the University of Potsdam.Since 2007, the HPI maintains a particularly close cooperation with the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, part of Stanford University's School of Engineering. In addition to the exchange of students and scientists, an annual workshop on Design Thinking is held in Germany. German companies are simultaneously involved in joint international development projects between Potsdam and Palo Alto aimed at simplifying the implementation of such projects on both sides of the Atlantic with the help of tele-teaching technology.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Union busting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_busting"},{"link_name":"Works council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_council"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Flink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flink_(company)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Sixt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixt"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"German Trade Union Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Trade_Union_Confederation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Left Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Left Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"SPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"the Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens"},{"link_name":"Union busting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_busting"},{"link_name":"AfD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany"},{"link_name":"Correctiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correctiv"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interaktive_Skulptur_%22Mr._Net%22.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jaume Plensa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaume_Plensa"}],"text":"In 2024 HPI was heavily criticized for Union busting against the founding activities of a Works council. Posters for workers' assemblies has been removed and about €200,000 been paid to the law firm Pusch Wahlig Workplace Law specialized for anti-union measurements. As a result, the institute founded an alternative committee which has been criticized for being a \"fake council\" only existing to bypass the right to organize.[8][9] The association \"aktion ./. arbeitsunrecht\", which campaigns against labor injustice and for more democracy in business and industry, considers the actions of the Hasso Plattner Institute to be criminal within the meaning of § 119 of the Works Constitution Act. The law firm Pusch Wahlig Workplace Law had also already attracted attention through union busting at Flink[10][11]in Berlin as well as at the car rental company Sixt[12] and the beverage supplier Flaschenpost.[13] A spokesperson for the legal protection department of the German Trade Union Confederation judged the HPI's actions to be \"clearly unlawful\".[14] The events were also discussed in the Brandenburg state parliament at the request of the Left Party.[15] The Left Party, the SPD and the Greens took a clear stance in support of setting up a works council and against Union busting. The far right wing party AfD strongly questioned Correctiv's account and spoke out in favor of academic freedom.[16] [17][18] At the beginning of April 2024, HPI employees voted with a majority of 68% for the establishment of the Institute Council.[19]Mr. Net: interactive sculpture designed by the Spanish artist Jaume Plensa","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"openHPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenHPI_(Online_Education)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"MOOCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOOC"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"In 2012, based on HPI's long lasting tele-TASK[20] research project, openHPI[21] has started to work. openHPI is an Internet educational platform for offering massive open online courses (MOOCs), which is embedded in a global social network. It offers free interactive online courses about different topics in information technology. \nParticipants can become familiar with basic topics of computer science, and IT systems engineering as well as with advanced current research topics in IT. They also have the ability to discuss issues and to develop solutions in a virtual community with participants from around the globe.[22]","title":"openHPI"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German Rectors' Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Rectors%27_Conference"},{"link_name":"Bertelsmann Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertelsmann_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Accenture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accenture"},{"link_name":"EnBW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EnBW"},{"link_name":"Evonik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evonik_Industries"},{"link_name":"Wirtschaftswoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswoche"},{"link_name":"SAP HANA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_HANA"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The Center for Higher Education Development (CHE) is an independent private non-profit organization, founded by the German Rectors' Conference and the Bertelsmann Foundation.[23] According to its university ranking in 2020, HPI's Bachelor's and Master's programs are among the four best-ranked computer science programs in the German-speaking countries with the Bachelor's program valued highest in 18 out of 28 analyzed categories and among the best in five additional categories.[24][25]In 2012, HPI and SAP received the German Innovation Prize (Deutscher Innovationspreis), a prize awarded by Accenture, EnBW, Evonik and Wirtschaftswoche, for the development of the in-memory database SAP HANA.[26]","title":"Rankings and awards"}]

[{"image_text":"Lecture halls (old picture without main building in the background)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Universitaet_Potsdam_-_Hoersaalgebaeude_des_HPI.jpg/220px-Universitaet_Potsdam_-_Hoersaalgebaeude_des_HPI.jpg"},{"image_text":"Campus panorama view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Panorama_vom_Hasso-Plattner-Institut_Potsdam.jpg/220px-Panorama_vom_Hasso-Plattner-Institut_Potsdam.jpg"},{"image_text":"A-B-C building (former main building)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Institut-HPI.jpg/220px-Institut-HPI.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mr. Net: interactive sculpture designed by the Spanish artist Jaume Plensa","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Interaktive_Skulptur_%22Mr._Net%22.jpg/220px-Interaktive_Skulptur_%22Mr._Net%22.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"Organization\". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ...founded in October 1998 as part of a public-private partnership...","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/en/the-hpi/organization.html","url_text":"\"Organization\""}]},{"reference":"\"People\". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 18 December 2023. ...about 800 students are enrolled in the bachelor and master degree programs...","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/en/the-hpi/people.html","url_text":"\"People\""}]},{"reference":"Mallwitz, Gudrun (4 April 2017). \"Bundesweit erste privat finanzierte Fakultät an Uni\". Berliner Morgenpost (in German). Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.morgenpost.de/berlin/article210149589/Bundesweit-erste-privat-finanzierte-Fakultaet-an-Uni.html","url_text":"\"Bundesweit erste privat finanzierte Fakultät an Uni\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Morgenpost","url_text":"Berliner Morgenpost"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190629120018/https://www.morgenpost.de/berlin/article210149589/Bundesweit-erste-privat-finanzierte-Fakultaet-an-Uni.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"roinsider (24 July 2018). \"German billionaire makes biggest donation to a Romanian university in 30 years\". Romania Insider. Retrieved 27 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.romania-insider.com/hasso-plattner-lucian-blaga-university-donation","url_text":"\"German billionaire makes biggest donation to a Romanian university in 30 years\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hasso-Plattner-Institut verabschiedet langjährigen Direktor Christoph Meinel\". hpi.de (in German). Retrieved 30 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/pressemitteilungen/2023/hasso-plattner-institut-verabschiedet-langjaehrigen-direktor-christoph-meinel.html","url_text":"\"Hasso-Plattner-Institut verabschiedet langjährigen Direktor Christoph Meinel\""}]},{"reference":"Wilkens, Andreas (5 November 2004). \"Hasso-Plattner-Institut soll \"Weltklasse-Niveau\" erreichen\". heise online. Archived from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Hasso-Plattner-Institut-soll-Weltklasse-Niveau-erreichen-113403.html","url_text":"\"Hasso-Plattner-Institut soll \"Weltklasse-Niveau\" erreichen\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180904154046/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Hasso-Plattner-Institut-soll-Weltklasse-Niveau-erreichen-113403.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Founder Hasso Plattner\". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019. Plattner not only finances HPI, as head of the 'Enterprise Platform and Integration Concepts' department...","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/en/the-hpi/founder.html","url_text":"\"Founder Hasso Plattner\""}]},{"reference":"Dowideit, Anette (1 March 2024). \"Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat – und lässt sich das über 200.000 Euro kosten\" [Hasso-Plathner-Institute prevents working council and let it cost them more than €200,000]. correctiv.org (in German). Retrieved 13 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://correctiv.org/aktuelles/wirtschaft/2024/03/01/hasso-plattner-institut-verhindert-betriebsrat-und-laesst-sich-das-ueber-200-000-euro-kosten/","url_text":"\"Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat – und lässt sich das über 200.000 Euro kosten\""}]},{"reference":"\"Für mehr als 200.000 Euro: Potsdamer Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat\". Der Tagesspiegel Online (in German). ISSN 1865-2263. Retrieved 13 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/fur-mehr-als-200000-euro-potsdamer-hasso-plattner-institut-verhindert-betriebsrat-11288839.html","url_text":"\"Für mehr als 200.000 Euro: Potsdamer Hasso-Plattner-Institut verhindert Betriebsrat\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1865-2263","url_text":"1865-2263"}]},{"reference":"\"Handelsblatt\". www.handelsblatt.com. Retrieved 28 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.handelsblatt.com/technik/it-internet/flink-hellofresh-gorillas-smava-start-ups-gegen-betriebsraete/29009656.html","url_text":"\"Handelsblatt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kehrtwende vor dem Berliner Arbeitsgericht: Vorerst kein Betriebsrat beim Lieferdienst Flink\". Der Tagesspiegel Online (in German). ISSN 1865-2263. Retrieved 28 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/kehrtwende-vor-dem-berliner-arbeitsgericht-vorerst-kein-betriebsrat-beim-lieferdienst-flink-8874151.html","url_text":"\"Kehrtwende vor dem Berliner Arbeitsgericht: Vorerst kein Betriebsrat beim Lieferdienst Flink\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1865-2263","url_text":"1865-2263"}]},{"reference":"Wyputta, Andreas (24 November 2021). \"Sixt verhindert Betriebsrat: Schluss mit lustig\". Die Tageszeitung: taz (in German). ISSN 0931-9085. Retrieved 28 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://taz.de/!5816979/","url_text":"\"Sixt verhindert Betriebsrat: Schluss mit lustig\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0931-9085","url_text":"0931-9085"}]},{"reference":"Pressemitteilung (4 March 2024). \"Hasso-Plattner-Institut: Union Busting durch Pseudo-Betriebsrat. Wann ermittelt die Staatsanwaltschaft?\". arbeitsunrecht in deutschland (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://arbeitsunrecht.de/hasso-plattner-institut-union-busting-durch-pseudo-betriebsrat-wann-ermittelt-die-staatsanwaltschaft/","url_text":"\"Hasso-Plattner-Institut: Union Busting durch Pseudo-Betriebsrat. Wann ermittelt die Staatsanwaltschaft?\""}]},{"reference":"Lelek, Christian. \"Vorwürfe gegen Hasso Plattner Institut: Betriebsrat verhindert?\". nd-aktuell.de (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nd-aktuell.de/artikel/1180451.arbeitsrecht-vorwuerfe-gegen-hasso-plattner-institut-betriebsrat-verhindert.html","url_text":"\"Vorwürfe gegen Hasso Plattner Institut: Betriebsrat verhindert?\""}]},{"reference":"Vandre, Isabelle (26 March 2024). \"Die Linksfraktion macht Verhinderung des Betriebsrates am Hasso-Plattner-Institut im Landtag zum Thema\". Die Linke Fraktion im Landtag Brandenburg (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.linksfraktion-brandenburg.de/start/aktuelles/einzelansicht-aktuelles/die-linksfraktion-macht-verhinderung-des-betriebsrates-am-hasso-plattner-institut-im-landtag-zum-thema/","url_text":"\"Die Linksfraktion macht Verhinderung des Betriebsrates am Hasso-Plattner-Institut im Landtag zum Thema\""}]},{"reference":"\"104. Sitzung des Brandenburger Landtags\". www.rbb-online.de (in German). 21 March 2024. Retrieved 20 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rbb-online.de/imparlament/brandenburg/2024/21--22--maerz-2024/21__maerz_2024_-_104__Sitzung_des_Brandenburger_Landtags1.html","url_text":"\"104. Sitzung des Brandenburger Landtags\""}]},{"reference":"Damus, Sahra (21 March 2024). \"Rede im Landtag: Mitbestimmung absichern - keine Ausnahme für das Hasso-Plattner-Institut!\". Fraktion BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN im Brandenburger Landtag (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://gruene-fraktion-brandenburg.de/im-parlament/reden/mitbestimmung-absichern-keine-ausnahme-fuer-das-hasso-plattner-institut-240321","url_text":"\"Rede im Landtag: Mitbestimmung absichern - keine Ausnahme für das Hasso-Plattner-Institut!\""}]},{"reference":"Oeynhausen, Daniela. Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit! (in German). Retrieved 20 April 2024 – via www.youtube.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlrgAAL0yME","url_text":"Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit!"}]},{"reference":"\"HPI staff votes for Institute Council\". hpi.de. 12 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/en/pressemitteilungen/2024/hpi-staff-votes-for-institute-council.html","url_text":"\"HPI staff votes for Institute Council\""}]},{"reference":"Willems, Christian; Jasper, Johannes; Meinel, Christoph (26 August 2013). \"Introducing hands-on experience to a Massive Open Online Course on openHPI\". Proceedings of 2013 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering (TALE). pp. 307–313. doi:10.1109/TALE.2013.6654451. ISBN 978-1-4673-6355-6. S2CID 22137372.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6654451","url_text":"\"Introducing hands-on experience to a Massive Open Online Course on openHPI\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTALE.2013.6654451","url_text":"10.1109/TALE.2013.6654451"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4673-6355-6","url_text":"978-1-4673-6355-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22137372","url_text":"22137372"}]},{"reference":"\"Funding of the Center for Higher Education Development (CHE)\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.che-ranking.de/cms/?getObject=646&getFaq=82&getLang=en","url_text":"\"Funding of the Center for Higher Education Development (CHE)\""}]},{"reference":"\"HPI in the CHE ranking\". Hasso Plattner Institute. Retrieved 5 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://hpi.de/en/studies/student-information/rankings.html","url_text":"\"HPI in the CHE ranking\""}]},{"reference":"\"CHE 2020 ranking for computer science\". Retrieved 16 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://ranking.zeit.de/che/de/rankingunion/show?&left_f1=309&left_f2=23&left_f3=611&left_f4=654&left_f5=346&order=4&subfach=undefined&esb=1&ab=3&hstyp=1#&left_f1=309&left_f2=23&left_f3=611&left_f4=654&left_f5=346&order=1&subfach=undefined","url_text":"\"CHE 2020 ranking for computer science\""}]},{"reference":"Behme, Henning (17 March 2012). \"SAP und HPI erhalten Deutschen Innovationspreis 2012\". heise online. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/SAP-und-HPI-erhalten-Deutschen-Innovationspreis-2012-1474254.html","url_text":"\"SAP und HPI erhalten Deutschen Innovationspreis 2012\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190629120039/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/SAP-und-HPI-erhalten-Deutschen-Innovationspreis-2012-1474254.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Oeynhausen, Daniela. \"Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit!\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlrgAAL0yME","url_text":"\"Correctiv und Linke nehmen Plattner-Institut ins Visier – wir verteidigen die Wissenschaftsfreiheit!\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_PC-5000

Sharp PC-5000

["1 Reception","2 References","3 External links"]

Laptop computer This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Sharp PC-5000" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Sharp PC-5000GenerationSecondRelease date11 November 1983; 40 years ago (1983-11-11)Lifespan11/11/1983 - 1986 (at least 2 years)Discontinued1986; 38 years ago (1986)Operating systemMS-DOSCPU4.77-MHz Intel 8088Memory128 kilobytes memory/bubble memoryDisplay640×80-pixel (80-character by 8-line) LCDMass5 kg (11 lb)PredecessorSharp PC-1500Sharp PC-1211Sharp PC-1251SuccessorSharp PC-7000 The Sharp PC-5000 was a pioneering laptop computer, announced by Sharp Corporation of Japan in November 1983. It employed a clamshell design in which the display closes over the keyboard, like the earlier GRiD Compass and contemporary Gavilan SC. The PC-5000 was largely IBM PC-compatible, with the same 4.77-MHz Intel 8088 processor as the IBM PC, and ran MS-DOS 2.0 (in ROM). It had 128 kilobytes of internal memory (it was one of the few computers to use bubble memory), which could be expanded by the use of plug-in cartridges. The cartridge slots also accepted ROM cartridges containing software, such as the Extended BASIC programming language and the EasyPac software suite, which contained the EasyWrite II word processor, EasyReport reports program, and EasyComm terminal software for use with the internal modem. It featured a 640×80-pixel (80-character by 8-line) LCD display, a full-travel keyboard, and an external dual 5.25-inch floppy disk drive. A notable feature of the computer was its built-in thermal printer, which could also be purchased separately and attached to the machine. It is perhaps due to this attachment that the case design of the PC-5000 owes much to that of electronic typewriters of its time. While far more portable than the popular Compaq Portable or Osborne 1 computers, the machine weighed 5 kg (11 lb). Sharp succeeded the PC-5000 with the fully IBM-compatible PC-7000 in late 1985. Reception Your Computer magazine selected the PC-5000 as one of the best personal computers of 1983. Creative Computing chose the PC-5000 as the best notebook portable between $1,000 and $2,500 for 1984, although criticizing the difficulty of finding the computer in stores and questionable support from Sharp and third-party vendors. References ^ a b "Portables: Sharp's entry". The Globe and Mail. Bell Globemedia Publishing: B13. November 11, 1983 – via ProQuest. ^ Sharp PC-5000, Old Computers ^ Japanese PCs (1984) (13:13), Computer Chronicles ^ Foster, Edward (July 22, 1985). "News, Hardware: Sharp Offers LCD Transportable". InfoWorld. 7 (29). CW Communications: 22 – via the Internet Archive. ^ "Personal Computer of the Year: Sharp PC-5000". Your Computer. April 1984. pp. 34, 37. ^ Ahl, David H. (December 1984). "Top 12 computers of 1984". Creative Computing. Retrieved 2019-03-16. External links Article about the PC-5000 Review of the PC-5000 from 1984 Vintage-computer page about the PC-5000 Old-computers page about the PC-5000 "Sharp PC-5000, 360 degree model", Russian Vintage Laptop Museum (museum), 6 April 2017 vteSharp CorporationDivisionsand subsidiariesCurrent Dynabook Inc. Sharp Solar Takaya Defunct Optonica1 Joint venturesand shareholdings Pioneer Corporation Sharp NEC Display Solutions (66%) Calculators EL-8 EL-500W series EL-5120 QT-8B QT-8D ComputersLaptopsand portables Actius RD3D MM10 Muramasas PC-4500 PC-5000 PC-7000 Pocketcomputers PC-1211 PC-1251 PC-1350 PC-1401 PC-1403 PC-1500 PC-1600 PC-3000 PC-E220 PC-E500S Wizard Zaurus Homecomputers MZ X1 X68000 list of games Hotbit Mobile phones GX15 GX25 GX29 GX33 J-SH04 SH906i SX862 Televisionsand displays Aquos Nintendo Television Quattron Super Famicom Naizou TV SF1 Otherproducts Famicom Titler Twin Famicom People Tokuji Hayakawa Places Abenobashi Terminal Building Abeno-ku Yaita 1Now integrated into other Sharp divisions or business groupings Category vteDynabook Inc.Subsidiary of Sharp Corporation†ProductsCurrent Portégé Satellite Pro Tecra Former Libretto W100 Qosmio Satellite A series C series P series S series Satellite Pro 400 series T1000 LE T1100 T1200 T3100 See alsoFormer SharpcomputersLaptopsand portables Actius RD3D MM10 Muramasas PC-4500 PC-5000 PC-7000 Pocketcomputers PC-1211 PC-1251 PC-1350 PC-1401 PC-1403 PC-1500 PC-1600 PC-3000 PC-E220 PC-E500S Wizard Zaurus Homecomputers MZ X1 X68000 list of games Former Toshibacomputers Pasopia 5 7 16 IQ † Subsidiary formerly fully owned by Toshiba; majority shares bought by Sharp in 2019; remaining Toshiba shares sold to Sharp in 2020 Sharp computers Toshiba computers This computer hardware article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_%C2%B5m_process

10 µm process

["1 Products featuring 10 μm manufacturing process","2 References","3 External links"]

Semiconductor manufacturing process Semiconductordevicefabrication MOSFET scaling(process nodes) 020 μm – 1968 010 μm – 1971 006 μm – 1974 003 μm – 1977  1.5 μm – 1981 001 μm – 1984 800 nm – 1987 600 nm – 1990 350 nm – 1993 250 nm – 1996 180 nm – 1999 130 nm – 2001 090 nm – 2003 065 nm – 2005 045 nm – 2007 032 nm – 2009 028 nm – 2010 022 nm – 2012 014 nm – 2014 010 nm – 2016 007 nm – 2018 005 nm – 2020 003 nm – 2022 Future 002 nm ~ 2024 Half-nodes Density CMOS Device (multi-gate) Moore's law Transistor count Semiconductor Industry Nanoelectronics vte The 10 μm process (10 micrometer process) is the level of MOSFET semiconductor process technology that was commercially reached around 1971, by companies such as RCA and Intel. The 10 μm process refers to the minimum size that could be reliably produced. The smallest transistors and other circuit elements on a chip made with this process were around 10 micrometers wide. Products featuring 10 μm manufacturing process RCA's CD4000 series of integrated circuits began with a 20 μm process in 1968, before gradually downscaling and eventually reaching 10 μm in the next several years. Intel 1103, an early dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chip launched in 1970, used an 8 μm process. Intel 4004 CPU launched in 1971 was manufactured using a 10 μm process. Intel 8008 CPU launched in 1972 was manufactured using this process. References ^ Mueller, S (21 July 2006). "Microprocessors from 1971 to the Present". informIT. Retrieved 11 May 2012. ^ Myslewski, R (15 November 2011). "Happy 40th birthday, Intel 4004!". TheRegister. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 330. ISBN 9783540342588. ^ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 362–363. ISBN 9783540342588. The i1103 was manufactured on a 6-mask silicon-gate P-MOS process with 8 μm minimum features. The resulting product had a 2,400 μm, 2 memory cell size, a die size just under 10 mm2, and sold for around $21. ^ a b "History of the Intel Microprocessor - Listoid". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2015. External links Brief timeline of microprocessor development Preceded by20 μm process MOSFET semiconductor device fabrication process Succeeded by6 μm process This nanotechnology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_95LX

HP 95LX

["1 Hardware","1.1 Display","2 Software","3 Successors","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

Hewlett-Packard 95LXLike most pocket computers, the HP 95LX owner's manual is larger and heavier than the computer itself.Also known asJaguarManufacturerHewlett-PackardTypePalmtop PCRelease dateApril 1991; 33 years ago (1991-04)Introductory priceUS$550 (equivalent to $1,230 in 2023)Discontinued1 January 2003 (2003-01-01)Units shipped400,000 (estimated production run)Operating systemMS-DOS 3.22CPUNEC V20 @ 5.37 MHzMemory512 KB (F1000A) or 1 MB (F1010A)Removable storageSRAM card (0.5 MB – 32 MB)Display40 × 16 characters LCD screen (4.8 inch × 1.8 inch)Graphics240 × 128 pixels (quarter-CGA resolution) monochrome STN, 2 scalesSoundPC speaker (piezo)InputThumb keyboard with 80 keys and a dedicated numeric keypad: 76 ConnectivityRS-232-compatible serial port, infrared port, PCMCIA 1.0 type II (3.3 mm or 5 mm)Power2× AA-size removable batteries, 1× CR2032 coin cell backup, optional AC adapterDimensionsLength 8.5 cm, width 15.9 cm, height 2.6 cm (3.4 inches × 6.3 inches × 1 inch)Mass312 g (11 ounces)BackwardcompatibilityIntel 8088SuccessorHP 100LX The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A, F1010A), also known as project Jaguar, is Hewlett Packard's first DOS-based pocket computer, or personal digital assistant, introduced in April 1991 in collaboration with Lotus Development Corporation. The abbreviation "LX" stood for "Lotus Expandable". The computer can be seen as successor to a series of larger portable PCs like the HP 110 and HP 110 Plus. Hardware HP 95LX has an Intel 8088-clone NEC V20 CPU running at 5.37 MHz with an Intel system on a chip (SoC) device. It cannot be considered completely PC-compatible because of its quarter-CGA (MDA)-resolution LCD screen. The device includes a CR2032 lithium coin cell for memory backup when the two AA main batteries run out. For mass storage, HP 95LX has a single PCMCIA slot which can hold a static RAM card with its own CR2025 back-up coin cell. An RS-232-compatible serial port is provided, as well as an infrared port for printing on compatible models of Hewlett Packard printers. Display In character mode, the display shows 16 lines of 40 characters, and has no backlight. While most IBM-compatible PCs work with a hardware code page 437, HP 95LX's text mode font is hard-wired to code page 850 instead. Lotus 1-2-3 internally used the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes. Software The palmtop runs MS-DOS 3.22 and has a customized version of Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in.: 72  Other software in read-only memory (ROM) includes a calculator, an appointment calendar, a telecommunications program, and a simple text editor. Successors Successor models to HP 95LX include HP 100LX, HP Palmtop FX, HP 200LX, HP 1000CX, and HP OmniGo 700LX. See also DIP Pocket PC Atari Portfolio Poqet PC Poqet PC Prime Poqet PC Plus Sharp PC-3000 ZEOS Pocket PC Yukyung Viliv N5 Sub-notebook Netbook Palmtop PC Ultra-mobile PC References ^ Francis, Peter (December 1991). "HP 95LX. (palmtop computer) (Evaluation)]". Compute! (136): 128. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ "Hewlett-Packard 95LX computer". oldcomputers.net. Archived from the original on 2023-07-19. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ a b c d e HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 . pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display If your HP 95LX cannot display or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer). ^ "95LX". HP Computer Museum. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ a b Kendrick, James (2015-04-07). "HP 95LX: Remembering the early mobile DOS PC". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2022-09-26. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ a b "HP95LX". InfoWorld. 13 (50). InfoWorld Publishing Inc. / IDG Communications Inc.: 72, 76. 1991-12-16. ISSN 0199-6649. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ "HP 95LX". Old Organizers Collection. Archived from the original on 2023-03-22. Retrieved 2023-11-26. ^ Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). "The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24. ^ "History of the HP 95LX computer". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ "DOS Palmtop: HP 95LX Details and specs". Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. (List of DOS-based palmtop computers) ^ Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). "Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. Ziff-Davis Publishing Company / Ziff Communications Company. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26. Further reading Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). "The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). "The First Real Palmtop". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. External links Hewlett Packard Web site on HP 95LX HP 95LX technical information (contains PCB photos) Skolob's Hewlett Packard 95LX Palmtop Page (Information and FAQ on HP 95LX) vteHewlett-Packard HP Inc. Hewlett Packard Enterprise Founders Bill Hewlett David Packard Directors Marc Andreessen Mohamed M. Atalla Shumeet Banerji Raj Gupta Raymond J. Lane Ann Livermore Gary M. Reiner Patricia F. Russo (Chairwoman) Jim Skinner Executive officers Meg Whitman Todd Bradley Dave Donatelli Martin Fink Henry Gomez John Hinshaw Marty Homlish George Kadifa Tracy Keogh Cathie Lesjak Mike Nefkens Antonio Neri John F. Schultz Bill Veghte Computer hardware productsHPEServers BladeSystem Integrity Superdome ProLiant NonStop Storage HPE Storage HPE XP HPE 3PAR HP Inc.Business laptops ProBook EliteBook ZBook Business desktops ProDesk EliteDesk Z workstations Consumer PCs OmniBook Pavilion Spectre ENVY OMEN Stream HP Chromebox Essential laptops Consumer electronicsand accessories Aruba Networks Calculators Teradici HyperX Plantronics Photography and printing Deskjet LaserJet Scitex Photosmart Other divisions Colorado Memory Systems Indigo Digital Press Scitex Systems Insight Manager HPE Networking Software HyperSpace OS HP-UX HP Data Protector NonStop OS NonStop SQL DiscontinuedproductsCompaq line HP Compaq HP Compaq Elite TC Presario Evo iPAQ AlphaServer Software Domain/OS LightScribe MPE OpenVMS (sold) HP QuickPlay Tru64 UNIX WebOS (sold) Services HP Cloud HP CloudSystem HPE Helion Hardware Jornada OmniGo iPod+HP VoodooPC TouchPad Internet Advisor Vectra Brio Mini Slate TouchSmart Sprout NetServer Kayak Closed divisions VoodooPC ProCurve Sold: Palm Snapfish HP CEOs List of HP executives Co-founders Bill Hewlett and David Packard John A. Young Lewis E. Platt Carly Fiorina Mark Hurd Léo Apotheker Meg Whitman Assets HP Garage HP Labs HP Atalla See also Acquisitions HP spying scandal HP Inc. assets Products Mission: SPACE Steve Wozniak Authority control databases: National Israel United States This computer hardware article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lunduke_2022-8"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Lotus Development Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Development_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_2012-9"},{"link_name":"HP 110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110"},{"link_name":"HP 110 Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110_Plus"}],"text":"The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A, F1010A), also known as project Jaguar,[8] is Hewlett Packard's first DOS-based pocket computer, or personal digital assistant, introduced in April 1991 in collaboration with Lotus Development Corporation. The abbreviation \"LX\" stood for \"Lotus Expandable\".[9] The computer can be seen as successor to a series of larger portable PCs like the HP 110 and HP 110 Plus.","title":"HP 95LX"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel 8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"NEC V20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"system on a chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"quarter-CGA (MDA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Monochrome_Display_Adapter"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tankraider-10"},{"link_name":"CR2032","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CR2032"},{"link_name":"coin cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin_cell"},{"link_name":"PCMCIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMCIA"},{"link_name":"static RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"CR2025","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CR2025"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-3"}],"text":"HP 95LX has an Intel 8088-clone NEC V20 CPU running at 5.37 MHz with an Intel system on a chip (SoC) device. It cannot be considered completely PC-compatible because of its quarter-CGA (MDA)-resolution LCD screen.[10]The device includes a CR2032 lithium coin cell for memory backup when the two AA main batteries run out. For mass storage, HP 95LX has a single PCMCIA slot which can hold a static RAM card with its own CR2025 back-up coin cell. An RS-232-compatible serial port is provided, as well as an infrared port for printing on compatible models of Hewlett Packard printers.[3]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hardware code page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_code_page"},{"link_name":"437","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437"},{"link_name":"code page 850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-3"},{"link_name":"Lotus International Character Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-3"}],"sub_title":"Display","text":"In character mode, the display shows 16 lines of 40 characters, and has no backlight. While most IBM-compatible PCs work with a hardware code page 437, HP 95LX's text mode font is hard-wired to code page 850 instead.[3] Lotus 1-2-3 internally used the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes.[3]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MS-DOS 3.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-3"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3_Release_2.2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfoWorld_1991-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matzkin_1991-11"},{"link_name":"read-only memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"}],"text":"The palmtop runs MS-DOS 3.22[3] and has a customized version of Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in.[6]: 72 [11] Other software in read-only memory (ROM) includes a calculator, an appointment calendar, a telecommunications program, and a simple text editor.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HP 100LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_100LX"},{"link_name":"HP Palmtop FX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Palmtop_FX"},{"link_name":"HP 200LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_200LX"},{"link_name":"HP 1000CX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_1000CX"},{"link_name":"HP OmniGo 700LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_OmniGo_700LX"}],"text":"Successor models to HP 95LX include HP 100LX, HP Palmtop FX, HP 200LX, HP 1000CX, and HP OmniGo 700LX.","title":"Successors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"The HP Palmtop Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125005038/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/Articles/evolution.php"},{"link_name":"\"The First Real Palmtop\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"}],"text":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. [2]\nLott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"Francis, Peter (December 1991). \"HP 95LX. (palmtop computer) (Evaluation)]\". Compute! (136): 128. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue136/128_HP_95LX.php","url_text":"\"HP 95LX. (palmtop computer) (Evaluation)]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compute!","url_text":"Compute!"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125001233/https://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue136/128_HP_95LX.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hewlett-Packard 95LX computer\". oldcomputers.net. Archived from the original on 2023-07-19. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oldcomputers.net/hp95lx.html","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard 95LX computer\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230719063758/https://oldcomputers.net/hp95lx.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 [March 1991]. pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display […] If your HP 95LX cannot display […] or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character […] if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"HP 95LX User's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Company","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161128202642/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850","url_text":"code page 850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC","url_text":"IBM PC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22","url_text":"MS-DOS 3.22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-page_switching","url_text":"code-page switching"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3","url_text":"1-2-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LICS_(character_set)","url_text":"LICS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set","url_text":"Lotus International Character Set"}]},{"reference":"\"95LX\". HP Computer Museum. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hpmuseum.net/display_item.php?hw=202","url_text":"\"95LX\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125001514/http://www.hpmuseum.net/display_item.php?hw=202","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kendrick, James (2015-04-07). \"HP 95LX: Remembering the early mobile DOS PC\". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2022-09-26. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/hp-95lx-remembering-the-early-mobile-dos-pc/","url_text":"\"HP 95LX: Remembering the early mobile DOS PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDNet","url_text":"ZDNet"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220926101103/https://www.zdnet.com/article/hp-95lx-remembering-the-early-mobile-dos-pc/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"HP95LX\". InfoWorld. 13 (50). InfoWorld Publishing Inc. / IDG Communications Inc.: 72, 76. 1991-12-16. ISSN 0199-6649. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA72","url_text":"\"HP95LX\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld_Publishing_Inc.","url_text":"InfoWorld Publishing Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDG_Communications_Inc.","url_text":"IDG Communications Inc."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA72","url_text":"72"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76","url_text":"76"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0199-6649","url_text":"0199-6649"}]},{"reference":"\"HP 95LX\". Old Organizers Collection. Archived from the original on 2023-03-22. Retrieved 2023-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://old-organizers.com/MorePicts/MP222.htm","url_text":"\"HP 95LX\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230322033219/https://old-organizers.com/MorePicts/MP222.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). \"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Development_Company,_L.P.","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234753/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"DOS Palmtop: HP 95LX Details and specs\". Archived from the original on 2020-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200922224228/https://www.tankraider.com/DOSPALMTOP/hp95lx.html","url_text":"\"DOS Palmtop: HP 95LX Details and specs\""},{"url":"https://www.tankraider.com/DOSPALMTOP/hp95lx.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). \"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. Ziff-Davis Publishing Company / Ziff Communications Company. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YfkUKcyI7KIC&pg=PT231","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff-Davis_Publishing_Company","url_text":"Ziff-Davis Publishing Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Communications_Company","url_text":"Ziff Communications Company"}]},{"reference":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc.","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"\"The First Real Palmtop\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display

Surface-conduction electron-emitter display

["1 Description","2 History","3 See also","4 Notes","4.1 Bibliography","5 Patents","5.1 Further reading","6 External links"]

CRT screen Canon's 36" prototype SED, shown at the 2006 CES Another view of the same display, showing what was a thin case at the time A surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) is a display technology for flat panel displays developed by a number of companies. SEDs uses nanoscopic-scale electron emitters to energize colored phosphors and produce an image. In a general sense, a SED consists of a matrix of tiny cathode-ray tubes, each "tube" forming a single sub-pixel on the screen, grouped in threes to form red-green-blue (RGB) pixels. SEDs combine the advantages of CRTs, namely their high contrast ratios, wide viewing angles, and very fast response times, with the packaging advantages of LCD and other flat panel displays. After considerable time and effort in the early and mid-2000s, SED efforts started winding down in 2009 as LCD became the dominant technology. In August 2010, Canon announced they were shutting down their joint effort to develop SEDs commercially, signaling the end of development efforts. SEDs were closely related to another developing display technology, the field emission display, or FED, differing primarily in the details of the electron emitters. Sony, the main backer of FED, has similarly backed off from their development efforts. Description A conventional cathode ray tube (CRT) is powered by an electron gun, essentially an open-ended vacuum tube. At one end of the gun, electrons are produced by "boiling" them off a metal filament, which requires relatively high currents and consumes a large proportion of the CRT's power. The electrons are then accelerated and focused into a fast-moving beam, flowing forward towards the screen. Electromagnets surrounding the gun end of the tube are used to steer the beam as it travels forward, allowing the beam to be scanned across the screen to produce a 2D display. When the fast-moving electrons strike the phosphor on the back of the screen, light is produced. Color images are produced by painting the screen with spots or stripes of three colored phosphors, each for red, green, and blue (RGB). When viewed from a distance, the spots, known as "sub-pixels," blend together in the eye to produce a single picture element known as a pixel. The SED replaces the single gun of a conventional CRT with a grid of nanoscopic emitters, one for each sub-pixel of the display. The emitter apparatus consists of a thin slit across which electrons jump when powered with high-voltage gradients. Due to the nanoscopic size of the slits, the required field can correspond to a potential on the order of tens of volts. On the order of 3%, a few of the electrons impact with slit material on the far side and are scattered out of the emitter surface. A second field, applied externally, accelerates these scattered electrons towards the screen. Production of this field requires kilovolt potentials, but is a constant field requiring no switching, so the electronics that produce it are pretty simple. Each emitter is aligned behind a colored phosphor dot. The accelerated electrons strike the dot and cause it to give off light in a fashion identical to a conventional CRT. Since each dot on the screen is lit by a single emitter, there is no need to steer or direct the beam as there is in a CRT. The quantum tunneling effect, which emits electrons across the slits, is highly non-linear, and the emission process tends to be fully on or off for any given voltage. This allows the selection of particular emitters by powering a single horizontal row on the screen and then powering all the needed vertical columns simultaneously, thereby powering the selected emitters. The half-power received by the rest of the emitters on the row is too small to cause emission, even when combined with voltage leaking from active emitters beside them. This allows SED displays to work without an active matrix of thin-film transistors that LCDs and similar displays require to precisely select every sub-pixel, and further reduces the complexity of the emitter array. However, this also means that changes in voltage cannot be used to control the brightness of the resulting pixels. Instead, the emitters are rapidly turned on and off using pulse-width modulation, so that the total brightness of a spot at any given time can be controlled. SED screens consist of two glass sheets separated by a few millimeters, the rear layer supporting the emitters and the front the phosphors. The front is easily prepared using methods similar to existing CRT systems; the phosphors are painted onto the screen using a variety of silkscreen or similar technologies and then covered with a thin layer of aluminum to make the screen visibly opaque and provide an electrical return path for the electrons once they strike the screen. In the SED, this layer also serves as the front electrode that accelerates the electrons toward the screen, held at a constant high voltage relative to the switching grid. As is the case with modern CRTs, a dark mask is applied to the glass before the phosphor is painted on to give the screen a dark charcoal gray color and improve the contrast ratio. Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multistep process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an insulator is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using platinum, leaving a gap of about 60 micrometers between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nanometers thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents through them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled to work correctly, which proved challenging to control in practice. Modern SEDs add another step that greatly eases production. The pads are deposited with a much larger gap between them, as much as 50 nm, which allows them to be added directly using technology adapted from inkjet printers. The entire screen is then placed in an organic gas, and pulses of electricity are sent through the pads. Carbon in the gas is pulled onto the edges of the slit in the PdO squares, forming thin films that extend vertically off the tops of the gaps and grow toward each other at a slight angle. This process is self-limiting; if the gap gets too small, the pulses erode the carbon, so the gap width can be controlled to produce a fairly constant 5 nm slit between them. Since the screen needs to be held in a vacuum to work, there is a large inward force on the glass surfaces due to the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Because the emitters are laid out in vertical columns, there is a space between each column where there is no phosphor, normally above the column power lines. SEDs use this space to place thin sheets or rods on top of the conductors, which keep the two glass surfaces apart. A series of these is used to reinforce the screen over its entire surface, which significantly reduces the needed strength of the glass itself. A CRT has no place for similar reinforcements, so the glass at the front screen must be thick enough to support all the pressure. SEDs are thus much thinner and lighter than CRTs. SEDs can have a 100,000:1 contrast ratio. History Canon began SED research in 1986. Their early research used PdO electrodes without the carbon films on top, but controlling the slit width proved difficult. At the time there were a number of flat-screen technologies in early development, and the only one close to commercialization was the plasma display panel (PDP), which had numerous disadvantages – manufacturing cost and energy use among them. LCDs were not suitable for larger screen sizes due to low yields and complex manufacturing. In 2004 Canon signed an agreement with Toshiba to create a joint venture to continue development of SED technology, forming "SED Ltd." Toshiba introduced new technology to pattern the conductors underlying the emitters using technologies adapted from inkjet printers. At the time both companies claimed that production was slated to begin in 2005. Both Canon and Toshiba started displaying prototype units at trade shows during 2006, including 55" and 36" units from Canon, and a 42" unit from Toshiba. They were widely lauded in the press for their image quality, saying it was "something that must be seen to believe." However, by this point Canon's SED introduction date had already slipped several times. It was first claimed it would go into production in 1999. This was pushed back to 2005 after the joint agreement, and then again into 2007 after the first demonstrations at CES and other shows. In October 2006, Toshiba's president announced the company plans to begin full production of 55-inch SED TVs in July 2007 at its recently built SED volume-production facility in Himeji. In December 2006, Toshiba President and Chief Executive Atsutoshi Nishida said Toshiba was on track to mass-produce SED TV sets in cooperation with Canon by 2008. He said the company planned to start small-output production in the fall of 2007, but they do not expect SED displays to become a commodity and will not release the technology to the consumer market because of its expected high price, reserving it solely for professional broadcasting applications. Also, in December 2006 it was revealed that one reason for the delay was a lawsuit brought against Canon by Applied Nanotech. On 25 May 2007, Canon announced that the prolonged litigation would postpone the launch of SED televisions, and a new launch date would be announced at some date in the future. Applied Nanotech, a subsidiary of Nano-Proprietary, holds a number of patents related to FED and SED manufacturing. They had sold Canon a perpetual license for a coating technology used in their newer carbon-based emitter structure. Applied Nanotech claimed that Canon's agreement with Toshiba amounted to an illegal technology transfer, and a separate agreement would have to be reached. They first approached the problem in April 2005. Canon responded to the lawsuit with several actions. On 12 January 2007 they announced that they would buy all of Toshiba's shares in SED Inc. in order to eliminate Toshiba's involvement in the venture. They also started re-working their existing RE40,062 patent filing in order to remove any of Applied Nanotech's technologies from their system. The modified patent was issued on 12 February 2008. On 22 February 2007, the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas, a district widely known for agreeing with patent holders in intellectual property cases, ruled in a summary judgment that Canon had violated its agreement by forming a joint television venture with Toshiba. However, on 2 May 2007 a jury ruled that no additional damages beyond the $5.5m fee for the original licensing contract were due. On 25 July 2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit reversed the lower court's decision and provided that Canon's "irrevocable and perpetual" non-exclusive licence was still enforceable and covers Canon's restructured subsidiary SED. On 2 December 2008, Applied Nanotech dropped the lawsuit, stating that continuing the lawsuit "would probably be a futile effort". In spite of their legal success, Canon announced at the same time that the financial crisis of 2008 was making introduction of the sets far from certain, going so far as to say they would not be launching the product at that time "because people would laugh at them". Canon also had an ongoing OLED development process that started in the midst of the lawsuit. In 2007 they announced a joint deal to form "Hitachi Displays Ltd.", with Matsushita and Canon each taking a 24.9% share of Hitachi's existing subsidiary. Canon later announced that they were purchasing Tokki Corp, a maker of OLED fabrication equipment. In April 2009 during NAB 2009, Peter Putman was quoted as saying "I was asked on more than one occasion about the chances of Canon's SED making a comeback, something I would not have bet money on after the Nano Technologies licensing debacle. However, a source within Canon told me at the show that the SED is still very much alive as a pro monitor technology. Indeed, a Canon SED engineer from Japan was quietly making the rounds in the Las Vegas Convention Center to scope out the competition." Canon officially announced on 25 May 2010 the end of the development of SED TVs for the home consumer market, but indicated that they will continue development for commercial applications like medical equipment. On 18 August 2010, Canon decided to liquidate SED Inc., a consolidated subsidiary of Canon Inc. developing SED technology, citing difficulties to secure appropriate profitability and effectively ending hopes to one day see SED TVs in the home or the room or the living room. See also Comparison of display technology Field emission display Organic light-emitting diode Quantum dot display Notes ^ Martyn Williams, "Canon signals end of the road for SED TV dreams", IDG News Service, 19 August 2010 ^ Serkan Toto, "FED: Sony calls it quits, basically burying the technology as a whole" Archived 2009-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, CrunchGear, 31 Mar 2009 ^ a b Closer ^ "SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display". SlashGear. October 20, 2006. ^ Standing ^ Vincent Nguyen, SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display, SlashGear, 19 October 2006 ^ "Toshiba eyes mass SED TV output in early '08". MarketWatch, Inc. 2006-06-20. Retrieved 2006-09-29. ^ Kim, Yun-Hee (2006-12-22). "Toshiba, Canon work on displays". Dow Jones & Company, Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-22. ^ SED Won't Become Commodity -- Toshiba's President Nishida Said at Year-End Press Gathering December 25, 2006 Masao Oonishi, Nikkei Microdevices ^ "Notice Regarding Launch of SED TVs." Archived 2007-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 25 May 2007 ^ a b c Robin Harding, "Canon clear to launch new type of TV", Financial Times, 2 December 2008 ^ "SED Inc. to become wholly owned subsidiary of Canon Inc." Archived 2007-01-14 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 12 January 2007 ^ RE40,062 ^ "Judge rules against Canon in nanotube TV case". CNET. 2007-02-22. Archived from the original on 2007-02-25. Retrieved 2013-08-22. ^ "Nano-Proprietary, Inc. Announces Verdict in Canon Litigation". 2007-05-03. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved 2007-05-06. ^ "Notice Regarding Litigation with Nano-Proprietary Involving SED". 2007-05-07. Archived from the original on 2007-05-09. Retrieved 2007-05-07. ^ "Appeal's Court Ruling on No. 07-50640" (PDF). ^ "Canon to take majority stake in Tokki for $69 mln", Reuters, 13 November 2007 ^ "NAB 2009: The Season Of Their Discontent". 2009-04-27. Archived from the original on 2009-05-02. Retrieved 2009-04-27. ^ "Canon to freeze development of home-use SED TVs", Reuters, 25 May 2010 ^ "Notice regarding liquidation of subsidiary" Archived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 18 August 2010 Bibliography Richard Fink, "A closer look at SED, FED technologies", EE Times-Asia, August 16–31, 2007, pp. 1–4 Peter Putman, "Standing in the shadows" , HDTVexpert, 8 March 2006 Patents U.S. Patent RE40,062, "Display device with electron-emitting device with electron-emitting region", Seishiro Yoshioka et al./Canon Kabushiki Kaisha, Filed 2 June 2000, Re-issued 12 Feb 2008 Further reading "Funding for organic-LED technology, patent disputes, and more", Nature Photonics, Volume 1 Number 5 (2007), pg. 278 External links Look up surface-conduction electron-emitter display in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikinews has related news: Canon Inc. to buy the stake of Toshiba in their joint venture Technical comparison between SED and FED vteDisplay technologyVideo displaysPastgeneration Eidophor Cathode-ray tube (CRT) Jumbotron Electroluminescent display (ELD) Rear-projection display Plasma display panel (PDP) ALiS Current generation Quantum dot display (QLED) Electronic paper E Ink Gyricon Light-emitting diode display (LED) Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) Liquid-crystal display (LCD) TFT TN IPS LED Blue Phase Digital Light Processing (DLP) Liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) Next generation microLED Electroluminescent Quantum Dots (ELQD/QD-LED) Organic light-emitting transistor (OLET) Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) Field-emission display (FED) Laser TV Quantum dot Liquid crystal MEMS display IMoD TMOS Ferroelectric liquid crystal display (FLCD) Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology (TDEL) Laser-powered phosphor display (LPD) Non-video Electromechanical Flip-dot Split-flap Vane Eggcrate Fiber-optic Nixie tube Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) Light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) Lightguide display Dot-matrix display Seven-segment display (SSD) Eight-segment display Nine-segment display Fourteen-segment display (FSD) Sixteen-segment display (SISD) 3D display Stereoscopic Autostereoscopic Multiscopic Hologram Holographic display Computer-generated holography Volumetric Fog display Static media Monoscope Movie projector Neon sign Slide projector Transparency Laser beam Display capabilities EDID CEA-861 DisplayID Always-on display See-through display Related articles Scan line History of display technology Large-screen television technology Optimum HDTV viewing distance High Dynamic Range (HDR) Color Light Output Flexible display Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays Comparison of display technology vteEmerging technologiesFieldsDisplaysNext generation FED FLCD iMoD Laser LPD MicroLED OLED OLET QD-LED SED TDEL TMOS TPD Screenless Bionic contact lens Head-mounted display Head-up display Optical head-mounted display Virtual retinal display Other Autostereoscopy Flexible display Holographic display Computer-generated Multi-primary color display Ultra HD Volumetric display List

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display_2.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sed1.png"},{"link_name":"display technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_technology"},{"link_name":"flat panel displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_panel_display"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"phosphors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor"},{"link_name":"cathode-ray tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"},{"link_name":"contrast ratios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_ratio"},{"link_name":"viewing angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viewing_angle"},{"link_name":"response times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_time_(technology)"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(company)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"field emission display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_emission_display"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Canon's 36\" prototype SED, shown at the 2006 CESAnother view of the same display, showing what was a thin case at the timeA surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) is a display technology for flat panel displays developed by a number of companies. SEDs uses nanoscopic-scale electron emitters to energize colored phosphors and produce an image. In a general sense, a SED consists of a matrix of tiny cathode-ray tubes, each \"tube\" forming a single sub-pixel on the screen, grouped in threes to form red-green-blue (RGB) pixels. SEDs combine the advantages of CRTs, namely their high contrast ratios, wide viewing angles, and very fast response times, with the packaging advantages of LCD and other flat panel displays.After considerable time and effort in the early and mid-2000s, SED efforts started winding down in 2009 as LCD became the dominant technology. In August 2010, Canon announced they were shutting down their joint effort to develop SEDs commercially, signaling the end of development efforts.[1] SEDs were closely related to another developing display technology, the field emission display, or FED, differing primarily in the details of the electron emitters. Sony, the main backer of FED, has similarly backed off from their development efforts.[2]","title":"Surface-conduction electron-emitter display"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electron gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_gun"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"Electromagnets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnet"},{"link_name":"sub-pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpixels"},{"link_name":"pixel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"},{"link_name":"quantum tunneling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_tunneling"},{"link_name":"active matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_matrix"},{"link_name":"thin-film transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_transistor"},{"link_name":"pulse-width modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-closer-3"},{"link_name":"silkscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen-printing"},{"link_name":"insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"platinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum"},{"link_name":"palladium oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium_oxide"},{"link_name":"inkjet printers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkjet_printer"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-closer-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"A conventional cathode ray tube (CRT) is powered by an electron gun, essentially an open-ended vacuum tube. At one end of the gun, electrons are produced by \"boiling\" them off a metal filament, which requires relatively high currents and consumes a large proportion of the CRT's power. The electrons are then accelerated and focused into a fast-moving beam, flowing forward towards the screen. Electromagnets surrounding the gun end of the tube are used to steer the beam as it travels forward, allowing the beam to be scanned across the screen to produce a 2D display. When the fast-moving electrons strike the phosphor on the back of the screen, light is produced. Color images are produced by painting the screen with spots or stripes of three colored phosphors, each for red, green, and blue (RGB). When viewed from a distance, the spots, known as \"sub-pixels,\" blend together in the eye to produce a single picture element known as a pixel.The SED replaces the single gun of a conventional CRT with a grid of nanoscopic emitters, one for each sub-pixel of the display. The emitter apparatus consists of a thin slit across which electrons jump when powered with high-voltage gradients. Due to the nanoscopic size of the slits, the required field can correspond to a potential on the order of tens of volts. On the order of 3%, a few of the electrons impact with slit material on the far side and are scattered out of the emitter surface. A second field, applied externally, accelerates these scattered electrons towards the screen. Production of this field requires kilovolt potentials, but is a constant field requiring no switching, so the electronics that produce it are pretty simple.Each emitter is aligned behind a colored phosphor dot. The accelerated electrons strike the dot and cause it to give off light in a fashion identical to a conventional CRT. Since each dot on the screen is lit by a single emitter, there is no need to steer or direct the beam as there is in a CRT. The quantum tunneling effect, which emits electrons across the slits, is highly non-linear, and the emission process tends to be fully on or off for any given voltage. This allows the selection of particular emitters by powering a single horizontal row on the screen and then powering all the needed vertical columns simultaneously, thereby powering the selected emitters. The half-power received by the rest of the emitters on the row is too small to cause emission, even when combined with voltage leaking from active emitters beside them. This allows SED displays to work without an active matrix of thin-film transistors that LCDs and similar displays require to precisely select every sub-pixel, and further reduces the complexity of the emitter array. However, this also means that changes in voltage cannot be used to control the brightness of the resulting pixels. Instead, the emitters are rapidly turned on and off using pulse-width modulation, so that the total brightness of a spot at any given time can be controlled.[3]SED screens consist of two glass sheets separated by a few millimeters, the rear layer supporting the emitters and the front the phosphors. The front is easily prepared using methods similar to existing CRT systems; the phosphors are painted onto the screen using a variety of silkscreen or similar technologies and then covered with a thin layer of aluminum to make the screen visibly opaque and provide an electrical return path for the electrons once they strike the screen. In the SED, this layer also serves as the front electrode that accelerates the electrons toward the screen, held at a constant high voltage relative to the switching grid. As is the case with modern CRTs, a dark mask is applied to the glass before the phosphor is painted on to give the screen a dark charcoal gray color and improve the contrast ratio.Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multistep process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an insulator is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using platinum, leaving a gap of about 60 micrometers between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nanometers thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents through them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled to work correctly, which proved challenging to control in practice.Modern SEDs add another step that greatly eases production. The pads are deposited with a much larger gap between them, as much as 50 nm, which allows them to be added directly using technology adapted from inkjet printers. The entire screen is then placed in an organic gas, and pulses of electricity are sent through the pads. Carbon in the gas is pulled onto the edges of the slit in the PdO squares, forming thin films that extend vertically off the tops of the gaps and grow toward each other at a slight angle. This process is self-limiting; if the gap gets too small, the pulses erode the carbon, so the gap width can be controlled to produce a fairly constant 5 nm slit between them.Since the screen needs to be held in a vacuum to work, there is a large inward force on the glass surfaces due to the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Because the emitters are laid out in vertical columns, there is a space between each column where there is no phosphor, normally above the column power lines. SEDs use this space to place thin sheets or rods on top of the conductors, which keep the two glass surfaces apart. A series of these is used to reinforce the screen over its entire surface, which significantly reduces the needed strength of the glass itself.[3] A CRT has no place for similar reinforcements, so the glass at the front screen must be thick enough to support all the pressure. SEDs are thus much thinner and lighter than CRTs.SEDs can have a 100,000:1 contrast ratio.[4]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc."},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stand-5"},{"link_name":"plasma display panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_display_panel"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"trade shows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_show"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Himeji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himeji,_Hy%C5%8Dgo"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-production-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-production2-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nikkeibp-9"},{"link_name":"Applied Nanotech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Applied_Nanotech&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Nano-Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nano-Proprietary&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Texas"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-summaryjudgement-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-courtruling-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-courtrulingcanonpr-16"},{"link_name":"U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_5th_Circuit"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft-11"},{"link_name":"financial crisis of 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932010"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft-11"},{"link_name":"Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Hitachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Canon began SED research in 1986.[5] Their early research used PdO electrodes without the carbon films on top, but controlling the slit width proved difficult. At the time there were a number of flat-screen technologies in early development, and the only one close to commercialization was the plasma display panel (PDP), which had numerous disadvantages – manufacturing cost and energy use among them. LCDs were not suitable for larger screen sizes due to low yields and complex manufacturing.In 2004 Canon signed an agreement with Toshiba to create a joint venture to continue development of SED technology, forming \"SED Ltd.\" Toshiba introduced new technology to pattern the conductors underlying the emitters using technologies adapted from inkjet printers. At the time both companies claimed that production was slated to begin in 2005. Both Canon and Toshiba started displaying prototype units at trade shows during 2006, including 55\" and 36\" units from Canon, and a 42\" unit from Toshiba. They were widely lauded in the press for their image quality, saying it was \"something that must be seen to believe[d].\"[6]However, by this point Canon's SED introduction date had already slipped several times. It was first claimed it would go into production in 1999. This was pushed back to 2005 after the joint agreement, and then again into 2007 after the first demonstrations at CES and other shows.In October 2006, Toshiba's president announced the company plans to begin full production of 55-inch SED TVs in July 2007 at its recently built SED volume-production facility in Himeji.[7]In December 2006, Toshiba President and Chief Executive Atsutoshi Nishida said Toshiba was on track to mass-produce SED TV sets in cooperation with Canon by 2008. He said the company planned to start small-output production in the fall of 2007,[8] but they do not expect SED displays to become a commodity and will not release the technology to the consumer market because of its expected high price, reserving it solely for professional broadcasting applications.[9]Also, in December 2006 it was revealed that one reason for the delay was a lawsuit brought against Canon by Applied Nanotech. On 25 May 2007, Canon announced that the prolonged litigation would postpone the launch of SED televisions, and a new launch date would be announced at some date in the future.[10]Applied Nanotech, a subsidiary of Nano-Proprietary, holds a number of patents related to FED and SED manufacturing. They had sold Canon a perpetual license for a coating technology used in their newer carbon-based emitter structure. Applied Nanotech claimed that Canon's agreement with Toshiba amounted to an illegal technology transfer, and a separate agreement would have to be reached. They first approached the problem in April 2005.[11]Canon responded to the lawsuit with several actions. On 12 January 2007 they announced that they would buy all of Toshiba's shares in SED Inc. in order to eliminate Toshiba's involvement in the venture.[12] They also started re-working their existing RE40,062 patent filing in order to remove any of Applied Nanotech's technologies from their system. The modified patent was issued on 12 February 2008.[13]On 22 February 2007, the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas, a district widely known for agreeing with patent holders in intellectual property cases, ruled in a summary judgment that Canon had violated its agreement by forming a joint television venture with Toshiba.[14] However, on 2 May 2007 a jury ruled that no additional damages beyond the $5.5m fee for the original licensing contract were due.[15][16]On 25 July 2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit reversed the lower court's decision and provided that Canon's \"irrevocable and perpetual\" non-exclusive licence was still enforceable and covers Canon's restructured subsidiary SED.[17] On 2 December 2008, Applied Nanotech dropped the lawsuit, stating that continuing the lawsuit \"would probably be a futile effort\".[11]In spite of their legal success, Canon announced at the same time that the financial crisis of 2008 was making introduction of the sets far from certain, going so far as to say they would not be launching the product at that time \"because people would laugh at them\".[11]Canon also had an ongoing OLED development process that started in the midst of the lawsuit. In 2007 they announced a joint deal to form \"Hitachi Displays Ltd.\", with Matsushita and Canon each taking a 24.9% share of Hitachi's existing subsidiary. Canon later announced that they were purchasing Tokki Corp, a maker of OLED fabrication equipment.[18]In April 2009 during NAB 2009, Peter Putman was quoted as saying \"I was asked on more than one occasion about the chances of Canon's SED making a comeback, something I would not have bet money on after the Nano Technologies licensing debacle. However, a source within Canon told me at the show that the SED is still very much alive as a pro monitor technology. Indeed, a Canon SED engineer from Japan was quietly making the rounds in the Las Vegas Convention Center to scope out the competition.\"[19]Canon officially announced on 25 May 2010 the end of the development of SED TVs for the home consumer market,[20] but indicated that they will continue development for commercial applications like medical equipment. On 18 August 2010, Canon decided to liquidate SED Inc.,[21] a consolidated subsidiary of Canon Inc. developing SED technology, citing difficulties to secure appropriate profitability and effectively ending hopes to one day see SED TVs in the home or the room or the living room.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Canon signals end of the road for SED TV dreams\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.goodgearguide.com.au/article/357585/canon_signals_end_road_sed_tv_dreams/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"FED: Sony calls it quits, basically burying the technology as a whole\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.crunchgear.com/2009/03/31/fed-sony-calls-it-quits-basically-burying-the-technology-as-a-whole/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090619135913/http://www.crunchgear.com/2009/03/31/fed-sony-calls-it-quits-basically-burying-the-technology-as-a-whole/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-closer_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-closer_3-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.slashgear.com/sed-next-generation-flat-screen-display-192136/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-stand_5-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.slashgear.com/sed-next-generation-flat-screen-display-192136/"},{"link_name":"SlashGear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SlashGear"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-production_7-0"},{"link_name":"\"Toshiba eyes mass SED TV output in early '08\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.pcworld.com/article/id,127365-c,tv/article.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-production2_8-0"},{"link_name":"\"Toshiba, Canon work on displays\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wsj.com/articles/SB116672776608256958"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-nikkeibp_9-0"},{"link_name":"SED Won't Become Commodity -- Toshiba's President Nishida Said at Year-End Press Gathering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20061225/125850/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Notice Regarding Launch of SED TVs.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canon.com/news/2007/may25e.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20071214203129/http://www.canon.com/news/2007/may25e.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ft_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ft_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ft_11-2"},{"link_name":"\"Canon clear to launch new type of TV\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ft.com/cms/s/0/577ed3f0-c011-11dd-9222-0000779fd18c.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"SED Inc. to become wholly owned subsidiary of Canon Inc.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canon.com/press/2007/sed2007jan12.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070114200749/http://www.canon.com/press/2007/sed2007jan12.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-summaryjudgement_14-0"},{"link_name":"\"Judge rules against Canon in nanotube TV case\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070225070743/http://news.cnet.com/2100-1047_3-6161591.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//news.cnet.com/2100-1047_3-6161591.html?part=rss&tag=2547-1_3-0-5&subj=news"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-courtruling_15-0"},{"link_name":"\"Nano-Proprietary, Inc. Announces Verdict in Canon Litigation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20201109022056/http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_html_b1?release_id=247962"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.marketwire.com/mw/release_html_b1?release_id=247962"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-courtrulingcanonpr_16-0"},{"link_name":"\"Notice Regarding Litigation with Nano-Proprietary Involving SED\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070509034217/http://www.canon.com/press/2007/sed2007may4.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canon.com/press/2007/sed2007may4.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Appeal's Court Ruling on No. 07-50640\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ca5.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/07/07-50640-CV0.wpd.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"\"Canon to take majority stake in Tokki for $69 mln\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.reuters.com/article/companyNewsAndPR/idUST9225920071113"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"\"NAB 2009: The Season Of Their Discontent\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090502150404/http://displaydaily.com/2009/04/27/nab-2009-the-season-of-their-discontent"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//displaydaily.com/2009/04/27/nab-2009-the-season-of-their-discontent/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"\"Canon to freeze development of home-use SED TVs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE64O03I20100525"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"\"Notice regarding liquidation of subsidiary\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canon.com/news/2010/aug18e.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120510081954/http://www.canon.com/news/2010/aug18e.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"^ Martyn Williams, \"Canon signals end of the road for SED TV dreams\", IDG News Service, 19 August 2010\n\n^ Serkan Toto, \"FED: Sony calls it quits, basically burying the technology as a whole\" Archived 2009-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, CrunchGear, 31 Mar 2009\n\n^ a b Closer\n\n^ \"SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display\". SlashGear. October 20, 2006.\n\n^ Standing\n\n^ Vincent Nguyen, SED Next-Generation Flat-Screen Display, SlashGear, 19 October 2006\n\n^ \"Toshiba eyes mass SED TV output in early '08\". MarketWatch, Inc. 2006-06-20. Retrieved 2006-09-29.\n\n^ Kim, Yun-Hee (2006-12-22). \"Toshiba, Canon work on displays\". Dow Jones & Company, Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-22.\n\n^ SED Won't Become Commodity -- Toshiba's President Nishida Said at Year-End Press Gathering December 25, 2006 Masao Oonishi, Nikkei Microdevices\n\n^ \"Notice Regarding Launch of SED TVs.\" Archived 2007-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 25 May 2007\n\n^ a b c Robin Harding, \"Canon clear to launch new type of TV\", Financial Times, 2 December 2008\n\n^ \"SED Inc. to become wholly owned subsidiary of Canon Inc.\" Archived 2007-01-14 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 12 January 2007\n\n^ RE40,062\n\n^ \"Judge rules against Canon in nanotube TV case\". CNET. 2007-02-22. Archived from the original on 2007-02-25. Retrieved 2013-08-22.\n\n^ \"Nano-Proprietary, Inc. Announces Verdict in Canon Litigation\". 2007-05-03. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved 2007-05-06. \n\n^ \"Notice Regarding Litigation with Nano-Proprietary Involving SED\". 2007-05-07. Archived from the original on 2007-05-09. Retrieved 2007-05-07.\n\n^ \"Appeal's Court Ruling on No. 07-50640\" (PDF).\n\n^ \"Canon to take majority stake in Tokki for $69 mln\", Reuters, 13 November 2007\n\n^ \"NAB 2009: The Season Of Their Discontent\". 2009-04-27. Archived from the original on 2009-05-02. Retrieved 2009-04-27.\n\n^ \"Canon to freeze development of home-use SED TVs\", Reuters, 25 May 2010\n\n^ \"Notice regarding liquidation of subsidiary\" Archived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Canon Inc., 18 August 2010","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"A closer look at SED, FED technologies\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110616183341/http://www.eetasia.com/ARTICLES/2007AUG/PDF/EEOL_2007AUG16_OPT_TA.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Standing in the shadows\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060421141433/http://www.hdtvexpert.com/pages_b/sedtech.html"}],"sub_title":"Bibliography","text":"Richard Fink, \"A closer look at SED, FED technologies\", EE Times-Asia, August 16–31, 2007, pp. 1–4\nPeter Putman, \"Standing in the shadows\" , HDTVexpert, 8 March 2006","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Patent RE40,062","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/USRE40062"}],"text":"U.S. Patent RE40,062, \"Display device with electron-emitting device with electron-emitting region\", Seishiro Yoshioka et al./Canon Kabushiki Kaisha, Filed 2 June 2000, Re-issued 12 Feb 2008","title":"Patents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Funding for organic-LED technology, patent disputes, and more\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nature.com/nphoton/journal/v1/n5/full/nphoton.2007.65.html"}],"sub_title":"Further reading","text":"\"Funding for organic-LED technology, patent disputes, and more\", Nature Photonics, Volume 1 Number 5 (2007), pg. 278","title":"Patents"}]

[{"image_text":"Canon's 36\" prototype SED, shown at the 2006 CES","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display_2.png/220px-Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display_2.png"},{"image_text":"Another view of the same display, showing what was a thin case at the time","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Sed1.png/220px-Sed1.png"}]

[{"title":"Comparison of display technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_display_technology"},{"title":"Field emission display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_emission_display"},{"title":"Organic light-emitting diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_diode"},{"title":"Quantum dot display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot_display"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hittite_states

Syro-Hittite states

["1 Name","2 Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition","3 List of Syro-Hittite states","4 Inscriptions","5 See also","6 References","7 Sources","8 External links"]

Iron Age states of modern Syria and Turkey Luwian and Aramean states (c. 800 BCE) The states called Neo-Hittite, Syro-Hittite (in older literature), or Luwian-Aramean (in modern scholarly works) were Luwian and Aramean regional polities of the Iron Age, situated in southeastern parts of modern Turkey and northwestern parts of modern Syria, known in ancient times as lands of Hatti and Aram. They arose following the collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom in the 12th century BCE, and lasted until they were subdued by the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE. They are grouped together by scholars, on the basis of several cultural criteria, that are recognized as similar and mutually shared between both societies, northern (Luwian) and southern (Aramaean). Cultural exchange between those societies is seen as a specific regional phenomenon, particularly in light of significant linguistic distinctions between the two main regional languages, with Luwian belonging to the Anatolian group of Indo-European languages and Aramaic belonging to the Northwest Semitic group of Semitic languages. Several questions related to the regional grouping of Luwian and Aramaean states are viewed differently among scholars, including some views that are critical towards such grouping in general. Name İvriz relief, with God Teshub (on the left) and king Warpalawas (ca 730-710 BCE) (right) Further information: Name of Syria One of the most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived from endonymic (native) names for Luwians and Arameans, thus using terms like Luwian-Aramean or Aramean-Luwian. Others prefer to use terms that are derived from various exonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations like Syrian-Anatolian or Syro-Anatolian, based on Greek term Anatolia, combined with anachronistic application of Syrian labels, in the sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land (Aram). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as being culturally biased, and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, like Syro-Hittite and Neo-Hittite, but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise term Post-Hittite is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE. Anachronistic uses of Syrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingual Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in Luwian and Phoenician languages. The inscription contained references to the neighbouring Assyria, inscribed in a specific form that renders as Syria, thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the term Syria, that originated as an apheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use term Syria as a specific designation for western regions (ancient Aram). For ancient Luwians, Syria was designation for Assyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the term Syria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age. Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition Further information: Bronze Age collapse The Hittite New Kingdom and its zone of influence (political and cultural) during the 14th and the 13th centuries BCE The collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean. At the beginning of the 12th century BCE, Wilusa (Troy) was destroyed and the Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from the Kaskas, who occupied the coasts around the Black Sea, and who joined with the Mysians. They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near the Tigris. Hatti, Arzawa (Lydia), Alashiya (Cyprus), Ugarit and Alalakh were destroyed. Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern Mesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads. Syro-Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Country-lords" of Melid and Karkamish of the Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites. Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of the Storm God on the citadel of Aleppo, and Ain Dara temple, where the Late Bronze Age temple buildings continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, with repeated periods of construction in the Early Iron Age. List of Syro-Hittite states Various Luwian and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE The Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms. The northern group includes: Tabal. It may have included a group of city states called the Tyanitis (Tuwana, Tunna, Ḫubišna, Shinukhtu, Ishtunda) Kammanu (with Melid) Hilakku Quwê (with a stronghold at modern Karatepe) Gurgum Kummuh Carchemish The southern group includes: Palistin (whose capital was probably Tell Tayinat) Bit Gabbari (with Sam'al) Bit-Adini (with the city of Til Barsip) Bit Bahiani (with Guzana) Pattin (also Pattina or Unqi) (with the city of Kinalua, maybe modern Tell Tayinat) Ain Dara, a religious center Bit Agusi (with the cities of Arpad, Nampigi, and (later on) Aleppo) Hatarikka-Luhuti (the capital city of which was at Hatarikka) Hamath Inscriptions Luwian monumental inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from the 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere. Luwian hieroglyphs were chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi- or tri-lingual inscriptions with Aramaic, Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern Mesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing in Aramaic and Phoenician. During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians. See also Asia portal Ancient Syria Aramean kings Euphrates Handmade Syrian Horses and Riders Euphrates Syrian Pillar Figurines Sakçagözü Stele of Zakkur Tarḫuntašša References Ancient history Preceded by prehistory Near East Sumer Kish Egypt Elam Ebla Mari Armi Hatti Dilmun Magan Nubia Berbers Akkad Assyria Babylonia Qatna Amurru Yamhad Urkesh Mitanni Hittites Ugarit Canaan Phoenicia Alashiya Arameans Israel and Judah Sabaʾ Himyar Chaldea Urartu Media Achaemenid Empire Sea Peoples Anatolia Arabia Egypt Iran The Levant Mesopotamia Europe Aegean Civilization Greece Illyrians Daco-Thracians Argaric Torrean Nuragic Talaiotic Tartessos Guanches Etruscans Rome Migration Period Barbarian Kingdoms Celts Germanics Slavs Iberia Italy Gaul British Isles Illyria Thracia Dacia Malta Caucasus Horn of Africa Land of Punt Nubia Kingdom of Kerma Macrobia Kingdom of Dʿmt Kingdom of Kush Kingdom of Axum Kingdom of Simien Harla Kingdom Barbaria Opone Malao Mosylon Mundus Toniki Aromata Avalites Sarapion Nicon Essina Rauso Nilotic Peoples African Kingdoms North Africa Carthage Garamantes Kingdom Nasamones Chiefdom Cyrene Kingdom of Blemmyes Massylii Confederation Kingdom of Numidia Kingdom of Mauretania Kingdom of Nobatia Kingdom of Ouarsenis Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans Kingdom of Capsus Kingdom of Masuna Kingdom of the Aurès Kingdom of Makuria Kingdom of Hodna Nemencha Kingdom Laguatan Kingdom of Alodia Kingdom of Altava Libya African Kingdoms Eurasian Steppe Proto-Indo-Europeans Afanasievo Indo-Iranians Scythia Tungusic Mohe Tocharians Qiang Donghu Yuezhi Wusun Xiongnu Huns Hunas Xionites Iranian Huns Hephthalites Proto-Mongols Wuhuan Kumo Xi Xianbei Tuyuhun Rouran Khitan Shiwei Pannonian Avars Turks Hu Four Barbarians Five Barbarians Eurasian Nomads Nomadic Empire Siberia Central Asia Bactria Bactria–Margiana Sogdia/Kangju Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Yavana Kingdom Kushan Empire Badakhshan Transoxiana Khwarazm Khorasan Margiana Parthia Dahae Fergana Valley Tarim Basin East Asia China Japan Korea Mongolia Tibet South Asia Indus Valley Civilisation Vedic Period Mahajanapadas Nanda Empire Maurya Empire Satavahana Dynasty Sangam Period Middle Kingdoms Northern America Adena Hopewell Mississippian Ancestral Puebloans Hohokam Mogollon Fremont Patayan Sinagua Pre-Dorset Thule people Glades St. Johns culture Mesoamerica Olmecs Epi-Olmec Capacha Maya Huastec Mixtec Xochipala Gran Coclé Izapa Tlatilco Cuicuilco Zapotec Mezcala Chupícuaro Quelepa Western Mexico Shaft Tomb Tradition Teuchitlán Veraguas Diquis Cholula Teotihuacan Nicoya Veracruz Totonac Toltec Andes Caral-Supe Casma–Sechin Chavín Paracas Nazca Moche Lima Tiwanaku Wari Caribbean Ortoiroid People Guanahatabey Saladoid Kalinago Kalina Arawak Indigenous Peoples Seafaring West Africa and Central Africa Kintampo Dhar Tichitt Oualata Nok Sao Ekoi Senegambia Serer Senegambia Megaliths Pre-Imperial Mali Djenné-Djenno Igodomigodo Bantu Bura Sahelian Kingdoms Ghana Empire Takrur Pygmies African Kingdoms Southeast Asia and Oceania Melanesians Austronesians Australia Micronesia Melanesia Polynesia Hồng Bàng Suvarnabhumi Singhanavati Sungai Batu Mon Pyu Thaton Âu Lạc Nanyue Chi Tu Tun Sun Funan Tambralinga Langkasuka Tagaung Gangga Negara Sri Ksetra Champa Lâm Ấp Quduqian Pan Pan Arakan Kutai Xitu Tarumanagara Kantoli Mueang Pahang Lavo Kalingga Melayu Dvaravati Chenla Srivijaya Shailendra Cambodia Laos Malaysia Myanmar Thailand Vietnam Brunei Indonesia Timor Philippines Singapore See also Human History Ancient Maritime History Protohistory Copper Age Bronze Age Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient Literature Ancient Warfare Cradle of Civilization Category Followed by Post-classical Historyvte ^ Hawkins 1982, p. 372-441. ^ Hawkins 1995c, p. 87-101. ^ Sader 2010, p. 273-300. ^ Sader 2014, p. 11–36. ^ Sader 2016, p. 61-76. ^ Osborne 2020. ^ Hawkins 1982, p. 372-375. ^ Sader 2010, p. 287-298. ^ Gilibert 2011, p. 2. ^ Bryce 2012, p. 79-80. ^ Osborne 2020, p. 4-7. ^ Rollinger 2006a, p. 72-82. ^ Rollinger 2006b, p. 283-287. ^ Messo 2011, p. 111–114. ^ Hawkins 1994, p. 91-94. ^ C. Mossé (1984). La Grèce archaïcque d'Homère à Eschyle. Editions du Seuil. Paris: p. 35. ^ a b Gurney 1954, p. 49-50. ^ See Wilkinson, Tony J.; 2003. Archaeological landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. ^ Hawkins 1995a, p. 1295-1307. ^ Hawkins 1995b, p. 75–86. ^ See "Karkamish" and "Melid" in Hawkins, John David; 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. (3 vols) De Gruyter: Berlin. ^ Kohlmeyer, Kay; 2000a. Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo. Münster: Rhema. ^ Abū Assaf, Alī; 1990. Der Tempel von ءAin Dārā. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. ^ Tübinger Bibelatlas / Tübingen Bible Atlas. Siegfried Mittmann, Götz Schmitt (eds.), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2001, Map B IV 13-14 ^ Gurney 1954, p. 39-46. ^ Bryce 2012, p. 129. ^ D. T. Potts (27 April 2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Wiley. p. 802. ISBN 9781444360769. ^ See the Tayinat Website Archived 2014-05-27 at the Wayback Machine by the Department of Near & Middle Eastern Civilizations at the University of Toronto ^ Hawkins 1986, p. 363-376. ^ Hawkins; 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I, Inscriptions of the Iron Age, De Gruyter, pp. 17-23; Giusfredi; Federico; 2010. Sources for a Socio-Economic History of the Neo-Hittie States, Winter Verlag, pp. 37-44; Simon, Zsolt; 2011. Hethitische Topoi in der hieroglyphen-luwischen Historiographie: Bemerkungen zur Frage der Kontinuität, in M. Hutter and S. Hutter-Braunsar, Hethitische Literatur Überlieferungsprozess,Textstrukturen, Ausdrucksformen Und Nachwirken, Ugarit Verlag, pp. 227-244. ^ Brixhe, C. and M. Lejeune (1984). Corpus des inscriptions paléo-phrygiennes. Paris. Sources Amadasi-Guzzo, Maria Giulia (2019). "What Do We Know about the Borders and Exchanges between Aram and Phoenicia in the 9th–8th Centuries B.C.E. in Anatolia and Syria?". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 149–171. ISBN 9789004398535. Bagg, Ariel M. (2019). "At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 1–25. ISBN 9789004398535. Bryce, Trevor R. (2012). The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191505027. Dušek, Jan (2019). "The Kingdom of Arpad/Bīt-Agūsi: Its Capital, and Its Borders". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 172–202. ISBN 9789004398535. Edmonds, Alexander J. (2019). "A People without Borders? Tracing the Shifting Identities and Territorialities of the Ahlameans". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 26–62. ISBN 9789004398535. Gilibert, Alessandra (2011). Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millennium BCE. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110222258. Gurney, Oliver R. (1954) . The Hittites (2nd revised ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Gzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004285101. Greenfield, Jonas C. (1998). "Arameans and Aramaic in Anatolia". XXXIVème Rencontre assyriologique internationale. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. pp. 199–207. Hawkins, John David (1982). "The Neo-Hittite States in Syria and Anatolia". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 372–441. ISBN 9780521224963. Hawkins, John David (1986). "Writing in Anatolia: Imported and Indigenous Systems". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 363–376. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979976. JSTOR 124701. Hawkins, John David (1994). "The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries". Anatolian Iron Ages. Vol. 3. London-Ankara: British Institute of Archeology at Ankara. pp. 91–94. ISBN 9781912090693. Hawkins, John David (1995a). "Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria". Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 1295–1307. ISBN 9780684197210. Hawkins, John David (1995b). "Great Kings and Country Lords at Malatya and Karkamiš". Studio Historiae Ardens: Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul. pp. 75–86. ISBN 9789062580750. Hawkins, John David (1995c). "The Political Geography of North Syria and South-East Anatolia in the Neo-Assyrian Period". Neo-Assyrian Geography. Roma: Università di Roma. pp. 87–101. Lipiński, Edward (2000). The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042908598. Lipiński, Edward (2013). "The Aramaeans in the West (13th–8th centuries)". Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 123–147. ISBN 9783447065443. Messo, Johny (2011). "The Origin of the Terms Syria(n) and Suryoyo: Once Again". Parole de l'Orient. 36: 111–125. Osborne, James F. (2012). "Communicating Power in the Bīt-Ḫilāni Palace". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 368: 29–66. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.368.0029. S2CID 156406413. Osborne, James F. (2014). "Settlement Planning and Urban Symbology in Syro-Anatolian Cities". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 24 (2): 195–214. doi:10.1017/S0959774314000444. Osborne, James F. (2017). "Exploring the Lower Settlements of Iron Age Capitals in Anatolia and Syria". Antiquity. 91 (355): 90–107. doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.254. S2CID 164449885. Osborne, James F. (2020). The Syro-Anatolian City-States: An Iron Age Culture. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199315833. Richelle, Matthieu (2019). "The Fluctuating Borders of Hamath (10th–8th Centuries B.C.E.)". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 203–228. ISBN 9789004398535. Rollinger, Robert (2006a). "Assyrios, Syrios, Syros und Leukosyros". Die Welt des Orients. 36: 72–82. JSTOR 25684050. Rollinger, Robert (2006b). "The Terms Assyria and Syria Again" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1086/511103. S2CID 162760021. Sader, Hélène (2000). "The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes". Essays on Syria in the Iron Age. Louvain: Peeters Press. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9789042908789. Sader, Hélène (2010). "The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture". The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273–300. ISBN 978-9004177291. Sader, Hélène (2014). "History". The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Leiden: Brill. pp. 11–36. ISBN 9789004229433. Sader, Hélène (2016). "The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria". State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9783447105651. Simon, Zsolt (2019). "Aramaean Borders: the Hieroglyphic Luwian Evidence". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 125–148. ISBN 9789004398535. Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 9781628370843. External links Neo-Hittite Monuments vteSyro-Hittite states and citiesLuwian statesTabal Tabal Tuwana Atuna Ḫubišna Šinuḫtu Ištuanda Kammanu Melid Kummuh Samsat Quwê Karatepe Adana Hilakku Gurgum Marqas Carchemish Carchemish Aramaean statesPalistin Kinalua Unqi-Pattina Kinalua Bit Gabbari Sam'al Bit Adini Til Barsip Bit Bahiani Guzana Bit Agusi Arpad Nampigi Halab Luhuti Hatarikka Shuksi Hamath Hamath vteAncient kingdoms of AnatoliaBronze Age Ahhiyawa Arzawa Assuwa League Carchemish Hapalla Hatti Hayasa-Azzi Hittite Empire Hurrian States (Isuwa, Kizzuwatna, Mitanni) Kalašma Kaskia Kussara Lukka Luwia Miletus Mira Mysia Nairi Pala Pisidia/Sagalassos Purushanda Seha Shupria Urshu Urumu Wilusa/Troy Zalpuwa Iron Age Aeolia Caria Cimmerians Colchis Diauehi Doris Etiuni Ionia Lycia Lydia Mushki Neo-Hittites (Atuna, Carchemish, Gurgum, Ḫilakku, Kammanu, Kummuh, Quwê, Tabal) Phrygia Urartu Classical Age Antigonids Armenia Armenia Minor Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Commagene Galatia Osroene Paphlagonia Pergamon Pontus Turkey Portal vteAncient states and regions in the history of the LevantCopper Age Kish civilization Tell Halaf Chagar Bazar Hamoukar Jericho Byblos Ebla Ugarit Urkesh Bronze Age Akkadian Empire Alashiya Amorite states Alalakh Amurru Andarig Apum First Babylon Third Ebla Ekallatum Emar Kurda Third Mari Mukish Palmyra Qatna Ṭābetu Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia Yamhad Amqu Barga Canaanite city-states Ascalon Arqa Arwad Azzati Beruta Gebal Gezer Hazor Jerusalem Kumidi Lakisha Megiddo Phoenicia Qadesh Shechem Sidon Tyre Dimasqu Hittite Empire Hurrians Urshu Nuhašše Mitanni Tell Hadidi Naziba Niya Ib'al confederacy Paleo-Syrian states Armi Armanum/Tall Bazi Ebla Emar Khana/Terqa Mari Nagar Tuttul Suhum ʿApiru Ahlamu Suteans Amqu ʿApiru Shasu Shutu Tadmor Tunip Ugarit Upu Nuhašše Niya Iron Age Achaemenid Empire Aramaean states Aram-Damascus Aram Rehob Bit-Adini Bit Agusi Bit Bahiani Geshur Hamath Sam'al Zobah Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Canaan Ammon Edom Israel (Samaria) Israel (united) Judah Moab Philistia Ashdod Ascalon Ekron Gath Gaza Phoenicia Amrit Arwad Gebal Tartus Tyre Sidon New Kingdom of Egypt Arabs Itureans? 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EgyptHedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic PeriodFirst Dynasty of EgyptNarmer PaletteNarmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period(3100–2900 BCE) Proto-Elamiteperiod(Susa III)(3100–2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of EgyptHotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First EblaiteKingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynastyJushur, Kullassina-belNangishlishma,En-tarah-anaBabum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip AtabMashda Arwium EtanaBalih En-me-nunaMelem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynastyMesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, IlkuIltasadum LugalbandaDumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit") Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period(2700–1500 BCE)Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of EgyptDjoser(First Egyptian pyramids)Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) SagisuAbur-limAgur-limIbbi-DamuBaba-Damu Kish II dynasty(5 kings)UhubMesilim Ur-NungalUdulkalamaLabashum LagashEn-hegalLugal-shaengur UrA-ImdugudUr-PabilsagMeskalamdug(Queen Puabi)Akalamdug Enun-dara-annaMes-heMelamannaLugal-kitun AdabNin-kisalsiMe-durbaLugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of EgyptFourth Dynasty of EgyptSnefru KhufuDjedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynastyMesannepada"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of MariIkun-ShamashIku-ShamaganAnsudSa'umuIshtup-IsharIkun-MariIblul-IlNizi Kish III dynastyKu-Baba♀ Akshak dynastyUnziUndalulu Uruk II dynastyEnsha-kushanna Mug-si Umma I dynastyPabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynastyUr-NansheAkurgal A'annepadaMeskiagnunEluluBalulu Awan dynastyPeliTataUkkutaheshHishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of EgyptUserkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-DamuIshar-Malik UshEnakalle Elamite invasions(3 kings) Shushun-taranaNapilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-DamuIgrish-HalamIrkab-Damu Kish IV dynastyPuzur-SuenUr-Zababa Urur Lugal-kinishe-duduLugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'eMeskigal Ur-LummaIlGishakidu(Queen Bara-irnun) EnannatumEntemenaEnannatum IIEnentarzi Ur II dynastyNanniMesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of EgyptTeti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynastyLugalannemundu"King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-DaganIkun-IsharIshqi-Mari Invasion by MariAnbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter Ukush LugalandaUrukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-NirahIshu-IlShu-Sin Uruk III dynastyLugalzagesi(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian EmpireSargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors:EshpumIlshu-rabiEpirmupiIli-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal(vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate PeriodSeventh Dynasty of EgyptEighth Dynasty of EgyptMenkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second EblaiteKingdom Third kingdom of Mari(Shakkanakkudynasty)IdidishShu-DaganIshma-Dagan(Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)DuduShu-turul Uruk IV dynastyUr-niginUr-gigir Lagash II dynastyPuzer-MamaUr-Ningirsu IPirig-meLu-BabaLu-gulaKa-ku Hishep-RatepHeluKhitaPuzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of EgyptMeryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-MêrIshtup-IlumIshgum-AdduApil-kin Gutian dynasty(21 kings)La-erabumSi'um Kuda (Uruk)Puzur-iliUr-Utu Umma II dynastyLugalannatum(vassal of the Gutians) Ur-BabaGudeaUr-NingirsuUr-garNam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of EgyptMeryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Uruk V dynastyUtu-hengal 2100 BCE (Vassals of UR III) Iddi-ilumIli-IsharTura-DaganPuzur-Ishtar(Vassals of Ur III) Ur III dynasty"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin 2025-1763 BCE Amorite invasions Ibbi-Sin Elamite invasionsKindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) Middle Kingdom of EgyptEleventh Dynasty of EgyptMentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Third EblaiteKingdom (Amorites)Ibbit-LimImmeya Indilimma (Amorite Shakkanakkus)Hitial-ErraHanun-Dagan(...)Lim Dynastyof Mari(Amorites)Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Old AssyriaPuzur-Ashur IShalim-ahumIlu-shumaErishum IIkunumSargon IPuzur-Ashur IINaram-SinErishum II Isin-Larsa period(Amorites)Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishuDynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin IIUruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynastySiwe-Palar-Khuppak Twelfth Dynasty of EgyptAmenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of EgyptFourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham(Biblical)Kings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of Sidon Yamhad(Yamhad dynasty)(Amorites) Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynasty1808–1736 BCE)(Amorites)Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Adaside dynasty1700–722 BCE)Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty("Old Babylonian Period")(Amorites)Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-DitanaEarly Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty("Sealand Dynasty")Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishuIshkibal Shushushi GulkisharmDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh AyadaragalamaAkurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate PeriodSixteenthDynasty AbydosDynasty SeventeenthDynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt("Hyksos")Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a HyksosSemqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni(1600–1260 BCE)Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE TutankhamunNew Kingdom of EgyptEighteenth Dynasty of EgyptAhmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE)Kidinuid dynastyIgehalkid dynastyUntash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite EmpireUgarit Nineteenth Dynasty of EgyptRamesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite EmpireShutrukid dynastyShutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of EgyptSetnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XIThird Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of EgyptSmendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II PhoeniciaKings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of SidonKingdom of IsraelSaulIsh-boshethDavidSolomon Syro-Hittite states Middle AssyriaEriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of EgyptShoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of EgyptHarsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of EgyptTefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of SamariaKingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian EmpireAdad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian DynastyNinurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynastyUrtakTeummanUmmanigashTammaritu IIndabibiHumban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of EgyptTaharqa("Black Pharaohs")Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty)Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt Assyrian conquest of Elam 626–539 BCE Late PeriodTwenty-sixth Dynasty of EgyptNecho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian EmpireNabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median EmpireDeioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of ByblosKings of TyreKings of Sidon Achaemenid EmpireCyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of EgyptTwenty-ninth Dynasty of EgyptThirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic EgyptPtolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic PeriodSeleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus ISeleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of JudeaSimon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian EmpireMithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt)Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116–117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian EmpireProvince of AsoristanCoin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene EmpireVaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)Province of EgyptShahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian EmpireProvince of AsoristanKhosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Chronology of the Neolithic period Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neohititas-en.svg"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwians"},{"link_name":"Aramean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwians"},{"link_name":"Aramean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"polities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polities"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Hatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatti_(region)"},{"link_name":"Aram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram_(region)"},{"link_name":"Hittite New Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_New_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Assyrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwians"},{"link_name":"Aramaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaeans"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian_language"},{"link_name":"Anatolian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_languages"},{"link_name":"Indo-European languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages"},{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"Northwest Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages"},{"link_name":"Semitic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_languages"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1982372-441-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1995c87-101-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2010273-300-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201411%E2%80%9336-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201661-76-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne2020-6"}],"text":"Luwian and Aramean states (c. 800 BCE)The states called Neo-Hittite, Syro-Hittite (in older literature), or Luwian-Aramean (in modern scholarly works) were Luwian and Aramean regional polities of the Iron Age, situated in southeastern parts of modern Turkey and northwestern parts of modern Syria, known in ancient times as lands of Hatti and Aram. They arose following the collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom in the 12th century BCE, and lasted until they were subdued by the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE. They are grouped together by scholars, on the basis of several cultural criteria, that are recognized as similar and mutually shared between both societies, northern (Luwian) and southern (Aramaean). Cultural exchange between those societies is seen as a specific regional phenomenon, particularly in light of significant linguistic distinctions between the two main regional languages, with Luwian belonging to the Anatolian group of Indo-European languages and Aramaic belonging to the Northwest Semitic group of Semitic languages. Several questions related to the regional grouping of Luwian and Aramaean states are viewed differently among scholars, including some views that are critical towards such grouping in general.[1][2][3][4][5][6]","title":"Syro-Hittite states"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IvrizRelief.JPG"},{"link_name":"İvriz relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0vriz_relief"},{"link_name":"Teshub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teshub"},{"link_name":"Warpalawas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warpalawas"},{"link_name":"Name of Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_Syria"},{"link_name":"endonymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endonymic"},{"link_name":"Luwians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwians"},{"link_name":"Arameans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"exonymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exonymic"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Syrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(region)"},{"link_name":"Aram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram_(region)"},{"link_name":"culturally biased","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_bias"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1982372-375-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2010287-298-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilibert20112-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce201279-80-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne20204-7-11"},{"link_name":"Syrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(region)"},{"link_name":"Çineköy inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87inek%C3%B6y_inscription"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian_language"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_language"},{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"apheretic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Aram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram_(region)"},{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERollinger2006a72-82-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERollinger2006b283-287-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMesso2011111%E2%80%93114-14"}],"text":"İvriz relief, with God Teshub (on the left) and king Warpalawas (ca 730-710 BCE) (right)Further information: Name of SyriaOne of the most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived from endonymic (native) names for Luwians and Arameans, thus using terms like Luwian-Aramean or Aramean-Luwian. Others prefer to use terms that are derived from various exonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations like Syrian-Anatolian or Syro-Anatolian, based on Greek term Anatolia, combined with anachronistic application of Syrian labels, in the sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land (Aram). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as being culturally biased, and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, like Syro-Hittite and Neo-Hittite, but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise term Post-Hittite is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE.[7][8][9][10][11]Anachronistic uses of Syrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingual Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in Luwian and Phoenician languages. The inscription contained references to the neighbouring Assyria, inscribed in a specific form that renders as Syria, thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the term Syria, that originated as an apheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use term Syria as a specific designation for western regions (ancient Aram). For ancient Luwians, Syria was designation for Assyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the term Syria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age.[12][13][14]","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bronze Age collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Hittite_rule_en.svg"},{"link_name":"Hittite New Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_New_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Hittite New Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_New_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins199491-94-15"},{"link_name":"Wilusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilusa"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Hittite New Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_New_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Kaskas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaskians"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"Mysians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysians"},{"link_name":"Assyrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Tigris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigris"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurney195449-50-17"},{"link_name":"Hatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hattusa"},{"link_name":"Arzawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzawa"},{"link_name":"Lydia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia"},{"link_name":"Alashiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alashiya"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Ugarit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugarit"},{"link_name":"Alalakh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alalakh"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurney195449-50-17"},{"link_name":"Hattusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hattusa"},{"link_name":"Hittite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1995a1295-1307-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1995b75%E2%80%9386-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Aleppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ain Dara temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_Dara_temple"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Further information: Bronze Age collapseThe Hittite New Kingdom and its zone of influence (political and cultural) during the 14th and the 13th centuries BCEThe collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean.[15] At the beginning of the 12th century BCE, Wilusa (Troy) was destroyed[16] and the Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from the Kaskas, who occupied the coasts around the Black Sea, and who joined with the Mysians. They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near the Tigris.[17] Hatti, Arzawa (Lydia), Alashiya (Cyprus), Ugarit and Alalakh were destroyed.[17]Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern Mesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads.[18] Syro-Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the \"Great Kings\" and \"Country-lords\" of Melid and Karkamish of the Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites.[19][20][21]Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of the Storm God on the citadel of Aleppo,[22] and Ain Dara temple,[23] where the Late Bronze Age temple buildings continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, with repeated periods of construction in the Early Iron Age.","title":"Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png"},{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwians"},{"link_name":"Aramean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"Hittite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites"},{"link_name":"Aramaeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaeans"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurney195439-46-25"},{"link_name":"Tabal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabal_(state)"},{"link_name":"Tuwana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyana"},{"link_name":"Tunna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunna"},{"link_name":"Ḫubišna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybistra"},{"link_name":"Kammanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kammanu"},{"link_name":"Melid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melid"},{"link_name":"Hilakku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilakku"},{"link_name":"Quwê","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quw%C3%AA"},{"link_name":"Karatepe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatepe"},{"link_name":"Gurgum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgum"},{"link_name":"Kummuh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kummuh"},{"link_name":"Carchemish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carchemish"},{"link_name":"Palistin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palistin"},{"link_name":"Tell Tayinat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Tayinat"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2012129-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Bit Gabbari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_Gabbari"},{"link_name":"Sam'al","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%27al"},{"link_name":"Bit-Adini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit-Adini"},{"link_name":"Til Barsip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Til_Barsip"},{"link_name":"Bit Bahiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_Bahiani"},{"link_name":"Guzana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guzana"},{"link_name":"Pattin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattin"},{"link_name":"Kinalua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinalua"},{"link_name":"Tell Tayinat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Tayinat"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Ain Dara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_Dara_temple"},{"link_name":"Bit Agusi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_Agusi"},{"link_name":"Arpad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpad_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"Aleppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo"},{"link_name":"Hatarikka-Luhuti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatarikka-Luhuti"},{"link_name":"Hatarikka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Afis"},{"link_name":"Hamath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama#Neo-Hittites"}],"text":"Various Luwian and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCEThe Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms.[24][25]The northern group includes:Tabal. It may have included a group of city states called the Tyanitis (Tuwana, Tunna, Ḫubišna, Shinukhtu, Ishtunda)\nKammanu (with Melid)\nHilakku\nQuwê (with a stronghold at modern Karatepe)\nGurgum\nKummuh\nCarchemishThe southern group includes:Palistin (whose capital was probably Tell Tayinat)[26][27]\nBit Gabbari (with Sam'al)\nBit-Adini (with the city of Til Barsip)\nBit Bahiani (with Guzana)\nPattin (also Pattina or Unqi) (with the city of Kinalua, maybe modern Tell Tayinat[28])\nAin Dara, a religious center\nBit Agusi (with the cities of Arpad, Nampigi, and (later on) Aleppo)\nHatarikka-Luhuti (the capital city of which was at Hatarikka)\nHamath","title":"List of Syro-Hittite states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Luwian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian_language"},{"link_name":"Anatolian hieroglyphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkins1986363-376-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_languages"},{"link_name":"Akkadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Phrygians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygians"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Luwian monumental inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from the 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere.[29][30] Luwian hieroglyphs were chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi- or tri-lingual inscriptions with Aramaic, Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern Mesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing in Aramaic and Phoenician. During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians.[31]","title":"Inscriptions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"What Do We Know about the Borders and Exchanges between Aram and Phoenicia in the 9th–8th Centuries B.C.E. in Anatolia and Syria?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789004398535","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535"},{"link_name":"\"At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789004398535","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535"},{"link_name":"Bryce, Trevor R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_R._Bryce"},{"link_name":"The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=gp8lMpoFAUsC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780191505027","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191505027"},{"link_name":"\"The Kingdom of Arpad/Bīt-Agūsi: Its Capital, and Its Borders\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789004398535","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535"},{"link_name":"\"A People without Borders? 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Evidence\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9789004398535","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535"},{"link_name":"A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781628370843","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628370843"}],"text":"Amadasi-Guzzo, Maria Giulia (2019). \"What Do We Know about the Borders and Exchanges between Aram and Phoenicia in the 9th–8th Centuries B.C.E. in Anatolia and Syria?\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 149–171. ISBN 9789004398535.\nBagg, Ariel M. (2019). \"At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 1–25. ISBN 9789004398535.\nBryce, Trevor R. (2012). The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191505027.\nDušek, Jan (2019). \"The Kingdom of Arpad/Bīt-Agūsi: Its Capital, and Its Borders\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 172–202. ISBN 9789004398535.\nEdmonds, Alexander J. (2019). \"A People without Borders? Tracing the Shifting Identities and Territorialities of the Ahlameans\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 26–62. ISBN 9789004398535.\nGilibert, Alessandra (2011). Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millennium BCE. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110222258.\nGurney, Oliver R. (1954) [1952]. The Hittites (2nd revised ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.\nGzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004285101.\nGreenfield, Jonas C. (1998). \"Arameans and Aramaic in Anatolia\". XXXIVème Rencontre assyriologique internationale. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. pp. 199–207.\nHawkins, John David (1982). \"The Neo-Hittite States in Syria and Anatolia\". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 372–441. ISBN 9780521224963.\nHawkins, John David (1986). \"Writing in Anatolia: Imported and Indigenous Systems\". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 363–376. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979976. JSTOR 124701.\nHawkins, John David (1994). \"The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries\". Anatolian Iron Ages. Vol. 3. London-Ankara: British Institute of Archeology at Ankara. pp. 91–94. ISBN 9781912090693.\nHawkins, John David (1995a). \"Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria\". Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 1295–1307. ISBN 9780684197210.\nHawkins, John David (1995b). \"Great Kings and Country Lords at Malatya and Karkamiš\". Studio Historiae Ardens: Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul. pp. 75–86. ISBN 9789062580750.\nHawkins, John David (1995c). \"The Political Geography of North Syria and South-East Anatolia in the Neo-Assyrian Period\". Neo-Assyrian Geography. Roma: Università di Roma. pp. 87–101.\nLipiński, Edward (2000). The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042908598.\nLipiński, Edward (2013). \"The Aramaeans in the West (13th–8th centuries)\". Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 123–147. ISBN 9783447065443.\nMesso, Johny (2011). \"The Origin of the Terms Syria(n) and Suryoyo: Once Again\". Parole de l'Orient. 36: 111–125.\nOsborne, James F. (2012). \"Communicating Power in the Bīt-Ḫilāni Palace\". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 368: 29–66. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.368.0029. S2CID 156406413.\nOsborne, James F. (2014). \"Settlement Planning and Urban Symbology in Syro-Anatolian Cities\". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 24 (2): 195–214. doi:10.1017/S0959774314000444.\nOsborne, James F. (2017). \"Exploring the Lower Settlements of Iron Age Capitals in Anatolia and Syria\". Antiquity. 91 (355): 90–107. doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.254. S2CID 164449885.\nOsborne, James F. (2020). The Syro-Anatolian City-States: An Iron Age Culture. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199315833.\nRichelle, Matthieu (2019). \"The Fluctuating Borders of Hamath (10th–8th Centuries B.C.E.)\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 203–228. ISBN 9789004398535.\nRollinger, Robert (2006a). \"Assyrios, Syrios, Syros und Leukosyros\". Die Welt des Orients. 36: 72–82. JSTOR 25684050.\nRollinger, Robert (2006b). \"The Terms Assyria and Syria Again\" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1086/511103. S2CID 162760021.\nSader, Hélène (2000). \"The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes\". Essays on Syria in the Iron Age. Louvain: Peeters Press. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9789042908789.\nSader, Hélène (2010). \"The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture\". The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273–300. ISBN 978-9004177291.\nSader, Hélène (2014). \"History\". The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Leiden: Brill. pp. 11–36. ISBN 9789004229433.\nSader, Hélène (2016). \"The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria\". State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9783447105651.\nSimon, Zsolt (2019). \"Aramaean Borders: the Hieroglyphic Luwian Evidence\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 125–148. ISBN 9789004398535.\nYounger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 9781628370843.","title":"Sources"}]

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ISBN 9789004398535.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"\"What Do We Know about the Borders and Exchanges between Aram and Phoenicia in the 9th–8th Centuries B.C.E. in Anatolia and Syria?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535","url_text":"9789004398535"}]},{"reference":"Bagg, Ariel M. (2019). \"At the Limits of Historical Geography: Reconstructing Aramaean Territories in the West According to the Neo-Assyrian Written Sources\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 1–25. 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Die Welt des Orients. 36: 72–82. JSTOR 25684050.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684050","url_text":"\"Assyrios, Syrios, Syros und Leukosyros\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684050","url_text":"25684050"}]},{"reference":"Rollinger, Robert (2006b). \"The Terms Assyria and Syria Again\" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1086/511103. S2CID 162760021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rollinger","url_text":"Rollinger, Robert"},{"url":"http://www.aina.org/articles/ttaasa.pdf","url_text":"\"The Terms Assyria and Syria Again\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103","url_text":"10.1086/511103"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021","url_text":"162760021"}]},{"reference":"Sader, Hélène (2000). \"The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes\". Essays on Syria in the Iron Age. Louvain: Peeters Press. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9789042908789.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3hMLAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"\"The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908789","url_text":"9789042908789"}]},{"reference":"Sader, Hélène (2010). \"The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture\". The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273–300. ISBN 978-9004177291.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1SXbIFYu-ZAC","url_text":"\"The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004177291","url_text":"978-9004177291"}]},{"reference":"Sader, Hélène (2014). \"History\". The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Leiden: Brill. pp. 11–36. ISBN 9789004229433.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433","url_text":"9789004229433"}]},{"reference":"Sader, Hélène (2016). \"The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria\". State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 61–76. ISBN 9783447105651.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tUtmjwEACAAJ","url_text":"\"The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447105651","url_text":"9783447105651"}]},{"reference":"Simon, Zsolt (2019). \"Aramaean Borders: the Hieroglyphic Luwian Evidence\". Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 125–148. ISBN 9789004398535.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1imVDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"\"Aramaean Borders: the Hieroglyphic Luwian Evidence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535","url_text":"9789004398535"}]},{"reference":"Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 9781628370843.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ","url_text":"A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628370843","url_text":"9781628370843"}]},{"reference":"Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_W._Hallo","url_text":"Hallo, W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson","url_text":"Simpson, W."}]},{"reference":"\"Rulers of Mesopotamia\". cdli.ox.ac.uk. 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ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Roux","url_text":"Roux, Georges"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534","url_text":"Ancient Iraq"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7","url_text":"978-0-14-193825-7"}]},{"reference":"Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merrill_Unger","url_text":"Unger, Merrill F."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5","url_text":"Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4","url_text":"978-1-62564-606-4"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anbernic_RG552

Anbernic RG552

["1 Specifications","2 Reception","3 References"]

Handheld game console Anbernic RG552Photo of the Anbernic RG552 HandheldManufacturerAnbernicTypeHandheld game consoleGenerationNinthRelease date2022Operating systemLinux, AndroidCPURockchip RK3399 @ 1.8GHzMemory4GBRemovable storageSD card The Anbernic RG552 is a dual-boot Linux and Android-based handheld game console created in China by Anbernic. A retrogaming emulation console, it is the successor to the RG351, and is a larger console in general, about the size of a Nintendo Switch Lite. It has more powerful hardware and increased screen size in a 5:3 aspect ratio. Critics praised the system for its build quality, but criticized its price to performance ratio, saying that it would likely be eclipsed by other systems with increased emulation capabilities such as the Ayn Odin and Retroid Pocket 2+. Specifications The system measures 20 by 8.5 by 2 centimetres (7.87 in × 3.35 in × 0.79 in) and weighs about 350 grams (0.77 lb). It has a 5.36-inch HD touchscreen with a resolution of 1920x1152, giving it a 5:3 aspect ratio. It is the first portable Anbernic console to have an active heat sink and fan. It can boot into the Linux-based Batocera interface or Android, which also has access to the Google Play store to download games. It is also capable of Stadia streaming. The system has about 4 hours of battery life. Reception Gerald Lynch of TechRadar rated the system 4/5 stars, praising it for its performance boost over its predecessor. He called it "a near-complete gateway to all sorts of gaming experiences", and stated that its build quality rivaled Nintendo products. However, he criticized the system for bundling paid emulators without licenses and called its lack of Bluetooth "frustrating". Damian McFerran of Nintendo Life praised its screen as "superb" but called the battery life low. He also criticized the lack of 5 GHz Wi-Fi, which prevented the smoothest experience while streaming. Wesley Copeland of Heavy called it a "premium product" with the specifications "more than enough to impress", commenting that Android was "by far the better operating system choice" on the console, saying that Linux needed "some meaty patches". References ^ a b c d Lynch, Gerald (2022-01-28). "Anbernic RG552 review". TechRadar. Retrieved 2022-05-16. ^ a b McFerran, Damian (2022-03-04). "Hardware: Anbernic RG552 - A Big-Screen Upgrade To The Popular RG351". Nintendo Life. Retrieved 2022-05-16. ^ Copeland, Wesley (2022-01-12). "RG552: Should You Buy Anbernic's New Handheld?". Heavy. Retrieved 2022-05-16. vteHandheld game consolesAnbernic RG351 RG552 Bandai Digi Casse Design Master Senshi WonderSwan Entex Select-A-Game Adventure Vision Epoch Epoch Game Pocket Computer Barcode Battler GamePad Digital GPD XD GPD Win GPD Win 2 GPD Win Max GPD Win 3 Game Park/Holdings GP32 GP2X GP2X Wiz Caanoo XGP LeapFrog Didj Leapster Leapster Explorer Nintendo Game & Watch Game Boy Game Boy Color Game Boy Advance SP Micro Pokémon Pikachu Pokémon Mini Nintendo DS Lite DSi Nintendo 3DS 2DS New 3DS Switch Sega Game Gear Nomad SNK Neo Geo Pocket Neo Geo Pocket Color Neo Geo X Sony PlayStation Portable PlayStation Vita Tiger R-Zone Game.com Other handheld consoles1970s Microvision 1980s Children's Discovery System Palmtex Portable Videogame System / Super Micro Romtec Colorvision Atari Lynx 1990s TurboExpress Game Master Gamate Watara Supervision Mega Duck 2000s Tapwave Zodiac GameKing N-Gage Gizmondo Dingoo 2010s Pandora Arduboy JXD devices Nvidia Shield Portable GCW Zero Game Gadget 2020s Analogue Pocket Ayn Odin Evercade Playdate Retroid Pocket 2 Thumby Steam Deck Early units List

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulation

Formulation

["1 Abstract applications","2 Material applications","3 Pharmacy","4 Other examples of product formulations","5 Components","6 See also","7 References"]

Putting together of components For other uses, see formulation (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Formulation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Formulation is a term used in various senses in various applications, both the material and the abstract or formal. Its fundamental meaning is the putting together of components in appropriate relationships or structures, according to a formula. Etymologically formula is the diminutive of the Latin forma, meaning shape. In that sense a formulation is created according to the standard for the product. Abstract applications Disciplines in which one might use the word formulation in the abstract sense include logic, mathematics, linguistics, legal theory, and computer science. For details, see the related articles. Material applications In more material senses the concept of formulation appears in the physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and biology. It also is ubiquitous in industry, engineering and medicine, especially pharmaceutics. Pharmacy Main article: Pharmaceutical formulation In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a "formula"). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly. Other examples of product formulations Formulations are commercially produced for drugs, cosmetics, coatings, dyes, alloys, cleaning agents, foods, lubricants, fuels, fertilisers, pesticides and many others. Components Components (also called ingredients), when mixed according to a formula, create a formulation. Some components impart specific properties to the formulation when it is put into use. For example, certain components (polymers) are used in paint formulations to achieve deforming or levelling properties. Some components of a formulation may only be active in particular applications. A formulation may be created for any of the following purposes: to achieve effects that cannot be obtained from its components when these are used singly to achieve a higher degree of effectiveness to improve handling properties and often safety for the user See also Ingredient Pesticide formulation Galenic formulation References ^ "formulation". Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Retrieved 2023-01-02. ^ Paints, Coatings and Inks Formulation Archived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Machine Daily updated library of Articles and Editorials; Additives, Resins & Pigments Database; Technical Solutions to innovate with Paints, Coatings, and Inks

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Etymologically formula is the diminutive of the Latin forma, meaning shape. In that sense a formulation is created according to the standard for the product.[1]","title":"Formulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"legal theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"}],"text":"Disciplines in which one might use the word formulation in the abstract sense include logic, mathematics, linguistics, legal theory, and computer science. For details, see the related articles.","title":"Abstract applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physical sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Science"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_technology"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"pharmaceutics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_formulation"}],"text":"In more material senses the concept of formulation appears in the physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and biology. It also is ubiquitous in industry, engineering and medicine, especially pharmaceutics.","title":"Material applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pharmacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy"},{"link_name":"mixture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure"},{"link_name":"capsule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_(pharmacy)"},{"link_name":"emulsion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion"},{"link_name":"supersaturation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersaturation"}],"text":"In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a \"formula\"). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.","title":"Pharmacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug"},{"link_name":"cosmetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetics"},{"link_name":"coatings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating"},{"link_name":"dyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye"},{"link_name":"alloys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy"},{"link_name":"cleaning agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaning_agent"},{"link_name":"foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food"},{"link_name":"lubricants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricant"},{"link_name":"fuels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel"},{"link_name":"fertilisers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertiliser"},{"link_name":"pesticides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_formulation"}],"text":"Formulations are commercially produced for drugs, cosmetics, coatings, dyes, alloys, cleaning agents, foods, lubricants, fuels, fertilisers, pesticides and many others.","title":"Other examples of product formulations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"specific properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_properties"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Components (also called ingredients), when mixed according to a formula, create a formulation.Some components impart specific properties to the formulation when it is put into use. For example, certain components (polymers) are used in paint formulations to achieve deforming or levelling properties.[2] Some components of a formulation may only be active in particular applications.A formulation may be created for any of the following purposes:to achieve effects that cannot be obtained from its components when these are used singly\nto achieve a higher degree of effectiveness\nto improve handling properties and often safety for the user","title":"Components"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyly

Monophyly

["1 Etymology","2 Definitions","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Property of a group of including all taxa descendant from a common ancestral species See also: Crown group A phylogenetic tree: both blue and red groups are monophyletic. The green group is paraphyletic: it is missing a monophyletic subgroup – the blue group – that shares a common ancestor with itself (that being the vertical stem at the root of the green group). In this form, monophyletic means "no sideways stems leaving the group". A cladogram of the primates, showing a monophyletic taxon: the simians (in yellow); a paraphyletic taxon: the prosimians (in cyan, including the red patch); and a polyphyletic group: the night-active primates, i.e., the lorises and the tarsiers (in red). A cladogram of the vertebrates showing phylogenetic groups. A monophyletic taxon (in yellow): the group of "reptiles and birds", contains its most recent common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. A paraphyletic taxon (in cyan): the group of reptiles, contains its most recent common ancestor, but does not contain all the descendants (namely Aves) of that ancestor. A polyphyletic "group" (in red): the group of all warm-blooded amniotes (Aves and Mammalia), does not contain the most recent common ancestor of all its members; this group is not seen as a taxonomic unit and is not considered a taxon by modern systematists. In biological cladistics for the classification of organisms, monophyly is the condition of a taxonomic grouping being a clade – that is, a grouping of taxa which meets these criteria: the grouping contains its own most recent common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population), i.e. excludes non-descendants of that common ancestor the grouping contains all the descendants of that common ancestor, without exception Monophyly is contrasted with paraphyly and polyphyly as shown in the second diagram. A paraphyletic grouping meets 1. but not 2., thus consisting of the descendants of a common ancestor excepting one or more monophyletic subgroups. A polyphyletic grouping meets neither criterion, and instead serves to characterize convergent relationships of biological features rather than genetic relationships – for example, night-active primates, fruit trees, or aquatic insects. As such, these characteristic features of a polyphyletic grouping are not inherited from a common ancestor, but evolved independently. Monophyletic groups are typically characterised by shared derived characteristics (synapomorphies), which distinguish organisms in the clade from other organisms. An equivalent term is holophyly. The word "mono-phyly" means "one-tribe" in Greek. These definitions have taken some time to be accepted. When the cladistics school of thought became mainstream in the 1960s, several alternative definitions were in use. Indeed, taxonomists sometimes used terms without defining them, leading to confusion in the early literature, a confusion which persists. The first diagram shows a phylogenetic tree with two monophyletic groups. The several groups and subgroups are particularly situated as branches of the tree to indicate ordered lineal relationships between all the organisms shown. Further, any group may (or may not) be considered a taxon by modern systematics, depending upon the selection of its members in relation to their common ancestor(s); see second and third diagrams. Etymology The term monophyly, or monophyletic, derives from the two Ancient Greek words μόνος (mónos), meaning "alone, only, unique", and φῦλον (phûlon), meaning "genus, species", and refers to the fact that a monophyletic group includes organisms (e.g., genera, species) consisting of all the descendants of a unique common ancestor. Conversely, the term polyphyly, or polyphyletic, builds on the ancient Greek prefix πολύς (polús), meaning "many, a lot of", and refers to the fact that a polyphyletic group includes organisms arising from multiple ancestral sources. By comparison, the term paraphyly, or paraphyletic, uses the ancient Greek prefix παρά (pará), meaning "beside, near", and refers to the situation in which one or several monophyletic subgroups are left apart from all other descendants of a unique common ancestor. That is, a paraphyletic group is nearly monophyletic, hence the prefix pará. Definitions On the broadest scale, definitions fall into two groups. Willi Hennig (1966:148) defined monophyly as groups based on synapomorphy (in contrast to paraphyletic groups, based on symplesiomorphy, and polyphyletic groups, based on convergence). Some authors have sought to define monophyly to include paraphyly as any two or more groups sharing a common ancestor. However, this broader definition encompasses both monophyletic and paraphyletic groups as defined above. Therefore, most scientists today restrict the term "monophyletic" to refer to groups consisting of all the descendants of one (hypothetical) common ancestor. However, when considering taxonomic groups such as genera and species, the most appropriate nature of their common ancestor is rather a population. Assuming that it would be one individual or mating pair is unrealistic for sexually reproducing species, which are by definition interbreeding populations. Monophyly (or holophyly) and associated terms are restricted to discussions of taxa, and are not necessarily accurate when used to describe what Hennig called tokogenetic relationships – now referred to as genealogies. Some argue that using a broader definition, such as a species and all its descendants, does not really work to define a genus. The loose definition also fails to recognize the relations of all organisms. According to D. M. Stamos, a satisfactory cladistic definition of a species or genus is impossible because many species (and even genera) may form by "budding" from an existing species, leaving the parent species paraphyletic; or the species or genera may be the result of hybrid speciation. The concepts of monophyly, paraphyly, and polyphyly have been used in deducing key genes for barcoding of diverse group of species. See also Clade Crown group Glossary of scientific naming Monotypic taxon Paraphyly Polyphyly References ^ Allaby, Michael (2015). A Dictionary of Ecology (5 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191793158. ^ a b Hennig, Willi (1999) . Phylogenetic Systematics. Translated by Davis, D.; Zangerl, R. (Illinois Reissue ed.). Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. pp. 72–77. ISBN 978-0-252-06814-0. ^ a b Aubert, D. 2015. A formal analysis of phylogenetic terminology: Towards a reconsideration of the current paradigm in systematics. Phytoneuron 2015-66:1–54. ^ a b c Bailly, Anatole (1 January 1981). Abrégé du dictionnaire grec français. Paris: Hachette. ISBN 978-2010035289. OCLC 461974285. ^ a b c Bailly, Anatole. "Greek-french dictionary online". www.tabularium.be. Retrieved 7 March 2018. ^ Colless, Donald H. (March 1972). "Monophyly". Systematic Zoology. 21 (1): 126–128. doi:10.2307/2412266. JSTOR 2412266. ^ Envall, Mats (2008). "On the difference between mono-, holo-, and paraphyletic groups: a consistent distinction of process and pattern". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 94: 217–220. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.00984.x. ^ Ashlock, Peter D. (March 1971). "Monophyly and Associated Terms". Systematic Zoology. 20 (1): 63–69. doi:10.2307/2412223. JSTOR 2412223. ^ a b Simpson, George (1961). Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-02427-3. ^ Carr, Steven M. "Monophyletic, Polyphyletic, & Paraphyletc Taxa". www.mun.ca. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ Stamos, D.N. (2003). The species problem : biological species, ontology, and the metaphysics of biology. Lanham, Md. : Lexington Books. pp. 261–268. ISBN 978-0739105030. ^ Parhi J., Tripathy P.S., Priyadarshi, H., Mandal S.C., Pandey P.K. (2019). "Diagnosis of mitogenome for robust phylogeny: A case of Cypriniformes fish group". Gene. 713: 143967. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2019.143967. PMID 31279710. S2CID 195828782.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) External links Abbey, Darren (1994–2006). "Graphical explanation of basic phylogenetic terms". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 15 January 2010. Carr, Steven M. (2002). "Concepts of monophyly, polyphyly & paraphyly". Memorial University. Retrieved 15 January 2010. Hyvönen, Jaako (2005). "Monophyly, consensus, compromise" (PDF). University of Helsinki. Retrieved 15 January 2010. "Phylogenetic Trees and Classification". Digital Atlas of Ancient Life. Paleontological Research Institution. vtePhylogeneticsRelevant fields Computational phylogenetics Molecular phylogenetics Cladistics Taxonomy Evolutionary taxonomy Systematics Evolutionary biology portalBasic concepts Phylogenesis Cladogenesis Phylogenetic tree Cladogram Phylogenetic network Long branch attraction Clade vs Grade Lineage Ghost lineage Ghost population Inference methods Maximum parsimony Phylogenetic reconciliation Probabilistic methods Maximum likelihood Bayesian inference Distance-matrix methods Neighbor-joining UPGMA Least squares Three-taxon analysis Current topics PhyloCode DNA barcoding Molecular phylogenetics Phylogenetic comparative methods Phylogenetic niche conservatism Phylogenetic signal Phylogenetics software Phylogenomics Phylogeography Group traits Primitive Plesiomorphy Symplesiomorphy Derived Apomorphy Synapomorphy Autapomorphy Group types Monophyly Paraphyly Polyphyly Nomenclature Phylogenetic nomenclature Crown group Sister group Basal Supertree Category Commons

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The green group is paraphyletic: it is missing a monophyletic subgroup – the blue group – that shares a common ancestor with itself (that being the vertical stem at the root of the green group). In this form, monophyletic means \"no sideways stems leaving the group\".A cladogram of the primates, showing a monophyletic taxon: the simians (in yellow); a paraphyletic taxon: the prosimians (in cyan, including the red patch); and a polyphyletic group: the night-active primates, i.e., the lorises and the tarsiers (in red).A cladogram of the vertebrates showing phylogenetic groups. A monophyletic taxon (in yellow): the group of \"reptiles and birds\", contains its most recent common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. A paraphyletic taxon (in cyan): the group of reptiles, contains its most recent common ancestor, but does not contain all the descendants (namely Aves) of that ancestor. A polyphyletic \"group\" (in red): the group of all warm-blooded amniotes (Aves and Mammalia), does not contain the most recent common ancestor of all its members; this group is not seen as a taxonomic unit and is not considered a taxon by modern systematists.In biological cladistics for the classification of organisms, monophyly is the condition of a taxonomic grouping being a clade – that is, a grouping of taxa which meets these criteria:the grouping contains its own most recent common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population), i.e. excludes non-descendants of that common ancestor\nthe grouping contains all the descendants of that common ancestor, without exceptionMonophyly is contrasted with paraphyly and polyphyly as shown in the second diagram. A paraphyletic grouping meets 1. but not 2., thus consisting of the descendants of a common ancestor excepting one or more monophyletic subgroups. A polyphyletic grouping meets neither criterion, and instead serves to characterize convergent relationships of biological features rather than genetic relationships – for example, night-active primates, fruit trees, or aquatic insects. As such, these characteristic features of a polyphyletic grouping are not inherited from a common ancestor, but evolved independently.Monophyletic groups are typically characterised by shared derived characteristics (synapomorphies), which distinguish organisms in the clade from other organisms. An equivalent term is holophyly.[1]The word \"mono-phyly\" means \"one-tribe\" in Greek.These definitions have taken some time to be accepted. When the cladistics school of thought became mainstream in the 1960s, several alternative definitions were in use. Indeed, taxonomists sometimes used terms without defining them, leading to confusion in the early literature,[2] a confusion which persists.[3]The first diagram shows a phylogenetic tree with two monophyletic groups. The several groups and subgroups are particularly situated as branches of the tree to indicate ordered lineal relationships between all the organisms shown. Further, any group may (or may not) be considered a taxon by modern systematics, depending upon the selection of its members in relation to their common ancestor(s); see second and third diagrams.","title":"Monophyly"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"μόνος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"φῦλον","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%E1%BF%A6%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bailly1981-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tabularium-5"},{"link_name":"polyphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyly"},{"link_name":"πολύς","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%8D%CF%82#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bailly1981-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tabularium-5"},{"link_name":"paraphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly"},{"link_name":"παρά","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bailly1981-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tabularium-5"}],"text":"The term monophyly, or monophyletic, derives from the two Ancient Greek words μόνος (mónos), meaning \"alone, only, unique\", and φῦλον (phûlon), meaning \"genus, species\",[4][5] and refers to the fact that a monophyletic group includes organisms (e.g., genera, species) consisting of all the descendants of a unique common ancestor.Conversely, the term polyphyly, or polyphyletic, builds on the ancient Greek prefix πολύς (polús), meaning \"many, a lot of\",[4][5] and refers to the fact that a polyphyletic group includes organisms arising from multiple ancestral sources.By comparison, the term paraphyly, or paraphyletic, uses the ancient Greek prefix παρά (pará), meaning \"beside, near\",[4][5] and refers to the situation in which one or several monophyletic subgroups are left apart from all other descendants of a unique common ancestor. That is, a paraphyletic group is nearly monophyletic, hence the prefix pará.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Willi Hennig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willi_Hennig"},{"link_name":"synapomorphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorphy"},{"link_name":"symplesiomorphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplesiomorphy"},{"link_name":"convergence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aub2015-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colless1972-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Envall2007-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ashlock1971-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hennig1966-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Simpson1961-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Simpson1961-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"hybrid speciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_speciation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"paraphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly"},{"link_name":"polyphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyly"},{"link_name":"barcoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_barcoding"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"On the broadest scale, definitions fall into two groups.Willi Hennig (1966:148) defined monophyly as groups based on synapomorphy (in contrast to paraphyletic groups, based on symplesiomorphy, and polyphyletic groups, based on convergence). Some authors have sought to define monophyly to include paraphyly as any two or more groups sharing a common ancestor.[3][6][7][8] However, this broader definition encompasses both monophyletic and paraphyletic groups as defined above. Therefore, most scientists today restrict the term \"monophyletic\" to refer to groups consisting of all the descendants of one (hypothetical) common ancestor.[2] However, when considering taxonomic groups such as genera and species, the most appropriate nature of their common ancestor is rather a population. Assuming that it would be one individual or mating pair is unrealistic for sexually reproducing species, which are by definition interbreeding populations.[9]\nMonophyly (or holophyly) and associated terms are restricted to discussions of taxa, and are not necessarily accurate when used to describe what Hennig called tokogenetic relationships – now referred to as genealogies. Some argue that using a broader definition, such as a species and all its descendants, does not really work to define a genus.[9] The loose definition also fails to recognize the relations of all organisms.[10] According to D. M. Stamos, a satisfactory cladistic definition of a species or genus is impossible because many species (and even genera) may form by \"budding\" from an existing species, leaving the parent species paraphyletic; or the species or genera may be the result of hybrid speciation.[11]The concepts of monophyly, paraphyly, and polyphyly have been used in deducing key genes for barcoding of diverse group of species.[12]","title":"Definitions"}]

[{"image_text":"A phylogenetic tree: both blue and red groups are monophyletic. The green group is paraphyletic: it is missing a monophyletic subgroup – the blue group – that shares a common ancestor with itself (that being the vertical stem at the root of the green group). In this form, monophyletic means \"no sideways stems leaving the group\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clade-grade_II.svg/300px-Clade-grade_II.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A cladogram of the primates, showing a monophyletic taxon: the simians (in yellow); a paraphyletic taxon: the prosimians (in cyan, including the red patch); and a polyphyletic group: the night-active primates, i.e., the lorises and the tarsiers (in red).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/300px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A cladogram of the vertebrates showing phylogenetic groups. A monophyletic taxon (in yellow): the group of \"reptiles and birds\", contains its most recent common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. A paraphyletic taxon (in cyan): the group of reptiles, contains its most recent common ancestor, but does not contain all the descendants (namely Aves) of that ancestor. A polyphyletic \"group\" (in red): the group of all warm-blooded amniotes (Aves and Mammalia), does not contain the most recent common ancestor of all its members; this group is not seen as a taxonomic unit and is not considered a taxon by modern systematists.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Phylogenetic-Groups.svg/300px-Phylogenetic-Groups.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Clade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade"},{"title":"Crown group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_group"},{"title":"Glossary of scientific naming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming"},{"title":"Monotypic taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypic_taxon"},{"title":"Paraphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly"},{"title":"Polyphyly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyly"}]

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JSTOR 2412266.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412266","url_text":"10.2307/2412266"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412266","url_text":"2412266"}]},{"reference":"Envall, Mats (2008). \"On the difference between mono-, holo-, and paraphyletic groups: a consistent distinction of process and pattern\". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 94: 217–220. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.00984.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2008.00984.x","url_text":"\"On the difference between mono-, holo-, and paraphyletic groups: a consistent distinction of process and pattern\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2008.00984.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.00984.x"}]},{"reference":"Ashlock, Peter D. (March 1971). \"Monophyly and Associated Terms\". Systematic Zoology. 20 (1): 63–69. doi:10.2307/2412223. JSTOR 2412223.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412223","url_text":"10.2307/2412223"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412223","url_text":"2412223"}]},{"reference":"Simpson, George (1961). Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-02427-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/principlesofanim0000simp","url_text":"Principles of Animal Taxonomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-02427-3","url_text":"978-0-231-02427-3"}]},{"reference":"Carr, Steven M. \"Monophyletic, Polyphyletic, & Paraphyletc Taxa\". www.mun.ca. Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Taxon_types.htm","url_text":"\"Monophyletic, Polyphyletic, & Paraphyletc Taxa\""}]},{"reference":"Stamos, D.N. (2003). The species problem : biological species, ontology, and the metaphysics of biology. Lanham, Md. [u.a.]: Lexington Books. pp. 261–268. ISBN 978-0739105030.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jPAjv5FsKMYC&q=defining+species+cladistically%27&pg=PA260","url_text":"The species problem : biological species, ontology, and the metaphysics of biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739105030","url_text":"978-0739105030"}]},{"reference":"Parhi J., Tripathy P.S., Priyadarshi, H., Mandal S.C., Pandey P.K. (2019). \"Diagnosis of mitogenome for robust phylogeny: A case of Cypriniformes fish group\". Gene. 713: 143967. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2019.143967. PMID 31279710. S2CID 195828782.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gene.2019.143967","url_text":"10.1016/j.gene.2019.143967"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31279710","url_text":"31279710"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195828782","url_text":"195828782"}]},{"reference":"Abbey, Darren (1994–2006). \"Graphical explanation of basic phylogenetic terms\". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 15 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss1/phyly.html","url_text":"\"Graphical explanation of basic phylogenetic terms\""}]},{"reference":"Carr, Steven M. (2002). \"Concepts of monophyly, polyphyly & paraphyly\". Memorial University. Retrieved 15 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Taxon_types.htm","url_text":"\"Concepts of monophyly, polyphyly & paraphyly\""}]},{"reference":"Hyvönen, Jaako (2005). \"Monophyly, consensus, compromise\" (PDF). University of Helsinki. Retrieved 15 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.helsinki.fi/~jhyvonen/ec05/05_11.11.pdf","url_text":"\"Monophyly, consensus, compromise\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phylogenetic Trees and Classification\". Digital Atlas of Ancient Life. Paleontological Research Institution.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/systematics/phylogenetics/trees-classification/","url_text":"\"Phylogenetic Trees and Classification\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Miles

Robert Miles

["1 Early life","2 Music career","2.1 1994–1997: Breakthrough and Dreamland","2.2 1997–1998: 23am","2.3 1998–2002: Departure from label and Organik","2.4 2004–2005: Miles_Gurtu","2.5 2011–2012: Thirteen","3 Death","4 Discography","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]

Swiss-Italian record producer (1969–2017) For other people named Robert Miles, see Robert Miles (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Robert Miles" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Robert MilesMiles in 2014Background informationBirth nameRoberto ConcinaAlso known asRoberto MilaniBorn(1969-11-03)3 November 1969Fleurier, Neuchâtel, SwitzerlandOriginFagagna, Friuli, ItalyDied9 May 2017(2017-05-09) (aged 47)Ibiza, SpainGenresTranceOccupation(s)Record producercomposermusicianDJYears active1994–2017LabelsSaltDeconstructionBMGAristaShaktiNaradaVirginEMIMusical artist Roberto Concina (Italian pronunciation: ; 3 November 1969 – 9 May 2017), known professionally as Robert Miles, was an Italian record producer, composer, musician and DJ. His 1995 composition "Children" sold more than 5 million copies and topped the charts worldwide. Early life Robert Miles was born in Fleurier, Switzerland, to Italian parents. Miles became proficient at playing the piano during his youth in Friuli, Italy, in the small town of Fagagna, where his family moved when he was young, and had been in the music scene since 1984. He worked as a DJ in some Italian clubs and private radio networks, and in 1990 he used his savings to establish his own recording studio and a pirate radio station. Originally performing under the name Robert Milani, he changed it to Robert Miles in anticipation "of the musical journey ahead of him". Music career 1994–1997: Breakthrough and Dreamland External videos "Robert Miles - 'Children' (Dream Version)" on YouTube In 1994, Miles wrote a trance and chill-out piece based on acoustic guitar chords and soft synthesizer effects, "Children", which was later developed into a dream house song featuring a piano theme on top. The single picked up sales slowly; however, within two weeks of its official release in 1995, it had sold more than 350,000 copies all over Europe and topped the charts in many countries. The single received an unprecedented "Essential Tune of The Week" three weeks in a row on Pete Tong's show, causing a furious bidding war. It was then signed to Deconstruction Records in the UK by Giles Goodman of Dynamik Music (who represented Platipus Records the initial UK licensee). After occupying the Euro Top 100 chart number 1 spot for thirteen consecutive weeks (see European Hot 100 Singles) by 1997, "Children" had sold more than five million copies worldwide. It earned Miles platinum records in many countries, a Brit Award for International Breakthrough Act 1997 (Miles was the only Italian artist to have received the award until its final award for that category in 2012), a World Music Award as World's Best Selling Male Newcomer, and various other awards. Miles' next single was "Fable". Part of this song was used in the theatrical trailer for the U.S. movie Ever After (see Ever After § Trailer) starring Drew Barrymore and Dougray Scott. His debut album Dreamland was released on 7 June 1996 in Europe, and released in the United States about a month later. The album included a cover of "One and One" featuring British singer Maria Nayler. This cover became very popular (it reached number 1 in the Euro Top 100 Singles Chart during the Christmas period and remained in the top spot for six consecutive weeks) and was later released as a single in Europe and the U.S. 1997–1998: 23am In November 1997, Miles released another track, "Freedom", which was one of the key tracks on his second album 23am, featuring vocals provided by Kathy Sledge of Sister Sledge. Containing a different feel from the previously more club-oriented Dreamland, 23am incorporated more lyrics-driven songs than its predecessor while maintaining Miles' trademark piano sound from the first album. 1998–2002: Departure from label and Organik After splitting from Deconstruction, BMG and his former management in London, he set up his own independent record label Salt Records (stylised as S:alt Records, with S:alt being short for suitably:alternative) in 2001 and released his third album, Organik, featuring the new single "Paths" with vocals provided by Nina Miranda of Smoke City. Guests on the album included Trilok Gurtu, Bill Laswell and Nitin Sawhney. Music from Organik was used on various movie soundtracks such as The Bourne Identity, Derrida, and City of Ghosts. It was licensed to Narada Productions' Shakti Records label in the USA. In 2002, an album containing mainly remixes of songs found on Organik was released. The album, appropriately entitled Organik Remixes, contained remixes by the winners of the remixing contest held on Robert Miles's Web site, as well as remixes from well-known artists such as Future Sound of London, Riton, and Alexkid among others. The album also had one new track, "Bhairav", which featured the vocals of Amelia Cuni. 2004–2005: Miles_Gurtu In 2004, Miles released Miles Gurtu, his fourth album, which was a collaboration with percussionist Trilok Gurtu and included jazz and electronica elements. Also guesting on the album were Nitin Sawhney, Jon Thorne, Mike Patto and Paul Falloon. 2011–2012: Thirteen Miles' fifth album, entitled Thirteen, was released worldwide on Salt Records in February 2011. For this album, Miles produced a blend of alternative and progressive rock with ambient and electronic soundscapes. In 2012 Miles finished working on the soundtrack for the movie documentary The Turn of THIS Century, directed by Peter Beyak and featuring the photography of Life Magazine. He founded a new FM and online alternative radio station, Open Lab, broadcasting from Ibiza, a project bringing together culture, arts, media, technology and innovation. Death Miles died from metastatic cancer in Ibiza, Spain, on 9 May 2017 at the age of 47. Miles’ OpenLab station was taken off-air shortly afterwards, pending discussions on the future of the station. After receiving many messages from people expressing dismay at the station's suspension, it was announced that the station would be returning soon in 2019, starting with a live radio stream in January 2019 and followed by a reboot to radio on 106.4 FM in Ibiza in April 2019. Discography Main article: Robert Miles discography Studio albums Dreamland (1996) 23am (1997) Organik (2001) Miles_Gurtu (with Trilok Gurtu) (2004) Thirteen (2011) See also List of ambient music artists List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart List of number-one dance hits (United States) References ^ "Robert Miles Biography". IMO Records. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2011. ^ Unterberger, Andrew (10 May 2017). "Robert Miles' 'Children' Was a Time-Blurring, Brain-Sticking Classic". billboard.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2017. ^ a b "Robert Miles: DJ known for 1990s hit Children dies aged 47". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2017. ^ Candy, Darren (23 March 2013). "Robert Miles Speaks To Addicted To Ibiza". Addicted to ibiza. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2020. ^ "R.I.P. Robert Miles (1969-2017)". STACK | JB Hi-Fi. 10 May 2017. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2020. ^ "Robert Miles obituary: Trance DJ behind hit chillout music track 'Children'". The Independent. 12 May 2017. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2024. ^ a b c d e f g Colin Larkin, ed. (1998). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Dance Music (First ed.). Virgin Books. p. 223. ISBN 0-7535-0252-6. ^ "IFPI Awards 1997". ifpi.org. Archived from the original on 14 August 2010. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ "BPI Awards 1997". Bpi.co.uk. 17 January 2010. Archived from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ "The BRITs 1997". brits.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 November 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ "MTV Top Euro Chart 1996". ki.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de. Archived from the original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ "Salt Records Discography". Salt Records. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ "Salt Records Discography". Salt Records. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ a b "RA ⟋ Electronic music online". Resident Advisor. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022. ^ Organik Remixes - Robert Miles | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic, archived from the original on 19 January 2022, retrieved 19 January 2022 ^ "Salt Records Discography". Salt Records. Archived from the original on 15 May 2012. ^ "Salt Records Discography". Salt Records. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2018. ^ Th1Rt3En - Robert Miles | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic, archived from the original on 19 January 2022, retrieved 19 January 2022 ^ "Open Lab". openlab.fm. Archived from the original on 31 December 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2017. ^ "Fallece el Dj Robert Miles, creador del tema 'Children'". 24 Horas (in Spanish). 9 May 2017. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. ^ "Open Lab". openlab.fm. Archived from the original on 31 December 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2018. Further reading "Robert Miles". Future Music. No. 47. Future Publishing. September 1996. p. 62. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031. External links Robert Miles discography at Discogs Robert Miles at AllMusic vteRobert Miles Discography Studio albums Dreamland (1996) 23am (1997) Organik (2001) Miles Gurtu (2004) Thirteen (2011) Compilation albums Organik Remixes (2002) Singles "Children" "Fable" "One and One" "Freedom" Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain 2 France BnF data Germany Italy United States Czech Republic Artists MusicBrainz 2 3 Other SNAC IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Miles (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Miles_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[roˈbɛrto konˈtʃiːna]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_(composition)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"For other people named Robert Miles, see Robert Miles (disambiguation).Musical artistRoberto Concina (Italian pronunciation: [roˈbɛrto konˈtʃiːna]; 3 November 1969 – 9 May 2017), known professionally as Robert Miles, was an Italian record producer, composer, musician and DJ.[1] His 1995 composition \"Children\" sold more than 5 million copies and topped the charts worldwide.[2]","title":"Robert Miles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fleurier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleurier"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-3"},{"link_name":"Friuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friuli"},{"link_name":"Fagagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagagna"},{"link_name":"clubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightclub"},{"link_name":"pirate radio station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_radio"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Robert Miles was born in Fleurier, Switzerland, to Italian parents.[3]Miles became proficient at playing the piano during his youth in Friuli, Italy, in the small town of Fagagna, where his family moved when he was young, and had been in the music scene since 1984. He worked as a DJ in some Italian clubs and private radio networks, and in 1990 he used his savings to establish his own recording studio and a pirate radio station.[4][5] Originally performing under the name Robert Milani, he changed it to Robert Miles in anticipation \"of the musical journey ahead of him\".[6]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trance_music"},{"link_name":"chill-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chill-out_music"},{"link_name":"Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_(composition)"},{"link_name":"dream house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_trance"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_chart"},{"link_name":"Pete Tong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Tong"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"European Hot 100 Singles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Hot_100_Singles"},{"link_name":"platinum records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Brit Award for International Breakthrough Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Award_for_International_Breakthrough_Act"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"Fable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable_(Robert_Miles_song)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"Ever After","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_After"},{"link_name":"Ever After § Trailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_After#Trailer"},{"link_name":"Drew Barrymore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Barrymore"},{"link_name":"Dougray Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dougray_Scott"},{"link_name":"Dreamland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamland_(Robert_Miles_album)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"One and One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_and_One_(song)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"1994–1997: Breakthrough and Dreamland","text":"In 1994, Miles wrote a trance and chill-out piece based on acoustic guitar chords and soft synthesizer effects, \"Children\", which was later developed into a dream house song featuring a piano theme on top.[7] The single picked up sales slowly; however, within two weeks of its official release in 1995, it had sold more than 350,000 copies all over Europe and topped the charts in many countries. The single received an unprecedented \"Essential Tune of The Week\" three weeks in a row on Pete Tong's show, causing a furious bidding war. It was then signed to Deconstruction Records in the UK by Giles Goodman of Dynamik Music (who represented Platipus Records the initial UK licensee).[7] After occupying the Euro Top 100 chart number 1 spot for thirteen consecutive weeks (see European Hot 100 Singles) by 1997, \"Children\" had sold more than five million copies worldwide. It earned Miles platinum records[8][9] in many countries, a Brit Award for International Breakthrough Act 1997 (Miles was the only Italian artist to have received the award until its final award for that category in 2012),[10] a World Music Award as World's Best Selling Male Newcomer,[7] and various other awards.Miles' next single was \"Fable\".[7] Part of this song was used in the theatrical trailer for the U.S. movie Ever After (see Ever After § Trailer) starring Drew Barrymore and Dougray Scott. His debut album Dreamland was released on 7 June 1996 in Europe,[7] and released in the United States about a month later. The album included a cover of \"One and One\" featuring British singer Maria Nayler. This cover became very popular (it reached number 1 in the Euro Top 100 Singles Chart during the Christmas period and remained in the top spot for six consecutive weeks)[11] and was later released as a single in Europe and the U.S.","title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_(Robert_Miles_song)"},{"link_name":"23am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23am"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"},{"link_name":"Kathy Sledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathy_Sledge"},{"link_name":"Sister Sledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Sledge"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LarkinDM-7"}],"sub_title":"1997–1998: 23am","text":"In November 1997, Miles released another track, \"Freedom\", which was one of the key tracks on his second album 23am,[7] featuring vocals provided by Kathy Sledge of Sister Sledge. Containing a different feel from the previously more club-oriented Dreamland, 23am incorporated more lyrics-driven songs than its predecessor while maintaining Miles' trademark piano sound from the first album.[7]","title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction_Records"},{"link_name":"BMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertelsmann_Music_Group"},{"link_name":"independent record label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_record_label"},{"link_name":"Salt Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Records"},{"link_name":"Organik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organik"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Nina Miranda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Miranda"},{"link_name":"Smoke City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_City"},{"link_name":"Trilok Gurtu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilok_Gurtu"},{"link_name":"Bill Laswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Laswell"},{"link_name":"Nitin Sawhney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitin_Sawhney"},{"link_name":"movie soundtracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundtrack"},{"link_name":"The Bourne Identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bourne_Identity_(2002_film)"},{"link_name":"Derrida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derrida_(film)"},{"link_name":"City of Ghosts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Ghosts_(2002_film)"},{"link_name":"Narada Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada_Productions"},{"link_name":"remixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remix"},{"link_name":"Organik Remixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organik_Remixes"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Future Sound of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Sound_of_London"},{"link_name":"Riton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riton_(musician)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-14"},{"link_name":"Amelia Cuni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amelia_Cuni&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"1998–2002: Departure from label and Organik","text":"After splitting from Deconstruction, BMG and his former management in London, he set up his own independent record label Salt Records (stylised as S:alt Records, with S:alt being short for suitably:alternative) in 2001 and released his third album, Organik,[12] featuring the new single \"Paths\" with vocals provided by Nina Miranda of Smoke City. Guests on the album included Trilok Gurtu, Bill Laswell and Nitin Sawhney. Music from Organik was used on various movie soundtracks such as The Bourne Identity, Derrida, and City of Ghosts. It was licensed to Narada Productions' Shakti Records label in the USA. In 2002, an album containing mainly remixes of songs found on Organik was released. The album, appropriately entitled Organik Remixes,[13] contained remixes by the winners of the remixing contest held on Robert Miles's Web site, as well as remixes from well-known artists such as Future Sound of London, Riton, and Alexkid among others.[14] The album also had one new track, \"Bhairav\", which featured the vocals of Amelia Cuni.[15]","title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Miles Gurtu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Gurtu"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Trilok Gurtu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilok_Gurtu"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"electronica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica"},{"link_name":"Nitin Sawhney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitin_Sawhney"},{"link_name":"Jon Thorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Thorne"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-14"}],"sub_title":"2004–2005: Miles_Gurtu","text":"In 2004, Miles released Miles Gurtu,[16] his fourth album, which was a collaboration with percussionist Trilok Gurtu and included jazz and electronica elements. Also guesting on the album were Nitin Sawhney, Jon Thorne, Mike Patto and Paul Falloon.[14]","title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thirteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_(Robert_Miles_album)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"progressive rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_rock"},{"link_name":"ambient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_music"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Life Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Magazine"},{"link_name":"Ibiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibiza"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"2011–2012: Thirteen","text":"Miles' fifth album, entitled Thirteen,[17] was released worldwide on Salt Records in February 2011. For this album, Miles produced a blend of alternative and progressive rock with ambient and electronic soundscapes.[18]In 2012 Miles finished working on the soundtrack for the movie documentary The Turn of THIS Century, directed by Peter Beyak and featuring the photography of Life Magazine. He founded a new FM and online alternative radio station, Open Lab, broadcasting from Ibiza, a project bringing together culture, arts, media, technology and innovation.[19]","title":"Music career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metastatic cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastatic_cancer"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-3"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Miles died from metastatic cancer in Ibiza, Spain, on 9 May 2017 at the age of 47.[20][3]Miles’ OpenLab station was taken off-air shortly afterwards, pending discussions on the future of the station. After receiving many messages from people expressing dismay at the station's suspension, it was announced that the station would be returning soon in 2019, starting with a live radio stream in January 2019 and followed by a reboot to radio on 106.4 FM in Ibiza in April 2019.[21]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dreamland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamland_(Robert_Miles_album)"},{"link_name":"23am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23am"},{"link_name":"Organik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organik"},{"link_name":"Miles_Gurtu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Gurtu"},{"link_name":"Trilok Gurtu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilok_Gurtu"},{"link_name":"Thirteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_(Robert_Miles_album)"}],"text":"Studio albumsDreamland (1996)\n23am (1997)\nOrganik (2001)\nMiles_Gurtu (with Trilok Gurtu) (2004)\nThirteen (2011)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Future Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Music"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0967-0378","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0967-0378"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1032779031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032779031"}],"text":"\"Robert Miles\". Future Music. No. 47. Future Publishing. September 1996. p. 62. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of ambient music artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambient_music_artists"},{"title":"List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artists_who_reached_number_one_on_the_US_Dance_chart"},{"title":"List of number-one dance hits (United States)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_number-one_dance_hits_(United_States)"}]

[{"reference":"\"Robert Miles Biography\". IMO Records. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120804090544/http://www.imorecords.co.uk/house-2/house-artists/robert-miles-biography/","url_text":"\"Robert Miles Biography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMO_Records","url_text":"IMO Records"},{"url":"http://www.imorecords.co.uk/house-2/house-artists/robert-miles-biography","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Unterberger, Andrew (10 May 2017). \"Robert Miles' 'Children' Was a Time-Blurring, Brain-Sticking Classic\". billboard.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/dance/7792079/robert-miles-children-classic-hit-remembrance","url_text":"\"Robert Miles' 'Children' Was a Time-Blurring, Brain-Sticking Classic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard.com","url_text":"billboard.com"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170513062848/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/dance/7792079/robert-miles-children-classic-hit-remembrance","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Robert Miles: DJ known for 1990s hit Children dies aged 47\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. 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Robert Miles (1969-2017)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240610150248/https://www.jbhifi.com.au/blogs/stack","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Robert Miles obituary: Trance DJ behind hit chillout music track 'Children'\". The Independent. 12 May 2017. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/robert-miles-trance-dj-chillout-music-track-children-dies-47-a7732011.html","url_text":"\"Robert Miles obituary: Trance DJ behind hit chillout music track 'Children'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170513134458/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/robert-miles-trance-dj-chillout-music-track-children-dies-47-a7732011.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Colin Larkin, ed. (1998). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Dance Music (First ed.). Virgin Books. p. 223. 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Retrieved 28 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://openlab.fm/about/what-is-openlab/openlab-is-an-ethos","url_text":"\"Open Lab\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211231084307/https://openlab.fm/about/what-is-openlab/openlab-is-an-ethos","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Robert Miles\". Future Music. No. 47. Future Publishing. September 1996. p. 62. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Music","url_text":"Future Music"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0967-0378","url_text":"0967-0378"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032779031","url_text":"1032779031"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUI_builder

Graphical user interface builder

["1 List of GUI builders","1.1 C language based","1.2 C# based","1.3 C++ based","1.4 Objective-C / Swift based","1.5 Java based","1.6 HTML/JavaScript based","1.7 Object Pascal based","1.8 Flutter framework based","1.9 Tk framework based","1.10 Visual Basic based","1.11 Other tools","2 List of development environments","2.1 IDEs with GUI builders (RAD IDEs)","3 See also","4 References"]

Software development tool NetBeans GUI builder A graphical user interface builder (or GUI builder), also known as GUI designer or sometimes RAD IDE, is a software development tool that simplifies the creation of GUIs by allowing the designer to arrange graphical control elements (often called widgets) using a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG editor. Without a GUI builder, a GUI must be built by manually specifying each widget's parameters in the source code, with no visual feedback until the program is run. Such tools are usually called the term RAD IDE. User interfaces are commonly programmed using an event-driven architecture, so GUI builders also simplify creating event-driven code. This supporting code connects software widgets with the outgoing and incoming events that trigger the functions providing the application logic. Some graphical user interface builders automatically generate all the source code for a graphical control element. Others, like Interface Builder or Glade Interface Designer, generate serialized object instances that are then loaded by the application. List of GUI builders C language based GTK / Glade Interface Designer Motif XForms (toolkit) fdesign Intrinsics C# based UWP / Windows Presentation Foundation / WinForms Microsoft Visual Studio XAML Editor, XAML based GUI layout Microsoft Expression Blend SharpDevelop Xamarin.Forms / .NET Core Xamarin Studio C++ based UWP / Windows Presentation Foundation / WinForms Microsoft Visual Studio XAML Editor, XAML based GUI layout Microsoft Blend Qt (toolkit) Qt Creator FLTK FLUID JUCE Projucer U++ theIDE wxWidgets wxGlade wxFormBuilder wxCrafter (plugin for CodeLite) Objective-C / Swift based Cocoa (modern) and Carbon (deprecated). Xcode GNUstep (formerly OpenStep) Gorm Java based Android Studio, XML-based GUI layout NetBeans GUI design tool SceneBuilder HTML/JavaScript based Adobe Dreamweaver — Obsolete as of 2022 Apache Cordova / PhoneGap Object Pascal based Delphi / VCL (Visual Component Library) Lazarus / LCL (Lazarus Component Library) Flutter framework based Flutter (software) FlutterFlow, FlutterStudio, Nowa App builder, Tk framework based Tk (framework) ActiveState Komodo (No longer has a GUI builder) Visual Basic based UWP / Windows Presentation Foundation / WinForms Microsoft Visual Studio XAML Editor, XAML based GUI layout Microsoft Expression Blend Other tools Adobe Animate App Inventor for Android AutoIt Axure RP Crank AMETEK Storyboard Creately Embedded Wizard Flint IDE GEM Interface Builder LucidChart OpenWindows Resource construction set Stetic Scaleform Wavemaker List of development environments IDEs with GUI builders (RAD IDEs) 4D ActiveState Komodo (No longer has a GUI builder) Android Studio Anjuta AutoIt3 B4X C++Builder Crank AMETEK Storyboard Clarion Code::Blocks CodeLite dBase Delphi/RAD Studio Embedded Wizard Eclipse Gambas IntelliJ IDEA InForm JDeveloper KDevelop LabWindows/CVI LANSA Lazarus Liberty BASIC Microsoft Visual Studio MonoDevelop MSEide+MSEgui MyEclipse NetBeans OutSystems PascalABC.NET Projucer Purebasic Qt Creator SharpDevelop Softwell Maker U++ VisualFBEditor VB6 WinFBE Xcode Xojo See also Rapid application development (RAD) Human interface guidelines (HIG) Human interface device User interface markup language User interface modeling Design-Oriented Programming Linux on the desktop vteGraphical user interface buildersQtOpen source Qt Creator KDevelop Gambas GTKOpen source Glade Interface Designer Gambas Stetic GUI Designer Proprietary Xojo (on Linux) wxWidgetsOpen source Code::Blocks CodeLite wxGlade wxFormBuilder CLIOpen source SharpDevelop PascalABC.NET Proprietary Microsoft Visual Studio Microsoft Blend VCL,relatedOpen source, LCL Lazarus Visual FB Editor Proprietary Delphi C++Builder RadPHP Borland Kylix CocoaProprietary Xcode, Interface Builder Xojo (on macOS) Java-basedOpen source Android Studio (via XML) Eclipse (via SWT) NetBeans (via Swing) B4X Proprietary IntelliJ IDEA JDeveloper (via Swing) WaveMaker Windows APIOpen source GNAVI WinFBE Proprietary CA-Realizer Visual Basic Xojo (for Windows) RapidQ Liberty BASIC PureBasic OtherOpen source FLUID Gorm IUP InForm Morphic TheIDE XBasic Proprietary Axure RP Clarion IDE Projucer XVT Design Resource construction set LANSA Softwell Maker Embedded Wizard OutSystems Topincs Phoenix Object Basic PowerBuilder AppStudio vteGraphical control elementsCommand input Adjustment handle Button Context menu Drop-down list Hamburger button Menu Pie menu Data input-output Checkbox Color picker Combo box Cycle button Date picker Grid view Toggle switch List box List builder Radio button Scrollbar Search box Slider Spinner Text box Informational Balloon help Head-up display in computing HUD in video games Icon Infobar Label Loading screen Progress indicator Progress bar Splash screen Throbber Sidebar Status bar Toast Tooltip Containers Accordion Tree view Client-side decoration Disclosure widget Frame / Fieldset Menu bar Panel Popover Ribbon Tab Toolbar Window Window decoration Workspace Navigational Address bar Breadcrumb navigation Hyperlink Navigation bar Virtual desktop Special windows Alert dialog box Dialog box File dialog Inspector window Modal window Palette window Related concepts File viewer List of graphical user interface elements Layout manager Look and feel Mouseover Scrolling Widget toolkit WIMP Zoomable user interface References ^ "Scene Builder". Gluon. Archived from the original on Feb 26, 2024. ^ "FlutterFlow - Build Native Apps Visually". flutterflow.io. Retrieved 5 June 2022. ^ "AppBuilder 2 20180529-19:35". flutterstudio.app. Archived from the original on Jul 14, 2022. Retrieved 5 June 2022. ^ "Nowa - The first native App Builder for professional use". nowa.dev. Archived from the original on Apr 10, 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2022. ^ "Flint IDE". ^ Speed, Richard (2022-05-06). "RAD Basic – the Visual Basic 7 that never was – releases third alpha". The Register. Retrieved 2023-03-26. RAD Basic is not the only game in town. Alternatives in varying stages of development include twinBASIC, which also aims to be backwards compatible with VB6 and VBA; and FreeBASIC, which implements much of what lurked in Microsoft QuickBASIC (and has a nifty IDE in the form of VisualFBEditor).

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builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nowa_App_builder&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Flutter framework based","text":"Flutter (software)\nFlutterFlow,[2]\nFlutterStudio,[3]\nNowa App builder,[4]","title":"List of GUI builders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tk (framework)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tk_(framework)"},{"link_name":"ActiveState Komodo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveState_Komodo"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"}],"sub_title":"Tk framework based","text":"Tk (framework)\nActiveState Komodo (No longer[when?] has a GUI builder)","title":"List of GUI builders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UWP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Windows_Platform"},{"link_name":"Windows Presentation Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Presentation_Foundation"},{"link_name":"WinForms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WinForms"},{"link_name":"Visual Studio XAML Editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Studio"},{"link_name":"XAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XAML"},{"link_name":"Expression Blend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_Blend"}],"sub_title":"Visual Basic based","text":"UWP / Windows Presentation Foundation / WinForms\nMicrosoft Visual Studio XAML Editor, XAML based GUI layout\nMicrosoft Expression Blend","title":"List of GUI builders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adobe Animate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Animate"},{"link_name":"App Inventor for Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App_Inventor_for_Android"},{"link_name":"AutoIt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoIt"},{"link_name":"Axure RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axure_RP"},{"link_name":"Crank AMETEK Storyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crank_AMETEK_Storyboard&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Creately","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creately"},{"link_name":"Embedded Wizard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Wizard"},{"link_name":"Flint IDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flint_IDE&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"GEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Environment_Manager"},{"link_name":"Interface Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Builder"},{"link_name":"LucidChart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LucidChart"},{"link_name":"OpenWindows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWindows"},{"link_name":"Resource construction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_construction_set"},{"link_name":"Stetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stetic"},{"link_name":"Scaleform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaleform"},{"link_name":"Wavemaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavemaker"}],"sub_title":"Other tools","text":"Adobe Animate\nApp Inventor for Android\nAutoIt\nAxure RP\nCrank AMETEK Storyboard\nCreately\nEmbedded Wizard\nFlint IDE[5]\nGEM\nInterface Builder\nLucidChart\nOpenWindows\nResource construction set\nStetic\nScaleform\nWavemaker","title":"List of GUI builders"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of development environments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"4D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Dimension_(software)"},{"link_name":"ActiveState Komodo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveState_Komodo"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Android Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_Studio"},{"link_name":"Anjuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anjuta"},{"link_name":"AutoIt3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoIt3"},{"link_name":"B4X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B4X"},{"link_name":"C++Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2BBuilder"},{"link_name":"Clarion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarion_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Code::Blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code::Blocks"},{"link_name":"CodeLite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CodeLite"},{"link_name":"dBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBase"},{"link_name":"Delphi/RAD Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_(software)"},{"link_name":"Embedded Wizard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Wizard"},{"link_name":"Eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_(software)"},{"link_name":"Gambas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambas"},{"link_name":"IntelliJ IDEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IntelliJ_IDEA"},{"link_name":"InForm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QB64"},{"link_name":"JDeveloper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JDeveloper"},{"link_name":"KDevelop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDevelop"},{"link_name":"LabWindows/CVI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LabWindows/CVI"},{"link_name":"LANSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LANSA_(development_environment)"},{"link_name":"Lazarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazarus_(software)"},{"link_name":"Liberty BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_BASIC"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Visual Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio"},{"link_name":"MonoDevelop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MonoDevelop"},{"link_name":"MSEide+MSEgui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Pascal#MSEide"},{"link_name":"MyEclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyEclipse"},{"link_name":"NetBeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBeans"},{"link_name":"OutSystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OutSystems"},{"link_name":"PascalABC.NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PascalABC.NET"},{"link_name":"Projucer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JUCE"},{"link_name":"Purebasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purebasic"},{"link_name":"Qt Creator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qt_Creator"},{"link_name":"SharpDevelop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SharpDevelop"},{"link_name":"Softwell Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwell_Maker"},{"link_name":"U++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"VisualFBEditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBASIC"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"VB6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VB6"},{"link_name":"WinFBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBASIC"},{"link_name":"Xcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode"},{"link_name":"Xojo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xojo"}],"sub_title":"IDEs with GUI builders (RAD IDEs)","text":"4D\nActiveState Komodo (No longer[when?] has a GUI builder)\nAndroid Studio\nAnjuta\nAutoIt3\nB4X\nC++Builder\nCrank AMETEK Storyboard\nClarion\nCode::Blocks\nCodeLite\ndBase\nDelphi/RAD Studio\nEmbedded Wizard\nEclipse\nGambas\nIntelliJ IDEA\nInForm\nJDeveloper\nKDevelop\nLabWindows/CVI\nLANSA\nLazarus\nLiberty BASIC\nMicrosoft Visual Studio\nMonoDevelop\nMSEide+MSEgui\nMyEclipse\nNetBeans\nOutSystems\nPascalABC.NET\nProjucer\nPurebasic\nQt Creator\nSharpDevelop\nSoftwell Maker\nU++\nVisualFBEditor[6]\nVB6\nWinFBE\nXcode\nXojo","title":"List of development environments"}]

[{"image_text":"NetBeans GUI builder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Gui-builder.png/220px-Gui-builder.png"}]

[{"title":"Rapid application development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_application_development"},{"title":"Human interface guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_interface_guidelines"},{"title":"Human interface device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_interface_device"},{"title":"User interface markup language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface_markup_language"},{"title":"User interface modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface_modeling"},{"title":"Design-Oriented Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design-Oriented_Programming"},{"title":"Linux on the desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_on_the_desktop"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:GUI_builders"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:GUI_builders&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:GUI_builders"},{"title":"Graphical user interface builders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"title":"Qt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qt_(software)"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"Qt Creator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qt_Creator"},{"title":"KDevelop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDevelop"},{"title":"Gambas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambas"},{"title":"GTK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GTK"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"Glade Interface Designer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glade_Interface_Designer"},{"title":"Gambas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambas"},{"title":"Stetic GUI Designer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MonoDevelop"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"Xojo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xojo"},{"title":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"title":"wxWidgets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WxWidgets"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"Code::Blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code::Blocks"},{"title":"CodeLite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CodeLite"},{"title":"wxGlade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glade_Interface_Designer"},{"title":"wxFormBuilder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WxFormBuilder"},{"title":"CLI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"SharpDevelop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SharpDevelop"},{"title":"PascalABC.NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PascalABC.NET"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"Microsoft Visual Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio"},{"title":"Microsoft Blend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Blend"},{"title":"VCL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Component_Library"},{"title":"related","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Component_Library#Related_frameworks"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"LCL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazarus_Component_Library"},{"title":"Lazarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazarus_(IDE)"},{"title":"Visual FB Editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBASIC"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_(software)"},{"title":"C++Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2BBuilder"},{"title":"RadPHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RadPHP"},{"title":"Borland Kylix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland_Kylix"},{"title":"Cocoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_(API)"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"Xcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode"},{"title":"Interface Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Builder"},{"title":"Xojo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xojo"},{"title":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"title":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"Android Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_Studio"},{"title":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"title":"Eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_(software)"},{"title":"SWT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Widget_Toolkit"},{"title":"NetBeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBeans#GUI_design_tool"},{"title":"Swing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_(Java)"},{"title":"B4X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B4X"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"IntelliJ IDEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IntelliJ_IDEA"},{"title":"JDeveloper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JDeveloper"},{"title":"Swing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_(Java)"},{"title":"WaveMaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WaveMaker"},{"title":"Windows API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"GNAVI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNAVI"},{"title":"WinFBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBASIC"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"CA-Realizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CA-Realizer"},{"title":"Visual Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_(classic)"},{"title":"Xojo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xojo"},{"title":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"title":"RapidQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RapidQ"},{"title":"Liberty BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_BASIC"},{"title":"PureBasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PureBasic"},{"title":"Open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"title":"FLUID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLUID"},{"title":"Gorm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorm_(computing)"},{"title":"IUP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUP_(software)"},{"title":"InForm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QB64"},{"title":"Morphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphic_(software)"},{"title":"TheIDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate%2B%2B"},{"title":"XBasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XBasic"},{"title":"Proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"title":"Axure RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axure_RP"},{"title":"Clarion IDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarion_(programming_language)"},{"title":"Projucer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JUCE"},{"title":"XVT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVT"},{"title":"Resource construction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_construction_set"},{"title":"LANSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LANSA_(development_environment)"},{"title":"Softwell Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwell_Maker"},{"title":"Embedded Wizard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Wizard"},{"title":"OutSystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OutSystems"},{"title":"Topincs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topincs"},{"title":"Phoenix Object Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Object_Basic"},{"title":"PowerBuilder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBuilder"},{"title":"AppStudio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS_Basic"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:GUI_widgets"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:GUI_widgets"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:GUI_widgets"},{"title":"Graphical control elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_widget"},{"title":"Adjustment handle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustment_handle"},{"title":"Button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Button_(computing)"},{"title":"Context menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_menu"},{"title":"Drop-down list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop-down_list"},{"title":"Hamburger button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_button"},{"title":"Menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menu_(computing)"},{"title":"Pie menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie_menu"},{"title":"Checkbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkbox"},{"title":"Color picker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_picker"},{"title":"Combo box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combo_box"},{"title":"Cycle button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_button"},{"title":"Date picker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_picker"},{"title":"Grid view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_view"},{"title":"Toggle switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toggle_switch_(widget)"},{"title":"List box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_box"},{"title":"List builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_builder"},{"title":"Radio button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_button"},{"title":"Scrollbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrollbar"},{"title":"Search box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_box"},{"title":"Slider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slider_(computing)"},{"title":"Spinner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinner_(computing)"},{"title":"Text box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_box"},{"title":"Balloon help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon_help"},{"title":"Head-up display in computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HUD_(computing)"},{"title":"HUD in video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HUD_(video_gaming)"},{"title":"Icon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_(computing)"},{"title":"Infobar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infobar"},{"title":"Label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Label_(control)"},{"title":"Loading screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_screen"},{"title":"Progress indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_indicator"},{"title":"Progress bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_bar"},{"title":"Splash screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splash_screen"},{"title":"Throbber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throbber"},{"title":"Sidebar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidebar_(computing)"},{"title":"Status bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_bar"},{"title":"Toast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop-up_notification"},{"title":"Tooltip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooltip"},{"title":"Accordion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accordion_(GUI)"},{"title":"Tree view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_view"},{"title":"Client-side decoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-side_decoration"},{"title":"Disclosure widget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disclosure_widget"},{"title":"Frame / Fieldset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_(GUI)"},{"title":"Menu bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menu_bar"},{"title":"Panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_(computer_software)"},{"title":"Popover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popover_(GUI)"},{"title":"Ribbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribbon_(computing)"},{"title":"Tab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tab_(interface)"},{"title":"Toolbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toolbar"},{"title":"Window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_(computing)"},{"title":"Window decoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_decoration"},{"title":"Workspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workspace"},{"title":"Address bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_bar"},{"title":"Breadcrumb navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadcrumb_navigation"},{"title":"Hyperlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink"},{"title":"Navigation bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation_bar"},{"title":"Virtual desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_desktop"},{"title":"windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_(computing)"},{"title":"Alert dialog box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert_dialog_box"},{"title":"Dialog box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialog_box"},{"title":"File dialog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_dialog"},{"title":"Inspector window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspector_window"},{"title":"Modal window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_window"},{"title":"Palette window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palette_window"},{"title":"File viewer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_viewer"},{"title":"List of graphical user interface elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphical_user_interface_elements"},{"title":"Layout manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layout_manager"},{"title":"Look and 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_of_opposition

Square of opposition

["1 Summary","2 The problem of existential import","3 Modern squares of opposition","4 Logical hexagons and other bi-simplexes","5 Square of opposition (or logical square) and modal logic","6 Set-theoretical interpretation of categorical statements","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Type of logic diagram This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Square of opposition" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Square of opposition. The lower case letters (a, e, i, o) are used instead of the upper case letters (A, E, I, O) here in order to be visually distinguished from the surrounding upper case letters S (Subject term) and P (Predicate term). In the Venn diagrams, black areas are empty and red areas are nonempty. White areas may or may not be empty. The faded arrows and faded red areas apply in traditional logic assuming the existence of things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic). In modern logic, this is not assumed so the faded ones do not hold. (There can be no element in the faded red areas in the modern logic.) Depiction from the 15th century In term logic (a branch of philosophical logic), the square of opposition is a diagram representing the relations between the four basic categorical propositions. The origin of the square can be traced back to Aristotle's tractate On Interpretation and its distinction between two oppositions: contradiction and contrariety. However, Aristotle did not draw any diagram; this was done several centuries later by Apuleius and Boethius. Summary In traditional logic, a proposition (Latin: propositio) is a spoken assertion (oratio enunciativa), not the meaning of an assertion, as in modern philosophy of language and logic. A categorical proposition is a simple proposition containing two terms, subject (S) and predicate (P), in which the predicate is either asserted or denied of the subject. Every categorical proposition can be reduced to one of four logical forms, named A, E, I, and O based on the Latin affirmo (I affirm), for the affirmative propositions A and I, and nego (I deny), for the negative propositions E and O. These are: The A proposition, the universal affirmative (universalis affirmativa), whose form in Latin is 'omne S est P', usually translated as 'every S is a P'. The E proposition, the universal negative (universalis negativa), Latin form 'nullum S est P', usually translated as 'no S are P'. The I proposition, the particular affirmative (particularis affirmativa), Latin 'quoddam S est P', usually translated as 'some S are P'. The O proposition, the particular negative (particularis negativa), Latin 'quoddam S nōn est P', usually translated as 'some S are not P'. In tabular form: The four Aristotelian propositions Name Symbol Latin English* Mnemonic Modern form Universal affirmative A Omne S est P. Every S is P.(S is always P.) affirmo(I affirm) ∀ x ( S x → P x ) {\displaystyle \forall x(Sx\rightarrow Px)} Universal negative E Nullum S est P. No S is P.(S is never P.) nego(I deny) ∀ x ( S x → ¬ P x ) {\displaystyle \forall x(Sx\rightarrow \neg Px)} Particular affirmative I Quoddam S est P. Some S is P.(S is sometimes P.) affirmo(I affirm) ∃ x ( S x ∧ P x ) {\displaystyle \exists x(Sx\land Px)} Particular negative O Quoddam S nōn est P. Some S is not P.(S is not always P.) nego(I deny) ∃ x ( S x ∧ ¬ P x ) {\displaystyle \exists x(Sx\land \neg Px)} *Proposition A may be stated as "All S is P." However, Proposition E when stated correspondingly as "All S is not P." is ambiguous because it can be either an E or O proposition, thus requiring a context to determine the form; the standard form "No S is P" is unambiguous, so it is preferred. Proposition O also takes the forms "Sometimes S is not P." and "A certain S is not P." (literally the Latin 'Quoddam S nōn est P.') ** S x {\displaystyle Sx} in the modern forms means that a statement S {\displaystyle S} applies on an object x {\displaystyle x} . It may be simply interpreted as " x {\displaystyle x} is S {\displaystyle S} " in many cases. S x {\displaystyle Sx} can be also written as S ( x ) {\displaystyle S(x)} . Aristotle states (in chapters six and seven of the Peri hermēneias (Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας, Latin De Interpretatione, English 'On Interpretation')), that there are certain logical relationships between these four kinds of proposition. He says that to every affirmation there corresponds exactly one negation, and that every affirmation and its negation are 'opposed' such that always one of them must be true, and the other false. A pair of an affirmative statement and its negation is, he calls, a 'contradiction' (in medieval Latin, contradictio). Examples of contradictories are 'every man is white' and 'not every man is white' (also read as 'some men are not white'), 'no man is white' and 'some man is white'. The below relations, contrary, subcontrary, subalternation, and superalternation, do hold based on the traditional logic assumption that things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic) exist. If this assumption is taken out, then these relations do not hold. 'Contrary' (medieval: contrariae) statements, are such that both statements cannot be true at the same time. Examples of these are the universal affirmative 'every man is white', and the universal negative 'no man is white'. These cannot be true at the same time. However, these are not contradictories because both of them may be false. For example, it is false that every man is white, since some men are not white. Yet it is also false that no man is white, since there are some white men. Since every statement has the contradictory opposite (its negation), and since a contradicting statement is true when its opposite is false, it follows that the opposites of contraries (which the medievals called subcontraries, subcontrariae) can both be true, but they cannot both be false. Since subcontraries are negations of universal statements, they were called 'particular' statements by the medieval logicians. Another logical relation implied by this, though not mentioned explicitly by Aristotle, is 'alternation' (alternatio), consisting of 'subalternation' and 'superalternation'. Subalternation is a relation between the particular statement and the universal statement of the same quality (affirmative or negative) such that the particular is implied by the universal, while superalternation is a relation between them such that the falsity of the universal (equivalently the negation of the universal) is implied by the falsity of the particular (equivalently the negation of the particular). (The superalternation is the contrapositive of the subalternation.) In these relations, the particular is the subaltern of the universal, which is the particular's superaltern. For example, if 'every man is white' is true, its contrary 'no man is white' is false. Therefore, the contradictory 'some man is white' is true. Similarly the universal 'no man is white' implies the particular 'not every man is white'. In summary: Universal statements are contraries: 'every man is just' and 'no man is just' cannot be true together, although one may be true and the other false, and also both may be false (if at least one man is just, and at least one man is not just). Particular statements are subcontraries. 'Some man is just' and 'some man is not just' cannot be false together. The particular statement of one quality is the subaltern of the universal statement of that same quality, which is the superaltern of the particular statement because in Aristotelian semantics 'every A is B' implies 'some A is B' and 'no A is B' implies 'some A is not B'. Note that modern formal interpretations of English sentences interpret 'every A is B' as 'for any x, a statement that x is A implies a statement that x is B', which does not imply 'some x is A'. This is a matter of semantic interpretation, however, and does not mean, as is sometimes claimed, that Aristotelian logic is 'wrong'. The universal affirmative (A) and the particular negative (O) are contradictories. If some A is not B, then not every A is B. Conversely, though this is not the case in modern semantics, it was thought that if every A is not B, some A is not B. This interpretation has caused difficulties (see below). While Aristotle's Greek does not represent the particular negative as 'some A is not B, but as 'not every A is B', someone in his commentary on the Peri hermaneias, renders the particular negative as 'quoddam A nōn est B', literally 'a certain A is not a B', and in all medieval writing on logic it is customary to represent the particular proposition in this way. These relationships became the basis of a diagram originating with Boethius and used by medieval logicians to classify the logical relationships. The propositions are placed in the four corners of a square, and the relations represented as lines drawn between them, whence the name 'The Square of Opposition'. Therefore, the following cases can be made: If A is true, then E is false, I is true, O is false; If E is true, then A is false, I is false, O is true; If I is true, then E is false, A and O are indeterminate; If O is true, then A is false, E and I are indeterminate; If A is false, then O is true, E and I are indeterminate; If E is false, then I is true, A and O are indeterminate; If I is false, then A is false, E is true, O is true; If O is false, then A is true, E is false, I is true. To memorize them, the medievals invented the following Latin rhyme: A adfirmat, negat E, sed universaliter ambae;I firmat, negat O, sed particulariter ambae. It affirms that A and E are not neither both true nor both false in each of the above cases. The same applies to I and O. While the first two are universal statements, the couple I / O refers to particular ones. The Square of Oppositions was used for the categorical inferences described by the Greek philosopher Aristotle: conversion, obversion and contraposition. Each of those three types of categorical inference was applied to the four Boethian logical forms: A, E, I, and O. The problem of existential import Main article: Existential import Subcontraries (I and O), which medieval logicians represented in the form 'quoddam A est B' (some particular A is B) and 'quoddam A non est B' (some particular A is not B) cannot both be false, since their universal contradictory statements (no A is B / every A is B) cannot both be true. This leads to a difficulty firstly identified by Peter Abelard (1079 – 21 April 1142). 'Some A is B' seems to imply 'something is A', in other words, there exists something that is A. For example, 'Some man is white' seems to imply that at least one thing that exists is a man, namely the man who has to be white, if 'some man is white' is true. But, 'some man is not white' also implies that something as a man exists, namely the man who is not white, if the statement 'some man is not white' is true. But Aristotelian logic requires that, necessarily, one of these statements (more generally 'some particular A is B' and 'some particular A is not B') is true, i.e., they cannot both be false. Therefore, since both statements imply the presence of at least one thing that is a man, the presence of a man or men is followed. But, as Abelard points out in the Dialectica, surely men might not exist? For with absolutely no man existing, neither the proposition 'every man is a man' is true nor 'some man is not a man'. Abelard also points out that subcontraries containing subject terms denoting nothing, such as 'a man who is a stone', are both false. If 'every stone-man is a stone' is true, also its conversion per accidens is true ('some stones are stone-men'). But no stone is a stone-man, because neither this man nor that man etc. is a stone. But also this 'a certain stone-man is not a stone' is false by necessity, since it is impossible to suppose it is true. Terence Parsons (born 1939) argues that ancient philosophers did not experience the problem of existential import as only the A (universal affirmative) and I (particular affirmative) forms had existential import. (If a statement includes a term such that the statement is false if the term has no instances, i.e., no thing associated with the term exists, then the statement is said to have existential import with respect to that term.) Affirmatives have existential import, and negatives do not. The ancients thus did not see the incoherence of the square as formulated by Aristotle because there was no incoherence to see. He goes on to cite a medieval philosopher William of Moerbeke (1215–35 – c. 1286), In affirmative propositions a term is always asserted to supposit for something. Thus, if it supposits for nothing the proposition is false. However, in negative propositions the assertion is either that the term does not supposit for something or that it supposits for something of which the predicate is truly denied. Thus a negative proposition has two causes of truth. And points to Boethius' translation of Aristotle's work as giving rise to the mistaken notion that the O form has existential import. But when Boethius (477 – 524 AD) comments on this text he illustrates Aristotle's doctrine with the now-famous diagram, and he uses the wording 'Some man is not just'. So this must have seemed to him to be a natural equivalent in Latin. It looks odd to us in English, but he wasn't bothered by it. Modern squares of opposition Frege's square of opposition The conträr below is an erratum: It should read subconträr. In the 19th century, George Boole (November 1815 – 8 December 1864) argued for requiring existential import on both terms in particular claims (I and O), but allowing all terms of universal claims (A and E) to lack existential import. This decision made Venn diagrams particularly easy to use for term logic. The square of opposition, under this Boolean set of assumptions, is often called the modern Square of opposition. In the modern square of opposition, A and O claims are contradictories, as are E and I, but all other forms of opposition cease to hold; there are no contraries, subcontraries, subalternations, and superalternations. Thus, from a modern point of view, it often makes sense to talk about 'the' opposition of a claim, rather than insisting, as older logicians did, that a claim has several different opposites, which are in different kinds of opposition with the claim. Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925)'s Begriffsschrift also presents a square of oppositions, organised in an almost identical manner to the classical square, showing the contradictories, subalternates and contraries between four formulae constructed from universal quantification, negation and implication. Algirdas Julien Greimas (9 March 1917 – 27 February 1992)' semiotic square was derived from Aristotle's work. The traditional square of opposition is now often compared with squares based on inner- and outer-negation. Logical hexagons and other bi-simplexes Main article: Logical hexagon The square of opposition has been extended to a logical hexagon which includes the relationships of six statements. It was discovered independently by both Augustin Sesmat (April 7, 1885 – December 12, 1957) and Robert Blanché (1898–1975). It has been proven that both the square and the hexagon, followed by a "logical cube", belong to a regular series of n-dimensional objects called "logical bi-simplexes of dimension n." The pattern also goes even beyond this. Square of opposition (or logical square) and modal logic The logical square, also called square of opposition or square of Apuleius, has its origin in the four marked sentences to be employed in syllogistic reasoning: "Every man is bad," the universal affirmative - The negation of the universal affirmative "Not every man is bad" (or "Some men are not bad") - "Some men are bad," the particular affirmative - and finally, the negation of the particular affirmative "No man is bad". Robert Blanché published with Vrin his Structures intellectuelles in 1966 and since then many scholars think that the logical square or square of opposition representing four values should be replaced by the logical hexagon which by representing six values is a more potent figure because it has the power to explain more things about logic and natural language. Set-theoretical interpretation of categorical statements In modern mathematical logic, statements containing words "all", "some" and "no", can be stated in terms of set theory if we assume a set-like domain of discourse. If the set of all A's is labeled as s ( A ) {\displaystyle s(A)} and the set of all B's as s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(B)} , then: "All A is B" (AaB) is equivalent to " s ( A ) {\displaystyle s(A)} is a subset of s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(B)} ", or s ( A ) ⊆ s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(A)\subseteq s(B)} . "No A is B" (AeB) is equivalent to "The intersection of s ( A ) {\displaystyle s(A)} and s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(B)} is empty", or s ( A ) ∩ s ( B ) = ∅ {\displaystyle s(A)\cap s(B)=\emptyset } . "Some A is B" (AiB) is equivalent to "The intersection of s ( A ) {\displaystyle s(A)} and s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(B)} is not empty", or s ( A ) ∩ s ( B ) ≠ ∅ {\displaystyle s(A)\cap s(B)\neq \emptyset } . "Some A is not B" (AoB) is equivalent to " s ( A ) {\displaystyle s(A)} is not a subset of s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(B)} ", or s ( A ) ⊈ s ( B ) {\displaystyle s(A)\nsubseteq s(B)} . By definition, the empty set ∅ {\displaystyle \emptyset } is a subset of all sets. From this fact it follows that, according to this mathematical convention, if there are no A's, then the statements "All A is B" and "No A is B" are always true whereas the statements "Some A is B" and "Some A is not B" are always false. This also implies that AaB does not entail AiB, and some of the syllogisms mentioned above are not valid when there are no A's ( s ( A ) = ∅ {\displaystyle s(A)=\emptyset } ). See also Boole's syllogistic Free logic Logical cube Logical hexagon Octagon of Prophecies Triangle of opposition References ^ Per The Traditional Square of Opposition: 1.1 The Modern Revision of the Square in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Kelley, David (2014). The Art of Reasoning: An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking (4 ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-393-93078-8. ^ "Introduction to Logic - 7.2.1 Finishing the Square and Immediate Inferences". 2021-08-10. ^ Parry & Hacker, Aristotelian Logic (SUNY Press, 1990), p. 158. ^ Cohen & Nagel, Introduction to Logic Second Edition (Hackett Publishing, 1993), p. 55. ^ Reale, Giovanni; Antiseri, Dario (1983). Il pensiero occidentale dalle origini a oggi. Vol. 1. Brescia: Editrice La Scuola. p. 356. ISBN 88-350-7271-9. OCLC 971192154. ^ Massaro, Domenico (2005). Questioni di verità: logica di base per capire e farsi capire. Script (in Italian). Vol. 2. Maples: Liguori Editore Srl. p. 58. ISBN 9788820738921. LCCN 2006350806. OCLC 263451944. ^ In his Dialectica, and in his commentary on the Perihermaneias ^ Re enim hominis prorsus non existente neque ea vera est quae ait: omnis homo est homo, nec ea quae proponit: quidam homo non est homo ^ Si enim vera est: Omnis homo qui lapis est, est lapis, et eius conversa per accidens vera est: Quidam lapis est homo qui est lapis. Sed nullus lapis est homo qui est lapis, quia neque hic neque ille etc. Sed et illam: Quidam homo qui est lapis, non est lapis, falsam esse necesse est, cum impossibile ponat ^ in The Traditional Square of Opposition in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ (SL I.72) Loux 1974, 206 ^ The Traditional Square of Opposition ^ Westerståhl, 'Classical vs. modern squares of opposition, and beyond', in Beziau and Payette (eds.), The Square of Opposition: A General Framework for Cognition, Peter Lang, Bern, 195-229. ^ N-Opposition Theory Logical hexagon ^ Moretti, Pellissier External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Square of opposition. Parsons, Terence. "The Traditional Square of Opposition". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. International Congress on the Square of Opposition Special Issue of Logica Universalis Vol. 2 N. 1 (2008) on the Square of Opposition Catlogic: An open source computer script written in Ruby to construct, investigate, and compute categorical propositions and syllogisms Periermenias Aristotelis with links to video and digitized manuscript LJS 101 of Boethius' Latin translation of Aristotle's De interpretatione, which contains 9th/11th century copies (some with color) of Aristotle's square of opposition on leaves 36r and 36v. vteAristotelian logic (syllogistic)General Square of opposition Problem of multiple generality Dictum de omni et nullo Syncategorema Predicable Definition Genus Differentia Property Accident Propositions Apodictic Assertoric Categorical Syllogism Enthymeme Prosleptic Terms End Middle Forms Barbara Baroco WorksOrganon Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics Sophistical Refutations Isagoge Port-Royal Logic Sum of Logic The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures vteMathematical logicGeneral Axiom list Cardinality First-order logic Formal proof Formal semantics Foundations of mathematics Information theory Lemma Logical consequence Model Theorem Theory Type theory Theorems (list) and paradoxes Gödel's completeness and incompleteness theorems Tarski's undefinability Banach–Tarski paradox Cantor's theorem, paradox and diagonal argument Compactness Halting problem Lindström's Löwenheim–Skolem Russell's paradox LogicsTraditional Classical logic Logical truth Tautology Proposition Inference Logical equivalence Consistency Equiconsistency Argument Soundness Validity Syllogism Square of opposition Venn diagram Propositional Boolean algebra Boolean functions Logical connectives Propositional calculus Propositional formula Truth tables Many-valued logic 3 finite ∞ Predicate First-order list Second-order Monadic Higher-order Fixed-point Free Quantifiers Predicate Monadic predicate calculus Set theory Set hereditary Class (Ur-)Element Ordinal number Extensionality Forcing Relation equivalence partition Set operations: intersection union complement Cartesian product power set identities Types of sets Countable Uncountable Empty Inhabited Singleton Finite Infinite Transitive Ultrafilter Recursive Fuzzy Universal Universe constructible Grothendieck Von Neumann Maps and cardinality Function/Map domain codomain image In/Sur/Bi-jection Schröder–Bernstein theorem Isomorphism Gödel numbering Enumeration Large cardinal inaccessible Aleph number Operation binary Set theories Zermelo–Fraenkel axiom of choice continuum hypothesis General Kripke–Platek Morse–Kelley Naive New Foundations Tarski–Grothendieck Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel Ackermann Constructive Formal systems (list),language and syntax Alphabet Arity Automata Axiom schema Expression ground Extension by definition conservative Relation Formation rule Grammar Formula atomic closed ground open Free/bound variable Language Metalanguage Logical connective ¬ ∨ ∧ → ↔ = Predicate functional variable propositional variable Proof Quantifier ∃ ! ∀ rank Sentence atomic spectrum Signature String Substitution Symbol function logical/constant non-logical variable Term Theory list Example axiomaticsystems (list) of arithmetic: Peano second-order elementary function primitive recursive Robinson Skolem of the real numbers Tarski's axiomatization of Boolean algebras canonical minimal axioms of geometry: Euclidean: Elements Hilbert's Tarski's non-Euclidean Principia Mathematica Proof theory Formal proof Natural deduction Logical consequence Rule of inference Sequent calculus Theorem Systems axiomatic deductive Hilbert list Complete theory Independence (from ZFC) Proof of impossibility Ordinal analysis Reverse mathematics Self-verifying theories Model theory Interpretation function of models Model equivalence finite saturated spectrum submodel Non-standard model of arithmetic Diagram elementary Categorical theory Model complete theory Satisfiability Semantics of logic Strength Theories of truth semantic Tarski's Kripke's T-schema Transfer principle Truth predicate Truth value Type Ultraproduct Validity Computability theory Church encoding Church–Turing thesis Computably enumerable Computable function Computable set Decision problem decidable undecidable P NP P versus NP problem Kolmogorov complexity Lambda calculus Primitive recursive function Recursion Recursive set Turing machine Type theory Related Abstract logic Algebraic logic Automated theorem proving Category theory Concrete/Abstract category Category of sets History of logic History of mathematical logic timeline Logicism Mathematical object Philosophy of mathematics Supertask Mathematics portal vteDiagrams in logic Venn diagram Square of opposition Porphyrian tree Karnaugh map Binary decision diagram Propositional directed acyclic graph Sentential decision diagram Truth table Sequent calculus Method of analytic tableaux

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Square_of_opposition,_set_diagrams.svg"},{"link_name":"Venn diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_diagram"},{"link_name":"empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johannesmagistris-square.jpg"},{"link_name":"term logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_logic"},{"link_name":"philosophical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_logic"},{"link_name":"diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagram"},{"link_name":"representing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_and_information_visualization"},{"link_name":"relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"categorical propositions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_proposition"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"On Interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Interpretatione"},{"link_name":"contradiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contradiction"},{"link_name":"contrariety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrariety"},{"link_name":"Apuleius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuleius"},{"link_name":"Boethius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius"}],"text":"Square of opposition. The lower case letters (a, e, i, o) are used instead of the upper case letters (A, E, I, O) here in order to be visually distinguished from the surrounding upper case letters S (Subject term) and P (Predicate term). In the Venn diagrams, black areas are empty and red areas are nonempty. White areas may or may not be empty. The faded arrows and faded red areas apply in traditional logic assuming the existence of things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic). In modern logic, this is not assumed so the faded ones do not hold. (There can be no element in the faded red areas in the modern logic.)Depiction from the 15th centuryIn term logic (a branch of philosophical logic), the square of opposition is a diagram representing the relations between the four basic categorical propositions.\nThe origin of the square can be traced back to Aristotle's tractate On Interpretation and its distinction between two oppositions: contradiction and contrariety.\nHowever, Aristotle did not draw any diagram; this was done several centuries later by Apuleius and Boethius.","title":"Square of opposition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"traditional logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_logic"},{"link_name":"proposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition"},{"link_name":"spoken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act"},{"link_name":"assertion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"modern philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_philosophy"},{"link_name":"language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language"},{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_logic"},{"link_name":"categorical proposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_proposition"},{"link_name":"logical forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_form"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"De Interpretatione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Interpretatione"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"contrapositive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Boethius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converse_(logic)#Categorical_converse"},{"link_name":"obversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obversion"},{"link_name":"contraposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition_(traditional_logic)"}],"text":"In traditional logic, a proposition (Latin: propositio) is a spoken assertion (oratio enunciativa), not the meaning of an assertion, as in modern philosophy of language and logic. A categorical proposition is a simple proposition containing two terms, subject (S) and predicate (P), in which the predicate is either asserted or denied of the subject.Every categorical proposition can be reduced to one of four logical forms, named A, E, I, and O based on the Latin affirmo (I affirm), for the affirmative propositions A and I, and nego (I deny), for the negative propositions E and O. These are:The A proposition, the universal affirmative (universalis affirmativa), whose form in Latin is 'omne S est P', usually translated as 'every S is a P'.\nThe E proposition, the universal negative (universalis negativa), Latin form 'nullum S est P', usually translated as 'no S are P'.\nThe I proposition, the particular affirmative (particularis affirmativa), Latin 'quoddam S est P', usually translated as 'some S are P'.\nThe O proposition, the particular negative (particularis negativa), Latin 'quoddam S nōn est P', usually translated as 'some S are not P'.In tabular form:*Proposition A may be stated as \"All S is P.\" However, Proposition E when stated correspondingly as \"All S is not P.\" is ambiguous[2] because it can be either an E or O proposition, thus requiring a context to determine the form; the standard form \"No S is P\" is unambiguous, so it is preferred. Proposition O also takes the forms \"Sometimes S is not P.\" and \"A certain S is not P.\" (literally the Latin 'Quoddam S nōn est P.')** \n \n \n \n S\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Sx}\n \n in the modern forms means that a statement \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n applies on an object \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n. It may be simply interpreted as \"\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n is \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\" in many cases. \n \n \n \n S\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Sx}\n \n can be also written as \n \n \n \n S\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(x)}\n \n.Aristotle states (in chapters six and seven of the Peri hermēneias (Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας, Latin De Interpretatione, English 'On Interpretation')), that there are certain logical relationships between these four kinds of proposition. He says that to every affirmation there corresponds exactly one negation, and that every affirmation and its negation are 'opposed' such that always one of them must be true, and the other false. A pair of an affirmative statement and its negation is, he calls, a 'contradiction' (in medieval Latin, contradictio). Examples of contradictories are 'every man is white' and 'not every man is white' (also read as 'some men are not white'), 'no man is white' and 'some man is white'.The below relations, contrary, subcontrary, subalternation, and superalternation, do hold based on the traditional logic assumption that things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic) exist. If this assumption is taken out, then these relations do not hold.'Contrary' (medieval: contrariae) statements, are such that both statements cannot be true at the same time. Examples of these are the universal affirmative 'every man is white', and the universal negative 'no man is white'. These cannot be true at the same time. However, these are not contradictories because both of them may be false. For example, it is false that every man is white, since some men are not white. Yet it is also false that no man is white, since there are some white men.Since every statement has the contradictory opposite (its negation), and since a contradicting statement is true when its opposite is false, it follows that the opposites of contraries (which the medievals called subcontraries, subcontrariae) can both be true, but they cannot both be false. Since subcontraries are negations of universal statements, they were called 'particular' statements by the medieval logicians.Another logical relation implied by this, though not mentioned explicitly by Aristotle, is 'alternation' (alternatio), consisting of 'subalternation' and 'superalternation'. Subalternation is a relation between the particular statement and the universal statement of the same quality (affirmative or negative) such that the particular is implied by the universal, while superalternation is a relation between them such that the falsity of the universal (equivalently the negation of the universal) is implied by the falsity of the particular (equivalently the negation of the particular).[3] (The superalternation is the contrapositive of the subalternation.) In these relations, the particular is the subaltern of the universal, which is the particular's superaltern. For example, if 'every man is white' is true, its contrary 'no man is white' is false. Therefore, the contradictory 'some man is white' is true. Similarly the universal 'no man is white' implies the particular 'not every man is white'.[4][5]In summary:Universal statements are contraries: 'every man is just' and 'no man is just' cannot be true together, although one may be true and the other false, and also both may be false (if at least one man is just, and at least one man is not just).\nParticular statements are subcontraries. 'Some man is just' and 'some man is not just' cannot be false together.\nThe particular statement of one quality is the subaltern of the universal statement of that same quality, which is the superaltern of the particular statement because in Aristotelian semantics 'every A is B' implies 'some A is B' and 'no A is B' implies 'some A is not B'. Note that modern formal interpretations of English sentences interpret 'every A is B' as 'for any x, a statement that x is A implies a statement that x is B', which does not imply 'some x is A'. This is a matter of semantic interpretation, however, and does not mean, as is sometimes claimed, that Aristotelian logic is 'wrong'.\nThe universal affirmative (A) and the particular negative (O) are contradictories. If some A is not B, then not every A is B. Conversely, though this is not the case in modern semantics, it was thought that if every A is not B, some A is not B. This interpretation has caused difficulties (see below). While Aristotle's Greek does not represent the particular negative as 'some A is not B, but as 'not every A is B', someone in his commentary on the Peri hermaneias, renders the particular negative as 'quoddam A nōn est B', literally 'a certain A is not a B', and in all medieval writing on logic it is customary to represent the particular proposition in this way.These relationships became the basis of a diagram originating with Boethius and used by medieval logicians to classify the logical relationships. The propositions are placed in the four corners of a square, and the relations represented as lines drawn between them, whence the name 'The Square of Opposition'.\nTherefore, the following cases can be made:[6]If A is true, then E is false, I is true, O is false;\nIf E is true, then A is false, I is false, O is true;\nIf I is true, then E is false, A and O are indeterminate;\nIf O is true, then A is false, E and I are indeterminate;\nIf A is false, then O is true, E and I are indeterminate;\nIf E is false, then I is true, A and O are indeterminate;\nIf I is false, then A is false, E is true, O is true;\nIf O is false, then A is true, E is false, I is true.To memorize them, the medievals invented the following Latin rhyme:[7]A adfirmat, negat E, sed universaliter ambae;I firmat, negat O, sed particulariter ambae.It affirms that A and E are not neither both true nor both false in each of the above cases. The same applies to I and O. While the first two are universal statements, the couple I / O refers to particular ones.The Square of Oppositions was used for the categorical inferences described by the Greek philosopher Aristotle: conversion, obversion and contraposition. Each of those three types of categorical inference was applied to the four Boethian logical forms: A, E, I, and O.","title":"Summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Abelard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelard"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Terence Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_Parsons"},{"link_name":"existential import","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism#Existential_import"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"William of Moerbeke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Boethius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Subcontraries (I and O), which medieval logicians represented in the form 'quoddam A est B' (some particular A is B) and 'quoddam A non est B' (some particular A is not B) cannot both be false, since their universal contradictory statements (no A is B / every A is B) cannot both be true. This leads to a difficulty firstly identified by Peter Abelard (1079 – 21 April 1142). 'Some A is B' seems to imply 'something is A', in other words, there exists something that is A. For example, 'Some man is white' seems to imply that at least one thing that exists is a man, namely the man who has to be white, if 'some man is white' is true. But, 'some man is not white' also implies that something as a man exists, namely the man who is not white, if the statement 'some man is not white' is true. But Aristotelian logic requires that, necessarily, one of these statements (more generally 'some particular A is B' and 'some particular A is not B') is true, i.e., they cannot both be false. Therefore, since both statements imply the presence of at least one thing that is a man, the presence of a man or men is followed. But, as Abelard points out in the Dialectica, surely men might not exist?[8]For with absolutely no man existing, neither the proposition 'every man is a man' is true nor 'some man is not a man'.[9]Abelard also points out that subcontraries containing subject terms denoting nothing, such as 'a man who is a stone', are both false.If 'every stone-man is a stone' is true, also its conversion per accidens is true ('some stones are stone-men'). But no stone is a stone-man, because neither this man nor that man etc. is a stone. But also this 'a certain stone-man is not a stone' is false by necessity, since it is impossible to suppose it is true.[10]Terence Parsons (born 1939) argues that ancient philosophers did not experience the problem of existential import as only the A (universal affirmative) and I (particular affirmative) forms had existential import. (If a statement includes a term such that the statement is false if the term has no instances, i.e., no thing associated with the term exists, then the statement is said to have existential import with respect to that term.)Affirmatives have existential import, and negatives do not. The ancients thus did not see the incoherence of the square as formulated by Aristotle because there was no incoherence to see.[11]He goes on to cite a medieval philosopher William of Moerbeke (1215–35 – c. 1286),In affirmative propositions a term is always asserted to supposit for something. Thus, if it supposits for nothing the proposition is false. However, in negative propositions the assertion is either that the term does not supposit for something or that it supposits for something of which the predicate is truly denied. Thus a negative proposition has two causes of truth.[12]And points to Boethius' translation of Aristotle's work as giving rise to the mistaken notion that the O form has existential import.But when Boethius (477 – 524 AD) comments on this text he illustrates Aristotle's doctrine with the now-famous diagram, and he uses the wording 'Some man is not just'. So this must have seemed to him to be a natural equivalent in Latin. It looks odd to us in English, but he wasn't bothered by it.[13]","title":"The problem of existential import"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frege-gegens%C3%A4tze.png"},{"link_name":"George Boole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole"},{"link_name":"existential import","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism#Existential_import"},{"link_name":"Venn diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_diagram"},{"link_name":"Gottlob Frege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege"},{"link_name":"Begriffsschrift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begriffsschrift"},{"link_name":"Algirdas Julien Greimas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algirdas_Julien_Greimas"},{"link_name":"semiotic square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotic_square"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Frege's square of opposition The conträr below is an erratum: It should read subconträr.In the 19th century, George Boole (November 1815 – 8 December 1864) argued for requiring existential import on both terms in particular claims (I and O), but allowing all terms of universal claims (A and E) to lack existential import. This decision made Venn diagrams particularly easy to use for term logic. The square of opposition, under this Boolean set of assumptions, is often called the modern Square of opposition. In the modern square of opposition, A and O claims are contradictories, as are E and I, but all other forms of opposition cease to hold; there are no contraries, subcontraries, subalternations, and superalternations. Thus, from a modern point of view, it often makes sense to talk about 'the' opposition of a claim, rather than insisting, as older logicians did, that a claim has several different opposites, which are in different kinds of opposition with the claim.Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925)'s Begriffsschrift also presents a square of oppositions, organised in an almost identical manner to the classical square, showing the contradictories, subalternates and contraries between four formulae constructed from universal quantification, negation and implication.Algirdas Julien Greimas (9 March 1917 – 27 February 1992)' semiotic square was derived from Aristotle's work.The traditional square of opposition is now often compared with squares based on inner- and outer-negation.[14]","title":"Modern squares of opposition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Augustin Sesmat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Sesmat"},{"link_name":"Robert Blanché","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Blanch%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"logical cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_cube"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The square of opposition has been extended to a logical hexagon which includes the relationships of six statements. It was discovered independently by both Augustin Sesmat (April 7, 1885 – December 12, 1957) and Robert Blanché (1898–1975).[15] It has been proven that both the square and the hexagon, followed by a \"logical cube\", belong to a regular series of n-dimensional objects called \"logical bi-simplexes of dimension n.\" The pattern also goes even beyond this.[16]","title":"Logical hexagons and other bi-simplexes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apuleius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuleius"},{"link_name":"Robert Blanché","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Blanch%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"logical hexagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_hexagon"}],"text":"The logical square, also called square of opposition or square of Apuleius, has its origin in the four marked sentences to be employed in syllogistic reasoning: \"Every man is bad,\" the universal affirmative - The negation of the universal affirmative \"Not every man is bad\" (or \"Some men are not bad\") - \"Some men are bad,\" the particular affirmative - and finally, the negation of the particular affirmative \"No man is bad\". Robert Blanché published with Vrin his Structures intellectuelles in 1966 and since then many scholars think that the logical square or square of opposition representing four values should be replaced by the logical hexagon which by representing six values is a more potent figure because it has the power to explain more things about logic and natural language.","title":"Square of opposition (or logical square) and modal logic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"},{"link_name":"subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersection"},{"link_name":"empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"},{"link_name":"empty set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"}],"text":"In modern mathematical logic, statements containing words \"all\", \"some\" and \"no\", can be stated in terms of set theory if we assume a set-like domain of discourse. If the set of all A's is labeled as \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)}\n \n and the set of all B's as \n \n \n \n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(B)}\n \n, then:\"All A is B\" (AaB) is equivalent to \"\n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)}\n \n is a subset of \n \n \n \n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(B)}\n \n\", or \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n ⊆\n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)\\subseteq s(B)}\n \n.\n\"No A is B\" (AeB) is equivalent to \"The intersection of \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(B)}\n \n is empty\", or \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n ∩\n s\n (\n B\n )\n =\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)\\cap s(B)=\\emptyset }\n \n.\n\"Some A is B\" (AiB) is equivalent to \"The intersection of \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(B)}\n \n is not empty\", or \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n ∩\n s\n (\n B\n )\n ≠\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)\\cap s(B)\\neq \\emptyset }\n \n.\n\"Some A is not B\" (AoB) is equivalent to \"\n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)}\n \n is not a subset of \n \n \n \n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(B)}\n \n\", or \n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n ⊈\n s\n (\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)\\nsubseteq s(B)}\n \n.By definition, the empty set \n \n \n \n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\emptyset }\n \n is a subset of all sets. From this fact it follows that, according to this mathematical convention, if there are no A's, then the statements \"All A is B\" and \"No A is B\" are always true whereas the statements \"Some A is B\" and \"Some A is not B\" are always false. This also implies that AaB does not entail AiB, and some of the syllogisms mentioned above are not valid when there are no A's (\n \n \n \n s\n (\n A\n )\n =\n ∅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(A)=\\emptyset }\n \n).","title":"Set-theoretical interpretation of categorical statements"}]

[{"image_text":"Square of opposition. The lower case letters (a, e, i, o) are used instead of the upper case letters (A, E, I, O) here in order to be visually distinguished from the surrounding upper case letters S (Subject term) and P (Predicate term). In the Venn diagrams, black areas are empty and red areas are nonempty. White areas may or may not be empty. The faded arrows and faded red areas apply in traditional logic assuming the existence of things stated as S (or things satisfying a statement S in modern logic). In modern logic, this is not assumed so the faded ones do not hold. (There can be no element in the faded red areas in the modern logic.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg/400px-Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Depiction from the 15th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Johannesmagistris-square.jpg/220px-Johannesmagistris-square.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frege's square of opposition The conträr below is an erratum: It should read subconträr.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Frege-gegens%C3%A4tze.png/200px-Frege-gegens%C3%A4tze.png"}]

[{"title":"Boole's syllogistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boole%27s_syllogistic"},{"title":"Free logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_logic"},{"title":"Logical cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_cube"},{"title":"Logical hexagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_hexagon"},{"title":"Octagon of Prophecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Octagon_of_Prophecies&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Triangle of opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_of_opposition"}]

[{"reference":"Kelley, David (2014). The Art of Reasoning: An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking (4 ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-393-93078-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93078-8","url_text":"978-0-393-93078-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Introduction to Logic - 7.2.1 Finishing the Square and Immediate Inferences\". 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://logic.umwblogs.org/categorical-logic/finishing-the-square-and-immediate-inferences/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CSuperalternation%E2%80%9D%20means%20that%20if%20the,the%20same%20quality%20is%20false.","url_text":"\"Introduction to Logic - 7.2.1 Finishing the Square and Immediate Inferences\""}]},{"reference":"Reale, Giovanni; Antiseri, Dario (1983). Il pensiero occidentale dalle origini a oggi. Vol. 1. Brescia: Editrice La Scuola. p. 356. ISBN 88-350-7271-9. OCLC 971192154.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Reale","url_text":"Reale, Giovanni"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Antiseri","url_text":"Antiseri, Dario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-350-7271-9","url_text":"88-350-7271-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/971192154","url_text":"971192154"}]},{"reference":"Massaro, Domenico (2005). Questioni di verità: logica di base per capire e farsi capire. Script (in Italian). Vol. 2. Maples: Liguori Editore Srl. p. 58. ISBN 9788820738921. LCCN 2006350806. OCLC 263451944.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Umk2Pz9DpjEC&pg=PA58","url_text":"Questioni di verità: logica di base per capire e farsi capire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788820738921","url_text":"9788820738921"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2006350806","url_text":"2006350806"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/263451944","url_text":"263451944"}]},{"reference":"Parsons, Terence. \"The Traditional Square of Opposition\". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.","urls":[{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/","url_text":"\"The Traditional Square of Opposition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta","url_text":"Zalta, Edward N."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy","url_text":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Square+of+opposition%22","external_links_name":"\"Square of opposition\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Square+of+opposition%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Square+of+opposition%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Square+of+opposition%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Square+of+opposition%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Square+of+opposition%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/#ModRevSqu","external_links_name":"The Traditional Square of Opposition: 1.1 The Modern Revision of the Square"},{"Link":"https://logic.umwblogs.org/categorical-logic/finishing-the-square-and-immediate-inferences/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CSuperalternation%E2%80%9D%20means%20that%20if%20the,the%20same%20quality%20is%20false.","external_links_name":"\"Introduction to Logic - 7.2.1 Finishing the Square and Immediate Inferences\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3Sg84H6B-m4C&pg=PA158","external_links_name":"Aristotelian Logic"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=U09MjwDSZ0kC&pg=PA55","external_links_name":"Introduction to Logic"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/971192154","external_links_name":"971192154"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Umk2Pz9DpjEC&pg=PA58","external_links_name":"Questioni di verità: logica di base per capire e farsi capire"},{"Link":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2006350806","external_links_name":"2006350806"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/263451944","external_links_name":"263451944"},{"Link":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/#AriForOFor","external_links_name":"The Traditional Square of Opposition"},{"Link":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/notes.html#6","external_links_name":"(SL I.72) Loux 1974, 206"},{"Link":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/#RewOFor","external_links_name":"The Traditional Square of Opposition"},{"Link":"http://www.philosophy.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.165900.1391710462!/menu/standard/file/2012%20Squares.pdf","external_links_name":"Westerståhl, 'Classical vs. modern squares of opposition, and beyond'"},{"Link":"http://alessiomoretti.perso.sfr.fr/NOTLogicalHexagon.html","external_links_name":"N-Opposition Theory Logical hexagon"},{"Link":"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/","external_links_name":"\"The Traditional Square of Opposition\""},{"Link":"http://www.square-of-opposition.org/","external_links_name":"International Congress on the Square of Opposition"},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/journal/11787/2/1/page/1","external_links_name":"Special Issue of Logica Universalis Vol. 2 N. 1 (2008) on the Square of Opposition"},{"Link":"https://github.com/jeffreycwitt/catlogic","external_links_name":"Catlogic: An open source computer script written in Ruby to construct, investigate, and compute categorical propositions and syllogisms"},{"Link":"https://franklin.library.upenn.edu/catalog/FRANKLIN_9951865503503681","external_links_name":"Periermenias Aristotelis"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Manager_(Windows)

Object Manager (Windows)

["1 Architecture","1.1 Object structure","2 Usage","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Object Manager" Windows – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Object Manager in Windows, categorized hierarchically using namespaces Object Manager (internally called Ob) is a subsystem implemented as part of the Windows Executive which manages Windows resources. Resources, which are surfaced as logical objects, each reside in a namespace for categorization. Resources can be physical devices, files or folders on volumes, Registry entries or even running processes. All objects representing resources have an Object Type property and other metadata about the resource. Object Manager is a shared resource, and all subsystems that deal with the resources have to pass through the Object Manager. Architecture The Object Manager in the architecture of Windows NT Object Manager is the centralized resource broker in the Windows NT line of operating systems, which keeps track of the resources allocated to processes. It is resource-agnostic and can manage any type of resource, including device and file handles. All resources are represented as objects, each belonging to a logical namespace for categorization and having a type that represents the type of the resource, which exposes the capabilities and functionalities via properties. An object is kept available until all processes are done with it; Object Manager maintains the record of which objects are currently in use via reference counting, as well as the ownership information. Any system call that changes the state of resource allocation to processes goes via the Object Manager. Objects can either be Kernel objects or Executive objects. Kernel objects represent primitive resources such as physical devices, or services such as synchronization, which are required to implement any other type of OS service. Kernel objects are not exposed to user mode code, but are restricted to kernel code. Applications and services running outside the kernel use Executive objects, which are exposed by the Windows Executive, along with its components such as the memory manager, scheduler and I/O subsystem. Executive objects encapsulate one or more kernel objects and expose not only the kernel and kernel-mediated resources, but also an expanded set of services that the kernel does. Applications themselves can wrap one or more Executive objects and surface objects that offer certain services. Executive objects are also used by the environment subsystems (such as the Win32 subsystem, the OS/2 subsystem, the POSIX subsystem, etc.) to implement the functionality of the respective environments. Whenever an object is created or opened, a reference to the instance, called a handle, is created. Object Manager indexes the objects both by their names as well as the handles. But, referencing the objects by the handles is faster because the name translation can be skipped. Handles are associated with processes (by making an entry into the process' Handle table that lists the handles it owns) and can be transferred between processes as well. A process must own a handle to an object before using it. A process can own a maximum of 16,000,000 handles at one time. During creation, a process gains handles to a default set of objects. While there exists different types of handles - file handles, event handles and process handles - they only help in identifying the type of the target objects; not in distinguishing the operations that can be performed through them, thus providing consistency to how various object types are handled programmatically. Handle creation and resolution of objects from handles are solely mediated by Object Manager, so no resource usage goes unnoticed by it. The types of Executive objects exposed by Windows NT are: Type Description System call to get handle Directory A container holds other kernel objects. Multiple levels of nested directories organize all kernel objects into a single tree. NtCreateDirectoryObjectNtOpenDirectoryObject Process A collection of executable threads along with virtual addressing and control information. NtCreateProcessNtOpenProcess Thread An entity containing code in execution, inside a process. NtCreateThreadNtOpenThread Job A collection of processes. NtCreateJobObjectNtOpenJobObject File An open file or an I/O device. NtCreateFileNtOpenFile Section A region of memory optionally backed by a file or the page file. NtCreateSectionNtOpenSection Access token The access rights for an object. NtCreateTokenNtDuplicateTokenNtOpenProcessTokenNtOpenThreadToken Event An object which encapsulates some information, to be used for notifying processes of something. NtCreateEventNtOpenEvent Semaphore/Mutex Objects which serialize access to other resources. NtCreateSemaphoreNtOpenSemaphore Timer An objects which notifies processes at fixed intervals. NtCreateTimerNtOpenTimer Key A registry key. NtCreateKeyNtOpenKey Desktop A logical display surface to contain GUI elements. None Clipboard A temporary repository for other objects. None WindowStation An object containing a group of Desktop objects, one Clipboard and other user objects. None Symbolic link A reference to another object, via which the referred object can be used. NtCreateSymbolicLinkObjectNtOpenSymbolicLinkObject Object structure Each object managed by the Object Manager has a header and a body; the header contains state information used by Object Manager, whereas the body contains the object-specific data and the services it exposes. An object header contains certain data, exposed as Properties, such as Object Name (which identifies the object), Object Directory (the category the object belongs to), Security Descriptors (the access rights for an object), Quota Charges (the resource usage information for the object), Open handle count (the number of times a handle, an identifier to the object, has been opened), Open handle list (the list of processes which has a live reference to the object), its Reference count (the number of live references to the object), and the Type (an object that identifies the structure of the object body) of the object. A Type object contains properties unique to the type of the object as well as static methods that implement the services offered by the object. Objects managed by Object Manager must at least provide a predefined set of services: Close (which closes a handle to an object), Duplicate (create another handle to the object with which another process can gain shared access to the object), Query object (gather information about its attributes and properties), Query security (get the security descriptor of the object), Set security (change the security access), and Wait (to synchronize with one or more objects via certain events). Type objects also have some common attributes, including the type name, whether they are to be allocated in non-paged memory, access rights, and synchronization information. All instances of the same type share the same type object, and the type object is instantiated only once. A new object type can be created by endowing an object with Properties to expose its state and methods to expose the services it offers. Object name is used to give a descriptive identity to an object, to aid in object lookup. Object Manager maintains the list of names already assigned to objects being managed, and maps the names to the instances. Since most object accesses occur via handles, it is not always necessary to look up the name to resolve into the object reference. Lookup is only performed when an object is created (to make sure the new object has a unique name), or a process accesses an object by its name explicitly. Object directories are used to categorize them according to the types. Predefined directories include \?? (device names), \BaseNamedObjects (Mutexes, events, semaphores, waitable timers, and section objects), \Callback (callback functions), \Device, \Driver, \FileSystem, \KnownDlls, \Nls (language tables), \ObjectTypes (type objects), \RPC Control (RPC ports), \Security (security subsystem objects), and \Windows (windowing subsystem objects). Objects also belong to a Namespace. Each user session is assigned a different namespace. Objects shared between all sessions are in the GLOBAL namespace, and session-specific objects are in the specific session namespaces OBJECT_ATTRIBUTES structure: typedef struct _OBJECT_ATTRIBUTES { ULONG Length; HANDLE RootDirectory; PUNICODE_STRING ObjectName; ULONG Attributes; PSECURITY_DESCRIPTOR SecurityDescriptor; PSECURITY_QUALITY_OF_SERVICE SecurityQualityOfService; } OBJECT_ATTRIBUTES *POBJECT_ATTRIBUTES; The Attributes member can be zero, or a combination of the following flags: OBJ_INHERIT OBJ_PERMANENT OBJ_EXCLUSIVE OBJ_CASE_INSENSITIVE OBJ_OPENIF OBJ_OPENLINK OBJ_KERNEL_HANDLE Usage Object Manager paths are available to many Windows API file functions, although Win32 names like \\?\ and \\.\ for the local namespaces suffice for most uses. Using the former in Win32 user-mode functions translates directly to \??, but using \?? is still different as this NT form does not turn off pathname expansion. Tools that serve as explorers in the Object Manager namespaces are available. These include the 32-bit WinObj from Sysinternals and the 64-bit WinObjEx64. See also Architecture of Windows NT Process groups and cgroups – the equivalent POSIX and Linux concepts to the ‘Job’ object type discussed above References ^ "Naming Files, Paths, and Namespaces - Win32 apps". docs.microsoft.com. ^ "winapi - Is there a difference between \??\ and \\?\ paths?". Stack Overflow. ^ "WinObj - Windows Sysinternals". docs.microsoft.com. ^ "hfiref0x/WinObjEx64: Windows Object Explorer 64-bit". GitHub. 20 February 2020. Russinovich, Mark; David Solomon (2005). "Chapter 3: System Mechanisms". Microsoft Windows Internals (4th ed.). Microsoft Press. pp. 124–149. ISBN 0-7356-1917-4. External links Object Manager Routines (Windows Drivers) Channel9 Interview vteMicrosoft Windows components APIs Architecture 9x NT Booting process Games Managementtools App Installer Command Prompt Control Panel Device Manager Disk Cleanup Drive Optimizer Driver Verifier DirectX Diagnostic Tool Event Viewer IExpress Management Console Netsh Performance Monitor Recovery Console Resource Monitor Settings Sysprep System Configuration System File Checker System Information System Policy Editor System Restore Task Manager Windows Error Reporting Windows Ink Windows Installer PowerShell Windows Update Windows Insider WinRE WMI Apps 3D Viewer Clock Calculator Calendar Camera Character Map Clipchamp Cortana Edge Fax and Scan Feedback Hub Get Help Magnifier Mail Maps Messaging Media Player 2022 Movies & TV Mobility Center Money Narrator Notepad OneDrive OneNote Paint Paint 3D People Phone Link Photos Quick Assist Remote Desktop Connection Snipping Tool Speech Recognition Skype Sports Start Sticky Notes Store Tips Voice Recorder Weather WordPad Xbox Shell Action Center Aero AutoPlay AutoRun ClearType Explorer Search Indexing Service IFilter Saved search Namespace Special folder Start menu Taskbar Task View Windows Spotlight Windows XP visual styles Services Service Control Manager BITS CLFS Multimedia Class Scheduler Shadow Copy Task Scheduler Error Reporting Wireless Zero Configuration File systems CDFS DFS exFAT IFS FAT NTFS Hard link links Mount Point Reparse point TxF EFS ReFS UDF Server Active Directory Domains DNS Group Policy Roaming user profiles Folder redirection Distributed Transaction Coordinator MSMQ Windows Media Services Active DRM Services IIS WSUS SharePoint Network Access Protection PWS DFS Replication Print Services for UNIX Remote Desktop Services Remote Differential Compression Remote Installation Services Windows Deployment Services System Resource Manager Hyper-V Server Core Architecture Boot Manager Console CSRSS Desktop Window Manager Portable Executable EXE DLL Enhanced Write Filter Graphics Device Interface Hardware Abstraction Layer I/O request packet Imaging Format Kernel Transaction Manager Library files Logical Disk Manager LSASS MinWin NTLDR Ntoskrnl.exe Object Manager Open XML Paper Specification Registry Resource Protection Security Account Manager Server Message Block Shadow Copy SMSS System Idle Process USER WHEA Winlogon WinUSB Security Security and Maintenance AppLocker BitLocker Credential Guard Data Execution Prevention Defender Family features Kernel Patch Protection Mandatory Integrity Control Protected Media Path User Account Control User Interface Privilege Isolation Windows Firewall Compatibility COMMAND.COM Windows Subsystem for Linux WoW64 API Active Scripting WSH VBScript JScript COM ActiveX ActiveX Document COM Structured storage DCOM OLE OLE Automation Transaction Server DirectX Native .NET Universal Windows Platform WinAPI Windows Mixed Reality Windows Runtime WinUSB Games Solitaire Collection Surf DiscontinuedGames 3D Pinball Chess Titans FreeCell Hearts InkBall Hold 'Em Purble Place Spider Solitaire Solitaire Tinker Apps ActiveMovie Anytime Upgrade Address Book Backup and Restore Cardfile CardSpace CD Player Chat Contacts Desktop Gadgets Diagnostics DriveSpace DVD Maker Easy Transfer Fax Food & Drink Groove Music Help and Support Center Health & Fitness HyperTerminal Imaging Internet Explorer Journal Make Compatible Media Center Meeting Space Messaging Messenger Mobile Device Center Movie Maker MSN Dial-up NetMeeting NTBackup Outlook Express Pay Phone Companion Photo Gallery Photo Viewer Program Manager Steps Recorder Syskey Travel WinHelp Write Others Games for Windows ScanDisk File Protection Media Control Interface MS-DOS 7 Next-Generation Secure Computing Base POSIX subsystem HPFS Interix Video for Windows Virtual DOS machine Windows on Windows Windows SideShow Windows Services for UNIX Windows System Assessment Tool Windows To Go WinFS Spun off toMicrosoft Store DVD Player File Manager Hover! Mahjong Minesweeper  Category  List

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Object Manager is a shared resource, and all subsystems that deal with the resources have to pass through the Object Manager.","title":"Object Manager (Windows)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_2000_architecture.svg"},{"link_name":"architecture of Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"reference counting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_counting"},{"link_name":"system call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_call"},{"link_name":"user mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_mode"},{"link_name":"Windows Executive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Executive"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"definition needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"text":"The Object Manager in the architecture of Windows NTObject Manager is the centralized resource broker in the Windows NT line of operating systems, which keeps track of the resources allocated to processes. It is resource-agnostic and can manage any type of resource, including device and file handles. All resources are represented as objects, each belonging to a logical namespace for categorization and having a type that represents the type of the resource, which exposes the capabilities and functionalities via properties. An object is kept available until all processes are done with it; Object Manager maintains the record of which objects are currently in use via reference counting, as well as the ownership information. Any system call that changes the state of resource allocation to processes goes via the Object Manager.Objects can either be Kernel objects or Executive objects. Kernel objects represent primitive resources such as physical devices, or services such as synchronization, which are required to implement any other type of OS service. Kernel objects are not exposed to user mode code, but are restricted to kernel code. Applications and services running outside the kernel use Executive objects, which are exposed by the Windows Executive, along with its components such as the memory manager, scheduler and I/O subsystem. Executive objects encapsulate one or more kernel objects and expose not only the kernel and kernel-mediated resources, but also an expanded set of services that the kernel does.[clarification needed] Applications themselves can wrap one or more Executive objects and surface objects[definition needed] that offer certain services. Executive objects are also used by the environment subsystems (such as the Win32 subsystem, the OS/2 subsystem, the POSIX subsystem, etc.) to implement the functionality of the respective environments.Whenever an object is created or opened, a reference to the instance, called a handle, is created. Object Manager indexes the objects both by their names as well as the handles. But, referencing the objects by the handles is faster because the name translation can be skipped. Handles are associated with processes (by making an entry into the process' Handle table that lists the handles it owns) and can be transferred between processes as well. A process must own a handle to an object before using it. A process can own a maximum of 16,000,000 handles at one time. During creation, a process gains handles to a default set of objects. While there exists different types of handles - file handles, event handles and process handles - they only help in identifying the type of the target objects; not in distinguishing the operations that can be performed through them, thus providing consistency to how various object types are handled programmatically. Handle creation and resolution of objects from handles are solely mediated by Object Manager, so no resource usage goes unnoticed by it.The types of Executive objects exposed by Windows NT are:","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Security Descriptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_Descriptor"},{"link_name":"security descriptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_descriptor"},{"link_name":"RPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Procedure_Call"}],"sub_title":"Object structure","text":"Each object managed by the Object Manager has a header and a body; the header contains state information used by Object Manager, whereas the body contains the object-specific data and the services it exposes. An object header contains certain data, exposed as Properties, such as Object Name (which identifies the object), Object Directory (the category the object belongs to), Security Descriptors (the access rights for an object), Quota Charges (the resource usage information for the object), Open handle count (the number of times a handle, an identifier to the object, has been opened), Open handle list (the list of processes which has a live reference to the object), its Reference count (the number of live references to the object), and the Type (an object that identifies the structure of the object body) of the object.A Type object contains properties unique to the type of the object as well as static methods that implement the services offered by the object. Objects managed by Object Manager must at least provide a predefined set of services: Close (which closes a handle to an object), Duplicate (create another handle to the object with which another process can gain shared access to the object), Query object (gather information about its attributes and properties), Query security (get the security descriptor of the object), Set security (change the security access), and Wait (to synchronize with one or more objects via certain events). Type objects also have some common attributes, including the type name, whether they are to be allocated in non-paged memory, access rights, and synchronization information. All instances of the same type share the same type object, and the type object is instantiated only once. A new object type can be created by endowing an object with Properties to expose its state and methods to expose the services it offers.Object name is used to give a descriptive identity to an object, to aid in object lookup. Object Manager maintains the list of names already assigned to objects being managed, and maps the names to the instances. Since most object accesses occur via handles, it is not always necessary to look up the name to resolve into the object reference. Lookup is only performed when an object is created (to make sure the new object has a unique name), or a process accesses an object by its name explicitly. Object directories are used to categorize them according to the types. Predefined directories include \\?? (device names), \\BaseNamedObjects (Mutexes, events, semaphores, waitable timers, and section objects), \\Callback (callback functions), \\Device, \\Driver, \\FileSystem, \\KnownDlls, \\Nls (language tables), \\ObjectTypes (type objects), \\RPC Control (RPC ports), \\Security (security subsystem objects), and \\Windows (windowing subsystem objects). Objects also belong to a Namespace. Each user session is assigned a different namespace. Objects shared between all sessions are in the GLOBAL namespace, and session-specific objects are in the specific session namespacesOBJECT_ATTRIBUTES structure:typedef struct _OBJECT_ATTRIBUTES {\n ULONG Length;\n HANDLE RootDirectory;\n PUNICODE_STRING ObjectName;\n ULONG Attributes;\n PSECURITY_DESCRIPTOR SecurityDescriptor;\n PSECURITY_QUALITY_OF_SERVICE SecurityQualityOfService;\n} OBJECT_ATTRIBUTES *POBJECT_ATTRIBUTES;The Attributes member can be zero, or a combination of the following flags:OBJ_INHERIT\nOBJ_PERMANENT\nOBJ_EXCLUSIVE\nOBJ_CASE_INSENSITIVE\nOBJ_OPENIF\nOBJ_OPENLINK\nOBJ_KERNEL_HANDLE","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sysinternals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sysinternals"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Object Manager paths are available to many Windows API file functions, although Win32 names like \\\\?\\ and \\\\.\\ for the local namespaces suffice for most uses.[1] Using the former in Win32 user-mode functions translates directly to \\??, but using \\?? is still different as this NT form does not turn off pathname expansion.[2]Tools that serve as explorers in the Object Manager namespaces are available. These include the 32-bit WinObj from Sysinternals[3] and the 64-bit WinObjEx64.[4]","title":"Usage"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_range

Essentials (PlayStation)

["1 Platinum range","1.1 PlayStation titles","1.2 PlayStation 2 titles","1.3 PlayStation 3 titles","1.4 PlayStation Portable titles","2 Essentials range","2.1 PlayStation 3 titles","2.2 PlayStation Portable titles","3 PlayStation Hits range","3.1 PlayStation 4","4 References"]

Sony PlayStation budget range This article is about the Sony PlayStation budget range. For Greatest Hits budget ranges, see Greatest Hits (PlayStation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Essentials" PlayStation – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Official Platinum and Essentials banners used on PlayStation game covers. Essentials is the Sony PlayStation budget range in the PAL region, which covers Europe, the Middle East and Africa, Australia and South Asia. It was launched in January 1997 as the Platinum range but was later renamed for PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4. Similar budget ranges from Sony include the Greatest Hits and The Best labels for the North American and Japanese markets, respectively. Platinum Range titles were recognisable by a platinum/silver coloured band on the game's casing, both the front and the spine. The PlayStation design used the same logo that was introduced in early 1997 for all PAL region game cases, the differences being the colouring and that it indicates itself as Platinum. The PlayStation 2 design of the platinum games had a silver band to act as a border and to contain the game's original cover, which is shrunk to fill about 75% of the platinum cover. The early platinum games that were released prior to 2003 had the PlayStation logo repeated twice on the front case, once on the platinum border, and once on the original game's case. (with the original game's case dropping the PlayStation logo after 2002.) In 2005, a new featured layout was introduced; these have a black border, and silver outlines around the shrunken original game cover. There is also a red orb located at the bottom of the original game cover with the words Platinum The Best of PlayStation 2 and Platinum The Best of PSP (PlayStation Portable) for PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games respectively. The platinum band can also be seen on the manual. The PlayStation 3 Platinum range box art replaces the black background of the PlayStation 3 logo on the left with a yellow background, and has the original box art shrunk slightly, with a grey border, and a yellow rectangle on top of it, with Platinum The Best of PlayStation 3 written on it. PlayStation and PlayStation 2 platinum game discs do not feature any of the original game disc design; instead, it is replaced with a simple silver design – which, along with the copyright notices around the edges, features the game's name in the centre surrounded by a black outline. PlayStation Portable platinum games use the original UMD games' disc design whilst PlayStation 3 platinum games use the original disc design with a platinum design on the disc. To become a Platinum release, it was reported initially that a game required over 400,000 or 500,000 sales in its first six months of release. By 2006, the requirements had been revised to over 400,000 sales after six months on the market (PAL region sales in particular; games that sell over 400,000 units in another region alone, such as Japan or the U.S., do not necessarily qualify for a Platinum title). For PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable releases, there is no specific target required to achieve Platinum status as indicated by SCEE Press Releases and the discrepancies between the Platinum status of specific titles and their chart performance. After reaching the required level of sales, Sony often dropped the prices of the original title to Platinum pricing levels (generally about half of the original retail price), as a way to clear inventory for retailers. The Platinum distinction has since been extended, however since 2010 they have been renamed Essentials for the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4. The first PS3 titles were released on August 1, 2008. For PlayStation 4 games the name was changed to PlayStation Hits. The first games under the new label were released on 18 July 2018 in PS Store and in retail stores for €19.99 / £15.99 each. This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008) Platinum range PlayStation titles 007 Racing 007: The World Is Not Enough 007: Tomorrow Never Dies Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere Actua Soccer Adidas Power Soccer Air Combat Alien Trilogy Alone in the Dark: The New Nightmare Ape Escape Atlantis: The Lost Empire A Bug's Life Battle Arena Toshinden Bust-A-Move 2 C-12: Final Resistance Chase the Express Colin McRae Rally Colin McRae Rally 2.0 Colony Wars Colony Wars: Red Sun Command & Conquer Command & Conquer: Red Alert Command & Conquer: Red Alert: Retaliation Cool Boarders 2 Cool Boarders 3 Cool Boarders 4 Crash Bandicoot Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back Crash Bandicoot 3: Warped Crash Team Racing Crash Bash Croc: Legend of the Gobbos Dancing Stage EuroMix Dancing Stage PARTY EDiTiON Destruction Derby Destruction Derby 2 Destruction Derby Raw Die Hard Trilogy Digimon World Dino Crisis 2 Dinosaur Disney's Aladdin in Nasira's Revenge Disney's Action Game Featuring Hercules Disney's Tarzan Disney's Treasure Planet Donald Duck: Quack Attack Doom Driver Driver 2 The Emperor's New Groove F1 Championship Season 2000 Fade to Black FIFA Soccer 96 FIFA: Road to World Cup 98 FIFA 99 FIFA 2000 FIFA 2001 FIFA Football 2005 Final Fantasy VII Final Fantasy VIII Final Fantasy IX Formula 1 Formula 1 97 Formula One 2001 G-Police Gran Turismo Gran Turismo 2 Grand Theft Auto Heart of Darkness In Cold Blood International Track & Field International Superstar Soccer Pro ISS Pro Evolution The Italian Job The Jungle Book Groove Party Lilo & Stitch: Trouble in Paradise Loaded The Lost World: Jurassic Park Legacy of Kain: Soul Reaver Lucky Luke (France only) Medal of Honor Medal of Honor: Underground MediEvil MediEvil 2 Metal Gear Solid Mickey's Wild Adventure Micro Machines V3 Monsters, Inc. Scare Island Monopoly Mortal Kombat Trilogy Moto Racer Moto Racer 2 Moto Racer World Tour Need for Speed: Road Challenge Need for Speed: Porsche 2000 Oddworld: Abe's Oddysee Oddworld: Abe's Exoddus Pandemonium Parasite Eve 2 Peter Pan: Adventures in Never Land PGA Tour 96 Porsche Challenge Rayman Rayman 2: The Great Escape Resident Evil Resident Evil 2 Ridge Racer Ridge Racer Revolution Ridge Racer Type 4 Road Rash Rugrats in Paris: The Movie Sheep, Dog, 'n' Wolf Silent Hill Soul Blade Soviet Strike Spider-Man Spider-Man 2: Enter Electro Spyro the Dragon Spyro 2: Gateway to Glimmer Spyro: Year of the Dragon Star Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire Street Fighter EX Plus Alpha Stuart Little 2 Syphon Filter 2 Syphon Filter 3 Tekken Tekken 2 Tekken 3 Tenchu: Stealth Assassins Tenchu 2: Birth of the Stealth Assassins Thunderhawk 2: Firestorm Tigger's Honey Hunt Time Crisis Time Crisis: Project Titan TOCA Touring Car Championship TOCA 2 Touring Cars TOCA World Touring Cars Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear Tomb Raider Tomb Raider II Tomb Raider III Tomb Raider: Chronicles Tony Hawk's Skateboarding Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3 Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4 Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue True Pinball V-Rally V-Rally 2 Wipeout Wipeout 2097 Wipeout 3 Worms WRC: FIA World Rally Championship Arcade WWF SmackDown! WWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role WWF War Zone PlayStation 2 titles 007: Quantum of Solace 24: The Game 50 Cent: Bulletproof Athens 2004 Battlefield 2: Modern Combat Black Bratz: Forever Diamondz Bratz: Rock Angelz Brothers in Arms: Road to Hill 30 Burnout Burnout 2: Point of Impact Burnout 3: Takedown Burnout Dominator Burnout Revenge Call of Duty: Finest Hour Call of Duty 2: Big Red One Call of Duty 3 Call of Duty: World at War – Final Fronts Canis Canem Edit Cars Colin McRae Rally 2005 Colin McRae Rally 3 Colin McRae Rally 04 Conflict: Desert Storm Conflict: Desert Storm II Conflict: Global Terror Conflict: Vietnam Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex Crash Nitro Kart Crash Twinsanity Crash Tag Team Racing Crash of the Titans Crazy Taxi Dead or Alive 2 Devil May Cry Devil May Cry 2 Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2 Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 3 Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi 2 Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi 3 Dragon Quest: The Journey of the Cursed King DRIV3R Enter the Matrix EyeToy: Play EyeToy: Play 2 EyeToy: Play 3 EyeToy: Groove EyeToy: Sports FIFA 2001 FIFA Football 2002 FIFA Football 2003 FIFA Football 2004 FIFA Football 2005 FIFA 06 FIFA 07 FIFA 08 FIFA 09 FIFA 10 FIFA 11 FIFA 12 FIFA 13 FIFA 14 FIFA Street FIFA Street 2 Final Fantasy X Final Fantasy X-2 Final Fantasy XII Finding Nemo Formula One 2001 Formula One 2002 Formula One 2003 Formula One 04 Formula One 05 Formula One 06 The Getaway The Getaway: Black Monday God of War God of War II Gran Turismo 3 A-Spec Gran Turismo 4 Gran Turismo Concept 2002 Tokyo-Geneva Grand Theft Auto III Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories Happy Feet Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup Hitman 2: Silent Assassin Hulk Ice Age 2: The Meltdown Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy Jak II: Renegade Jak 3 Jak X James Bond 007: Agent Under Fire James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing James Bond 007: Nightfire Juiced Killzone Kingdom Hearts Kingdom Hearts II Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures Lego Star Wars: The Video Game Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers Madagascar Manhunt Max Payne Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne Medal of Honor: European Assault Medal of Honor: Frontline Medal of Honor: Rising Sun Medal of Honor: Vanguard Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater Midnight Club: Street Racing Midnight Club II Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance Mortal Kombat: Deception Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks Moto GP Moto GP 2 Moto GP 3 Moto GP 4 MTV Music Generator 2 MTV Music Generator 3 MX vs. ATV Unleashed Need for Speed: Carbon Need for Speed: Most Wanted Need for Speed: ProStreet Need for Speed: Underground Need for Speed: Underground 2 Oni Onimusha: Warlords Pirates of the Caribbean: The Legend of Jack Sparrow Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones Prince of Persia: Warrior Within Pro Evolution Soccer Pro Evolution Soccer 2 Pro Evolution Soccer 3 Pro Evolution Soccer 4 Pro Evolution Soccer 5 Pro Evolution Soccer 6 Pro Evolution Soccer 2008 Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 Pro Evolution Soccer 2010 Pro Evolution Soccer 2011 Ratchet & Clank Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded Ratchet & Clank 3: Up Your Arsenal Ratchet: Gladiator Rayman 2: Revolution Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc Rayman Raving Rabbids RC Revenge Pro Red Faction Red Faction 2 Resident Evil 4 Resident Evil – Code: Veronica X Resident Evil Outbreak Ricky Ponting Cricket (Aus and NZ only) Rugby 2004 Rugby 2005 Rugby 06 Rugby 08 Shadow of the Colossus Shadow the Hedgehog Showdown: Legends of Wrestling Shrek 2 Shrek the Third Silent Hill 2: Director's Cut The Sims The Sims 2 The Sims Bustin' Out The Sims 2: Castaway The Sims 2: Pets Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 Smuggler's Run SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs SOCOM II U.S. Navy SEALs SOCOM 3 U.S. Navy SEALs SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Combined Assault Sonic Heroes Sonic Mega Collection Plus Sonic Riders Soulcalibur II Soulcalibur III Spider-Man Spider-Man 2 Spider-Man 3 Spyro: Enter the Dragonfly Spyro: A Hero's Tail The Legend of Spyro: A New Beginning The Simpsons Game The Simpsons: Hit & Run SSX SSX 3 SSX on Tour SSX Tricky Star Wars: Battlefront Star Wars: Battlefront II Star Wars: Bounty Hunter Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith Star Wars: The Force Unleashed Star Wars: Starfighter State of Emergency State of Emergency 2 Stuntman Stuntman: Ignition Tekken 4 Tekken 5 Tekken Tag Tournament This Is Football 2002 This Is Football 2003 This Is Football 2004 This Is Football 2005 Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2002 Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2003 Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2004 Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2005 Tiger Woods PGA Tour 06 TimeSplitters TimeSplitters 2 TOCA Race Driver TOCA Race Driver 2 TOCA Race Driver 3 Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Double Agent Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness Tomb Raider: Anniversary Tomb Raider: Legend Tony Hawk's American Wasteland Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3 Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4 Tony Hawk's Underground Tony Hawk's Underground 2 Tourist Trophy True Crime: New York City True Crime: Streets of LA Ultimate Spider-Man V-Rally 3 Vexx Virtua Tennis 2 The Warriors World Rally Championship WRC II Extreme WRC 3 WRC 4 WRC: Rally Evolved WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2006 WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2007 WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2008 WWE Smackdown! vs. RAW 2009 WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It X-Men: Next Dimension X-Men 2: Wolverine's Revenge X-Men: The Official Game X-Men Legends X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse PlayStation 3 titles Army of Two Army of Two: The 40th Day Assassin's Creed Assassin's Creed II – Game of the Year Edition Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood Assassin's Creed: Revelations Avatar: The Game Batman: Arkham Asylum Battlefield: Bad Company Battlefield: Bad Company 2 BioShock BioShock 2 Borderlands – Game of the Year Edition Burnout Paradise: The Ultimate Box Call of Duty 3 Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 Call of Duty: Black Ops Call of Duty: World at War Colin McRae: Dirt Colin McRae: Dirt 2 Dante's Inferno Dead Space 2 DiRT 3: Complete Edition Dragon Age: Origins Driver: San Francisco EyePet Move Edition Fallout 3 Far Cry 2 FIFA 08 FIFA 09 FIFA 10 FIFA 11 FIFA Street 3 Fight Night Round 4 Final Fantasy XIII God of War III Gran Turismo 5 Prologue Gran Turismo 5 Grand Theft Auto IV: The Complete Edition HAZE Heavenly Sword Heavy Rain: Move Edition Homefront – Ultimate Edition Infamous Infamous 2 Just Cause 2 Killzone 2 Killzone 3 LittleBigPlanet – Game of the Year Edition LittleBigPlanet 2 Mafia II Medal of Honor Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots Midnight Club: Los Angeles – Complete Edition ModNation Racers MotorStorm MotorStorm: Apocalypse MotorStorm: Pacific Rift Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 2 Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit Need for Speed: ProStreet Need for Speed: Shift Portal 2 Prince of Persia Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 Pro Evolution Soccer 2010 Pro Evolution Soccer 2011 Pro Evolution Soccer 2012 Prototype Race Driver: Grid – Reloaded Ratchet & Clank: Tools of Destruction Ratchet & Clank: A Crack in Time Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One Red Dead Redemption Resident Evil 5 Resistance: Fall of Man Resistance 2 Resistance 3 Ridge Racer 7 Saints Row 2 Sniper: Ghost Warrior Sonic Unleashed Soulcalibur IV Star Wars: The Force Unleashed Street Fighter IV Tekken 6 The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion – GOTY Edition The Sims 3 Tom Clancy’s Rainbow Six: Vegas Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas 2 Tomb Raider: Underworld UFC Undisputed 2009 UFC Undisputed 2010 Uncharted: Drake's Fortune Uncharted 2: Among Thieves Virtua Tennis 3 WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2008 WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2009 WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2010 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 WWE '12 Wrestlemania Edition PlayStation Portable titles Ace Combat X: Skies of Deception Ape Academy Armored Core: Formula Front Ben 10: Protector of Earth Brothers in Arms: D-Day Burnout Legends Call of Duty: Roads to Victory Cars Chessmaster Chili Con Carnage Colin McRae Rally 2005 Crash Tag Team Racing Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII Daxter Dissidia: Final Fantasy Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai 2 Driver 76 Everybody's Golf FIFA 06 FIFA 07 FIFA 08 FIFA 09 FIFA 10 FIFA 11 FIFA 12 FIFA 13 FIFA 14 FIFA Street 2 Fired Up Formula One 06 Formula One Grand Prix Gangs of London Go! Sudoku God of War: Chains of Olympus God of War: Ghost of Sparta Gottlieb Pinball Classics Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories Gran Turismo Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince Jak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier James Cameron's Avatar: The Game Killzone: Liberation Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy Lemmings LittleBigPlanet LocoRoco LocoRoco 2 Lumines Medal of Honor: Heroes Medal of Honor: Heroes 2 MediEvil: Resurrection Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops Midnight Club 3: DUB Edition Midnight Club: L.A. Remix ModNation Racers MotoGP MotorStorm: Arctic Edge MX vs. ATV Reflex Namco Museum Battle Collection Naruto: Ultimate Ninja Heroes Need for Speed Carbon: Own The City Need for Speed: Most Wanted 5-1-0 Need for Speed: ProStreet Need for Speed: Shift Need for Speed: Undercover Need for Speed: Underground Rivals Peter Jackson's King Kong: The Official Game of the Movie Prince of Persia: Revelations Prince of Persia: Rival Swords Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 Pro Evolution Soccer 2010 Pro Evolution Soccer 2011 Pro Evolution Soccer 5 Pro Evolution Soccer 6 Pursuit Force Pursuit Force: Extreme Justice Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters Resistance: Retribution Ridge Racer Ridge Racer 2 Rocky Balboa Secret Agent Clank Sega Mega Drive Collection Smash Court Tennis 3 SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 2 Sonic Rivals SoulCalibur: Broken Destiny Star Wars: Battlefront II Star Wars: Lethal Alliance Star Wars: The Force Unleashed Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror Tekken: Dark Resurrection Tekken 6 The Simpsons Game The Sims 2 The Sims 2: Castaway The Sims 2: Pets TOCA Race Driver 2 Tomb Raider: Anniversary Tomb Raider: Legend Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials Transformers: The Game Virtua Tennis: World Tour Wipeout Pulse Wipeout Pure World Tour Soccer: Challenge Edition Worms: Open Warfare WRC: FIA World Rally Championship WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2006 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 Essentials range PlayStation 3 titles Ace Combat: Assault Horizon Assassin's Creed Assassin's Creed II – Game of the Year Edition Assassin's Creed III Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood Assassin's Creed: Revelations Assassin's Creed: Rogue Avatar: The Game Batman: Arkham Asylum – GOTY Edition Batman: Arkham City – GOTY Edition Battlefield 3 Battlefield 4 Battlefield: Bad Company 2 – Ultimate Edition Battlefield Hardline Bayonetta Bioshock Infinite Borderlands 2 Brothers in Arms: Hell's Highway Burnout Paradise: The Ultimate Box Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood Call of Juarez: The Cartel Cars 2 Conflict: Denied Ops Crysis 2 Crysis 3 DanceStar Party Dante's Inferno Darksiders Dark Souls Dark Souls: Prepare to Die Edition Dead or Alive 5 Dead Island Game Of The Year Edition Dead Island Riptide Complete Edition Dead Rising 2 Dead Rising 2: Off the Record Demon's Souls Dead Space 3 Deus Ex: Human Revolution Devil May Cry 4 Devil May Cry HD Collection DiRT 3: Complete Edition Dirt: Showdown Dishonored Dishonored: Game of the Year Edition DmC: Devil May Cry Dragon Age: Inquisition Dragon Age: Origins Dragon Age II Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2 Dragon Ball Z: Ultimate Tenkaichi Dragon Ball Xenoverse Dragon's Dogma: Dark Arisen Driver: San Francisco Duke Nukem Forever Enslaved: Odyssey to the West Eyepet & Friends F1 2012 F1 2013 F1 2014 Fallout 3: Game of the Year Edition Fallout: New Vegas Ultimate Edition Far Cry 2 Far Cry 3 Far Cry 4 Farming Simulator 15 FIFA 12 FIFA 13 FIFA 14 FIFA 15 FIFA 16 FIFA 17 FIFA 18 FIFA Street Final Fantasy X / Final Fantasy X-2 HD Remaster Final Fantasy XIII God of War Collection God of War Collection – Volume II God of War III Grand Theft Auto IV: Episodes from Liberty City Grand Theft Auto IV: The Complete Edition Gran Turismo 5 Grid 2 Grid Autosport Heavy Rain: Move Edition Heavenly Sword Hitman: Absolution Homefront – Ultimate Edition Infamous Infamous 2 Just Cause 2 Kane & Lynch 2: Dog Days Killzone 2 Killzone 3 Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 ReMIX Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 ReMIX L.A. Noire: The Complete Edition Lego Batman: The Video Game Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Harry Potter: Years 1-4 Lego Harry Potter: Years 5-7 Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures Lego Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues Lego Marvel Super Heroes Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars Lego The Hobbit Lego The Lord of the Rings LittleBigPlanet – Game of the Year Edition LittleBigPlanet 2 LittleBigPlanet Karting Lost Planet 2 Mafia II MAG Mass Effect 3 Max Payne 3 Medal of Honor: Warfighter Medieval Moves Midnight Club: Los Angeles – Complete Edition ModNation Racers Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe Mortal Kombat Komplete Edition MotorStorm MotorStorm: Apocalypse MotorStorm: Pacific Rift Move Fitness Naruto: Ultimate Ninja Storm Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 2 Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 3 Full Burst Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm Generations Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit Need for Speed: Most Wanted – A Criterion Game Need for Speed: Rivals – Complete Edition Need for Speed: The Run Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 Ninja Gaiden 3 Ni No Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch One Piece: Pirate Warriors One Piece: Pirate Warriors 2 Payday 2 PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale Portal 2 Prince of Persia Prince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands Pro Evolution Soccer 2013 Pro Evolution Soccer 2014 Pro Evolution Soccer 2015 Prototype Race Driver: Grid – Reloaded Rage Red Dead Redemption: Game of the Year Edition Rayman Origins Rayman Legends Ratchet & Clank: A Crack In Time Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Remember Me Resident Evil 5: Gold Edition Resident Evil 6 Resident Evil Operation Raccoon City Resident Evil: Revelations Resident Evil: Revelations 2 Resistance: Fall of Man Resistance 2 Resistance 3 Saints Row 2 Saints Row: The Third Saints Row: The Third – The Full Package SEGA Mega Drive Ultimate Collection Shadow of Mordor Skate 3 Sleeping Dogs Sniper Elite V2 Sniper: Ghost Warrior Sniper: Ghost Warrior 2 Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed Sonic Generations Sonic Unleashed Sorcery Soulcalibur IV Soulcalibur V South Park: The Stick of Truth Sniper: Ghost Warrior Sniper: Ghost Warrior 2 Sports Champions Sports Champions 2 Start the Party! SSX Starhawk Star Wars: The Force Unleashed – Ultimate Sith Edition Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II Street Fighter X Tekken Super Street Fighter IV Arcade Edition Tekken 6 Tekken Tag Tournament 2 The Amazing Spider-Man The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion – GOTY Edition The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Legendary Edition The Evil Within The Lego Movie Videogame The Fight Thief Tomb Raider: Underworld Tomb Raider Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2 Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Future Soldier Tom Clancy's HAWX Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas 2 Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Double Agent Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Blacklist Toy Story 3: The Video Game Uncharted: Drake's Fortune Uncharted 2: Among Thieves Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception Vanquish Viking: Battle for Asgard Virtua Fighter 5 Virtua Tennis 4 Watch Dogs Wolfenstein: The New Order WWE 12 Wrestlemania Edition WWE 13 PlayStation Portable titles Ace Combat X: Skies of Deception Ace Combat: Joint Assault Ape Academy Ape Escape P Army of Two: The 40th Day Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines ATV Offroad Fury Pro Avatar: The Legend of Aang Bakugan Battle Brawlers: Defenders of the Core Ben 10: Protector of Earth Ben 10: Alien Force Ben 10 Alien Force: Vilgax Attacks Ben 10 Ultimate Alien: Cosmic Destruction BlazBlue: Calamity Trigger Breath of Fire III Brothers in Arms: D-Day Burnout Legends Burnout Dominator Buzz!: Brain Bender Buzz! Brain of the UK Buzz!: Master Quiz Buzz! Quiz World Buzz!: The Ultimate Music Quiz Capcom Puzzle World Capcom Classics Collection Reloaded Capcom Classics Collection Remixed Cars Cars 2 Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs Crash of the Titans Crash: Mind Over Mutant Crash Tag Team Racing Dante's Inferno Darkstalkers Chronicle: The Chaos Tower Daxter Despicable Me Dissidia: Final Fantasy Dissidia 012: Final Fantasy Disney Hannah Montana: Rock Out the Show Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai Dragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai 2 Dragon Ball Z: Tenkaichi Tag Team Driver '76 echochrome echoshift Everybody's Golf Everybody's Golf 2 Everybody's Tennis Exit EyePet F1 2009 Fat Princess FIFA 09 FIFA 10 FIFA 11 FIFA 12 FIFA 13 FIFA 14 FIFA Street 2 Fight Night Round 3 Final Fantasy Final Fantasy II Final Fantasy IV: The Complete Collection Final Fantasy Tactics: The War of the Lions Gangs of London Gradius Collection G-Force Generation of Chaos Geronimo Stilton in the Kingdom of Fantasy Geronimo Stilton: Return to the Kingdom of Fantasy Gladiator Begins God of War: Chains of Olympus God of War: Ghost of Sparta Gods Eater Burst Gottlieb Pinball Classics Gran Turismo Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince Invizimals Invizimals: The Lost Tribes Invizimals: Shadow Zone Iron Man Iron Man 2 Jak & Daxter: The Lost Frontier Juiced 2: Hot Import Nights Key of Heaven Killzone: Liberation LEGO Batman: The Video Game LEGO Harry Potter: Years 1–4 LEGO Harry Potter: Years 5–7 LEGO Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues LEGO Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game LEGO Star Wars III: The Clone Wars Lemmings LittleBigPlanet LocoRoco LocoRoco 2 Lord of Arcana Marvel Super Hero Squad Medal of Honor: Heroes Medal of Honor: Heroes 2 MediEvil: Resurrection Mega Minis Volume 1 Mega Minis Volume 2 Mega Minis Volume 3 Mega Man Maverick Hunter X Metal Gear Acid Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops ModNation Racers Monster Hunter Freedom Monster Hunter Freedom 2 Monster Hunter Freedom Unite Mortal Kombat: Unchained MotorStorm: Arctic Edge MX vs. ATV: Reflex Namco Museum Battle Collection Naruto: Ultimate Ninja Heroes 2: The Phantom Fortress Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Heroes 3 Naruto Shippuden: Kizuna Drive Naruto Shippuden Legends Akatsuki Rising Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Impact NBA Live 09 NHL 07 Need for Speed Carbon: Own The City Need for Speed: Most Wanted 5-1-0 Need for Speed: ProStreet Need for Speed: Underground Rivals Need for Speed: Shift Need for Speed: Undercover Open Season PaRappa The Rapper Patapon Patapon 2 Patapon 3 Peter Jackson's King Kong: The Official Game of the Movie Petz My Baby Hamster Petz My Puppy Family Phantasy Star Portable Pocket Racers Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End Power Stone Collection Prince of Persia Revelations Prince of Persia Rival Swords Prince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands Pursuit Force Pursuit Force Extreme Justice Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters Ratatouille Resistance: Retribution Secret Agent Clank Sega Mega Drive Collection Sega Rally Shaun White Snowboarding Sid Meier's Pirates! Silent Hill: Origins Silent Hill: Shattered Memories Skate Park City SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 3 Sonic Rivals Sonic Rivals 2 SoulCalibur: Broken Destiny Spider-Man 3 Spider-Man: Web of Shadows Split/Second Velocity Space Invaders Extreme SpongeBob SquarePants: The Yellow Avenger SpongeBob's Truth or Square Street Fighter Alpha 3 MAX SSX on Tour Star Wars: Battlefront II Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron Star Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron Star Wars The Clone Wars: Republic Heroes Star Wars: The Force Unleashed Super Monkey Ball Adventure Surf's Up Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror Syphon Filter: Logan's Shadow Tactics Ogre: Let Us Cling Together Tekken: Dark Resurrection Tekken 6 Tenchu: Shadow Assassins Test Drive Unlimited The Mystery Team The Sims 2 The Sims 2: Castaway The Sims 2: Pets Tiger Woods PGA Tour 10 TMNT Tron: Evolution Tomb Raider: Anniversary Tomb Raider: Legend Tom Clancy's EndWar Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2 Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials Tony Hawk's Project 8 Tony Hawk's Underground 2: Remix Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen The 3rd Birthday Tomb Raider: Legend Toy Story 3: The Video Game UFC Undisputed 2010 Up Valkyria Chronicles II WALL-E Warhammer 40,000: Squad Command Wipeout Pulse Wipeout Pure Worms: Open Warfare Worms: Open Warfare 2 WWE All Stars WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 X-Men Origins: Wolverine PlayStation Hits range PlayStation 4 This section is about titles released as PlayStation Hits in Europe and Oceania. For titles released as PlayStation Hits in North America, see Greatest Hits (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4. For titles released as PlayStation Hits in Japan and select Asian countries, see The Best (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4. Assassin's Creed IV Black Flag Batman: Arkham Knight Bloodborne Dishonored 2 Doom Dragon Ball Xenoverse Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2 Driveclub Dynasty Warriors 8: Xtreme Legends Complete Edition Dynasty Warriors 9 EA Sports UFC 2 Earth Defense Force 4.1: The Shadow of New Despair The Evil Within Fallout 4 Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise Friday the 13th: The Game God of War III Remastered God of War (2018) Gran Turismo Sport Horizon Zero Dawn Horizon Zero Dawn Complete Edition inFAMOUS: Second Son Injustice 2 Killzone: Shadow Fall The Last of Us Remastered LittleBigPlanet 3 Metal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor Monster Hunter: World Mortal Kombat X Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 Need For Speed Need For Speed Rivals Nioh One Piece Pirate Warriors 3 Plants vs. Zombies: Garden Warfare 2 Project CARS Ratchet & Clank Rayman Legends Resident Evil 6 Resident Evil VII: Biohazard Street Fighter V Tales of Berseria Uncharted: The Nathan Drake Collection Uncharted 4: A Thief's End Uncharted: The Lost Legacy Until Dawn Watch Dogs Wolfenstein: The New Order Yakuza 0 Yakuza Kiwami 2 Yakuza 6: The Song of Life References ^ "PlayStation History in Europe, Middle East and Asia Pacific – History of Events". Absolute PlayStation. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2013. ^ "Battle Arena Toshinden 3 (1996) PlayStation box cover art". ^ "Hot Games, Cool Prices". Official UK PlayStation Magazine (Platinum Special): 3. 1999. ^ Hickman, Lucy (9 October 1998). "Platinum: cannibal or cash cow?". MCV (6): 20–21. ^ PlayStation Games & Media News: – PS2 goes Platinum: Part 1 ^ "Sony Computer Entertainment Europe - Virtual Press Office". 2007-10-11. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2021-04-02. ^ "PS3 Platinum range in UK from August". Computer & Video Games. Archived from the original on 2008-07-17. Retrieved 2008-07-21. ^ Sprenger, Linda (2018-06-20). "PlayStation Hits – PS4-Spiele ab Juli zum Budget-Preis, was lohnt sich?". Gamepro.de (in German). Retrieved 2018-06-20. ^ Dealessandri, Marie (20 June 2018). "Sony to launch PlayStation Hits range, including Uncharted 4, Batman: Arkham Knight and Bloodborne". MCV. Retrieved 2024-01-21. ^ Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 Platinum (PS2) vteBudget range video gamesPublished by Nintendo Classic Series New Play Control! Nintendo Selects Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment Greatest Hits (North America) Essentials (PAL region) The Best (Japan and Asia) BigHit Series (Korea) Favoritos (South America) Published by others Sega All Stars Xbox Platinum Hits vtePlayStation Sony Interactive Entertainment PlayStation Studios ConsolesHome consoles PlayStation Models Main hardware PlayStation 2 Models Main hardware PlayStation 3 Models Main hardware System software PlayStation 4 Main hardware System software PlayStation 5 Handhelds PocketStation PlayStation Portable System software PlayStation Vita System software Miscellaneous PSX PlayStation TV PlayStation Classic GamesPlayStation A–L M–Z Net Yaroze Best-selling Downloadable JP NA PAL PS2 A–K L–Z Best-selling Online Downloadable PS3 A–C D–I J–P Q–Z Best-selling PS4 A–L M–Z Best-selling Free-to-play PS VR games PS5 A–Z Best-selling PS VR2 games PSP A-Z Downloadable PS minis Best selling PS Vita A–D E–H I–L M–O P–R S T–V W–Z Other PS Mobile TurboGrafx-16 Classics NEOGEO Station Classics HD Reprints Greatest Hits Essentials The Best BigHit Series Network PlayStation Network 2011 outage Central Station FirstPlay PlayStation App PlayStation Home PlayStation Mobile PlayStation Now PlayStation Store PlayStation Video PlayStation Vue PS2 online PlayStation Broadband Navigator Room for PSP VidZone AccessoriesControllers PlayStation controller PlayStation Mouse Analog Joystick Dual Analog DualShock / DualSense Sixaxis PlayStation Move Cameras EyeToy Go!Cam PlayStation Eye PlayStation Camera Miscellaneous Multitap Link Cable PS2 accessories PlayStation 2 Expansion Bay PS3 accessories PlayTV Wonderbook PlayStation VR 2 PlayStation Portal Kits Net Yaroze PS2 Linux GScube OtherOS Zego MediaMagazines Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine PlayStation: The Official Magazine PlayStation Official Magazine – UK PlayStation Official Magazine – Australia Official PlayStation Magazine (Ireland) PlayStation Underground Advertisements Double Life Mountain PlayStation marketing Characters Polygon Man Kevin Butler Arcade boards Namco System 11 System 12 System 10 System 246 System 357 Konami System 573 Related Jampack Super NES CD-ROM Sony Ericsson Xperia Play Category

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greatest Hits (PlayStation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_(PlayStation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Platinum_%26_Essentials_banners.png"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation"},{"link_name":"PAL region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAL_region"},{"link_name":"Europe, the Middle East and Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe,_the_Middle_East_and_Africa"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"South Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Portable"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Vita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Vita"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"Greatest Hits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_(PlayStation_range)"},{"link_name":"The Best","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_(PlayStation_range)"},{"link_name":"North American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Portable"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Vita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Vita"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"This article is about the Sony PlayStation budget range. For Greatest Hits budget ranges, see Greatest Hits (PlayStation).Official Platinum and Essentials banners used on PlayStation game covers.Essentials is the Sony PlayStation budget range in the PAL region, which covers Europe, the Middle East and Africa, Australia and South Asia. It was launched in January 1997 as the Platinum range[1] but was later renamed for PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4. Similar budget ranges from Sony include the Greatest Hits and The Best labels for the North American and Japanese markets, respectively.Platinum Range titles were recognisable by a platinum/silver coloured band on the game's casing, both the front and the spine. The PlayStation design used the same logo that was introduced in early 1997 for all PAL region game cases,[2] the differences being the colouring and that it indicates itself as Platinum. The PlayStation 2 design of the platinum games had a silver band to act as a border and to contain the game's original cover, which is shrunk to fill about 75% of the platinum cover. The early platinum games that were released prior to 2003 had the PlayStation logo repeated twice on the front case, once on the platinum border, and once on the original game's case. (with the original game's case dropping the PlayStation logo after 2002.) In 2005, a new featured layout was introduced; these have a black border, and silver outlines around the shrunken original game cover. There is also a red orb located at the bottom of the original game cover with the words Platinum The Best of PlayStation 2 and Platinum The Best of PSP (PlayStation Portable) for PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games respectively. The platinum band can also be seen on the manual. The PlayStation 3 Platinum range box art replaces the black background of the PlayStation 3 logo on the left with a yellow background, and has the original box art shrunk slightly, with a grey border, and a yellow rectangle on top of it, with Platinum The Best of PlayStation 3 written on it.PlayStation and PlayStation 2 platinum game discs do not feature any of the original game disc design; instead, it is replaced with a simple silver design – which, along with the copyright notices around the edges, features the game's name in the centre surrounded by a black outline. PlayStation Portable platinum games use the original UMD games' disc design whilst PlayStation 3 platinum games use the original disc design with a platinum design on the disc.To become a Platinum release, it was reported initially that a game required over 400,000 or 500,000 sales in its first six months of release.[3][4] By 2006, the requirements had been revised to over 400,000 sales after six months on the market[5] (PAL region sales in particular; games that sell over 400,000 units in another region alone, such as Japan or the U.S., do not necessarily qualify for a Platinum title).For PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable releases, there is no specific target required to achieve Platinum status as indicated by SCEE Press Releases[6] and the discrepancies between the Platinum status of specific titles and their chart performance.After reaching the required level of sales, Sony often dropped the prices of the original title to Platinum pricing levels (generally about half of the original retail price), as a way to clear inventory for retailers.The Platinum distinction has since been extended, however since 2010 they have been renamed Essentials for the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4. The first PS3 titles were released on August 1, 2008.[7]For PlayStation 4 games the name was changed to PlayStation Hits. The first games under the new label were released on 18 July 2018 in PS Store and in retail stores for €19.99 / £15.99 each.[8][9]","title":"Essentials (PlayStation)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Platinum range"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"007 Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/007_Racing"},{"link_name":"007: The World Is Not Enough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Is_Not_Enough_(PlayStation_video_game)"},{"link_name":"007: Tomorrow Never Dies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrow_Never_Dies_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Combat_3:_Electrosphere"},{"link_name":"Actua Soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actua_Soccer"},{"link_name":"Adidas Power Soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adidas_Power_Soccer"},{"link_name":"Air Combat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Combat"},{"link_name":"Alien Trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_Trilogy"},{"link_name":"Alone in the Dark: The New Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alone_in_the_Dark:_The_New_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Ape Escape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ape_Escape_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Atlantis: The Lost Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis:_The_Lost_Empire_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"A Bug's Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Bug%27s_Life_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Battle Arena Toshinden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_Arena_Toshinden"},{"link_name":"Bust-A-Move 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puzzle_Bobble_2"},{"link_name":"C-12: Final Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-12:_Final_Resistance"},{"link_name":"Chase the Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_Ops:_Nuclear_Dawn"},{"link_name":"Colin McRae Rally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_McRae_Rally#Colin_McRae_Rally"},{"link_name":"Colin McRae Rally 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_McRae_Rally#Colin_McRae_Rally_2.0"},{"link_name":"Colony Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_Wars_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Colony Wars: Red Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_Wars:_Red_Sun"},{"link_name":"Command & Conquer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_%26_Conquer_(1995_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Command & Conquer: Red Alert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_%26_Conquer:_Red_Alert"},{"link_name":"Command & Conquer: Red Alert: Retaliation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_%26_Conquer:_Red_Alert#Retaliation_(1998)"},{"link_name":"Cool Boarders 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_Boarders_2"},{"link_name":"Cool Boarders 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_Boarders_3"},{"link_name":"Cool Boarders 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_Boarders_4"},{"link_name":"Crash Bandicoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_Bandicoot_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_Bandicoot_2:_Cortex_Strikes_Back"},{"link_name":"Crash Bandicoot 3: Warped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_Bandicoot:_Warped"},{"link_name":"Crash Team Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_Team_Racing"},{"link_name":"Crash Bash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_Bash"},{"link_name":"Croc: Legend of the Gobbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croc:_Legend_of_the_Gobbos"},{"link_name":"Dancing Stage EuroMix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_Stage_EuroMix"},{"link_name":"Dancing Stage PARTY EDiTiON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_Stage_PARTY_EDiTiON"},{"link_name":"Destruction Derby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_Derby"},{"link_name":"Destruction Derby 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_Derby_2"},{"link_name":"Destruction Derby Raw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_Derby_Raw"},{"link_name":"Die Hard Trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Hard_Trilogy"},{"link_name":"Digimon World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digimon_World"},{"link_name":"Dino Crisis 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino_Crisis_2"},{"link_name":"Dinosaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Dinosaur_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Disney's Aladdin in Nasira's Revenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Aladdin_in_Nasira%27s_Revenge"},{"link_name":"Disney's Action Game Featuring Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules_(1997_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Disney's Tarzan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarzan_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Disney's Treasure Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure_Planet#Video_games"},{"link_name":"Donald Duck: Quack Attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Duck:_Goin%27_Quackers"},{"link_name":"Doom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driver:_You_Are_the_Wheelman"},{"link_name":"Driver 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driver_2"},{"link_name":"The Emperor's New Groove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Groove_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"F1 Championship Season 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F1_Championship_Season_2000"},{"link_name":"Fade to Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fade_to_Black_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"FIFA Soccer 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Soccer_96"},{"link_name":"FIFA: Road to World Cup 98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA:_Road_to_World_Cup_98"},{"link_name":"FIFA 99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_99"},{"link_name":"FIFA 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_2000"},{"link_name":"FIFA 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_2001"},{"link_name":"FIFA Football 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Football_2005"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_VII"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_VIII"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_IX"},{"link_name":"Formula 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_1_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Formula 1 97","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_1_97"},{"link_name":"Formula One 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One_2001_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"G-Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-Police"},{"link_name":"Gran Turismo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Turismo_(1997_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Gran Turismo 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Turismo_2"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft 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Scare Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters,_Inc._Scare_Island"},{"link_name":"Monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly_(1997_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat Trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_Trilogy"},{"link_name":"Moto Racer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moto_Racer"},{"link_name":"Moto Racer 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moto_Racer_2"},{"link_name":"Moto Racer World Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moto_Racer_World_Tour"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed: Road Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_High_Stakes"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed: Porsche 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_Porsche_Unleashed"},{"link_name":"Oddworld: Abe's Oddysee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddworld:_Abe%27s_Oddysee"},{"link_name":"Oddworld: Abe's 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Racer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_Racer_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Ridge Racer Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_Racer_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Ridge Racer Type 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4:_Ridge_Racer_Type_4"},{"link_name":"Road Rash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_Rash"},{"link_name":"Rugrats in Paris: The Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugrats_in_Paris:_The_Movie_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Sheep, Dog, 'n' Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep,_Dog,_%27n%27_Wolf"},{"link_name":"Silent Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Hill_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Soul Blade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Blade"},{"link_name":"Soviet Strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Strike"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man_(2000_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man 2: Enter 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4\nCrash Bandicoot\nCrash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back\nCrash Bandicoot 3: Warped\nCrash Team Racing\nCrash Bash\nCroc: Legend of the Gobbos\nDancing Stage EuroMix\nDancing Stage PARTY EDiTiON\nDestruction Derby\nDestruction Derby 2\nDestruction Derby Raw\nDie Hard Trilogy\nDigimon World\nDino Crisis 2\nDinosaur\nDisney's Aladdin in Nasira's Revenge\nDisney's Action Game Featuring Hercules\nDisney's Tarzan\nDisney's Treasure Planet\nDonald Duck: Quack Attack\nDoom\nDriver\nDriver 2\nThe Emperor's New Groove\nF1 Championship Season 2000\nFade to Black\n\n\nFIFA Soccer 96\nFIFA: Road to World Cup 98\nFIFA 99\nFIFA 2000\nFIFA 2001\nFIFA Football 2005\nFinal Fantasy VII\nFinal Fantasy VIII\nFinal Fantasy IX\nFormula 1\nFormula 1 97\nFormula One 2001\nG-Police\nGran Turismo\nGran Turismo 2\nGrand Theft Auto\nHeart of Darkness\nIn Cold Blood\nInternational Track & Field\nInternational Superstar Soccer Pro\nISS Pro Evolution\nThe Italian Job\nThe Jungle Book Groove Party\nLilo & Stitch: Trouble in Paradise\nLoaded\nThe Lost World: Jurassic Park\nLegacy of Kain: Soul Reaver\nLucky Luke (France only)\nMedal of Honor\nMedal of Honor: Underground\nMediEvil\nMediEvil 2\nMetal Gear Solid\nMickey's Wild Adventure\nMicro Machines V3\nMonsters, Inc. Scare Island\nMonopoly\nMortal Kombat Trilogy\nMoto Racer\nMoto Racer 2\nMoto Racer World Tour\nNeed for Speed: Road Challenge\nNeed for Speed: Porsche 2000\nOddworld: Abe's Oddysee\nOddworld: Abe's Exoddus\nPandemonium\nParasite Eve 2\nPeter Pan: Adventures in Never Land\nPGA Tour 96\nPorsche Challenge\nRayman\nRayman 2: The Great Escape\nResident Evil\nResident Evil 2\nRidge Racer\n\n\nRidge Racer Revolution\nRidge Racer Type 4\nRoad Rash\nRugrats in Paris: The Movie\nSheep, Dog, 'n' Wolf\nSilent Hill\nSoul Blade\nSoviet Strike\nSpider-Man\nSpider-Man 2: Enter Electro\nSpyro the Dragon\nSpyro 2: Gateway to Glimmer\nSpyro: Year of the Dragon\nStar Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire\nStreet Fighter EX Plus Alpha\nStuart Little 2\nSyphon Filter 2\nSyphon Filter 3\nTekken\nTekken 2\nTekken 3\nTenchu: Stealth Assassins\nTenchu 2: Birth of the Stealth Assassins\nThunderhawk 2: Firestorm\nTigger's Honey Hunt\nTime Crisis\nTime Crisis: Project Titan\nTOCA Touring Car Championship\nTOCA 2 Touring Cars\nTOCA World Touring Cars\nTom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear\nTomb Raider\nTomb Raider II\nTomb Raider III\nTomb Raider: Chronicles\nTony Hawk's Skateboarding\nTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2\nTony Hawk's Pro Skater 3\nTony Hawk's Pro Skater 4\nToy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue\nTrue Pinball\nV-Rally\nV-Rally 2\nWipeout\nWipeout 2097\nWipeout 3\nWorms\nWRC: FIA World Rally Championship Arcade\nWWF SmackDown!\nWWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role\nWWF War Zone","title":"Platinum range"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"007: Quantum of Solace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/007:_Quantum_of_Solace"},{"link_name":"24: The Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24:_The_Game"},{"link_name":"50 Cent: Bulletproof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Cent:_Bulletproof"},{"link_name":"Athens 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens_2004_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Battlefield 2: Modern 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Here Comes the Pain\nWWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth\nWWE SmackDown! vs. RAW\nWWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2006\nWWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2007\nWWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2008\nWWE Smackdown! vs. RAW 2009\nWWF SmackDown! 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ProStreet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_ProStreet"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed: Shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_Shift"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed: Undercover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_Undercover"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed: Underground Rivals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed:_Underground_2"},{"link_name":"Peter Jackson's King Kong: The Official Game of the Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Jackson%27s_King_Kong:_The_Official_Game_of_the_Movie"},{"link_name":"Prince of Persia: Revelations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Persia:_Warrior_Within"},{"link_name":"Prince of Persia: Rival Swords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Persia:_Rival_Swords"},{"link_name":"Pro Evolution Soccer 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Evolution_Soccer_2009"},{"link_name":"Pro Evolution Soccer 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Unleashed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_The_Force_Unleashed"},{"link_name":"Syphon Filter: Dark Mirror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphon_Filter:_Dark_Mirror"},{"link_name":"Tekken: Dark Resurrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekken_5:_Dark_Resurrection"},{"link_name":"Tekken 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekken_6"},{"link_name":"The Simpsons Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons_Game"},{"link_name":"The Sims 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sims_2_(console_video_game)"},{"link_name":"The Sims 2: Castaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sims_2:_Castaway"},{"link_name":"The Sims 2: Pets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sims_2:_Pets"},{"link_name":"TOCA Race Driver 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOCA_Race_Driver_2"},{"link_name":"Tomb Raider: Anniversary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_Raider:_Anniversary"},{"link_name":"Tomb Raider: Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_Raider:_Legend"},{"link_name":"Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Clancy%27s_Rainbow_Six:_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Clancy%27s_Splinter_Cell:_Essentials"},{"link_name":"Transformers: The Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformers:_The_Game"},{"link_name":"Virtua Tennis: World Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Tennis:_World_Tour"},{"link_name":"Wipeout Pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipeout_Pulse"},{"link_name":"Wipeout Pure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipeout_Pure"},{"link_name":"World Tour Soccer: Challenge Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Tour_Soccer:_Challenge_Edition"},{"link_name":"Worms: Open Warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worms:_Open_Warfare"},{"link_name":"WRC: FIA World Rally 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VII\nDaxter\nDissidia: Final Fantasy\nDragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai\nDragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai 2\nDriver 76\nEverybody's Golf\nFIFA 06\nFIFA 07\nFIFA 08\nFIFA 09\nFIFA 10\nFIFA 11\nFIFA 12\nFIFA 13\nFIFA 14\nFIFA Street 2\nFired Up\nFormula One 06\nFormula One Grand Prix\nGangs of London\nGo! Sudoku\nGod of War: Chains of Olympus\nGod of War: Ghost of Sparta\nGottlieb Pinball Classics\nGrand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories\nGrand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories\nGran Turismo\nHarry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\nHarry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\nJak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier\nJames Cameron's Avatar: The Game\n\n\n\n\nKillzone: Liberation\nHarry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\nLego Batman: The Videogame\nLego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures\nLego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy\nLemmings\nLittleBigPlanet\nLocoRoco\nLocoRoco 2\nLumines\nMedal of Honor: Heroes\nMedal of Honor: Heroes 2\nMediEvil: Resurrection\nMetal Gear Solid: Peace Walker\nMetal Gear Solid: Portable Ops\nMidnight Club 3: DUB Edition\nMidnight Club: L.A. Remix\nModNation Racers\nMotoGP\nMotorStorm: Arctic Edge\nMX vs. ATV Reflex\nNamco Museum Battle Collection\nNaruto: Ultimate Ninja Heroes\nNeed for Speed Carbon: Own The City\nNeed for Speed: Most Wanted 5-1-0\nNeed for Speed: ProStreet\nNeed for Speed: Shift\nNeed for Speed: Undercover\nNeed for Speed: Underground Rivals\nPeter Jackson's King Kong: The Official Game of the Movie\nPrince of Persia: Revelations\nPrince of Persia: Rival Swords\nPro Evolution Soccer 2009\nPro Evolution Soccer 2010\nPro Evolution Soccer 2011\nPro Evolution Soccer 5\nPro Evolution Soccer 6\nPursuit Force\nPursuit Force: Extreme Justice\nRatchet & Clank: Size Matters\n\n\nResistance: Retribution\nRidge Racer\nRidge Racer 2\nRocky Balboa\nSecret Agent Clank\nSega Mega Drive Collection\nSmash Court Tennis 3\nSOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 2\nSonic Rivals\nSoulCalibur: Broken Destiny\nStar Wars: Battlefront II\nStar Wars: Lethal Alliance\nStar Wars: The Force Unleashed\nSyphon Filter: Dark Mirror\nTekken: Dark Resurrection\nTekken 6\nThe Simpsons Game\nThe Sims 2\nThe Sims 2: Castaway\nThe Sims 2: Pets\nTOCA Race Driver 2\nTomb Raider: Anniversary\nTomb Raider: Legend\nTom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas\nTom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials\nTransformers: The Game\nVirtua Tennis: World Tour\nWipeout Pulse\nWipeout Pure\nWorld Tour Soccer: Challenge Edition\nWorms: Open Warfare\nWRC: FIA World Rally Championship\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2006\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010","title":"Platinum range"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Essentials range"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ace Combat: Assault Horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Combat:_Assault_Horizon"},{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed"},{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed II – Game of the Year 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Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout_3"},{"link_name":"Fallout: New Vegas Ultimate Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout:_New_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Far Cry 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Cry_2"},{"link_name":"Far Cry 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Cry_3"},{"link_name":"Far Cry 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Cry_4"},{"link_name":"Farming Simulator 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farming_Simulator_15"},{"link_name":"FIFA 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_12"},{"link_name":"FIFA 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_13"},{"link_name":"FIFA 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_14"},{"link_name":"FIFA 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_15"},{"link_name":"FIFA 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_16"},{"link_name":"FIFA 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_17"},{"link_name":"FIFA 18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_18"},{"link_name":"FIFA Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Street_(2012_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_X"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy X-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_X-2"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy_XIII"},{"link_name":"God of War Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War_Collection"},{"link_name":"God of War Collection – Volume II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War:_Origins_Collection"},{"link_name":"God of War III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War_III"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft Auto IV: Episodes from Liberty City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_IV"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft Auto IV: The Complete Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_IV"},{"link_name":"Gran Turismo 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Turismo_5"},{"link_name":"Grid 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_2"},{"link_name":"Grid Autosport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_Autosport"},{"link_name":"Heavy Rain: Move Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_Rain"},{"link_name":"Heavenly Sword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavenly_Sword"},{"link_name":"Hitman: Absolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitman:_Absolution"},{"link_name":"Homefront – Ultimate Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homefront_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Infamous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infamous_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Infamous 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infamous_2"},{"link_name":"Just Cause 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Cause_2"},{"link_name":"Kane & Lynch 2: Dog Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kane_%26_Lynch_2:_Dog_Days"},{"link_name":"Killzone 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killzone_2"},{"link_name":"Killzone 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killzone_3"},{"link_name":"Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 ReMIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_Hearts_HD_1.5_ReMIX"},{"link_name":"Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 ReMIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_Hearts_HD_2.5_ReMIX"},{"link_name":"L.A. 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Quiz World\nBuzz!: The Ultimate Music Quiz\nCapcom Puzzle World\nCapcom Classics Collection Reloaded\nCapcom Classics Collection Remixed\nCars\nCars 2\nCloudy with a Chance of Meatballs\nCrash of the Titans\nCrash: Mind Over Mutant\nCrash Tag Team Racing\nDante's Inferno\nDarkstalkers Chronicle: The Chaos Tower\nDaxter\nDespicable Me\nDissidia: Final Fantasy\nDissidia 012: Final Fantasy\nDisney Hannah Montana: Rock Out the Show\nDragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai\nDragon Ball Z: Shin Budokai 2\nDragon Ball Z: Tenkaichi Tag Team\nDriver '76\nechochrome\nechoshift\nEverybody's Golf\nEverybody's Golf 2\nEverybody's Tennis\nExit\nEyePet\nF1 2009\nFat Princess\nFIFA 09\nFIFA 10\nFIFA 11\nFIFA 12\nFIFA 13\nFIFA 14\nFIFA Street 2\nFight Night Round 3\nFinal Fantasy\nFinal Fantasy II\nFinal Fantasy IV: The Complete Collection\nFinal Fantasy Tactics: The War of the Lions\nGangs of London\nGradius Collection\nG-Force\nGeneration of Chaos\nGeronimo Stilton in the Kingdom of Fantasy\nGeronimo Stilton: Return to the Kingdom of Fantasy\nGladiator Begins\nGod of War: Chains of Olympus\nGod of War: Ghost of Sparta\n\n\nGods Eater Burst\nGottlieb Pinball Classics\nGran Turismo\nGuilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus\nHarry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\nHarry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\nHarry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\nInvizimals\nInvizimals: The Lost Tribes\nInvizimals: Shadow Zone\nIron Man\nIron Man 2\nJak & Daxter: The Lost Frontier\nJuiced 2: Hot Import Nights\nKey of Heaven\nKillzone: Liberation\nLEGO Batman: The Video Game\nLEGO Harry Potter: Years 1–4\nLEGO Harry Potter: Years 5–7\nLEGO Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues\nLEGO Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game\nLEGO Star Wars III: The Clone Wars\nLemmings\nLittleBigPlanet\nLocoRoco\nLocoRoco 2\nLord of Arcana\nMarvel Super Hero Squad\nMedal of Honor: Heroes\nMedal of Honor: Heroes 2\nMediEvil: Resurrection\nMega Minis Volume 1\nMega Minis Volume 2\nMega Minis Volume 3\nMega Man Maverick Hunter X\nMetal Gear Acid\nMetal Gear Solid: Portable Ops\nModNation Racers\nMonster Hunter Freedom\nMonster Hunter Freedom 2\nMonster Hunter Freedom Unite\nMortal Kombat: Unchained\nMotorStorm: Arctic Edge\nMX vs. ATV: Reflex\nNamco Museum Battle Collection\nNaruto: Ultimate Ninja Heroes 2: The Phantom Fortress\nNaruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Heroes 3\nNaruto Shippuden: Kizuna Drive\nNaruto Shippuden Legends Akatsuki Rising\nNaruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Impact\nNBA Live 09\nNHL 07\nNeed for Speed Carbon: Own The City\nNeed for Speed: Most Wanted 5-1-0\nNeed for Speed: ProStreet\nNeed for Speed: Underground Rivals\nNeed for Speed: Shift\nNeed for Speed: Undercover\nOpen Season\nPaRappa The Rapper\nPatapon\nPatapon 2\nPatapon 3\nPeter Jackson's King Kong: The Official Game of the Movie\nPetz My Baby Hamster\nPetz My Puppy Family\nPhantasy Star Portable\nPocket Racers\nPirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest\nPirates of the Caribbean: At World's End\nPower Stone Collection\nPrince of Persia Revelations\n\n\nPrince of Persia Rival Swords\nPrince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands\nPursuit Force\nPursuit Force Extreme Justice\nRatchet & Clank: Size Matters\nRatatouille\nResistance: Retribution\nSecret Agent Clank\nSega Mega Drive Collection\nSega Rally\nShaun White Snowboarding\nSid Meier's Pirates!\nSilent Hill: Origins\nSilent Hill: Shattered Memories\nSkate Park City\nSOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Fireteam Bravo 3\nSonic Rivals\nSonic Rivals 2\nSoulCalibur: Broken Destiny\nSpider-Man 3\nSpider-Man: Web of Shadows\nSplit/Second Velocity\nSpace Invaders Extreme\nSpongeBob SquarePants: The Yellow Avenger\nSpongeBob's Truth or Square\nStreet Fighter Alpha 3 MAX\nSSX on Tour\nStar Wars: Battlefront II\nStar Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron\nStar Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron\nStar Wars The Clone Wars: Republic Heroes\nStar Wars: The Force Unleashed\nSuper Monkey Ball Adventure\nSurf's Up\nSyphon Filter: Dark Mirror\nSyphon Filter: Logan's Shadow\nTactics Ogre: Let Us Cling Together\nTekken: Dark Resurrection\nTekken 6\nTenchu: Shadow Assassins\nTest Drive Unlimited\nThe Mystery Team\nThe Sims 2\nThe Sims 2: Castaway\nThe Sims 2: Pets\nTiger Woods PGA Tour 10\nTMNT\nTron: Evolution\nTomb Raider: Anniversary\nTomb Raider: Legend\nTom Clancy's EndWar\nTom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2\nTom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas\nTom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Essentials\nTony Hawk's Project 8\nTony Hawk's Underground 2: Remix\nTransformers: Revenge of the Fallen\nThe 3rd Birthday\nTomb Raider: Legend\nToy Story 3: The Video Game\nUFC Undisputed 2010\nUp\nValkyria Chronicles II\nWALL-E\nWarhammer 40,000: Squad Command\nWipeout Pulse\nWipeout Pure\nWorms: Open Warfare\nWorms: Open Warfare 2\nWWE All Stars\nWWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011\nX-Men Origins: Wolverine","title":"Essentials range"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"PlayStation Hits range"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greatest Hits (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_(PlayStation)#PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"The Best (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_(PlayStation)#PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed IV Black Flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed_IV_Black_Flag"},{"link_name":"Batman: Arkham Knight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman:_Arkham_Knight"},{"link_name":"Bloodborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodborne"},{"link_name":"Dishonored 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishonored_2"},{"link_name":"Doom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(2016_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Dragon Ball Xenoverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Xenoverse"},{"link_name":"Dragon Ball Xenoverse 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Xenoverse_2"},{"link_name":"Driveclub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driveclub"},{"link_name":"Dynasty Warriors 8: Xtreme Legends Complete Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty_Warriors_8:_Xtreme_Legends_Complete_Edition"},{"link_name":"Dynasty Warriors 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty_Warriors_9"},{"link_name":"EA Sports UFC 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EA_Sports_UFC_2"},{"link_name":"Earth Defense Force 4.1: The Shadow of New Despair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Defense_Force_4.1:_The_Shadow_of_New_Despair"},{"link_name":"The Evil Within","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Evil_Within"},{"link_name":"Fallout 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout_4"},{"link_name":"Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fist_of_the_North_Star:_Lost_Paradise"},{"link_name":"Friday the 13th: The Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_the_13th:_The_Game"},{"link_name":"God of War III Remastered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War_III"},{"link_name":"God of War (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War_(2018)"},{"link_name":"Gran Turismo Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Turismo_Sport"},{"link_name":"Horizon Zero Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon_Zero_Dawn"},{"link_name":"Horizon Zero Dawn Complete Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon_Zero_Dawn#Complete_Edition"},{"link_name":"inFAMOUS: Second Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infamous_Second_Son"},{"link_name":"Injustice 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injustice_2"},{"link_name":"Killzone: Shadow Fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killzone:_Shadow_Fall"},{"link_name":"The Last of Us Remastered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us_Remastered"},{"link_name":"LittleBigPlanet 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LittleBigPlanet_3"},{"link_name":"Metal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_Gear_Solid_V:_The_Phantom_Pain"},{"link_name":"Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth:_Shadow_of_Mordor"},{"link_name":"Monster Hunter: World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Hunter:_World"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_X"},{"link_name":"Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naruto_Shippuden:_Ultimate_Ninja_Storm_4"},{"link_name":"Need For Speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed_(2015_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Need For Speed Rivals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed_Rivals"},{"link_name":"Nioh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nioh"},{"link_name":"One Piece Pirate Warriors 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Piece:_Pirate_Warriors_3"},{"link_name":"Plants vs. Zombies: Garden Warfare 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_vs._Zombies:_Garden_Warfare_2"},{"link_name":"Project CARS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CARS"},{"link_name":"Ratchet & Clank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_(2016_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Rayman Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayman_Legends"},{"link_name":"Resident Evil 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil_6"},{"link_name":"Resident Evil VII: Biohazard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil_VII:_Biohazard"},{"link_name":"Street Fighter V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_Fighter_V"},{"link_name":"Tales of Berseria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_of_Berseria"},{"link_name":"Uncharted: The Nathan Drake Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncharted"},{"link_name":"Uncharted 4: A Thief's End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncharted_4:_A_Thief%27s_End"},{"link_name":"Uncharted: The Lost Legacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncharted:_The_Lost_Legacy"},{"link_name":"Until Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Until_Dawn"},{"link_name":"Watch Dogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch_Dogs_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Wolfenstein: The New Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfenstein:_The_New_Order"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_0"},{"link_name":"Yakuza Kiwami 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_Kiwami_2"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 6: The Song of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_6:_The_Song_of_Life"}],"sub_title":"PlayStation 4","text":"This section is about titles released as PlayStation Hits in Europe and Oceania. For titles released as PlayStation Hits in North America, see Greatest Hits (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4. For titles released as PlayStation Hits in Japan and select Asian countries, see The Best (PlayStation) § PlayStation 4.Assassin's Creed IV Black Flag\nBatman: Arkham Knight\nBloodborne\nDishonored 2\nDoom\nDragon Ball Xenoverse\nDragon Ball Xenoverse 2\nDriveclub\nDynasty Warriors 8: Xtreme Legends Complete Edition\nDynasty Warriors 9\nEA Sports UFC 2\nEarth Defense Force 4.1: The Shadow of New Despair\nThe Evil Within\nFallout 4\nFist of the North Star: Lost Paradise\nFriday the 13th: The Game\nGod of War III Remastered\nGod of War (2018)\nGran Turismo Sport\nHorizon Zero Dawn\nHorizon Zero Dawn Complete Edition\ninFAMOUS: Second Son\nInjustice 2\nKillzone: Shadow Fall\nThe Last of Us Remastered\nLittleBigPlanet 3\nMetal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience\nMiddle-earth: Shadow of Mordor\nMonster Hunter: World\nMortal Kombat X\nNaruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4\nNeed For Speed\nNeed For Speed Rivals\nNioh\nOne Piece Pirate Warriors 3\nPlants vs. Zombies: Garden Warfare 2\nProject CARS\nRatchet & Clank\nRayman Legends\nResident Evil 6\nResident Evil VII: Biohazard\nStreet Fighter V\nTales of Berseria\nUncharted: The Nathan Drake Collection\nUncharted 4: A Thief's End\nUncharted: The Lost Legacy\nUntil Dawn\nWatch Dogs\nWolfenstein: The New Order\nYakuza 0\nYakuza Kiwami 2\nYakuza 6: The Song of Life","title":"PlayStation Hits range"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus

Romulus

["1 Traditional account","1.1 Romulus and Remus","1.2 Establishment of the city","1.3 The Rape of the Sabine Women","1.4 Subsequent events","1.5 Death and succession","2 Primary sources","2.1 Romulus-Quirinus","3 Historicity","4 Depictions in art","4.1 Palazzo Magnani","4.2 The rape of the Sabine women in paintings and sculpture","4.3 Tarpeia","4.4 Hersilia","4.5 Death of Tatius","4.6 Death of Romulus","5 See also","6 Notes","7 Citations","8 Bibliography","8.1 Ancient Sources","8.2 Additional reading"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Romulus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) King of Rome from 753 to 716 BC This article is about the founder and first king of Rome. For the legendary tale of Romulus and Remus, see Romulus and Remus. For other uses, see Romulus (disambiguation). RomulusRomulus and his twin brother Remus from a 15th-century frieze, Certosa di PaviaKing of RomeReign753–716 BC(traditional dates)SuccessorNuma PompiliusBornAlba LongaDiedRomeSpouseHersiliaFatherMarsMotherRhea Silvia Romulus (/ˈrɒmjʊləs/, Classical Latin: ) was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of these traditions incorporate elements of folklore, and it is not clear to what extent a historical figure underlies the mythical Romulus, the events and institutions ascribed to him were central to the myths surrounding Rome's origins and cultural traditions. Traditional account The myths concerning Romulus involve several distinct episodes and figures, including the miraculous birth and youth of Romulus and his twin brother, Remus; Remus' murder and the founding of Rome; the Rape of the Sabine Women, and the subsequent war with the Sabines; a period of joint rule with Titus Tatius; the establishment of various Roman institutions; the death or apotheosis of Romulus, and the succession of Numa Pompilius. Romulus and Remus Main article: Romulus and Remus According to Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia by the god Mars. Their maternal grandfather was Numitor, the rightful king of Alba Longa, through whom the twins were descended from both the Trojan hero Aeneas, and Latinus, the king of Latium. Before the twins' birth, Numitor's throne had been usurped by his brother, Amulius, who murdered Numitor's son or sons, and condemned Rhea Silvia to perpetual virginity by consecrating her a Vestal. When Rhea became pregnant, she asserted that she had been visited by the god Mars. Amulius imprisoned her, and upon the twins' birth, ordered that they be thrown into the Tiber. But as the river had been swollen by rain, the servants tasked with disposing of the infants could not reach its banks, and so exposed the twins beneath a fig tree at the foot of the Palatine Hill. A statue of a She-wolf depicts the twins suckling. In the traditional account, a she-wolf happened upon the twins, and suckled them until they were found by the king's herdsman, Faustulus, and his wife, Acca Larentia. The brothers grew to manhood among the shepherds and hill-folk. After becoming involved in a conflict between the followers of Amulius and those of their grandfather Numitor, Faustulus told them of their origin. With the help of their friends, they lured Amulius into an ambush and killed him, restoring their grandfather to the throne. The princes then set out to establish a city of their own. They returned to the hills overlooking the Tiber, near where they had been exposed as infants, but disagreed on the site of their new city. Each took up station on a different hill, and awaited an omen to decide between them. Remus sighted six vultures over the Aventine Hill, then Romulus saw a flight of twelve above the Palatine Hill. Remus argued for the Aventine based on priority, Romulus the Palatine based on number. The conflict escalated, and Romulus or one of his followers killed Remus. In a variant of the legend, the augurs favoured Romulus, who proceeded to plough a square furrow around the Palatine Hill to demarcate the walls of the future city (Roma Quadrata). When Remus derisively leapt over the "walls" to show how inadequate they were against invaders, Romulus struck him down in anger. In another variant, Remus was killed during a melée, along with Faustulus. Establishment of the city The founding of Rome was commemorated annually on April 21, with the festival of the Parilia. Romulus' first act was to fortify the Palatine with the Murus Romuli, in the course of which he made a sacrifice to the gods. He laid out the city's boundaries with a furrow that he ploughed, performed another sacrifice, and with his followers set to work building the city itself. Romulus sought the assent of the people to become their king. With Numitor's help, he addressed them and received their approval. Romulus accepted the crown after he sacrificed and prayed to Jupiter, and after receiving favourable omens. Romulus divided the populace into three tribes, known as the Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres, for taxation and military purposes. Each tribe was presided over by an official known as a tribune, and was further divided into ten curia, or wards, each presided over by an official known as a curio. Romulus also allotted a portion of land to each ward, for the benefit of the people. Nothing is known of the manner in which the tribes and curiae were taxed, but for the military levy, each curia was responsible for providing one hundred foot soldiers, a unit known as a century, and ten cavalry. Each Romulean tribe thus provided about one thousand infantry, and one century of cavalry; the three hundred cavalry became known as the Celeres, "the swift", and formed the royal bodyguard. Choosing one hundred men from the leading families, Romulus established the Roman senate. These men he called patres, the city fathers; their descendants came to be known as "patricians", forming one of the two major social classes at Rome. The other class, known as the "plebs" or "plebeians", consisted of the servants, freedmen, fugitives who sought asylum at Rome, those captured in war, and others who were granted Roman citizenship over time. To encourage the growth of the city, Romulus outlawed infanticide, and established an asylum for fugitives on the Capitoline Hill. Here freemen and slaves alike could claim protection and seek Roman citizenship. The Rape of the Sabine Women Main article: The Rape of the Sabine Women Further information: Battle of the Lacus Curtius The new city was filled with colonists, most of whom were young, unmarried men. While fugitives seeking asylum helped the population grow, single men greatly outnumbered women. With no intermarriage taking place between Rome and neighboring communities, the new city would eventually fail. Romulus sent envoys to neighboring towns, appealing to them to allow intermarriage with Roman citizens, but his overtures were rebuffed. Romulus formulated a plan to acquire women from other settlements. He announced a momentous festival and games, and invited the people of the neighboring cities to attend. Many did, in particular the Sabines, who came in droves. At a prearranged signal, the Romans seized and carried off the marriageable women among their guests. The aggrieved cities prepared for war with Rome, and might have defeated Romulus had they been fully united. But impatient with the preparations of the Sabines, the Latin towns of Caenina, Crustumerium, and Antemnae took action without their allies. Caenina was the first to attack; its army was swiftly put to flight, and the town taken. After personally defeating and slaying the prince of Caenina in single combat, Romulus stripped him of his armour, becoming the first to claim the spolia opima, and vowed to build a temple to Jupiter Feretrius. Antemnae and Crustumerium were conquered in turn. Some of their people, chiefly the families of the abducted women, were allowed to settle in Rome. Following the defeat of the Latin towns, the Sabines, under the leadership of Titus Tatius, marshalled their forces and advanced upon Rome. They gained control of the citadel by bribing Tarpeia, the daughter of the Roman commander charged with its defense. Without the advantage of the citadel, the Romans were obliged to meet the Sabines on the battlefield. The Sabines advanced from the citadel, and fierce fighting ensued. The nearby Lacus Curtius is said to be named after Mettius Curtius, a Sabine warrior who plunged his horse into its muck to stymie his Roman pursuers as he retreated. At a critical juncture in the fighting, the Romans began to waver in the face of the Sabine advance. Romulus vowed to build a temple to Jupiter Stator, to keep his line from breaking. The bloodshed finally ended when the Sabine women interposed themselves between the two armies, pleading on the one hand with their fathers and brothers, and on the other with their husbands, to set aside their arms and come to terms. The leaders of each side met and made peace. They formed one community, to be jointly ruled by Romulus and Tatius. Subsequent events The two kings presided over the growing city of Rome for a number of years, before Tatius was slain in a riot at Lavinium, where he had gone to make a sacrifice. Shortly before, a group of envoys from Laurentum had complained of their treatment by Tatius' kinsmen, and he had decided the matter against the ambassadors. Romulus resisted calls to avenge the Sabine king's death, instead reaffirming the Roman alliance with Lavinium, and perhaps preventing his city from splintering along ethnic lines. In the years following the death of Tatius, Romulus is said to have conquered the city of Fidenae, which, alarmed by the rising power of Rome, had begun raiding Roman territory. The Romans lured the Fidenates into an ambush, and routed their army; as they retreated into their city, the Romans followed before the gates could be shut, and captured the town. The Etruscan city of Veii, nine miles up the Tiber from Rome, also raided Roman territory, foreshadowing that city's role as the chief rival to Roman power over the next three centuries. Romulus defeated Veii's army, but found the city too well defended to besiege, and instead ravaged the countryside. Death and succession After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus is said to have disappeared in a whirlwind during a sudden and violent storm, as he was reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. Livy says that Romulus was either murdered by the senators, torn apart out of jealousy, or was raised to heaven by Mars, god of war. Livy believes the last theory regarding the legendary king's death, as it allows the Romans to believe that the gods are on their side, a reason for them to continue expansion under Romulus' name. Romulus acquired a cult following, which later became assimilated with the cult of Quirinus, perhaps originally the indigenous god of the Sabine population. As the Sabines had not had a king of their own since the death of Titus Tatius, the next king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, was chosen from among the Sabines. Various sources state that Romulus had a wife, Hersilia. In Livy, following the defeat of the Caeninenses and the Antemnates, the Sabine women begged Hersilia to intercede with her husband on behalf of their families so that they would be received into the state rather than slain by Roman arms. In Dionysius, Hersilia was herself one of the Sabine women, and the only one who was already married at the time of her abduction. Dionysius explains that she was either mistaken for a virgin, or, he thinks more probably, that she was the mother of one of those abducted, and refused to abandon her daughter. Plutarch also relates that Hersilia was one of the Sabine women, and the only one already married. He also mentions that some authorities make Hersilia the wife of Hostus Hostilius, rather than Romulus. Two children are attributed to Romulus in Plutarch: a daughter, Prima, and a son, Avillius, but here Plutarch notes that his source, Zenodotus of Troezen, is widely disputed. Primary sources Livy, Dionysius, and Plutarch rely on Quintus Fabius Pictor as a source. Other significant sources include Ovid's Fasti, and Virgil's Aeneid. Greek historians had traditionally claimed that Rome was founded by Greeks, a claim dating back to the logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos of 5th-century BC, who named Aeneas as its founder. Roman historians connect Romulus to Aeneas by ancestry and mention a previous settlement on the Palatine Hill, sometimes attributing it to Evander and his Greek colonists. To the Romans, Rome was the institutions and traditions they credit to their legendary founder, the first "Roman". The legend as a whole encapsulates Rome's ideas of itself, its origins and moral values. For modern scholarship, it remains one of the most complex and problematic of all foundation myths. Ancient historians had no doubt that Romulus gave his name to the city. Most modern historians believe his name is a back-formation from the name of the city. Roman historians dated the city's foundation to between 758 and 728 BC, and Plutarch reports the calculation of Varro's friend Tarutius that 771 BC was the birth year of Romulus and his twin. The tradition that gave Romulus a distant ancestor in the semi-divine Trojan prince Aeneas was further embellished, and Romulus was made the direct ancestor of Rome's first Imperial dynasty. It is unclear whether or not the tale of Romulus or that of the twins are original elements of the foundation myth, or whether both or either were added. Romulus-Quirinus Roman Denarius with Romulus as Quirinus Ennius (fl. 180s BC) refers to Romulus as a divinity in his own right, without reference to Quirinus. Roman mythographers identified the latter as an originally Sabine war-deity, and thus to be identified with Roman Mars. Lucilius lists Quirinus and Romulus as separate deities, and Varro accords them different temples. Images of Quirinus showed him as a bearded warrior wielding a spear as a god of war, the embodiment of Roman strength and a deified likeness of the city of Rome. He had a Flamen Maior called the Flamen Quirinalis, who oversaw his worship and rituals in the ordainment of Roman religion attributed to Romulus's royal successor, Numa Pompilius. There is however no evidence for the conflated Romulus-Quirinus before the 1st century BC. Ovid in Metamorphoses XIV (lines 805-828) gives a description of the deification of Romulus and his wife Hersilia, who are given the new names of Quirinus and Hora respectively. Mars, the father of Romulus, is given permission by Jupiter to bring his son up to Olympus to live with the Olympians. One theory regarding this tradition proposes the emergence of two mythical figures from an earlier, singular hero. While Romulus is a founding hero, Quirinus may have been a god of the harvest, and the Fornacalia a festival celebrating a staple crop (spelt). Through the traditional dates from the tales and the festivals, they are each associated with one another. A legend of the murder of such a founding hero, the burying of the hero's body in the fields (found in some accounts), and a festival associated with that hero, a god of the harvest, and a food staple is a pattern recognized by anthropologists. Called a "dema archetype", this pattern suggests that in a prior tradition, the god and the hero were in fact the same figure and later evolved into two. Historicity Possible historical bases for the broad mythological narrative remain unclear and disputed. Modern scholarship approaches the various known stories of the myth as cumulative elaborations and later interpretations of Roman foundation myth. Particular versions and collations were presented by Roman historians as authoritative, an official history trimmed of contradictions and untidy variants to justify contemporary developments, genealogies and actions in relation to Roman morality. Other narratives appear to represent popular or folkloric tradition; some of these remain inscrutable in purpose and meaning. T.P. Wiseman sums up the whole issue as the mythography of an unusually problematic foundation and early history. The unsavoury elements of many of the myths concerning Romulus have led some scholars to describe them as "shameful" or "disreputable".: 60–2  In antiquity such stories became part of anti-Roman and anti-pagan propaganda. More recently, the historian Hermann Strasburger postulated that these were never part of authentic Roman tradition, but were invented and popularized by Rome's enemies, probably in Magna Graecia, during the latter part of the fourth century BC.: 60–2  This hypothesis is rejected by other scholars, such as Tim Cornell (1995), who notes that by this period, the story of Romulus and Remus had already assumed its standard form, and was widely accepted at Rome. Other elements of the Romulus mythos clearly resemble common elements of folk tale and legend, and thus strong evidence that the stories were both old and indigenous.: 60–2  Likewise, Momigliano finds Strasburger's argument well-developed, but entirely implausible; if the Romulus myths were an exercise in mockery, they were a signal failure. Depictions in art The episodes which make up the legend, most significantly that of the rape of the Sabine women, the tale of Tarpeia, and the death of Tatius have been a significant part of ancient Roman scholarship and the frequent subject of art, literature and philosophy since ancient times. Palazzo Magnani In the late 16th century, the wealthy Magnani family from Bologna commissioned a series of artworks based on the Roman foundation myth. The artists contributing works included a sculpture of Hercules with the infant twins by Gabriele Fiorini, featuring the patron's own face. The most important works were an elaborate series of frescoes collectively known as Histories of the Foundation of Rome by the Brothers Carracci: Ludovico, Annibale, and Agostino. Romulus marking the city's boundaries with a plough The Asylum (Inter duos Lucos) The rape of the Sabine women Romulus dedicating the temple to Jupiter Feretrius The Battle of the Lacus Curtius The death of Titus Tatius in Laurentium Romulus appearing to Proculus Julius The Pride of Romulus The rape of the Sabine women in paintings and sculpture Il Sodoma (1507) Nicolas Poussin (1638) Peter Paul Rubens (1634–36) Giambologna (1583) Jacopo Ligozzi (c.1565-1627) Attributed to Theodoor van Thulden (17th c.) Sebastiano Ricci (c. 1700) Johann Heinrich Schönfeld (1640) Charles Christian Nahl (1870) Tarpeia The Vestal Virgin Tarpeia Beaten by Tatius’ soldiers Il Sodoma (16th c.) Tarpeia's punishment, Pentelic marble fragment from the Frieze of the Basilica Aemilia (100 BC-100 AD Reconstruction of Basilica Aemilia Frieze marble fragment Tarpeia, Illustration from Pictura loquens "the Heroic Accounts of Hadrian Schoonebeeck" (1695) (14751427905) Tarpeia conspires with Tatius in an illustration from The story of the Romans by Hélène Adeline Guerber (1896) Hersilia Print from Romolo ed Ersilia, final scene, Act 3, Artist;: Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Engraver: Francesco Bartolozzi (1781) Hersilia from a detail of Les Sabines "The Intervention of the Sabine Women", Jacques-Louis David (1799) Hersilia Separating Romulus and Tatius, Guercino (1645) Death of Tatius The subject for the 1788 Prix de Rome was the death of Tatius (La mort de Tatius). Garnier won the contest. Version by Étienne-Barthélémy Garnier, now in the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts, Paris. Version by Girodet, now in the Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Angers. Version by Jacques Réattu, now in the Musée Réattu, Arles. Death of Romulus "Apparition of Romulus before Proculus", Rubens (17th c.) See also Evander of Pallene Hersilia List of people who disappeared Proculus Julius Legendary progenitor Notes ^ Dionysius describes an ambush of Numitor's son, who was hunting; Livy indicates that there were multiple sons, but does not give any details of their murder. Dionysius also gives an alternate name, Ilia, for Rhea Silvia. ^ In another version, the she-wolf of the legend was Acca Larentia herself, who was a prostitute nicknamed "Lupa" by the shepherds. ^ Dionysius suggests that the Parilia may have predated the founding of the city, and been chosen by Romulus because it was an auspicious occasion. ^ The founding of Rome fell on the Parilia, according to the oldest surviving Roman calendar (Rodriguez Mayorga 2010, p. 97). ^ These names probably do not date from the time of Romulus; modern scholars have inferred that they were originally ethnic tribes representing different elements of the early Roman population, with the Ramnes representing the Latins, the Titienses the Sabines, and the Luceres the Etruscans. The Luceres may have been a later addition to the original Romulean tribes, but as the Tiber formed the traditional boundary between Latium and Etruria, it is not unlikely that there were Etruscan settlers from the earliest period. ^ As the name suggests, a unit of one hundred men, although in later times a century was usually smaller, comprising about sixty men. ^ Jupiter the Steadfast. ^ The archaeologist Andrea Carandini is one of very few modern scholars who accept Romulus and Remus as historical figures, based on the 1988 discovery of an ancient wall on the north slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome. Carandini dates the structure to the mid-8th century BC and names it the Murus Romuli. See: Carandini (1997), La nascita di Roma. Dèi, lari, eroi e uomini all'alba di una civiltà (Torino: Einaudi); Carandini (2006), Remo e Romolo. Dai rioni dei Quiriti alla città dei Romani (775/750 - 700/675 a. C. circa) (Torino: Einaudi); and Carandini (2011). Rome: Day One. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13922-7. Citations ^ a b Livy, History of Rome i. 3. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities i. 76. ^ Dionysius, i. 77–79. ^ Livy, i. 4. ^ a b Livy, i. 3–6. ^ Dionysius, i. 79–83. ^ Dionysius, i. 85–87. ^ Livy, i. 7. ^ Dionysius, i. 88. ^ Dionysius, ii. 3–6. ^ Dionysius, ii. 7. ^ Varro Reatinus, On the Latin Language v. 81, 89. ^ Livy, i. 13, 15. ^ Dionysius, ii. 13. ^ a b Livy, i. 9. ^ Dionysius, ii. 8, 12, 13. ^ Livy, i. 8. ^ Dionysius, ii. 15. ^ Livy, i. 10. ^ Livy, i. 11–13. ^ Livy, i. 13. ^ Livy, i. 14–15. ^ Livy, I. "Romulus reigned thirty-seven years." ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Romulus. "Romulus is said to have been fifty-four years of age, and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign when he disappeared from among men." ^ Livy, i. 16. ^ Livy, i. 17, 18. ^ Livy, i. 11. ^ Dionysius, ii. 45. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Romulus", 14, 18, 19. ^ Rodriguez Mayorgas (2010), pp. 92–94 ^ Plutarch. Life of Romulus. 12.5. ^ Evans, 103 and footnote 66: citing quotation of Ennius in Cicero, 1.41.64. ^ Fishwick, Duncan (1993), The Imperial Cult in the Latin West (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, p. 53, ISBN 978-90-04-07179-7. ^ Cook, John Granger (2018). Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis. p. 263. doi:10.1628/978-3-16-156584-7. ISBN 9783161565847. ^ Brelich, Angelo. 1960. Quirinus: una divinita' romana alla luce della comparazione storica "Studi e Materiali di Storia delle religioni". ^ Wiseman, T. P. (1995), Remus, A Roman Myth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Momigliano, Arnoldo (2007), "An interim report on the origins of Rome", Terzo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico, vol. 1, Rome, IT: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, pp. 545–98, ISBN 9788884983633. — A critical, chronological review of historiography related to Rome's origins. ^ a b c d Cornell, Tim (1995), The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London: Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-75495-1. Bibliography Cornell, T. (1995), The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC), Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-75495-1 Rodríguez Mayorgas, Ana (2010), "Romulus, Aeneas and the Cultural Memory of the Roman Republic" (PDF), Athenaeum, 98 (1): 89–109, retrieved 14 December 2016 Tennant, P. M. W. (1988). "The Lupercalia and the Romulus and Remus Legend" (PDF). Acta Classica. XXXI: 81–93. ISSN 0065-1141. Retrieved 19 November 2016. Wiseman, T. P. (1983). "The Wife and Children of Romulus". The Classical Quarterly. XXXI (ii). Cambridge University Press: 445–452. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034704. JSTOR 638787. S2CID 170700760. Cook, John Granger (2018), Empty Tomb, Apotheosis, Resurrection, p. 263. Hyden, Marc (2020), Romulus: The Legend of Rome's Founding Father, Pen and Sword History, ISBN 9781526783172. Ancient Sources Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities i & ii. Livy, History of Rome i–v. Additional reading Carandini, Andrea (2011). Rome: Day One. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13922-7. Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22651-7. Legendary titles New creation King of Rome 753–717 Succeeded byNuma Pompilius Preceded byNumitor King of Alba Longa vteKings of Rome Romulus (753–717 BC) Numa Pompilius (717–673 BC) Tullus Hostilius (673–642 BC) Ancus Marcius (642–617 BC) Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (616–579 BC) Servius Tullius (578–535 BC) Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (535–510 BC/509 BC) vteWorks of PlutarchWorks Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar (life) Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives vteAncient Roman religion and mythologyDeities(Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Aurora Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Lares Familiares Liber Libertas Luna Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Nox Ops Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Summanus Venus Veritas Vesta Vertumnus Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Caelus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pax Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Terra Victoria Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Kings of Alba Longa Hersilia Legendary beings She-wolf Barnacle goose Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Fasti Metamorphoses Propertius Varro Res divinae Sibylline Books Apuleius The Golden Ass Conceptsand practices Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Charity Palladium Theology of victory Pomerium Temples Capitolium Cella Celtic Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism Events The Golden Bough Founding of Rome The Rape of the Sabine Women Battle of Lacus Curtius Objects Gubernaculum Pignora imperii Variations Gallo-Roman Mysteries Cybele Isis Mithraism See also Classical mythology Decline Persecution Etruscan religion Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 WorldCat National Norway Spain Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Netherlands Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romulus and Remus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus"},{"link_name":"Romulus (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈrɒmjʊləs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Classical Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latin_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈroːmʊɫʊs]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin"},{"link_name":"founder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"first king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"folklore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore"}],"text":"King of Rome from 753 to 716 BCThis article is about the founder and first king of Rome. For the legendary tale of Romulus and Remus, see Romulus and Remus. For other uses, see Romulus (disambiguation).Romulus (/ˈrɒmjʊləs/, Classical Latin: [ˈroːmʊɫʊs]) was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of these traditions incorporate elements of folklore, and it is not clear to what extent a historical figure underlies the mythical Romulus, the events and institutions ascribed to him were central to the myths surrounding Rome's origins and cultural traditions.","title":"Romulus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"twin brother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_brother"},{"link_name":"Remus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remus"},{"link_name":"the Rape of the Sabine Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women"},{"link_name":"Sabines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabines"},{"link_name":"Titus Tatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Tatius"},{"link_name":"apotheosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotheosis"},{"link_name":"Numa Pompilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The myths concerning Romulus involve several distinct episodes and figures, including the miraculous birth and youth of Romulus and his twin brother, Remus; Remus' murder and the founding of Rome; the Rape of the Sabine Women, and the subsequent war with the Sabines; a period of joint rule with Titus Tatius; the establishment of various Roman institutions; the death or apotheosis of Romulus, and the succession of Numa Pompilius.[citation needed]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_mythology"},{"link_name":"Rhea Silvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhea_Silvia"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Numitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numitor"},{"link_name":"Alba Longa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alba_Longa"},{"link_name":"Trojan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Aeneas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneas"},{"link_name":"Latinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinus"},{"link_name":"Latium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latium"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Amulius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amulius"},{"link_name":"Vestal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestal_virgins"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_i_3-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Tiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiber"},{"link_name":"exposed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_exposure"},{"link_name":"Palatine Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Hill"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_i_3-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg"},{"link_name":"She-wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)"},{"link_name":"she-wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)"},{"link_name":"Faustulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustulus"},{"link_name":"Acca Larentia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acca_Larentia"},{"link_name":"[ii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_i_3-6-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"hills overlooking the Tiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy_i_3-6-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"plough a square furrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulcus_primigenius"},{"link_name":"Roma Quadrata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Quadrata"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Romulus and Remus","text":"According to Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia by the god Mars. Their maternal grandfather was Numitor, the rightful king of Alba Longa, through whom the twins were descended from both the Trojan hero Aeneas, and Latinus, the king of Latium.[citation needed] Before the twins' birth, Numitor's throne had been usurped by his brother, Amulius, who murdered Numitor's son or sons, and condemned Rhea Silvia to perpetual virginity by consecrating her a Vestal.[i][1][2] When Rhea became pregnant, she asserted that she had been visited by the god Mars. Amulius imprisoned her, and upon the twins' birth, ordered that they be thrown into the Tiber. But as the river had been swollen by rain, the servants tasked with disposing of the infants could not reach its banks, and so exposed the twins beneath a fig tree at the foot of the Palatine Hill.[1][3]A statue of a She-wolf depicts the twins suckling.In the traditional account, a she-wolf happened upon the twins, and suckled them until they were found by the king's herdsman, Faustulus, and his wife, Acca Larentia.[ii] The brothers grew to manhood among the shepherds and hill-folk. After becoming involved in a conflict between the followers of Amulius and those of their grandfather Numitor, Faustulus told them of their origin. With the help of their friends, they lured Amulius into an ambush and killed him, restoring their grandfather to the throne.[5][6] The princes then set out to establish a city of their own.[citation needed]They returned to the hills overlooking the Tiber, near where they had been exposed as infants, but disagreed on the site of their new city. Each took up station on a different hill, and awaited an omen to decide between them. Remus sighted six vultures over the Aventine Hill, then Romulus saw a flight of twelve above the Palatine Hill. Remus argued for the Aventine based on priority, Romulus the Palatine based on number. The conflict escalated, and Romulus or one of his followers killed Remus.[5][7] In a variant of the legend, the augurs favoured Romulus, who proceeded to plough a square furrow around the Palatine Hill to demarcate the walls of the future city (Roma Quadrata). When Remus derisively leapt over the \"walls\" to show how inadequate they were against invaders, Romulus struck him down in anger. In another variant, Remus was killed during a melée, along with Faustulus.[citation needed]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Parilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parilia"},{"link_name":"[iii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[iv]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Murus Romuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murus_Romuli"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_tribe"},{"link_name":"[v]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune"},{"link_name":"curia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[vi]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Celeres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeres"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Roman senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_senate"},{"link_name":"patricians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)"},{"link_name":"plebs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebs"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy,_i._9-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"asylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_(antiquity)"},{"link_name":"Capitoline Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitoline_Hill"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Establishment of the city","text":"The founding of Rome was commemorated annually on April 21, with the festival of the Parilia.[iii][iv] Romulus' first act was to fortify the Palatine with the Murus Romuli, in the course of which he made a sacrifice to the gods. He laid out the city's boundaries with a furrow that he ploughed, performed another sacrifice, and with his followers set to work building the city itself.[8][9] Romulus sought the assent of the people to become their king. With Numitor's help, he addressed them and received their approval. Romulus accepted the crown after he sacrificed and prayed to Jupiter, and after receiving favourable omens.[10]Romulus divided the populace into three tribes, known as the Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres,[v] for taxation and military purposes. Each tribe was presided over by an official known as a tribune, and was further divided into ten curia, or wards, each presided over by an official known as a curio. Romulus also allotted a portion of land to each ward, for the benefit of the people.[11][12] Nothing is known of the manner in which the tribes and curiae were taxed, but for the military levy, each curia was responsible for providing one hundred foot soldiers, a unit known as a century,[vi] and ten cavalry. Each Romulean tribe thus provided about one thousand infantry, and one century of cavalry; the three hundred cavalry became known as the Celeres, \"the swift\", and formed the royal bodyguard.[13][14]Choosing one hundred men from the leading families, Romulus established the Roman senate. These men he called patres, the city fathers; their descendants came to be known as \"patricians\", forming one of the two major social classes at Rome. The other class, known as the \"plebs\" or \"plebeians\", consisted of the servants, freedmen, fugitives who sought asylum at Rome, those captured in war, and others who were granted Roman citizenship over time.[15][16]To encourage the growth of the city, Romulus outlawed infanticide, and established an asylum for fugitives on the Capitoline Hill. Here freemen and slaves alike could claim protection and seek Roman citizenship.[17][18]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of the Lacus Curtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lacus_Curtius"},{"link_name":"festival and games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consualia"},{"link_name":"Sabines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabines"},{"link_name":"seized and carried off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride_abduction"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livy,_i._9-21"},{"link_name":"Caenina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenina_(town)"},{"link_name":"Crustumerium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustumerium"},{"link_name":"Antemnae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antemnae"},{"link_name":"spolia opima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolia_opima"},{"link_name":"temple to Jupiter Feretrius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Feretrius"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Titus Tatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Tatius"},{"link_name":"Tarpeia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarpeia"},{"link_name":"Lacus Curtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacus_Curtius"},{"link_name":"temple to Jupiter Stator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Stator_(8th_century_BC)"},{"link_name":"[vii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"The Rape of the Sabine Women","text":"Further information: Battle of the Lacus CurtiusThe new city was filled with colonists, most of whom were young, unmarried men. While fugitives seeking asylum helped the population grow, single men greatly outnumbered women. With no intermarriage taking place between Rome and neighboring communities, the new city would eventually fail. Romulus sent envoys to neighboring towns, appealing to them to allow intermarriage with Roman citizens, but his overtures were rebuffed. Romulus formulated a plan to acquire women from other settlements. He announced a momentous festival and games, and invited the people of the neighboring cities to attend. Many did, in particular the Sabines, who came in droves. At a prearranged signal, the Romans seized and carried off the marriageable women among their guests.[15]The aggrieved cities prepared for war with Rome, and might have defeated Romulus had they been fully united. But impatient with the preparations of the Sabines, the Latin towns of Caenina, Crustumerium, and Antemnae took action without their allies. Caenina was the first to attack; its army was swiftly put to flight, and the town taken. After personally defeating and slaying the prince of Caenina in single combat, Romulus stripped him of his armour, becoming the first to claim the spolia opima, and vowed to build a temple to Jupiter Feretrius. Antemnae and Crustumerium were conquered in turn. Some of their people, chiefly the families of the abducted women, were allowed to settle in Rome.[19]Following the defeat of the Latin towns, the Sabines, under the leadership of Titus Tatius, marshalled their forces and advanced upon Rome. They gained control of the citadel by bribing Tarpeia, the daughter of the Roman commander charged with its defense. Without the advantage of the citadel, the Romans were obliged to meet the Sabines on the battlefield. The Sabines advanced from the citadel, and fierce fighting ensued. The nearby Lacus Curtius is said to be named after Mettius Curtius, a Sabine warrior who plunged his horse into its muck to stymie his Roman pursuers as he retreated. At a critical juncture in the fighting, the Romans began to waver in the face of the Sabine advance. Romulus vowed to build a temple to Jupiter Stator,[vii] to keep his line from breaking. The bloodshed finally ended when the Sabine women interposed themselves between the two armies, pleading on the one hand with their fathers and brothers, and on the other with their husbands, to set aside their arms and come to terms. The leaders of each side met and made peace. They formed one community, to be jointly ruled by Romulus and Tatius.[20]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lavinium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavinium"},{"link_name":"Laurentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurentum"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Fidenae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidenae"},{"link_name":"Etruscan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Veii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veii"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Subsequent events","text":"The two kings presided over the growing city of Rome for a number of years, before Tatius was slain in a riot at Lavinium, where he had gone to make a sacrifice. Shortly before, a group of envoys from Laurentum had complained of their treatment by Tatius' kinsmen, and he had decided the matter against the ambassadors. Romulus resisted calls to avenge the Sabine king's death, instead reaffirming the Roman alliance with Lavinium, and perhaps preventing his city from splintering along ethnic lines.[21]In the years following the death of Tatius, Romulus is said to have conquered the city of Fidenae, which, alarmed by the rising power of Rome, had begun raiding Roman territory. The Romans lured the Fidenates into an ambush, and routed their army; as they retreated into their city, the Romans followed before the gates could be shut, and captured the town. The Etruscan city of Veii, nine miles up the Tiber from Rome, also raided Roman territory, foreshadowing that city's role as the chief rival to Roman power over the next three centuries. Romulus defeated Veii's army, but found the city too well defended to besiege, and instead ravaged the countryside.[22]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-30"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"},{"link_name":"whirlwind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlwind"},{"link_name":"Campus Martius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_Martius"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Quirinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quirinus"},{"link_name":"Numa Pompilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Hersilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersilia"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Hostus Hostilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostus_Hostilius"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Death and succession","text":"After a reign of thirty-seven years,[23][24] Romulus is said to have disappeared in a whirlwind during a sudden and violent storm, as he was reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. Livy says that Romulus was either murdered by the senators, torn apart out of jealousy, or was raised to heaven by Mars, god of war. Livy believes the last theory regarding the legendary king's death, as it allows the Romans to believe that the gods are on their side, a reason for them to continue expansion under Romulus' name.[25]Romulus acquired a cult following, which later became assimilated with the cult of Quirinus, perhaps originally the indigenous god of the Sabine population. As the Sabines had not had a king of their own since the death of Titus Tatius, the next king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, was chosen from among the Sabines.[26]Various sources state that Romulus had a wife, Hersilia. In Livy, following the defeat of the Caeninenses and the Antemnates, the Sabine women begged Hersilia to intercede with her husband on behalf of their families so that they would be received into the state rather than slain by Roman arms.[27] In Dionysius, Hersilia was herself one of the Sabine women, and the only one who was already married at the time of her abduction. Dionysius explains that she was either mistaken for a virgin, or, he thinks more probably, that she was the mother of one of those abducted, and refused to abandon her daughter.[28] Plutarch also relates that Hersilia was one of the Sabine women, and the only one already married. He also mentions that some authorities make Hersilia the wife of Hostus Hostilius, rather than Romulus. Two children are attributed to Romulus in Plutarch: a daughter, Prima, and a son, Avillius, but here Plutarch notes that his source, Zenodotus of Troezen, is widely disputed.[29]","title":"Traditional account"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"Dionysius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Quintus Fabius Pictor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Fasti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasti_(poem)"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"logographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logographer_(history)"},{"link_name":"Hellanicus of Lesbos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos"},{"link_name":"Palatine Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Hill"},{"link_name":"Evander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evander_of_Pallene"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"back-formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-formation"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Varro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro"},{"link_name":"Tarutius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Tarutius_Firmanus"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Trojan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Aeneas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneas"},{"link_name":"Rome's first Imperial dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty"}],"text":"Livy, Dionysius, and Plutarch rely on Quintus Fabius Pictor as a source. Other significant sources include Ovid's Fasti, and Virgil's Aeneid. Greek historians had traditionally claimed that Rome was founded by Greeks, a claim dating back to the logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos of 5th-century BC, who named Aeneas as its founder. Roman historians connect Romulus to Aeneas by ancestry and mention a previous settlement on the Palatine Hill, sometimes attributing it to Evander and his Greek colonists. To the Romans, Rome was the institutions and traditions they credit to their legendary founder, the first \"Roman\".[30]The legend as a whole encapsulates Rome's ideas of itself, its origins and moral values. For modern scholarship, it remains one of the most complex and problematic of all foundation myths. Ancient historians had no doubt that Romulus gave his name to the city. Most modern historians believe his name is a back-formation from the name of the city. Roman historians dated the city's foundation to between 758 and 728 BC, and Plutarch reports the calculation of Varro's friend Tarutius that 771 BC was the birth year of Romulus and his twin.[31] The tradition that gave Romulus a distant ancestor in the semi-divine Trojan prince Aeneas was further embellished, and Romulus was made the direct ancestor of Rome's first Imperial dynasty. It is unclear whether or not the tale of Romulus or that of the twins are original elements of the foundation myth, or whether both or either were added.","title":"Primary sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Denarius_C._Memmius_C._F._Romulus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ennius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennius"},{"link_name":"Quirinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quirinus"},{"link_name":"Sabine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabine"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Lucilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucilius"},{"link_name":"Varro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varro"},{"link_name":"Flamen Maior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamen"},{"link_name":"Flamen Quirinalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamen_Quirinalis"},{"link_name":"Numa Pompilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"},{"link_name":"lines 805-828","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph14.htm#487618622"},{"link_name":"deification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotheosis"},{"link_name":"Hersilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersilia"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Olympians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Olympians"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Fornacalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornacalia"},{"link_name":"spelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelt"},{"link_name":"anthropologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropology"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Romulus-Quirinus","text":"Roman Denarius with Romulus as QuirinusEnnius (fl. 180s BC) refers to Romulus as a divinity in his own right, without reference to Quirinus. Roman mythographers identified the latter as an originally Sabine war-deity, and thus to be identified with Roman Mars. Lucilius lists Quirinus and Romulus as separate deities, and Varro accords them different temples. Images of Quirinus showed him as a bearded warrior wielding a spear as a god of war, the embodiment of Roman strength and a deified likeness of the city of Rome. He had a Flamen Maior called the Flamen Quirinalis, who oversaw his worship and rituals in the ordainment of Roman religion attributed to Romulus's royal successor, Numa Pompilius. There is however no evidence for the conflated Romulus-Quirinus before the 1st century BC.[32][33]Ovid in Metamorphoses XIV (lines 805-828) gives a description of the deification of Romulus and his wife Hersilia, who are given the new names of Quirinus and Hora respectively. Mars, the father of Romulus, is given permission by Jupiter to bring his son up to Olympus to live with the Olympians.[34]One theory regarding this tradition proposes the emergence of two mythical figures from an earlier, singular hero. While Romulus is a founding hero, Quirinus may have been a god of the harvest, and the Fornacalia a festival celebrating a staple crop (spelt). Through the traditional dates from the tales and the festivals, they are each associated with one another. A legend of the murder of such a founding hero, the burying of the hero's body in the fields (found in some accounts), and a festival associated with that hero, a god of the harvest, and a food staple is a pattern recognized by anthropologists. Called a \"dema archetype\", this pattern suggests that in a prior tradition, the god and the hero were in fact the same figure and later evolved into two.[35]","title":"Primary sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[viii]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"foundation myth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_myth"},{"link_name":"Roman morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos_maiorum"},{"link_name":"T.P. Wiseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.P._Wiseman"},{"link_name":"mythography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythography"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Momigliano-45"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362-46"},{"link_name":"Hermann Strasburger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Strasburger"},{"link_name":"Magna Graecia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Graecia"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362-46"},{"link_name":"Tim Cornell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Cornell"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362-46"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362-46"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Momigliano-45"}],"text":"Possible historical bases for the broad mythological narrative remain unclear and disputed.[viii]Modern scholarship approaches the various known stories of the myth as cumulative elaborations and later interpretations of Roman foundation myth. Particular versions and collations were presented by Roman historians as authoritative, an official history trimmed of contradictions and untidy variants to justify contemporary developments, genealogies and actions in relation to Roman morality. Other narratives appear to represent popular or folkloric tradition; some of these remain inscrutable in purpose and meaning. T.P. Wiseman sums up the whole issue as the mythography of an unusually problematic foundation and early history.[36][37]The unsavoury elements of many of the myths concerning Romulus have led some scholars to describe them as \"shameful\" or \"disreputable\".[38]: 60–2  In antiquity such stories became part of anti-Roman and anti-pagan propaganda. More recently, the historian Hermann Strasburger postulated that these were never part of authentic Roman tradition, but were invented and popularized by Rome's enemies, probably in Magna Graecia, during the latter part of the fourth century BC.[38]: 60–2  This hypothesis is rejected by other scholars, such as Tim Cornell (1995),[38] who notes that by this period, the story of Romulus and Remus had already assumed its standard form, and was widely accepted at Rome. Other elements of the Romulus mythos clearly resemble common elements of folk tale and legend, and thus strong evidence that the stories were both old and indigenous.[38]: 60–2  Likewise, Momigliano finds Strasburger's argument well-developed, but entirely implausible; if the Romulus myths were an exercise in mockery, they were a signal failure.[37]","title":"Historicity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the rape of the Sabine women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_rape_of_the_Sabine_women"},{"link_name":"Tarpeia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarpeia"},{"link_name":"ancient Roman scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_studies"}],"text":"The episodes which make up the legend, most significantly that of the rape of the Sabine women, the tale of Tarpeia, and the death of Tatius have been a significant part of ancient Roman scholarship and the frequent subject of art, literature and philosophy since ancient times.","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Magnani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnani"},{"link_name":"Ludovico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Carracci"},{"link_name":"Annibale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci"},{"link_name":"Agostino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Carracci"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romolo_traccia_con_l%27aratro_il_confine_della_citt%C3%A0_di_Roma.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:L%27asilo_per_i_profughi_sul_Campidoglio.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Il_ratto_delle_Sabine.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romolo_dedica_a_Giove_Feretrio_le_spoglie_del_re_Acrone.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battaglia_tra_Romani_e_Sabini.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tito_Tazio_ucciso_dai_Laurenti.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carracci,_Romolo_appare_a_Proculo,_Palazzo_Magnani,_Bologna.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_superbia_di_Romolo.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Palazzo Magnani","text":"In the late 16th century, the wealthy Magnani family from Bologna commissioned a series of artworks based on the Roman foundation myth. The artists contributing works included a sculpture of Hercules with the infant twins by Gabriele Fiorini, featuring the patron's own face. The most important works were an elaborate series of frescoes collectively known as Histories of the Foundation of Rome by the Brothers Carracci: Ludovico, Annibale, and Agostino.Romulus marking the city's boundaries with a plough\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Asylum (Inter duos Lucos)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe rape of the Sabine women\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRomulus dedicating the temple to Jupiter Feretrius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of the Lacus Curtius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe death of Titus Tatius in Laurentium\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRomulus appearing to Proculus Julius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Pride of Romulus","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sodoma_004.jpg"},{"link_name":"Il Sodoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Sodoma"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_-_Nicolas_Poussin_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_INV_7290_;_MR_2335.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Poussin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peter Paul Rubens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women_(Loggia_dei_Lanzi)_2_2013_February.jpg"},{"link_name":"Giambologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambologna"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacopo_Ligozzi_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women.JPG"},{"link_name":"Jacopo Ligozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo_Ligozzi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theodoor_van_Thulden_(attr)_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women.jpg"},{"link_name":"Theodoor van Thulden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoor_van_Thulden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women_by_Sebastiano_Ricci.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Ricci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Ricci"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johann_Heinrich_Sch%C3%B6nfeld_-_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women_-_WGA21057.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johann Heinrich Schönfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Sch%C3%B6nfeld"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Christian_Nahl_1870,_The_Rape_Of_The_Sabines_-_The_Abduction.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charles Christian Nahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Christian_Nahl"}],"sub_title":"The rape of the Sabine women in paintings and sculpture","text":"Il Sodoma (1507)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNicolas Poussin (1638)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPeter Paul Rubens (1634–36)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGiambologna (1583)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJacopo Ligozzi (c.1565-1627)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAttributed to Theodoor van Thulden (17th c.)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSebastiano Ricci (c. 1700)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJohann Heinrich Schönfeld (1640)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCharles Christian Nahl (1870)","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sodoma_Tarpeia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Il Sodoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Sodoma"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frieze_Basilica_Aemilia_Massimo_n3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Basilica Aemilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tarpeia%27s_Punishment.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pictura_loquens;_sive,_Heroicarum_tabularum_Hadriani_Schoonebeeck,_enarratio_et_explicatio_(1695)_(14751427905).jpg"},{"link_name":"Pictura loquens \"the Heroic Accounts of Hadrian Schoonebeeck\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/picturaloquenssi00smid/picturaloquenssi00smid#page/n172/mode/1up"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tarpeia.gif"},{"link_name":"The story of the Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=HkgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=GBS.PA30"},{"link_name":"Hélène Adeline Guerber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._A._Guerber"}],"sub_title":"Tarpeia","text":"The Vestal Virgin Tarpeia Beaten by Tatius’ soldiers Il Sodoma (16th c.)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTarpeia's punishment, Pentelic marble fragment from the Frieze of the Basilica Aemilia (100 BC-100 AD\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tReconstruction of Basilica Aemilia Frieze marble fragment\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTarpeia, Illustration from Pictura loquens \"the Heroic Accounts of Hadrian Schoonebeeck\" (1695) (14751427905)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTarpeia conspires with Tatius in an illustration from The story of the Romans by Hélène Adeline Guerber (1896)","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romolo_ed_Ersilia,_final_scene,_Act_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Battista Cipriani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Cipriani"},{"link_name":"Francesco Bartolozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Bartolozzi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F0442_Louvre_JL_David_Sabines_INV3691_detail01_rwk.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Intervention of the Sabine Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intervention_of_the_Sabine_Women"},{"link_name":"Jacques-Louis David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guercino_-_Hersilia_Separating_Romulus_and_Tatius_-_WGA10944.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hersilia Separating Romulus and Tatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersilia_Separating_Romulus_and_Tatius"},{"link_name":"Guercino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guercino"}],"sub_title":"Hersilia","text":"Print from Romolo ed Ersilia, final scene, Act 3, Artist;: Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Engraver: Francesco Bartolozzi (1781)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHersilia from a detail of Les Sabines \"The Intervention of the Sabine Women\", Jacques-Louis David (1799)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHersilia Separating Romulus and Tatius, Guercino (1645)","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prix de Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_de_Rome"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Garnier_La_mort_de_Tatius.JPG"},{"link_name":"Étienne-Barthélémy Garnier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Barth%C3%A9l%C3%A9my_Garnier"},{"link_name":"École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Girodet_La_mort_de_Tatius.jpg"},{"link_name":"Girodet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson"},{"link_name":"Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Angers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Beaux-Arts_d%27Angers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_R%C3%A9attu_-_La_mort_de_Tatius.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jacques Réattu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_R%C3%A9attu"},{"link_name":"Musée Réattu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_R%C3%A9attu"},{"link_name":"Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles"}],"sub_title":"Death of Tatius","text":"The subject for the 1788 Prix de Rome was the death of Tatius (La mort de Tatius). Garnier won the contest.Version by Étienne-Barthélémy Garnier, now in the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts, Paris.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVersion by Girodet, now in the Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Angers.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVersion by Jacques Réattu, now in the Musée Réattu, Arles.","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rubens_Apparizione_di_Romolo_e_Proculo_Cardiff.png"},{"link_name":"Rubens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubens"}],"sub_title":"Death of Romulus","text":"\"Apparition of Romulus before Proculus\", Rubens (17th c.)","title":"Depictions in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Roman calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasti_Antiates_Maiores"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-43"},{"link_name":"Andrea Carandini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Carandini"},{"link_name":"Murus Romuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murus_Romuli"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-13922-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13922-7"}],"text":"^ Dionysius describes an ambush of Numitor's son, who was hunting; Livy indicates that there were multiple sons, but does not give any details of their murder. Dionysius also gives an alternate name, Ilia, for Rhea Silvia.\n\n^ In another version, the she-wolf of the legend was Acca Larentia herself, who was a prostitute nicknamed \"Lupa\" by the shepherds.[4]\n\n^ Dionysius suggests that the Parilia may have predated the founding of the city, and been chosen by Romulus because it was an auspicious occasion.\n\n^ The founding of Rome fell on the Parilia, according to the oldest surviving Roman calendar (Rodriguez Mayorga 2010, p. 97).\n\n^ These names probably do not date from the time of Romulus; modern scholars have inferred that they were originally ethnic tribes representing different elements of the early Roman population, with the Ramnes representing the Latins, the Titienses the Sabines, and the Luceres the Etruscans. The Luceres may have been a later addition to the original Romulean tribes, but as the Tiber formed the traditional boundary between Latium and Etruria, it is not unlikely that there were Etruscan settlers from the earliest period.\n\n^ As the name suggests, a unit of one hundred men, although in later times a century was usually smaller, comprising about sixty men.\n\n^ Jupiter the Steadfast.\n\n^ The archaeologist Andrea Carandini is one of very few modern scholars who accept Romulus and Remus as historical figures, based on the 1988 discovery of an ancient wall on the north slope of the Palatine Hill in Rome. Carandini dates the structure to the mid-8th century BC and names it the Murus Romuli.\nSee: Carandini (1997), La nascita di Roma. Dèi, lari, eroi e uomini all'alba di una civiltà (Torino: Einaudi); Carandini (2006), Remo e Romolo. Dai rioni dei Quiriti alla città dei Romani (775/750 - 700/675 a. C. circa) (Torino: Einaudi); and Carandini (2011). Rome: Day One. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13922-7.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy_i_3_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy_i_3_2-1"},{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"History of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Dionysius of Halicarnassus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy_i_3-6_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy_i_3-6_7-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Varro Reatinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy,_i._9_21-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Livy,_i._9_21-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_30-0"},{"link_name":"Livy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy"},{"link_name":"I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/From_the_Founding_of_the_City/Book_1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_31-0"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Parallel Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Lives"},{"link_name":"Romulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Romulus*.html#29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"Ennius in Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennius"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-04-07179-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07179-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=mRJtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA246"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1628/978-3-16-156584-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1628%2F978-3-16-156584-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9783161565847","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783161565847"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-42"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-44"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Momigliano_45-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Momigliano_45-1"},{"link_name":"Terzo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tq53aX69lv0C&q=Diocles+of+peparethus&pg=PA550"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9788884983633","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788884983633"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362_46-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362_46-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362_46-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cornell_60%E2%80%9362_46-3"},{"link_name":"The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=01g78OVXuQ8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-136-75495-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-75495-1"}],"text":"^ a b Livy, History of Rome i. 3.\n\n^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities i. 76.\n\n^ Dionysius, i. 77–79.\n\n^ Livy, i. 4.\n\n^ a b Livy, i. 3–6.\n\n^ Dionysius, i. 79–83.\n\n^ Dionysius, i. 85–87.\n\n^ Livy, i. 7.\n\n^ Dionysius, i. 88.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 3–6.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 7.\n\n^ Varro Reatinus, On the Latin Language v. 81, 89.\n\n^ Livy, i. 13, 15.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 13.\n\n^ a b Livy, i. 9.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 8, 12, 13.\n\n^ Livy, i. 8.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 15.\n\n^ Livy, i. 10.\n\n^ Livy, i. 11–13.\n\n^ Livy, i. 13.\n\n^ Livy, i. 14–15.\n\n^ Livy, I. \"Romulus reigned thirty-seven years.\"\n\n^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Romulus. \"Romulus is said to have been fifty-four years of age, and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign when he disappeared from among men.\"\n\n^ Livy, i. 16.\n\n^ Livy, i. 17, 18.\n\n^ Livy, i. 11.\n\n^ Dionysius, ii. 45.\n\n^ Plutarch, \"The Life of Romulus\", 14, 18, 19.\n\n^ Rodriguez Mayorgas (2010), pp. 92–94\n\n^ Plutarch. Life of Romulus. 12.5.\n\n^ Evans, 103 and footnote 66: citing quotation of Ennius in Cicero, 1.41.64.\n\n^ Fishwick, Duncan (1993), The Imperial Cult in the Latin West (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, p. 53, ISBN 978-90-04-07179-7.\n\n^ Cook, John Granger (2018). Empty Tomb, Resurrection, Apotheosis. p. 263. doi:10.1628/978-3-16-156584-7. ISBN 9783161565847.\n\n^ Brelich, Angelo. 1960. Quirinus: una divinita' romana alla luce della comparazione storica \"Studi e Materiali di Storia delle religioni\".\n\n^ Wiseman, T. P. (1995), Remus, A Roman Myth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\n\n^ a b Momigliano, Arnoldo (2007), \"An interim report on the origins of Rome\", Terzo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico, vol. 1, Rome, IT: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, pp. 545–98, ISBN 9788884983633. — A critical, chronological review of historiography related to Rome's origins.\n\n^ a b c d Cornell, Tim (1995), The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London: Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-75495-1.","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=01g78OVXuQ8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-136-75495-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-75495-1"},{"link_name":"\"Romulus, Aeneas and the Cultural Memory of the Roman Republic\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eprints.sim.ucm.es/24264/1/RodriguezMayorgas.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"The Lupercalia and the Romulus and Remus Legend\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.casa-kvsa.org.za/1988/AC31-08-Tennant.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0065-1141","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0065-1141"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0009838800034704","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838800034704"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"638787","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/638787"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"170700760","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170700760"},{"link_name":"Empty Tomb, Apotheosis, Resurrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=mRJtDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+legend+says+that+Romulus+ascended+up+to+the+heavens%2C+and+was+honored+as+the+God+Quirinus.&pg=PA266"},{"link_name":"Romulus: The Legend of Rome's Founding Father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=7beTzgEACAAJ"}],"text":"Cornell, T. (1995), The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC), Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-75495-1\nRodríguez Mayorgas, Ana (2010), \"Romulus, Aeneas and the Cultural Memory of the Roman Republic\" (PDF), Athenaeum, 98 (1): 89–109, retrieved 14 December 2016\nTennant, P. M. W. (1988). \"The Lupercalia and the Romulus and Remus Legend\" (PDF). Acta Classica. XXXI: 81–93. ISSN 0065-1141. Retrieved 19 November 2016.\nWiseman, T. P. (1983). \"The Wife and Children of Romulus\". The Classical Quarterly. XXXI (ii). Cambridge University Press: 445–452. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034704. JSTOR 638787. 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States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n83206699"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jo2016908735&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p073495212"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/027963543"}],"sub_title":"Additional reading","text":"Carandini, Andrea (2011). Rome: Day One. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13922-7.\nForsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22651-7.vteKings of Rome\nRomulus (753–717 BC)\nNuma Pompilius (717–673 BC)\nTullus Hostilius (673–642 BC)\nAncus Marcius (642–617 BC)\nLucius Tarquinius Priscus (616–579 BC)\nServius Tullius (578–535 BC)\nLucius Tarquinius Superbus (535–510 BC/509 BC)vteWorks of PlutarchWorks\nParallel Lives\nMoralia\n\"De genio Socratis\"\n\"On the Malice of Herodotus\"\nPseudo-Plutarch\nLives\nAlcibiades and Coriolanus1\nAlexander the Great and Julius Caesar (life)\nAratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2\nAristides and Cato the Elder1\nCrassus and Nicias1\nDemetrius and Antony1\nDemosthenes and Cicero1\nDion and Brutus1\nFabius and Pericles1\nLucullus and Cimon1\nLysander and Sulla1\nNuma and Lycurgus1\nPelopidas and Marcellus1\nPhilopoemen and Flamininus1\nPhocion and Cato the Younger\nPompey and Agesilaus1\nPoplicola and Solon1\nPyrrhus and Gaius Marius\nRomulus and Theseus1\nSertorius and Eumenes1\nAgis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus\nTimoleon and Aemilius Paulus1\nThemistocles and Camillus\nTranslators and editors\nJacques Amyot\nArthur Hugh Clough\nJohn Dryden\nPhilemon Holland\nThomas North\n\n1 Comparison extant\n2 Four unpaired LivesvteAncient Roman religion and mythologyDeities(Dii Consentes)\nAgenoria\nAngerona\nAnna Perenna\nApollo\nAurora\nBellona\nBona Dea\nCarmenta\nCastor and Pollux\nCeres\nCloacina\nCupid\nDea Dia\nDiana\nDies\nDīs Pater\nEgeria\nFauna\nFaunus\nFlora\nGenius\nHercules\nJanus\nJuno\nJupiter\nLares\nLares Familiares\nLiber\nLibertas\nLuna\nMars\nMercury\nMinerva\nNeptune\nNox\nOps\nOrcus\nPenates\nPluto\nPomona\nPriapus\nProserpina\nQuirinus\nSalacia\nSaturn\nSilvanus\nSol\nSummanus\nVenus\nVeritas\nVesta\nVertumnus\nVulcan\nAbstract deities\nAbundantia\nAequitas\nAeternitas\nAfrica\nAnnona\nAverruncus\nCaelus\nConcordia\nFeronia\nFides\nFortuna\nFontus\nLaverna\nPax\nPietas\nRoma\nSalus\nSecuritas\nSpes\nTranquillitas\nTerra\nVictoria\nLegendary figures\nAeneas\nRhea Silvia\nRomulus and Remus\nNuma Pompilius\nTullus Hostilius\nServius Tullius\nAncus Marcius\nLucius Tarquinius Priscus\nLucius Tarquinius Superbus\nKings of Alba Longa\nHersilia\nLegendary beings\nShe-wolf\nBarnacle goose\nTexts\nVirgil\nAeneid\nOvid\nFasti\nMetamorphoses\nPropertius\nVarro\nRes divinae\nSibylline Books\nApuleius\nThe Golden Ass\nConceptsand practices\nFestivals\nInterpretatio graeca\nImperial cult\nCharity\nPalladium\nTheology of victory\nPomerium\nTemples\nCapitolium\nCella\nCeltic\nPhilosophy\nCynicism\nEpicureanism\nNeoplatonism\nPeripateticism\nPythagoreanism\nStoicism\nEvents\nThe Golden Bough\nFounding of Rome\nThe Rape of the Sabine Women\nBattle of Lacus Curtius\nObjects\nGubernaculum\nPignora imperii\nVariations\nGallo-Roman\nMysteries\nCybele\nIsis\nMithraism\nSee also\nClassical mythology\nDecline\nPersecution\nEtruscan religion\nGlossary\nGreek mythology\nMyth and ritualAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\n2\n3\n4\n5\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nSpain\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic\nNetherlands\nOther\nIdRef","title":"Bibliography"}]

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[{"title":"Evander of Pallene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evander_of_Pallene"},{"title":"Hersilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersilia"},{"title":"List of people who disappeared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_disappeared_mysteriously:_pre-1970"},{"title":"Proculus Julius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proculus_Julius"},{"title":"Legendary progenitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_progenitor"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_pail

Oyster pail

["1 Uses","2 History","3 See also","4 Notes"]

Food container An opened, plain oyster pail of white rice, with chopsticks An oyster pail (also known as a paper pail, Chinese food box or Chinese takeout container) is a folded, waxed or plastic coated, paperboard container originally designed to hold oysters. It commonly comes with a handle made of solid wire. It is often used by American Chinese cuisine restaurants in the United States to package take-out food. It can also be found in other Western countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Poland, England and Brazil, but is rarely seen in China and other Asian countries with high numbers of ethnic Chinese. Uses The container is inexpensive, durable and fairly leak-proof when kept upright. The top usually has a locking paperboard tab that is self-closing. The simple origami-like folded construction allows for some escape of steam from hot food. It is common to eat directly out of the container with chopsticks. The containers are primarily used with American Chinese cuisine, though they have begun to spread in some European and Latin American countries. Oyster pails that can be used safely in microwave ovens (without the metal handle, which can cause arcing) are available. They often have no handle, or a plastic handle. The containers may also be used for storing or transporting non-food items, such as soap bath beads or small parts. Takeout containers have also been offered as novelty packaging for small gifts. History Early patents date to 1890, 1894, and 1908. The paperboard oyster pail was invented at a time when fresh oysters were more popular and plentiful and less expensive than they are today. Since shucking oysters (removing the raw meat from the shell) takes some skill and can be difficult and dangerous, it was common to have the oyster seller open the oysters so they could be taken home for use in recipes. The oyster pail provided an inexpensive and sanitary way to do this. In the early 20th century oyster pails were used to hold honey. In the mid-20th century, overfishing (and the subsequent rise in price) of oysters left manufacturers with a significant number of unsold oyster pails. An oyster pail box from a Chinese restaurant In the United States after World War II, there was a huge increase in sales of takeout foods that could be purchased from restaurants. Chinese food was a popular choice, since it was tasty, unusual, fairly inexpensive, and traveled well. The oyster pail was quickly adopted for "Chinese takeout". The paperboard pails were to some extent self-insulating, and could be used for a wide variety of foods including cooked rice, moist dishes such as egg foo young and sauced dishes, though they were unsuitable for hot highly liquid dishes such as soups. The containers are also used by restaurants offering classic American takeout food, such as French fries or fried clams, but the containers have become strongly associated with Chinese takeout. In 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed Chinese takeout containers in its exhibit Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States. See also Food portal Foam food container Notes ^ Hofmann, Deborah (December 14, 1988). "New Gift Wraps: Gloss, Glitter and Ease". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 March 2013. ^ States426698 United States 426698, Wilcox, F W & Moshier, W D, "Paper pail", published April 19, 1890  ^ "Paper pail". google.com. ^ United States 886074, Reber, J G, "Oyster pail", published April 28, 1908  ^ Root, Amos Ives (1905). The ABC of Bee Culture: A Cyclopaedia of Every Thing Pertaining to the Care ... Retrieved December 12, 2012. ^ "Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2013. vtePaper productsContainers Box Carton Cigarette pack Coffee cup sleeve Corrugated box Corrugated fiberboard Envelope Molded pulp Oyster pail Paper bag Paper cup Paperboard Shipping tube Hygiene Facial tissue Napkin Paper towel Toilet paper Wet wipe Stationery Continuous stationery Greeting card Index card Letter Manila folder Notebook Postage stamp Postcard Post-it note Financial Banknote Business card Coupon Passbook Visiting card Decorations Ingrain wallpaper Mat Wallpaper Media Book Magazine Newspaper Newsprint Pamphlet Recreation Confetti Paper craft Paper toys Playing card Quilling Other Drink coaster Filter paper Form Paper model Sandpaper Security paper vtePackagingGeneraltopics Active packaging Child-resistant packaging Contract packager Edible packaging Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging Overpackaging Package delivery Package pilferage Package testing Package theft Packaging engineering Resealable packaging Reusable packaging Reuse of bottles Shelf life Shelf-ready packaging Shelf-stable Sustainable packaging Tamper-evident Tamper resistance Wrap rage Productpackages Alternative wine closure Ammunition box Banana box Beer bottle Box wine Case-ready meat Coffee bag Cosmetic packaging Currency packaging Disposable food packaging Drink can Egg carton Evidence packaging Field ration Flour sack Foam food container Food packaging Fuel container Gas cylinder Glass milk bottle Growler Juicebox Low plastic water bottle Luxury packaging Milk bag Optical disc packaging Oyster pail Popcorn bag Pharmaceutical packaging Plastic milk container Purdue Improved Crop Storage bags Sand bag Seasonal packaging Self-heating food packaging Screw cap (wine) Single-serve coffee container Spray paint Toothpaste pump dispenser Water bottle Wine bottle Containers Aerosol spray dispenser Aluminium bottle Aluminum can Ampoule Antistatic bag Bag-in-box Bag Barrel Biodegradable bag Blister pack Boil-in-bag Bottle Box Bulk box Cage Case Carboy Carton Chub Clamshell Corrugated box design Crate Disposable cup Drum Endcap Envelope Euro container Flexible intermediate bulk container Flexi-bag Folding carton Glass bottle Gunny sack Inhaler Insulated shipping container Intermediate bulk container Jar Jerrycan Jug Keg Mesh bag Multilayered packaging Multi-pack Packet (container) Padded envelope Pail Paper bag Paper sack Plastic bag Plastic bottle Retort pouch Salvage drum Sachet Water sachet Security bag Shipping container Shipping tube Skin pack Spray bottle Squround Stand-up pouch Steel and tin cans Tetra Brik Thermal bag Tub (container) Tube Unit load Vial Wooden box Materialsandcomponents Adhesive Aluminium foil Bail handle Bioplastic Biodegradable plastic BoPET Bubble wrap Bung Cellophane Closure Coated paper Coating Coextrusion Corrugated fiberboard Corrugated plastic Cushioning Desiccant Double seam Flip-top Foam peanut Gel pack Glass Hot-melt adhesive Humidity indicator card Kraft paper Label Lid Linear low-density polyethylene Liquid packaging board Living hinge Low-density polyethylene Meat diaper Metallised film Modified atmosphere Molded pulp Nonwoven fabric Overwrap Oxygen scavenger Package handle Packaging gas Pallet Paper Paper pallet Paperboard Plastic-coated paper Plastic film Plastic pallet Plastic wrap Polyester Polyethylene Polypropylene Pressure-sensitive tape Pump dispenser Screw cap Screw cap (wine) Security printing Security tape Shock detector Shock and vibration data logger Shrink wrap Slip sheet Staple (fastener) Strapping Stretch wrap Susceptor Tamper-evident band Tear tape Temperature data logger Time temperature indicator Tinplate Velostat Processes Aseptic processing Authentication Automatic identification and data capture Blow fill seal Blow molding Calendering Canning Coating Containerization Converting Corona treatment Curtain coating Die cutting Die forming (plastics) Electronic article surveillance Extrusion Extrusion coating Flame treatment Glass production Graphic design Hazard analysis and critical control points Hermetic seal Induction sealing Injection moulding Lamination Laser cutting Molding Package tracking Papermaking Plastic extrusion Plastic welding Printing Product development Production control Quality assurance Radio-frequency identification Roll slitting Shearing (manufacturing) Thermoforming Track and trace Ultrasonic welding Vacuum forming Vacuum packaging Verification and validation Machinery Barcode printer Barcode reader Bottling line Calender Can seamer Cap torque tester Cartoning machine Case sealer Check weigher Conveyor system Drum pump Extended core stretch wrapper Filler Heat gun Heat sealer Industrial robot Injection molding machine Label printer applicator Lineshaft roller conveyor Logistics automation Material-handling equipment Mechanical brake stretch wrapper Multihead weigher Orbital stretch wrapper Packaging machinery Pallet inverter Palletizer Rotary wheel blow molding systems Seed-counting machine Shrink tunnel Staple gun Tape dispenser Turntable stretch wrapper Vertical form fill sealing machine Environment,post-use Biodegradation Can collecting Closed-loop box reuse Environmental engineering Glass recycling Industrial ecology Life-cycle assessment Litter Packaging waste Paper recycling PET bottle recycling Plastic recycling Recycling Reusable packaging Reverse logistics Source reduction Sustainable packaging Waste management  Category: Packaging

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oysterpail.jpg"},{"link_name":"white rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_rice"},{"link_name":"chopsticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chopsticks"},{"link_name":"waxed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax"},{"link_name":"paperboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperboard"},{"link_name":"container","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packaging"},{"link_name":"solid wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire#Solid_versus_stranded"},{"link_name":"American Chinese cuisine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Chinese_cuisine"},{"link_name":"take-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-out"}],"text":"An opened, plain oyster pail of white rice, with chopsticksAn oyster pail (also known as a paper pail, Chinese food box or Chinese takeout container) is a folded, waxed or plastic coated, paperboard container originally designed to hold oysters. It commonly comes with a handle made of solid wire. It is often used by American Chinese cuisine restaurants in the United States to package take-out food. It can also be found in other Western countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Poland, England and Brazil, but is rarely seen in China and other Asian countries with high numbers of ethnic Chinese.","title":"Oyster pail"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"origami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origami"},{"link_name":"steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam"},{"link_name":"chopsticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chopsticks"},{"link_name":"American Chinese cuisine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Chinese_cuisine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"microwave ovens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven"},{"link_name":"arcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_arcing"},{"link_name":"bath beads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_beads"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hofmann-1"}],"text":"The container is inexpensive, durable and fairly leak-proof when kept upright. The top usually has a locking paperboard tab that is self-closing. The simple origami-like folded construction allows for some escape of steam from hot food. It is common to eat directly out of the container with chopsticks. The containers are primarily used with American Chinese cuisine, though they have begun to spread in some European and Latin American countries.[citation needed]Oyster pails that can be used safely in microwave ovens (without the metal handle, which can cause arcing) are available. They often have no handle, or a plastic handle.The containers may also be used for storing or transporting non-food items, such as soap bath beads or small parts. Takeout containers have also been offered as novelty packaging for small gifts.[1]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"oysters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"honey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"overfishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oyster_pail_takeout_box_(2558467231).jpg"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Chinese food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_food"},{"link_name":"takeout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeout"},{"link_name":"insulating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation"},{"link_name":"rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice"},{"link_name":"egg foo young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_foo_young"},{"link_name":"sauced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauce"},{"link_name":"soups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soup"},{"link_name":"French fries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_fries"},{"link_name":"fried clams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fried_clams"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian National Museum of American History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_National_Museum_of_American_History"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SNMAH-6"}],"text":"Early patents date to 1890,[2] 1894,[3] and 1908.[4] The paperboard oyster pail was invented at a time when fresh oysters were more popular and plentiful and less expensive than they are today. Since shucking oysters (removing the raw meat from the shell) takes some skill and can be difficult and dangerous, it was common to have the oyster seller open the oysters so they could be taken home for use in recipes[citation needed]. The oyster pail provided an inexpensive and sanitary way to do this. In the early 20th century oyster pails were used to hold honey.[5] In the mid-20th century, overfishing (and the subsequent rise in price) of oysters left manufacturers with a significant number of unsold oyster pails.An oyster pail box from a Chinese restaurantIn the United States after World War II, there was a huge increase in sales of takeout foods that could be purchased from restaurants. Chinese food was a popular choice, since it was tasty, unusual, fairly inexpensive, and traveled well. The oyster pail was quickly adopted for \"Chinese takeout\". The paperboard pails were to some extent self-insulating, and could be used for a wide variety of foods including cooked rice, moist dishes such as egg foo young and sauced dishes, though they were unsuitable for hot highly liquid dishes such as soups.The containers are also used by restaurants offering classic American takeout food, such as French fries or fried clams, but the containers have become strongly associated with Chinese takeout. In 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed Chinese takeout containers in its exhibit Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hofmann_1-0"},{"link_name":"\"New Gift Wraps: Gloss, Glitter and Ease\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/1988/12/14/garden/new-gift-wraps-gloss-glitter-and-ease.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"States426698 United States 426698","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=United"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Paper pail\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US529053A/en"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"United States 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paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft_paper"},{"link_name":"Label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Label"},{"link_name":"Lid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lid"},{"link_name":"Linear low-density polyethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_low-density_polyethylene"},{"link_name":"Liquid packaging board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_packaging_board"},{"link_name":"Living hinge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_hinge"},{"link_name":"Low-density polyethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_polyethylene"},{"link_name":"Meat diaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_diaper"},{"link_name":"Metallised film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallised_film"},{"link_name":"Modified atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_atmosphere"},{"link_name":"Molded pulp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molded_pulp"},{"link_name":"Nonwoven fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonwoven_fabric"},{"link_name":"Overwrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overwrap"},{"link_name":"Oxygen scavenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_scavenger"},{"link_name":"Package handle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_handle"},{"link_name":"Packaging gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packaging_gas"},{"link_name":"Pallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallet"},{"link_name":"Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"Paper pallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_pallet"},{"link_name":"Paperboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperboard"},{"link_name":"Plastic-coated paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic-coated_paper"},{"link_name":"Plastic film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_film"},{"link_name":"Plastic pallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pallet"},{"link_name":"Plastic wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_wrap"},{"link_name":"Polyester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester"},{"link_name":"Polyethylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene"},{"link_name":"Polypropylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene"},{"link_name":"Pressure-sensitive tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure-sensitive_tape"},{"link_name":"Pump dispenser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump_dispenser"},{"link_name":"Screw cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_cap"},{"link_name":"Screw cap (wine)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_cap_(wine)"},{"link_name":"Security printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_printing"},{"link_name":"Security tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_tape"},{"link_name":"Shock detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_detector"},{"link_name":"Shock and vibration data logger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_and_vibration_data_logger"},{"link_name":"Shrink wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrink_wrap"},{"link_name":"Slip sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_sheet"},{"link_name":"Staple (fastener)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_(fastener)"},{"link_name":"Strapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strapping"},{"link_name":"Stretch wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretch_wrap"},{"link_name":"Susceptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susceptor"},{"link_name":"Tamper-evident band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamper-evident_band"},{"link_name":"Tear tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tear_tape"},{"link_name":"Temperature data logger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_data_logger"},{"link_name":"Time temperature indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_temperature_indicator"},{"link_name":"Tinplate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinning"},{"link_name":"Velostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velostat"},{"link_name":"Aseptic processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aseptic_processing"},{"link_name":"Authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication"},{"link_name":"Automatic identification and data capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture"},{"link_name":"Blow fill seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blow_fill_seal"},{"link_name":"Blow molding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blow_molding"},{"link_name":"Calendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calender"},{"link_name":"Canning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canning"},{"link_name":"Coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating"},{"link_name":"Containerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization"},{"link_name":"Converting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converting"},{"link_name":"Corona treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_treatment"},{"link_name":"Curtain coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtain_coating"},{"link_name":"Die cutting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_cutting_(web)"},{"link_name":"Die forming (plastics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_forming_(plastics)"},{"link_name":"Electronic article surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_article_surveillance"},{"link_name":"Extrusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion"},{"link_name":"Extrusion coating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion_coating"},{"link_name":"Flame treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_treatment"},{"link_name":"Glass production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production"},{"link_name":"Graphic design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_design"},{"link_name":"Hazard analysis and critical control points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_analysis_and_critical_control_points"},{"link_name":"Hermetic seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_seal"},{"link_name":"Induction sealing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_sealing"},{"link_name":"Injection moulding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_moulding"},{"link_name":"Lamination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamination"},{"link_name":"Laser cutting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting"},{"link_name":"Molding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molding_(process)"},{"link_name":"Package tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_tracking"},{"link_name":"Papermaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papermaking"},{"link_name":"Plastic extrusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_extrusion"},{"link_name":"Plastic welding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_welding"},{"link_name":"Printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing"},{"link_name":"Product development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_development"},{"link_name":"Production control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_control"},{"link_name":"Quality assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_assurance"},{"link_name":"Radio-frequency identification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification"},{"link_name":"Roll slitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_slitting"},{"link_name":"Shearing (manufacturing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearing_(manufacturing)"},{"link_name":"Thermoforming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoforming"},{"link_name":"Track and trace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_and_trace"},{"link_name":"Ultrasonic welding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_welding"},{"link_name":"Vacuum forming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_forming"},{"link_name":"Vacuum packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_packing"},{"link_name":"Verification and validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verification_and_validation"},{"link_name":"Barcode printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode_printer"},{"link_name":"Barcode reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode_reader"},{"link_name":"Bottling line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottling_line"},{"link_name":"Calender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calender"},{"link_name":"Can seamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_seamer"},{"link_name":"Cap torque tester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_torque_tester"},{"link_name":"Cartoning machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoning_machine"},{"link_name":"Case sealer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_sealer"},{"link_name":"Check weigher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_weigher"},{"link_name":"Conveyor system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conveyor_system"},{"link_name":"Drum pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_pump"},{"link_name":"Extended core stretch wrapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_core_stretch_wrapper"},{"link_name":"Filler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filler_(packaging)"},{"link_name":"Heat gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_gun"},{"link_name":"Heat sealer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sealer"},{"link_name":"Industrial robot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot"},{"link_name":"Injection molding machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_molding_machine"},{"link_name":"Label printer applicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Label_printer_applicator"},{"link_name":"Lineshaft roller conveyor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lineshaft_roller_conveyor"},{"link_name":"Logistics automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics_automation"},{"link_name":"Material-handling equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material-handling_equipment"},{"link_name":"Mechanical brake stretch wrapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_brake_stretch_wrapper"},{"link_name":"Multihead weigher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multihead_weigher"},{"link_name":"Orbital stretch wrapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_stretch_wrapper"},{"link_name":"Packaging machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packaging_machinery"},{"link_name":"Pallet inverter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallet_inverter"},{"link_name":"Palletizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palletizer"},{"link_name":"Rotary wheel blow molding systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_wheel_blow_molding_systems"},{"link_name":"Seed-counting machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed-counting_machine"},{"link_name":"Shrink tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrink_tunnel"},{"link_name":"Staple gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_gun"},{"link_name":"Tape dispenser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_dispenser"},{"link_name":"Turntable stretch wrapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntable_stretch_wrapper"},{"link_name":"Vertical form fill sealing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_form_fill_sealing_machine"},{"link_name":"Biodegradation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation"},{"link_name":"Can collecting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_collecting"},{"link_name":"Closed-loop box reuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-loop_box_reuse"},{"link_name":"Environmental engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering"},{"link_name":"Glass recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_recycling"},{"link_name":"Industrial ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_ecology"},{"link_name":"Life-cycle assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment"},{"link_name":"Litter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litter"},{"link_name":"Packaging waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packaging_waste"},{"link_name":"Paper recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_recycling"},{"link_name":"PET bottle recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PET_bottle_recycling"},{"link_name":"Plastic recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_recycling"},{"link_name":"Recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling"},{"link_name":"Reusable packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusable_packaging"},{"link_name":"Reverse logistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics"},{"link_name":"Source reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_reduction"},{"link_name":"Sustainable packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_packaging"},{"link_name":"Waste management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management"},{"link_name":"Category: Packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Packaging"}],"text":"^ Hofmann, Deborah (December 14, 1988). \"New Gift Wraps: Gloss, Glitter and Ease\". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 March 2013.\n\n^ States426698 United States 426698, Wilcox, F W & Moshier, W D, \"Paper pail\", published April 19, 1890 \n\n^ \"Paper pail\". google.com.\n\n^ United States 886074, Reber, J G, \"Oyster pail\", published April 28, 1908 \n\n^ Root, Amos Ives (1905). The ABC of Bee Culture: A Cyclopaedia of Every Thing Pertaining to the Care ... Retrieved December 12, 2012.\n\n^ \"Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States\". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2013.vtePaper productsContainers\nBox\nCarton\nCigarette pack\nCoffee cup sleeve\nCorrugated box\nCorrugated fiberboard\nEnvelope\nMolded pulp\nOyster pail\nPaper bag\nPaper cup\nPaperboard\nShipping tube\nHygiene\nFacial tissue\nNapkin\nPaper towel\nToilet paper\nWet wipe\nStationery\nContinuous stationery\nGreeting card\nIndex card\nLetter\nManila folder\nNotebook\nPostage stamp\nPostcard\nPost-it note\nFinancial\nBanknote\nBusiness card\nCoupon\nPassbook\nVisiting card\nDecorations\nIngrain wallpaper\nMat\nWallpaper\nMedia\nBook\nMagazine\nNewspaper\nNewsprint\nPamphlet\nRecreation\nConfetti\nPaper craft\nPaper toys\nPlaying card\nQuilling\nOther\nDrink coaster\nFilter paper\nForm\nPaper model\nSandpaper\nSecurity papervtePackagingGeneraltopics\nActive packaging\nChild-resistant packaging\nContract packager\nEdible packaging\nModified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging\nOverpackaging\nPackage delivery\nPackage pilferage\nPackage testing\nPackage theft\nPackaging engineering\nResealable packaging\nReusable packaging\nReuse of bottles\nShelf life\nShelf-ready packaging\nShelf-stable\nSustainable packaging\nTamper-evident\nTamper resistance\nWrap rage\nProductpackages\nAlternative wine closure\nAmmunition box\nBanana box\nBeer bottle\nBox wine\nCase-ready meat\nCoffee bag\nCosmetic packaging\nCurrency packaging\nDisposable food packaging\nDrink can\nEgg carton\nEvidence packaging\nField ration\nFlour sack\nFoam food container\nFood packaging\nFuel container\nGas cylinder\nGlass milk bottle\nGrowler\nJuicebox\nLow plastic water bottle\nLuxury packaging\nMilk bag\nOptical disc packaging\nOyster pail\nPopcorn bag\nPharmaceutical packaging\nPlastic milk container\nPurdue Improved Crop Storage bags\nSand bag\nSeasonal packaging\nSelf-heating food packaging\nScrew cap (wine)\nSingle-serve coffee container\nSpray paint\nToothpaste pump dispenser\nWater bottle\nWine bottle\nContainers\nAerosol spray dispenser\nAluminium bottle\nAluminum can\nAmpoule\nAntistatic bag\nBag-in-box\nBag\nBarrel\nBiodegradable bag\nBlister pack\nBoil-in-bag\nBottle\nBox\nBulk box\nCage\nCase\nCarboy\nCarton\nChub\nClamshell\nCorrugated box design\nCrate\nDisposable cup\nDrum\nEndcap\nEnvelope\nEuro container\nFlexible intermediate bulk container\nFlexi-bag\nFolding carton\nGlass bottle\nGunny sack\nInhaler\nInsulated shipping container\nIntermediate bulk container\nJar\nJerrycan\nJug\nKeg\nMesh bag\nMultilayered packaging\nMulti-pack\nPacket (container)\nPadded envelope\nPail\nPaper bag\nPaper sack\nPlastic bag\nPlastic bottle\nRetort pouch\nSalvage drum\nSachet\nWater sachet\nSecurity bag\nShipping container\nShipping tube\nSkin pack\nSpray bottle\nSquround\nStand-up pouch\nSteel and tin cans\nTetra Brik\nThermal bag\nTub (container)\nTube\nUnit load\nVial\nWooden box\nMaterialsandcomponents\nAdhesive\nAluminium foil\nBail handle\nBioplastic\nBiodegradable plastic\nBoPET\nBubble wrap\nBung\nCellophane\nClosure\nCoated paper\nCoating\nCoextrusion\nCorrugated fiberboard\nCorrugated plastic\nCushioning\nDesiccant\nDouble seam\nFlip-top\nFoam peanut\nGel pack\nGlass\nHot-melt adhesive\nHumidity indicator card\nKraft paper\nLabel\nLid\nLinear low-density polyethylene\nLiquid packaging board\nLiving hinge\nLow-density polyethylene\nMeat diaper\nMetallised film\nModified atmosphere\nMolded pulp\nNonwoven fabric\nOverwrap\nOxygen scavenger\nPackage handle\nPackaging gas\nPallet\nPaper\nPaper pallet\nPaperboard\nPlastic-coated paper\nPlastic film\nPlastic pallet\nPlastic wrap\nPolyester\nPolyethylene\nPolypropylene\nPressure-sensitive tape\nPump dispenser\nScrew cap\nScrew cap (wine)\nSecurity printing\nSecurity tape\nShock detector\nShock and vibration data logger\nShrink wrap\nSlip sheet\nStaple (fastener)\nStrapping\nStretch wrap\nSusceptor\nTamper-evident band\nTear tape\nTemperature data logger\nTime temperature indicator\nTinplate\nVelostat\nProcesses\nAseptic processing\nAuthentication\nAutomatic identification and data capture\nBlow fill seal\nBlow molding\nCalendering\nCanning\nCoating\nContainerization\nConverting\nCorona treatment\nCurtain coating\nDie cutting\nDie forming (plastics)\nElectronic article surveillance\nExtrusion\nExtrusion coating\nFlame treatment\nGlass production\nGraphic design\nHazard analysis and critical control points\nHermetic seal\nInduction sealing\nInjection moulding\nLamination\nLaser cutting\nMolding\nPackage tracking\nPapermaking\nPlastic extrusion\nPlastic welding\nPrinting\nProduct development\nProduction control\nQuality assurance\nRadio-frequency identification\nRoll slitting\nShearing (manufacturing)\nThermoforming\nTrack and trace\nUltrasonic welding\nVacuum forming\nVacuum packaging\nVerification and validation\nMachinery\nBarcode printer\nBarcode reader\nBottling line\nCalender\nCan seamer\nCap torque tester\nCartoning machine\nCase sealer\nCheck weigher\nConveyor system\nDrum pump\nExtended core stretch wrapper\nFiller\nHeat gun\nHeat sealer\nIndustrial robot\nInjection molding machine\nLabel printer applicator\nLineshaft roller conveyor\nLogistics automation\nMaterial-handling equipment\nMechanical brake stretch wrapper\nMultihead weigher\nOrbital stretch wrapper\nPackaging machinery\nPallet inverter\nPalletizer\nRotary wheel blow molding systems\nSeed-counting machine\nShrink tunnel\nStaple gun\nTape dispenser\nTurntable stretch wrapper\nVertical form fill sealing machine\nEnvironment,post-use\nBiodegradation\nCan collecting\nClosed-loop box reuse\nEnvironmental engineering\nGlass recycling\nIndustrial ecology\nLife-cycle assessment\nLitter\nPackaging waste\nPaper recycling\nPET bottle recycling\nPlastic recycling\nRecycling\nReusable packaging\nReverse logistics\nSource reduction\nSustainable packaging\nWaste management\n Category: Packaging","title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"An opened, plain oyster pail of white rice, with chopsticks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Oysterpail.jpg/220px-Oysterpail.jpg"},{"image_text":"An oyster pail box from a Chinese restaurant","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oyster_pail_takeout_box_%282558467231%29.jpg/220px-Oyster_pail_takeout_box_%282558467231%29.jpg"}]

[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg"},{"title":"Food portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food"},{"title":"Foam food container","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foam_food_container"}]

[{"reference":"Hofmann, Deborah (December 14, 1988). \"New Gift Wraps: Gloss, Glitter and Ease\". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/14/garden/new-gift-wraps-gloss-glitter-and-ease.html","url_text":"\"New Gift Wraps: Gloss, Glitter and Ease\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paper pail\". google.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US529053A/en","url_text":"\"Paper pail\""}]},{"reference":"Root, Amos Ives (1905). The ABC of Bee Culture: A Cyclopaedia of Every Thing Pertaining to the Care ... Retrieved December 12, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_p5lAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22oyster+pail%22&pg=PA75","url_text":"The ABC of Bee Culture: A Cyclopaedia of Every Thing Pertaining to the Care ..."}]},{"reference":"\"Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States\". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130414162829/http://apanews.si.edu/2011/03/04/sweet-and-sour-showcase/","url_text":"\"Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States\""},{"url":"http://apanews.si.edu/2011/03/04/sweet-and-sour-showcase/","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_United_States_network_television_schedule

1993–94 United States network television schedule

["1 Legend","2 Sunday","3 Monday","4 Tuesday","5 Wednesday","6 Thursday","7 Friday","8 Saturday","9 By network","9.1 ABC","9.2 CBS","9.3 Fox","9.4 NBC","10 References"]

Television schedule for the fall of 1993 1993 in American television 1994 in American television List of American television programs currently in production Morning: 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 Daytime/afternoon: 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 Prime time: 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 Late night: 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 Overnight: 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 The 1993–94 network television schedule for the four major English language commercial broadcast networks in the United States covers the primetime hours from September 1993 through August 1994. The schedule is followed by a list per network of returning series, new series, and series cancelled after the 1992–93 season. PBS is not included; member stations have local flexibility over most of their schedules and broadcasts times for network shows may vary. Each of the 30 highest-rated shows released in May 1994 is listed with its rank and rating as determined by Nielsen Media Research. This is the first season in which Fox commenced television broadcasts on every night of the week from the beginning of the season onward. New series are highlighted in bold. Repeat airings or same-day rebroadcasts are indicated by (R). All times are U.S. Eastern and Pacific Time (except for some live sports or events). Subtract one hour for Central, Mountain, Alaska and Hawaii-Aleutian times. Note: From February 12 to 27, 1994, all of CBS' primetime programming was preempted in favor of coverage of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. Legend   Yellow indicates the programs in the top 10 for the season.   Cyan indicates the programs in the top 20 for the season.   Magenta indicates the programs in the top 30 for the season. Other Legend   Light blue indicates local programming.   Gray indicates encore programming.   Blue-gray indicates news programming.   Light green indicates sporting events.   Light Purple indicates movies.   Red indicates series being burned off and other scheduled programs, including specials. Sunday Network 7:00 p.m. 7:30 p.m. 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC America's Funniest Home Videos The New America's Funniest People Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman The ABC Sunday Night Movie (30/12.6)(Tied with Family Matters) CBS 60 Minutes (1/20.9) Murder, She Wrote (11/16.0) CBS Sunday Movie (10/16.2) Fox Fall Townsend Television Martin Living Single Married... with Children Daddy Dearest Local programming Late fall Married... with Children (R) Winter Code 3 (R) The George Carlin Show Spring Special programming Summer The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. Mid-summer The Simpsons (R) NBC Fall I Witness Video seaQuest DSV NBC Sunday Night Movie Spring NBA on NBC Summer Special programming Monday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall Day One ABC's Monday Night Football (8/16.5) Winter The ABC Monday Night Movie Summer Coach (R) Various programming CBS Fall Evening Shade (27/13.2)(Tied with Phenom and Rescue 911) Dave's World (21/13.7)(Tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air) Murphy Brown (9/16.3) Love & War (13/14.5) Northern Exposure (14/14.4) Spring Dave's World (21/13.7)(Tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air) 704 Hauser Hearts Afire Mid-spring Evening Shade (27/13.2)(Tied with Phenom and Rescue 911) Various programming Late spring Dave's World (R) The Nanny (R) Love & War (R) Summer The Nanny (R) Dave's World (R) Fox Fox Night at the Movies Local programming NBC Fall The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (21/13.7)(Tied with Dave's World) Blossom The NBC Monday Movie (23/13.6) Winter Someone Like Me Spring Blossom Tuesday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall Full House (16/14.2) Phenom (27/13.2)(Tied with Evening Shade and Rescue 911) Roseanne (4/19.1) Coach (6/17.4) NYPD Blue (18/13.9)(Tied with Wings) Summer Sister, Sister Mid-summer These Friends of Mine She TV CBS Rescue 911 (27/13.2)(Tied with Phenom and Evening Shade) CBS Tuesday Movie (25/13.3)(Tied with Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman) Fox Fall Roc Bakersfield P.D. America's Most Wanted Local programming Winter Monty Roc Front Page Spring South Central Mid-spring Tales from the Crypt (R) NBC Fall Saved by the Bell: The College Years Getting By The John Larroquette Show The Second Half Dateline NBC Winter The Good Life Café Americain Late winter The Good Life The Second Half The John Larroquette Show (R) The John Larroquette Show Spring Special programming Summer TV Nation The John Larroquette Show (R) Wings (R) Wednesday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall Thea Joe's Life Home Improvement (2/20.4) Grace Under Fire (5/17.7) Moon Over Miami Late fall George Special programming Winter Birdland Mid-winter The Critic Late winter Home Improvement (R) Thunder Alley (12/15.9) These Friends of Mine Turning Point (20/13.8) Spring Dinosaurs The Critic Grace Under Fire (R) Summer Thunder Alley (R) Phenom (R) CBS Fall MLB on CBS Mid-fall Hearts Afire The Nanny Special programming 48 Hours Winter The Nanny Hearts Afire In the Heat of the Night Late winter Tom Spring Good Advice America Tonight Summer Muddling Through (R) Fox Fall Beverly Hills, 90210 Melrose Place Local programming Summer Models Inc. NBC Unsolved Mysteries Now with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric Law & Order Note: After airing only a single episode of South of Sunset on October 27, CBS cancelled the show and broadcast no further episodes. Thursday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall Missing Persons Matlock Primetime Live (17/14.0) Winter The Byrds of Paradise Summer Matlock (R) Mid-summer Matlock (R) The Commish CBS Fall In the Heat of the Night Eye to Eye with Connie Chung Angel Falls Mid-fall Various programming Late fall Second Chances Winter How'd They Do That? Spring Christy Traps Mid-spring Special programming Eye to Eye with Connie Chung Late spring How'd They Do That? Eye to Eye with Connie Chung Picket Fences (R) Summer In the Heat of the Night (R) Mid-summer One West Waikiki Hotel Malibu Fox Fall The Simpsons The Sinbad Show In Living Color Herman's Head Local programming Spring The Simpsons (R) Various programming Late spring The Sinbad Show (R) Herman's Head (R) Summer Bakersfield P.D. Mid-summer Martin (R) Living Single (R) NBC Fall Mad About You Wings (18/13.9)(Tied with NYPD Blue) Seinfeld (3/19.4) Frasier (7/16.8) L.A. Law Winter Homicide: Life on the Street (24/13.5) Mid-winter L.A. Law Spring Law & Order (R) Summer Dateline NBC Friday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall Family Matters (30/12.6)(Tied with The ABC Sunday Night Movie) Boy Meets World Step by Step Hangin' with Mr. Cooper 20/20 (15/14.3) Spring Sister, Sister Mid-spring Hangin' with Mr. Cooper CBS Fall It Had to Be You Family Album Various programming Mid-fall Diagnosis: Murder Bob Family Album Picket Fences Late fall Special programming Winter Burke's Law Fox Fall The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. The X-Files Local programming Summer Encounters: The Hidden Truth NBC Fall Against the Grain NBC Friday Night Mystery Mid-fall Special programming Winter Viper Spring Special programming Summer I Witness Video Note: On CBS, Good Advice was to have returned on this night at 9 p.m., followed by Bob at 9:30 p.m. Late changes resulted in Bob beginning at 9 p.m., Family Album moving to 9:30 p.m. in mid-October, It Had to Be You being canceled at the same time, and Good Advice not returning till the following May. Additionally, Diagnosis: Murder premiered in late October to fill the 8–9 p.m. hour. Saturday Network 8:00 p.m. 8:30 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:30 p.m. ABC Fall The ABC Saturday Night Movie The Commish Mid-fall George Where I Live The Paula Poundstone Show Follow Up Various programming Late fall The ABC Saturday Night Movie CBS Fall MLB on CBS Mid-fall Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman (25/13.3)(Tied with The CBS Tuesday Movie) Harts of the West Walker, Texas Ranger Winter The Road Home Spring Various programming Late spring Harts of the West Summer Muddling Through Hearts Afire Fox Fall COPS COPS (R) Front Page Local programming Winter America's Most Wanted NBC Fall The Mommies Café Americain Empty Nest Nurses Sisters Winter Getting By Late winter Blossom The Mommies Winnetka Road Spring Sisters Late spring The Mommies (R) Getting By Summer NBC Saturday Night Movie Mid-summer The Mommies (R) Empty Nest (R) NBC Saturday Night Movie Note: NBC was scheduled to show its portion of Baseball Night in America in August and September 1994, but those games were cancelled by the Major League Baseball players' strike. By network ABC Returning series 20/20 ABC's Monday Night Football The ABC Monday Night Movie The ABC Saturday Night Movie The ABC Sunday Night Movie America's Funniest Home Videos America's Funniest People Coach The Commish Day One Dinosaurs Family Matters FBI: The Untold Stories Full House Hangin' with Mr. Cooper Home Improvement Matlock Primetime Live Roseanne Step by Step Where I Live New series Baseball Night in America Birdland * Boy Meets World The Byrds of Paradise * The Critic * Ellen * George Grace Under Fire Joe's Life Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman Missing Persons Moon Over Miami NYPD Blue The Paula Poundstone Show Phenom She TV * Sister, Sister * Thea Thunder Alley * Turning Point * Not returning from 1992–93: American Detective Camp Wilder Civil Wars Covington Cross Crossroads Delta Doogie Howser, M.D. Getting By (moved to NBC) Going to Extremes Home Free Homefront Jack's Place The Jackie Thomas Show Laurie Hill Life Goes On Perfect Strangers Room for Two Sirens (moved to syndication in 1994) Street Match The Wonder Years The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles Wild Palms CBS Returning series 48 Hours 60 Minutes Bob Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman Evening Shade Good Advice Hearts Afire In the Heat of the Night Love & War Murder, She Wrote Murphy Brown Northern Exposure Picket Fences Rescue 911 Walker, Texas Ranger New series 704 Hauser * America Tonight * Angel Falls Burke's Law * Christy * Dave's World Diagnosis: Murder * Eye to Eye with Connie Chung Family Album Harts of the West Hotel Malibu * It Had to Be You Muddling Through * The Nanny One West Waikiki * The Road Home * Second Chances * South of Sunset Tom * Traps * Not returning from 1992–93: Angel Street Bodies of Evidence The Boys Brooklyn Bridge The Building Cutters Designing Women Dudley Family Dog Frannie's Turn The Golden Palace The Hat Squad How'd They Do That? Johnny Bago Knots Landing A League of Their Own Major Dad Middle Ages Raven Space Rangers Street Stories with Ed Bradley Top Cops Tall Hopes The Trouble with Larry Fox Returning series America's Most Wanted Beverly Hills, 90210 Code 3 Comic Strip Live Cops Fox Night at the Movies The Front Page Herman's Head In Living Color Married... with Children Martin Melrose Place Roc The Simpsons New series The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. Bakersfield P.D. Daddy Dearest Encounters: The Hidden Truth * The George Carlin Show * Living Single Models Inc. Monty * The Sinbad Show South Central * Townsend Television The X-Files Not returning from 1992–93: Batman: The Animated Series (returned to daytime) The Ben Stiller Show Class of '96 Danger Theatre Down the Shore The Edge Flying Blind Great Scott! The Heights Key West Likely Suspects Parker Lewis Can't Lose Shaky Ground Sightings (moved to syndication) TriBeCa Woops! NBC Returning series Blossom Dateline NBC Empty Nest The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air Getting By (moved from ABC) Homicide: Life on the Street I Witness Video L.A. Law Law & Order Mad About You NBC Sunday Night Movie The NBC Monday Movie Nurses Seinfeld Sisters Unsolved Mysteries Wings New series Against the Grain Café Americain Frasier The Good Life * The John Larroquette Show The Mommies Now with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric * Saved by the Bell: The College Years seaQuest DSV The Second Half Someone Like Me * Viper * Winnetka Road * Not returning from 1992–93: Almost Home Black Tie Affair Cheers Crime & Punishment A Different World Final Appeal Here and Now I'll Fly Away Out All Night The Powers That Be Quantum Leap Reasonable Doubts Rhythm & Blues The Round Table Route 66 Secret Service South Beach Super Bloopers and New Practical Jokes What Happened? Note: The * indicates that the program was introduced in midseason. References ^ Highest-rated series is based on the annual top-rated programs list compiled by Nielsen Media Research and reported on TimBrooks.net/Ratings Archived 2012-06-21 at the Wayback Machine vteUnited States network television schedules 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"broadcast networks in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_over-the-air_television_networks"},{"link_name":"primetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime"},{"link_name":"list per network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#By_network"},{"link_name":"1992–93 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_United_States_network_television_schedule"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"Nielsen Media Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nielsen_Media_Research"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM2-1"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"U.S. Eastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"Pacific Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"Hawaii-Aleutian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii-Aleutian_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"1994 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Lillehammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillehammer"}],"text":"The 1993–94 network television schedule for the four major English language commercial broadcast networks in the United States covers the primetime hours from September 1993 through August 1994. The schedule is followed by a list per network of returning series, new series, and series cancelled after the 1992–93 season.PBS is not included; member stations have local flexibility over most of their schedules and broadcasts times for network shows may vary.Each of the 30 highest-rated shows released in May 1994 is listed with its rank and rating as determined by Nielsen Media Research.[1]This is the first season in which Fox commenced television broadcasts on every night of the week from the beginning of the season onward.New series are highlighted in bold.Repeat airings or same-day rebroadcasts are indicated by (R).All times are U.S. Eastern and Pacific Time (except for some live sports or events). Subtract one hour for Central, Mountain, Alaska and Hawaii-Aleutian times.Note: From February 12 to 27, 1994, all of CBS' primetime programming was preempted in favor of coverage of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer.","title":"1993–94 United States network television schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"burned off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_off"}],"text":"Yellow indicates the programs in the top 10 for the season.\n  Cyan indicates the programs in the top 20 for the season.\n  Magenta indicates the programs in the top 30 for the season.Other LegendLight blue indicates local programming.\n  Gray indicates encore programming.\n  Blue-gray indicates news programming.\n  Light green indicates sporting events.\n  Light Purple indicates movies.\n  Red indicates series being burned off and other scheduled programs, including specials.","title":"Legend"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Sunday"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Monday"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Tuesday"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South of Sunset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_of_Sunset"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"}],"text":"Note: After airing only a single episode of South of Sunset on October 27, CBS cancelled the show and broadcast no further episodes.","title":"Wednesday"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Thursday"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Good Advice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Advice_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Family Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Album_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"It Had to Be You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Had_to_Be_You_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Good Advice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Advice_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Diagnosis: Murder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis:_Murder"}],"text":"Note: On CBS, Good Advice was to have returned on this night at 9 p.m., followed by Bob at 9:30 p.m. Late changes resulted in Bob beginning at 9 p.m., Family Album moving to 9:30 p.m. in mid-October, It Had to Be You being canceled at the same time, and Good Advice not returning till the following May. Additionally, Diagnosis: Murder premiered in late October to fill the 8–9 p.m. hour.","title":"Friday"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baseball Night in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Baseball_Network"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball players' strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Major_League_Baseball_strike"}],"text":"Note: NBC was scheduled to show its portion of Baseball Night in America in August and September 1994, but those games were cancelled by the Major League Baseball players' strike.","title":"Saturday"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"20/20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20/20_(American_TV_program)"},{"link_name":"ABC's Monday Night Football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday_Night_Football"},{"link_name":"The ABC Sunday Night Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_ABC_Sunday_Night_Movie"},{"link_name":"America's Funniest Home 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Critic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Critic"},{"link_name":"Ellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Grace Under Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Under_Fire"},{"link_name":"Joe's Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%27s_Life"},{"link_name":"Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_%26_Clark:_The_New_Adventures_of_Superman"},{"link_name":"Missing Persons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_Persons_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Moon Over Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Over_Miami_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"NYPD Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYPD_Blue"},{"link_name":"The Paula Poundstone 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Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Hill_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Life Goes On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Goes_On_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Perfect Strangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Strangers_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Room for Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_for_Two_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Sirens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirens_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"syndication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_syndication"},{"link_name":"The Wonder Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonder_Years"},{"link_name":"The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Young_Indiana_Jones_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"Wild Palms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Palms"}],"sub_title":"ABC","text":"Returning series\n20/20\nABC's Monday Night Football\nThe ABC Monday Night Movie\nThe ABC Saturday Night Movie\nThe ABC Sunday Night Movie\nAmerica's Funniest Home Videos\nAmerica's Funniest People\nCoach\nThe Commish\nDay One\nDinosaurs\nFamily Matters\nFBI: The Untold Stories\nFull House\nHangin' with Mr. Cooper\nHome Improvement\nMatlock\nPrimetime Live\nRoseanne\nStep by Step\nWhere I Live\n\n\n\n\nNew series\nBaseball Night in America\nBirdland *\nBoy Meets World\nThe Byrds of Paradise *\nThe Critic *\nEllen *\nGeorge\nGrace Under Fire\nJoe's Life\nLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman\nMissing Persons\nMoon Over Miami\nNYPD Blue\nThe Paula Poundstone Show\nPhenom\nShe TV *\nSister, Sister *\nThea\nThunder Alley *\nTurning Point *\n\n\n\n\nNot returning from 1992–93:\n\nAmerican Detective\nCamp Wilder\nCivil Wars\nCovington Cross\nCrossroads\nDelta\nDoogie Howser, M.D.\nGetting By (moved to NBC)\nGoing to Extremes\nHome Free\nHomefront\nJack's Place\nThe Jackie Thomas Show\nLaurie Hill\nLife Goes On\nPerfect Strangers\nRoom for Two\nSirens (moved to syndication in 1994)\nStreet Match\nThe Wonder Years\nThe Young Indiana Jones Chronicles\nWild Palms","title":"By network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"48 Hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/48_Hours_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"60 Minutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/60_Minutes"},{"link_name":"Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Quinn,_Medicine_Woman"},{"link_name":"Evening Shade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_Shade"},{"link_name":"Good Advice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Advice_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Hearts Afire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearts_Afire"},{"link_name":"In the Heat of the Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Heat_of_the_Night_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Love & War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_%26_War_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Murder, She Wrote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder,_She_Wrote"},{"link_name":"Murphy Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murphy_Brown"},{"link_name":"Northern Exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Exposure"},{"link_name":"Picket Fences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picket_Fences"},{"link_name":"Rescue 911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_911"},{"link_name":"Walker, Texas Ranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker,_Texas_Ranger"},{"link_name":"704 Hauser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/704_Hauser"},{"link_name":"Angel Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_Falls_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Burke's Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burke%27s_Law_(1994_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Christy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christy_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Dave's World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%27s_World"},{"link_name":"Diagnosis: Murder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis:_Murder"},{"link_name":"Eye to Eye with Connie Chung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_to_Eye_with_Connie_Chung"},{"link_name":"Family Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Album_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Harts of the West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harts_of_the_West"},{"link_name":"Hotel Malibu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Malibu"},{"link_name":"It Had to Be You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Had_to_Be_You_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Muddling Through","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muddling_Through"},{"link_name":"The Nanny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nanny"},{"link_name":"One West Waikiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_West_Waikiki"},{"link_name":"The Road Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_Home_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Second Chances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Chances_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"South of Sunset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_of_Sunset"},{"link_name":"Tom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Traps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traps_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"1992–93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_United_States_network_television_schedule"},{"link_name":"Angel Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_Street_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Bodies of Evidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_of_Evidence_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boys_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Building_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Cutters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutters_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Designing Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designing_Women"},{"link_name":"Dudley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Family Dog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Dog_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Frannie's Turn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frannie%27s_Turn"},{"link_name":"The Golden Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Golden_Palace"},{"link_name":"The Hat Squad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hat_Squad"},{"link_name":"Johnny Bago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Bago"},{"link_name":"Knots Landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knots_Landing"},{"link_name":"A League of Their Own","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_League_of_Their_Own_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Major Dad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_Dad"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Raven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven_(1992_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Space Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Rangers_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Top Cops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Cops"},{"link_name":"Tall Hopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_Hopes"},{"link_name":"The Trouble with Larry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Larry"}],"sub_title":"CBS","text":"Returning series\n48 Hours\n60 Minutes\nBob\nDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman\nEvening Shade\nGood Advice\nHearts Afire\nIn the Heat of the Night\nLove & War\nMurder, She Wrote\nMurphy Brown\nNorthern Exposure\nPicket Fences\nRescue 911\nWalker, Texas Ranger\n\n\n\n\nNew series\n704 Hauser *\nAmerica Tonight *\nAngel Falls\nBurke's Law *\nChristy *\nDave's World\nDiagnosis: Murder *\nEye to Eye with Connie Chung\nFamily Album\nHarts of the West\nHotel Malibu *\nIt Had to Be You\nMuddling Through *\nThe Nanny\nOne West Waikiki *\nThe Road Home *\nSecond Chances *\nSouth of Sunset\nTom *\nTraps *\n\n\n\n\nNot returning from 1992–93:\n\nAngel Street\nBodies of Evidence\nThe Boys\nBrooklyn Bridge\nThe Building\nCutters\nDesigning Women\nDudley\nFamily Dog\nFrannie's Turn\nThe Golden Palace\nThe Hat Squad\nHow'd They Do That?\nJohnny Bago\nKnots Landing\nA League of Their Own\nMajor Dad\nMiddle Ages\nRaven\nSpace Rangers\nStreet Stories with Ed Bradley\nTop Cops\nTall Hopes\nThe Trouble with Larry","title":"By network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"America's Most Wanted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted"},{"link_name":"Beverly Hills, 90210","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverly_Hills,_90210"},{"link_name":"Comic Strip Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_Strip_Live_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Cops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cops_(TV_program)"},{"link_name":"The Front Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_Page_(newsmagazine)"},{"link_name":"Herman's Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman%27s_Head"},{"link_name":"In Living Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Living_Color"},{"link_name":"Married... with Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Married..._with_Children"},{"link_name":"Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Melrose Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melrose_Place"},{"link_name":"Roc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roc_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Simpsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons"},{"link_name":"The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Brisco_County,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Bakersfield P.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakersfield_P.D."},{"link_name":"Daddy Dearest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daddy_Dearest"},{"link_name":"Encounters: The Hidden Truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encounters:_The_Hidden_Truth"},{"link_name":"The George Carlin Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_George_Carlin_Show"},{"link_name":"Living Single","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_Single"},{"link_name":"Models Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_Inc."},{"link_name":"Monty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Sinbad Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sinbad_Show"},{"link_name":"South Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Central_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Townsend Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend_Television"},{"link_name":"The X-Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files"},{"link_name":"1992–93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_United_States_network_television_schedule"},{"link_name":"Batman: The Animated Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman:_The_Animated_Series"},{"link_name":"The Ben Stiller Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ben_Stiller_Show"},{"link_name":"Class of '96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_of_%2796"},{"link_name":"Danger Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danger_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Down the Shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_the_Shore"},{"link_name":"The Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Edge_(Fox_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Flying Blind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Blind_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Great Scott!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Scott!_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heights_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Key West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_West_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Likely Suspects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likely_Suspects"},{"link_name":"Parker Lewis Can't Lose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker_Lewis_Can%27t_Lose"},{"link_name":"Shaky Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaky_Ground"},{"link_name":"Sightings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sightings_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"TriBeCa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TriBeCa_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Woops!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woops!"}],"sub_title":"Fox","text":"Returning series\nAmerica's Most Wanted\nBeverly Hills, 90210\nCode 3\nComic Strip Live\nCops\nFox Night at the Movies\nThe Front Page\nHerman's Head\nIn Living Color\nMarried... with Children\nMartin\nMelrose Place\nRoc\nThe Simpsons\n\n\n\n\nNew series\nThe Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.\nBakersfield P.D.\nDaddy Dearest\nEncounters: The Hidden Truth *\nThe George Carlin Show *\nLiving Single\nModels Inc.\nMonty *\nThe Sinbad Show\nSouth Central *\nTownsend Television\nThe X-Files\n\n\n\n\nNot returning from 1992–93:\n\nBatman: The Animated Series (returned to daytime)\nThe Ben Stiller Show\nClass of '96\nDanger Theatre\nDown the Shore\nThe Edge\nFlying Blind\nGreat Scott!\nThe Heights\nKey West\nLikely Suspects\nParker Lewis Can't Lose\nShaky Ground\nSightings (moved to syndication)\nTriBeCa\nWoops!","title":"By network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blossom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blossom_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Dateline NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dateline_NBC"},{"link_name":"Empty Nest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_Nest"},{"link_name":"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fresh_Prince_of_Bel-Air"},{"link_name":"Getting By","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_By"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Homicide: Life on the Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicide:_Life_on_the_Street"},{"link_name":"I Witness Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Witness_Video"},{"link_name":"L.A. Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.A._Law"},{"link_name":"Law & Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order"},{"link_name":"Mad About You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_About_You"},{"link_name":"NBC Sunday Night Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_Sunday_Night_Movie"},{"link_name":"The NBC Monday Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NBC_Monday_Movie"},{"link_name":"Nurses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurses_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Seinfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld"},{"link_name":"Sisters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisters_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Unsolved Mysteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_Mysteries"},{"link_name":"Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_(1990_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Against the Grain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_the_Grain_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Café Americain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Americain"},{"link_name":"Frasier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frasier"},{"link_name":"The Good Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Good_Life_(1994_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The John Larroquette Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_John_Larroquette_Show"},{"link_name":"The Mommies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mommies_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Now with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_with_Tom_Brokaw_and_Katie_Couric"},{"link_name":"Saved by the Bell: The College Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saved_by_the_Bell:_The_College_Years"},{"link_name":"seaQuest DSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaQuest_DSV"},{"link_name":"The Second Half","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_Half"},{"link_name":"Someone Like Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Someone_Like_Me_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Viper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viper_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Winnetka Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnetka_Road"},{"link_name":"1992–93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_United_States_network_television_schedule"},{"link_name":"Almost Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Torkelsons"},{"link_name":"Black Tie Affair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Tie_Affair_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Cheers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheers"},{"link_name":"A Different World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_World"},{"link_name":"Final Appeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Appeal:_From_the_Files_of_Unsolved_Mysteries"},{"link_name":"Here and Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here_and_Now_(1992_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"I'll Fly Away","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ll_Fly_Away_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Out All Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_All_Night_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Powers That Be","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Powers_That_Be_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Quantum Leap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Leap_(1989_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Reasonable Doubts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_Doubts"},{"link_name":"Rhythm & Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_%26_Blues_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Round Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Round_Table_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Route 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_66_(TV_series)#Sequel"},{"link_name":"Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Service_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"South Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Beach_(1993_TV_series)"}],"sub_title":"NBC","text":"Returning series\nBlossom\nDateline NBC\nEmpty Nest\nThe Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\nGetting By (moved from ABC)\nHomicide: Life on the Street\nI Witness Video\nL.A. Law\nLaw & Order\nMad About You\nNBC Sunday Night Movie\nThe NBC Monday Movie\nNurses\nSeinfeld\nSisters\nUnsolved Mysteries\nWings\n\n\n\n\nNew series\nAgainst the Grain\nCafé Americain\nFrasier\nThe Good Life *\nThe John Larroquette Show\nThe Mommies\nNow with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric *\nSaved by the Bell: The College Years\nseaQuest DSV\nThe Second Half\nSomeone Like Me *\nViper *\nWinnetka Road *\n\n\n\n\nNot returning from 1992–93:\n\nAlmost Home\nBlack Tie Affair\nCheers\nCrime & Punishment\nA Different World\nFinal Appeal\nHere and Now\nI'll Fly Away\nOut All Night\nThe Powers That Be\nQuantum Leap\nReasonable Doubts\nRhythm & Blues\nThe Round Table\nRoute 66\nSecret Service\nSouth Beach\nSuper Bloopers and New Practical Jokes\nWhat Happened?Note: The * indicates that the program was introduced in midseason.","title":"By network"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_authentication

Email authentication

["1 Rationale","2 Nature of the problem","2.1 Sending from within ADMD's network (MUA 1)","2.2 Roaming user (MUA 2)","2.3 Disconnected user","2.4 Section notes","3 Authentication methods in widespread use","3.1 SPF","3.2 DKIM","3.3 DMARC","4 Other methods","4.1 ADSP","4.2 VBR","4.3 iprev","4.4 DNSWL","5 Authentication-Results","6 See also","7 References"]

Techniques aimed at providing verifiable information about the origin of email messagesEmail authentication, or validation, is a collection of techniques aimed at providing verifiable information about the origin of email messages by validating the domain ownership of any message transfer agents (MTA) who participated in transferring and possibly modifying a message. The original base of Internet email, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), has no such feature, so forged sender addresses in emails (a practice known as email spoofing) have been widely used in phishing, email spam, and various types of frauds. To combat this, many competing email authentication proposals have been developed, but only fairly recently have three been widely adopted – SPF, DKIM and DMARC. The results of such validation can be used in automated email filtering, or can assist recipients when selecting an appropriate action. This article does not cover user authentication of email submission and retrieval. Rationale In the early 1980s, when Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) was designed, it provided for no real verification of sending user or system. This was not a problem while email systems were run by trusted corporations and universities, but since the commercialization of the Internet in the early 1990s, spam, phishing, and other crimes have been found to increasingly involve email. Email authentication is a necessary first step towards identifying the origin of messages, and thereby making policies and laws more enforceable. Hinging on domain ownership is a stance that emerged in the early 2000. It implies a coarse-grained authentication, given that domains appear on the right part of email addresses, after the at sign. Fine-grain authentication, at user level, can be achieved by other means, such as Pretty Good Privacy and S/MIME. At present, digital identity needs to be managed by each individual. An outstanding rationale for email authentication is the ability to automate email filtering at receiving servers. That way, spoofed messages can be rejected before they arrive to a user's Inbox. While protocols strive to devise ways to reliably block distrusted mail, security indicators can tag unauthenticated messages that still reach the Inbox. A 2018 study shows that security indicators can lower the click-through ratio by more than ten points, 48.9% to 37.2% of the users who open spoofed messages. Nature of the problem SMTP defines message transport, not the message content. Thus, it defines the mail envelope and its parameters, such as the envelope sender, but not the header (except trace information) nor the body of the message itself. STD 10 and RFC 5321 define SMTP (the envelope), while STD 11 and RFC 5322 define the message (header and body), formally referred to as the Internet Message Format. SMTP defines the trace information of a message, which is saved in the header using the following two fields: Received: when an SMTP server accepts a message it inserts this trace record at the top of the header (last to first). Return-Path: when the delivery SMTP server makes the final delivery of a message, it inserts this field at the top of the header. A mail user agent (MUA) knows the outgoing mail SMTP server from its configuration. An MTA (or a relay server) typically determines which server to connect to by looking up the MX (Mail eXchange) DNS resource record for each recipient's domain name. The path depicted below can be reconstructed on the ground of the trace header fields that each host adds to the top of the header when it receives the message: Email authentication can be complicated by the presence of an intermediate relay. A and B clearly belong to the author's Administrative Management Domain, while D and E are part of the recipient network. What role does C play? Return-Path: <author@example.com> Received: from D.example.org by E.example.org with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 11:45:02 -0500 Received: from C.example.net by D.example.org with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 11:45:02 -0500 Received: from B.example.com (b.example.com ) by C.example.net (which is me) with ESMTP id 936ADB8838C for <different-recipient@example.net>; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 08:44:50 -0800 (PST) Received: from A.example.com by B.example.com with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 17:44:47 +0100 Received: from by A.example.com with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 17:44:42 +0100 It is important to realize that the first few lines at the top of the header are usually trusted by the recipient. In fact, those lines are written by machines in the recipient's Administrative Management Domain (ADMD), which act upon their explicit mandate. By contrast, the lines that prove the involvement of A and B, as well as of the purported author's MUA could be a counterfeit created by C. The Received: field shown above is an epoch-making piece of the header. The Return-Path: is written by E, the mail delivery agent (MDA), based on the message envelope. Additional trace fields, designed for email authentication, can populate the top of the header. Normally, messages sent out by an author's ADMD go directly to the destination's MX (that is B → D in the figures). The sender's ADMD can add authentication tokens only if the message goes through its boxes. The most common cases can be schematized as follows: A schematic representation of the most common ways that an email message can get transferred from its author to its recipient. Sending from within ADMD's network (MUA 1) The ADMD's MSA authenticates the user, either based on its IP address or some other SMTP Authentication means. Depending on the recipient address, the message can follow the normal path or pass through a mailing list or a forwarding service. B can be an outbound SMTP proxy or a smarthost. If the local network does not block outbound port 25 connections, the user can deploy some "direct-to-mx" software. Typically, zombies and other malicious hosts behave that way. If the MUA is badly configured, it can also use a different relay, such as an outmoded open relay, that often does not authenticate the user. Roaming user (MUA 2) Most of the times it is still possible to use one's own ADMD MSA. Outbound connections to port 25 can be intercepted and tunnelled to a transparent proxy. A MUA can be configured to use an SMTP relay that the local network provider offers as a bonus. Disconnected user An e-card can send mail on behalf of a customer who typed email addresses on the local keyboard; some web forms can be considered to work similarly. Section notes ^ For example, a recipient can instruct Gmail to forward messages to a different email address. The sender is not necessarily aware of that. ^ Properly configured proxies appear as part of the author ADMD. ^ Some ADMDs block outbound connection to port 25 (SMTP) to avoid this. This proactive technique is described in RFC 5068. In addition, some block inbound SMTP connections from IPs listed as dialup/DSL/cable. ^ a b c d In this case the author's ADMD is not involved at all. ^ Some ISPs block port 587, although RFC 5068 clearly says: Access Providers MUST NOT block users from accessing the external Internet using the SUBMISSION port 587. Authentication methods in widespread use SPF Main article: Sender Policy Framework SPF authenticates the sender IP address. SPF allows the receiver to check that an email claimed to have come from a specific domain comes from an IP address authorized by that domain's administrators. Usually, a domain administrator will authorize the IP addresses used by their own outbound MTAs, including any proxy or smarthost. The IP address of the sending MTA is guaranteed to be valid by the Transmission Control Protocol, as it establishes the connection by checking that the remote host is reachable. The receiving mail server receives the HELO SMTP command soon after the connection is set up, and a Mail from: at the beginning of each message. Both of them can contain a domain name. The SPF verifier queries the Domain Name System (DNS) for a matching SPF record, which if it exists will specify the IP addresses authorized by that domain's administrator. The result can be "pass", "fail", or some intermediate result - and systems will generally take this into account in their anti-spam filtering. DKIM Main article: DomainKeys Identified Mail DKIM authenticates parts of the message content. DKIM checks the message content, deploying digital signatures. Rather than using digital certificates, the keys for signature-verification are distributed via the DNS. That way, a message gets associated to a domain name. A DKIM-compliant domain administrator generates one or more pairs of asymmetric keys, then hands private keys to the signing MTA, and publishes public keys on the DNS. The DNS labels are structured as selector._domainkey.example.com, where selector identifies the key pair, and _domainkey is a fixed keyword, followed by the signing domain's name so that publication occurs under the authority of that domain's ADMD. Just before injecting a message into the SMTP transport system, the signing MTA creates a digital signature that covers selected fields of the header and the body (or just its beginning). The signature should cover substantive header fields such as From:, To:, Date:, and Subject:, and then is added to the message header itself, as a trace field. Any number of relays can receive and forward the message and at every hop, the signature can be verified by retrieving the public key from the DNS. As long as intermediate relays do not modify signed parts of a message, its DKIM-signatures remain valid. DMARC Main article: Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting & Conformance DMARC allows the specification of a policy for authenticated messages. It is built on top of two existing mechanisms, Sender Policy Framework (SPF) and DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM). It allows the administrative owner of a domain to publish a policy in their DNS records to specify which mechanism (DKIM, SPF or both) is employed when sending email from that domain; how to check the From: field presented to end users; how the receiver should deal with failures - and a reporting mechanism for actions performed under those policies. Other methods A range of other methods have been proposed, but are now either deprecated or have not yet gained widespread support. These have included Sender ID, Certified Server Validation, DomainKeys and those below: ADSP Main article: Author Domain Signing Practices ADSP allowed the specification of a policy for messages signed by the author's domain. A message had to go through DKIM authentication first, then ADSP could demand a punishing treatment if the message was not signed by the author domain(s) —as per the From: header field. ADSP was demoted to historic in November 2013. VBR Main article: Vouch by Reference VBR adds a vouch to an already authenticated identity. This method requires some globally recognized authorities that certify the reputation of domains. A sender can apply for a reference at a vouching authority. The reference, if accepted, is published on the DNS branch managed by that authority. A vouched sender should add a VBR-Info: header field to the messages it sends. It should also add a DKIM signature, or use some other authentication method, such as SPF. A receiver, after validating the sender's identity, can verify the vouch claimed in VBR-Info: by looking up the reference. iprev Main article: Forward-confirmed reverse DNS Applications should avoid using this method as a means of authentication. Nevertheless, it is often carried out and its results, if any, written in the Received: header field besides the TCP information required by the SMTP specification. The IP reverse, confirmed by looking up the IP address of the name just found, is just an indication that the IP was set up properly in the DNS. The reverse resolution of a range of IP addresses can be delegated to the ADMD that uses them, or can remain managed by the network provider. In the latter case, no useful identity related to the message can be obtained. DNSWL Looking up a DNSWL (DNS-based whitelist) may provide an assessment of the sender, possibly including its identification. Authentication-Results RFC 8601 defines a trace header field Authentication-Results: where a receiver can record the results of email authentication checks that it carried out. Multiple results for multiple methods can be reported in the same field, separated by semicolons and wrapped as appropriate. For example, the following field is purportedly written by receiver.example.org and reports SPF and DKIM results: Authentication-Results: receiver.example.org; spf=pass smtp.mailfrom=example.com; dkim=pass header.i=@example.com The first token after the field name, receiver.example.org, is the ID of the authentication server, a token known as an authserv-id. A receiver supporting RFC 8601 is responsible to remove (or rename) any false header claiming to belong to its domain so that downstream filters cannot get confused. However, those filters still need to be configured, as they have to know which identities the domain may use. For a Mail User Agent (MUA), it is slightly harder to learn what identities it can trust. Since users can receive email from multiple domains—e.g., if they have multiple email addresses -— any of those domains could let Authentication-Results: fields pass through because they looked neutral. That way, a malicious sender can forge an authserv-id that the user would trust if the message arrived from a different domain. A legitimate Authentication-Results: typically appears just above a Received: field by the same domain from which the message was relayed. Additional Received: fields may appear between that and the top of the header, as the message got transferred internally between servers belonging to that same, trusted ADMD. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority maintains a registry of Email Authentication Parameters. Not all parameters need to be registered, though. For example, there can be local "policy" values designed for a site's internal use only, which correspond to local configuration and need no registration. See also DMARC – System to prevent email fraud Email encryption Email spoofing – Creating email spam or phishing messages with a forged sender identity or address Ident – Internet protocol that helps identify the user of a particular TCP connection Secure messaging References ^ Hang Hu; Peng Peng; Gang Wang (2017). "Towards the Adoption of Anti-spoofing Protocols". arXiv:1711.06654 . ^ kerner, Sean Michael (2 January 2018). "DMARC Email Security Adoption Grows in U.S. Government". eWeek. Retrieved 24 November 2018. ^ "Email Authentication Summit". workshop. Federal Trade Commission. November 9–10, 2004. Archived from the original on 3 June 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2013. The Report, however, identified domain-level authentication as a promising technological development{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ Michael Hammer (14 August 2020). "third party authorization". dmarc-ietf (Mailing list). Retrieved 14 August 2020. ^ Hang Hu; Gang Wang (15 August 2018). End-to-End Measurements of Email Spoofing Attacks. pp. 1095–1112. ISBN 9781939133045. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) ^ a b John Klensin (October 2008). "Trace Information". Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. IETF. sec. 4.4. doi:10.17487/RFC5321. RFC 5321. Retrieved 1 February 2013. When the SMTP server accepts a message either for relaying or for final delivery, it inserts a trace record (also referred to interchangeably as a "time stamp line" or "Received" line) at the top of the mail data. This trace record indicates the identity of the host that sent the message, the identity of the host that received the message (and is inserting this time stamp), and the date and time the message was received. Relayed messages will have multiple time stamp lines. ^ Scott Kitterman (April 2014). Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in E-Mail, Version 1. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC7208. RFC 7208. Retrieved 26 April 2014. There are three places that techniques can be used to ameliorate unintended SPF failures with mediators. ^ J. Klensin (October 2008). "Alias". Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. IETF. sec. 3.9.1. doi:10.17487/RFC5321. RFC 5321. Retrieved 15 February 2013. ^ IP Address forgery is possible, but generally involves a lower level of criminal behavior (breaking and entering, wiretapping, etc.), which are too risky for a typical hacker or spammer, or insecure servers not implementing RFC 1948, see also Transmission Control Protocol#Connection hijacking. ^ Scott Kitterman (Nov 21, 2009). "How reliable is it to block/reject on SPF fail?". spf-help. gossamer-threads.com. I think it's generally fine as long as you offer a mechanism for whitelisting of non-SRS forwarders. ^ D. Crocker; T. Hansen; M. Kucherawy, eds. (September 2011). DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC6376. RFC 6376. Retrieved 18 February 2013. DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) permits a person, role, or organization to claim some responsibility for a message by associating a domain name with the message, which they are authorized to use. ^ Dave Crocker (16 Oct 2007). "DKIM Frequently Asked Questions". DKIM.org. Retrieved 17 February 2013. ^ E. Allman; J. Fenton; M. Delany; J. Levine (August 2009). DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Author Domain Signing Practices (ADSP). IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC5616. RFC 5616. Retrieved 18 February 2013. ^ Barry Leiba (25 November 2013). "Change the status of ADSP (RFC 5617) to Historic". IETF. ^ P. Hoffman; J. Levine; A. Hathcock (April 2009). Vouch By Reference. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC5518. RFC 5518. Retrieved 18 February 2013. ^ a b Murray Kucherawy (May 2019). Message Header Field for Indicating Message Authentication Status. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC8601. RFC 8601. Retrieved 12 June 2023. ^ H. Eidnes; G. de Groot; P. Vixie (March 1998). Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC2317. RFC 2317. Retrieved 18 February 2013. vteUnsolicited digital communicationProtocolsEmail spam Address munging Bulk email software Directory harvest attack DNSBL DNSWL Email spoofing Image spam Joe job Pink contract Spambot Other Auto dialer Cold calling Flyposting Junk fax Messaging Mobile phone Newsgroup Robocall Spambot Telemarketing VoIP Anti-spam Client-side Challenge–response spam filtering Context filtering Disposable email address Distributed Checksum Clearinghouse Email authentication Greylisting List poisoning Naive Bayes spam filtering Network Abuse Clearinghouse SORBS SpamCop Spamhaus Spamdexing Blog spam Cloaking Doorway page Forum spam Google bombing Keyword stuffing Link farm Referrer spam Scraper site Social spam Spam blogs Sping URL redirection Internet fraud Advance-fee scam Lottery scam Make Money Fast Phishing Voice vteScams and confidence tricksTerminology Scam Error account Shill Shyster Sucker list Notable scams andconfidence tricks 1992 Indian stock market scam 2G spectrum case Advance-fee scam Art student scam Badger game Bait-and-switch Black money scam Blessing scam Bogus escrow Boiler room Bride scam Charity fraud Clip joint Coin-matching game Coin rolling scams Drop swindle Embarrassing cheque Exit scam Extraterrestrial real estate Fiddle game Fine print Foreclosure rescue scheme Foreign exchange fraud Fortune telling fraud Gem scam Get-rich-quick scheme Green goods scam Hustling Indian coal allocation scam IRS impersonation scam Intellectual property scams Kansas City Shuffle Locksmith scam Long firm Miracle cars scam Mismarking Mock auction Moving scam Overpayment scam Patent safe Pig in a poke Pigeon drop Pork barrel Pump and dump Redemption/A4V schemes Reloading scam Return fraud Salting Shell game Sick baby hoax SIM swap scam Slavery reparations scam Spanish Prisoner SSA impersonation scam SSC Scam Strip search phone call scam Swampland in Florida Tarmac scam Technical support scam Telemarketing fraud Thai tailor scam Thai zig zag scam Three-card monte Trojan horse Wash trading White van speaker scam Work-at-home scheme Internet scams andcountermeasures Avalanche Pig Butchering Carding Catfishing Click fraud Clickjacking Cramming Cryptocurrency scams Cybercrime CyberThrill DarkMarket Domain name scams Email authentication Email fraud Internet vigilantism Lenny anti-scam bot Lottery scam PayPai Phishing Referer spoofing Ripoff Report Rock Phish Romance scam Russian Business Network SaferNet Scam baiting 419eater.com Jim Browning Kitboga Scammer Payback ShadowCrew Spoofed URL Spoofing attack Stock Generation Voice phishing Website reputation ratings Pyramid andPonzi schemes Aman Futures Group Bernard Cornfeld Caritas Dona Branca Earl Jones Ezubao Foundation for New Era Philanthropy Franchise fraud High-yield investment program (HYIP) Investors Overseas Service Kapa investment scam Kubus scheme Madoff investment scandal Make Money Fast Matrix scheme MMM Petters Group Worldwide Pyramid schemes in Albania Reed Slatkin Saradha Group financial scandal Secret Sister Scott W. Rothstein Stanford Financial Group Welsh Thrasher faith scam Lists Con artists Confidence tricks Criminal enterprises, gangs and syndicates Impostors In the media Film and television Literature Ponzi schemes

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"domain ownership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name#Purpose"},{"link_name":"message transfer agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_transfer_agent"},{"link_name":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"email spoofing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_spoofing"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"email spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_spam"},{"link_name":"SPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender_Policy_Framework"},{"link_name":"DKIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DKIM"},{"link_name":"DMARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMARC"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"email filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_filtering"},{"link_name":"authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication"}],"text":"Email authentication, or validation, is a collection of techniques aimed at providing verifiable information about the origin of email messages by validating the domain ownership of any message transfer agents (MTA) who participated in transferring and possibly modifying a message.The original base of Internet email, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), has no such feature, so forged sender addresses in emails (a practice known as email spoofing) have been widely used in phishing, email spam, and various types of frauds. To combat this, many competing email authentication proposals have been developed, but only fairly recently have three been widely adopted – SPF, DKIM and DMARC.[1][2] The results of such validation can be used in automated email filtering, or can assist recipients when selecting an appropriate action.This article does not cover user authentication of email submission and retrieval.","title":"Email authentication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"commercialization of the Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercialization_of_the_Internet"},{"link_name":"spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spam_(electronic)"},{"link_name":"phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"at sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_sign"},{"link_name":"Pretty Good Privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy"},{"link_name":"S/MIME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/MIME"},{"link_name":"digital identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_identity"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In the early 1980s, when Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) was designed, it provided for no real verification of sending user or system. This was not a problem while email systems were run by trusted corporations and universities, but since the commercialization of the Internet in the early 1990s, spam, phishing, and other crimes have been found to increasingly involve email.Email authentication is a necessary first step towards identifying the origin of messages, and thereby making policies and laws more enforceable.Hinging on domain ownership is a stance that emerged in the early 2000.[3][4] It implies a coarse-grained authentication, given that domains appear on the right part of email addresses, after the at sign. Fine-grain authentication, at user level, can be achieved by other means, such as Pretty Good Privacy and S/MIME. At present, digital identity needs to be managed by each individual.An outstanding rationale for email authentication is the ability to automate email filtering at receiving servers. That way, spoofed messages can be rejected before they arrive to a user's Inbox. While protocols strive to devise ways to reliably block distrusted mail, security indicators can tag unauthenticated messages that still reach the Inbox. A 2018 study shows that security indicators can lower the click-through ratio by more than ten points, 48.9% to 37.2% of the users who open spoofed messages.[5]","title":"Rationale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"envelope sender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_sender"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5321","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5322","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322"},{"link_name":"Internet Message Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Message_Format"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc5321-6"},{"link_name":"mail user agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_user_agent"},{"link_name":"MX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MX_record"},{"link_name":"DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"domain name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc5321-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Email-flow-with-an-intermediate-relay.png"},{"link_name":"ADMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADMD"},{"link_name":"MUA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_user_agent"},{"link_name":"mail delivery agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_delivery_agent"},{"link_name":"MX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MX_record"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mailflows-reloaded.png"}],"text":"SMTP defines message transport, not the message content. Thus, it defines the mail envelope and its parameters, such as the envelope sender, but not the header (except trace information) nor the body of the message itself. STD 10 and RFC 5321 define SMTP (the envelope), while STD 11 and RFC 5322 define the message (header and body), formally referred to as the Internet Message Format.SMTP defines the trace information of a message, which is saved in the header using the following two fields:[6]Received: when an SMTP server accepts a message it inserts this trace record at the top of the header (last to first).\nReturn-Path: when the delivery SMTP server makes the final delivery of a message, it inserts this field at the top of the header.A mail user agent (MUA) knows the outgoing mail SMTP server from its configuration. An MTA (or a relay server) typically determines which server to connect to by looking up the MX (Mail eXchange) DNS resource record for each recipient's domain name.The path depicted below can be reconstructed on the ground of the trace header fields that each host adds to the top of the header when it receives the message:[6]Email authentication can be complicated by the presence of an intermediate relay. A and B clearly belong to the author's Administrative Management Domain, while D and E are part of the recipient network. What role does C play?Return-Path: <author@example.com>\nReceived: from D.example.org by E.example.org with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 11:45:02 -0500\nReceived: from C.example.net by D.example.org with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 11:45:02 -0500\nReceived: from B.example.com (b.example.com [192.0.2.1])\n by C.example.net (which is me) with ESMTP id 936ADB8838C\n for <different-recipient@example.net>; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 08:44:50 -0800 (PST)\nReceived: from A.example.com by B.example.com with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 17:44:47 +0100\nReceived: from [192.0.2.27] by A.example.com with SMTP; Tue, 05 Feb 2013 17:44:42 +0100It is important to realize that the first few lines at the top of the header are usually trusted by the recipient. In fact, those lines are written by machines in the recipient's Administrative Management Domain (ADMD), which act upon their explicit mandate. By contrast, the lines that prove the involvement of A and B, as well as of the purported author's MUA could be a counterfeit created by C. The Received: field shown above is an epoch-making piece of the header. The Return-Path: is written by E, the mail delivery agent (MDA), based on the message envelope. Additional trace fields, designed for email authentication, can populate the top of the header.Normally, messages sent out by an author's ADMD go directly to the destination's MX (that is B → D in the figures). The sender's ADMD can add authentication tokens only if the message goes through its boxes. The most common cases can be schematized as follows:A schematic representation of the most common ways that an email message can get transferred from its author to its recipient.","title":"Nature of the problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Submission_Agent"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"SMTP proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMTP_proxy"},{"link_name":"smarthost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smarthost"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-no25-9"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noadmd-10"},{"link_name":"zombies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zombie_computer"},{"link_name":"open relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_relay"}],"sub_title":"Sending from within ADMD's network (MUA 1)","text":"The ADMD's MSA authenticates the user, either based on its IP address or some other SMTP Authentication means. Depending on the recipient address, the message can follow the normal path or pass through a mailing list or a forwarding service.[note 1] B can be an outbound SMTP proxy or a smarthost.[note 2]\nIf the local network does not block outbound port 25 connections,[note 3] the user can deploy some \"direct-to-mx\" software.[note 4] Typically, zombies and other malicious hosts behave that way.\nIf the MUA is badly configured, it can also use a different relay, such as an outmoded open relay, that often does not authenticate the user.","title":"Nature of the problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[note 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noadmd-10"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noadmd-10"}],"sub_title":"Roaming user (MUA 2)","text":"Most of the times it is still possible to use one's own ADMD MSA.[note 5]\nOutbound connections to port 25 can be intercepted and tunnelled to a transparent proxy.[note 4]\nA MUA can be configured to use an SMTP relay that the local network provider offers as a bonus.[note 4]","title":"Nature of the problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"e-card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-card"},{"link_name":"web forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_form"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noadmd-10"}],"sub_title":"Disconnected user","text":"An e-card can send mail on behalf of a customer who typed email addresses on the local keyboard; some web forms can be considered to work similarly.[note 4]","title":"Nature of the problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Gmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmail"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-no25_9-0"},{"link_name":"IPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"dialup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialup_Users_List"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-noadmd_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-noadmd_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-noadmd_10-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-noadmd_10-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"}],"sub_title":"Section notes","text":"^ For example, a recipient can instruct Gmail to forward messages to a different email address. The sender is not necessarily aware of that.\n\n^ Properly configured proxies appear as part of the author ADMD.\n\n^ Some ADMDs block outbound connection to port 25 (SMTP) to avoid this. This proactive technique is described in RFC 5068. In addition, some block inbound SMTP connections from IPs listed as dialup/DSL/cable.\n\n^ a b c d In this case the author's ADMD is not involved at all.\n\n^ Some ISPs block port 587, although RFC 5068 clearly says:\nAccess Providers MUST NOT block users from accessing the external Internet using the SUBMISSION port 587.","title":"Nature of the problem"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Authentication methods in widespread use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPF.png"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Transmission Control Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddressforging-14"},{"link_name":"SMTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Mail from:","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounce_address"},{"link_name":"Domain Name System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"SPF","text":"SPF authenticates the sender IP address.SPF allows the receiver to check that an email claimed to have come from a specific domain comes from an IP address authorized by that domain's administrators. Usually, a domain administrator will authorize the IP addresses used by their own outbound MTAs, including any proxy or smarthost.[7][8]The IP address of the sending MTA is guaranteed to be valid by the Transmission Control Protocol, as it establishes the connection by checking that the remote host is reachable.[9] The receiving mail server receives the HELO SMTP command soon after the connection is set up, and a Mail from: at the beginning of each message. Both of them can contain a domain name. The SPF verifier queries the Domain Name System (DNS) for a matching SPF record, which if it exists will specify the IP addresses authorized by that domain's administrator. The result can be \"pass\", \"fail\", or some intermediate result - and systems will generally take this into account in their anti-spam filtering.[10]","title":"Authentication methods in widespread use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DomainKeys_Identified_Mail_(DKIM).png"},{"link_name":"digital signatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"asymmetric keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_key_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"DKIM","text":"DKIM authenticates parts of the message content.DKIM checks the message content, deploying digital signatures. Rather than using digital certificates, the keys for signature-verification are distributed via the DNS. That way, a message gets associated to a domain name.[11]A DKIM-compliant domain administrator generates one or more pairs of asymmetric keys, then hands private keys to the signing MTA, and publishes public keys on the DNS. The DNS labels are structured as selector._domainkey.example.com, where selector identifies the key pair, and _domainkey is a fixed keyword, followed by the signing domain's name so that publication occurs under the authority of that domain's ADMD. Just before injecting a message into the SMTP transport system, the signing MTA creates a digital signature that covers selected fields of the header and the body (or just its beginning). The signature should cover substantive header fields such as From:, To:, Date:, and Subject:, and then is added to the message header itself, as a trace field. Any number of relays can receive and forward the message and at every hop, the signature can be verified by retrieving the public key from the DNS.[12] As long as intermediate relays do not modify signed parts of a message, its DKIM-signatures remain valid.","title":"Authentication methods in widespread use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sender Policy Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender_Policy_Framework"},{"link_name":"DomainKeys Identified Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DomainKeys_Identified_Mail"},{"link_name":"DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_Service"}],"sub_title":"DMARC","text":"DMARC allows the specification of a policy for authenticated messages. It is built on top of two existing mechanisms, Sender Policy Framework (SPF) and DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM).It allows the administrative owner of a domain to publish a policy in their DNS records to specify which mechanism (DKIM, SPF or both) is employed when sending email from that domain; how to check the From: field presented to end users; how the receiver should deal with failures - and a reporting mechanism for actions performed under those policies.","title":"Authentication methods in widespread use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sender ID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender_ID"},{"link_name":"Certified Server Validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Server_Validation"},{"link_name":"DomainKeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DomainKeys"}],"text":"A range of other methods have been proposed, but are now either deprecated or have not yet gained widespread support. These have included Sender ID, Certified Server Validation, DomainKeys and those below:","title":"Other methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"ADSP","text":"ADSP allowed the specification of a policy for messages signed by the author's domain. A message had to go through DKIM authentication first, then ADSP could demand a punishing treatment if the message was not signed by the author domain(s) —as per the From: header field.[13]ADSP was demoted to historic in November 2013.[14]","title":"Other methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"VBR","text":"VBR adds a vouch to an already authenticated identity. This method requires some globally recognized authorities that certify the reputation of domains.A sender can apply for a reference at a vouching authority. The reference, if accepted, is published on the DNS branch managed by that authority. A vouched sender should add a VBR-Info: header field to the messages it sends. It should also add a DKIM signature, or use some other authentication method, such as SPF. A receiver, after validating the sender's identity, can verify the vouch claimed in VBR-Info: by looking up the reference.[15]","title":"Other methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc8601-21"},{"link_name":"reverse resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_DNS_lookup"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"iprev","text":"Applications should avoid using this method as a means of authentication.[16] Nevertheless, it is often carried out and its results, if any, written in the Received: header field besides the TCP information required by the SMTP specification.The IP reverse, confirmed by looking up the IP address of the name just found, is just an indication that the IP was set up properly in the DNS. The reverse resolution of a range of IP addresses can be delegated to the ADMD that uses them,[17] or can remain managed by the network provider. In the latter case, no useful identity related to the message can be obtained.","title":"Other methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNSWL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNSWL"}],"sub_title":"DNSWL","text":"Looking up a DNSWL (DNS-based whitelist) may provide an assessment of the sender, possibly including its identification.","title":"Other methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc8601-21"},{"link_name":"SPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender_Policy_Framework"},{"link_name":"DKIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DKIM"},{"link_name":"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority"},{"link_name":"Email Authentication Parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iana.org/assignments/email-auth/email-auth.xml"}],"text":"RFC 8601 defines a trace header field Authentication-Results: where a receiver can record the results of email authentication checks that it carried out.[16] Multiple results for multiple methods can be reported in the same field, separated by semicolons and wrapped as appropriate.For example, the following field is purportedly written by receiver.example.org and reports SPF and DKIM results:Authentication-Results: receiver.example.org;\n spf=pass smtp.mailfrom=example.com;\n dkim=pass header.i=@example.comThe first token after the field name, receiver.example.org, is the ID of the authentication server, a token known as an authserv-id. A receiver supporting RFC 8601 is responsible to remove (or rename) any false header claiming to belong to its domain so that downstream filters cannot get confused. However, those filters still need to be configured, as they have to know which identities the domain may use.For a Mail User Agent (MUA), it is slightly harder to learn what identities it can trust. Since users can receive email from multiple domains—e.g., if they have multiple email addresses -— any of those domains could let Authentication-Results: fields pass through because they looked neutral. That way, a malicious sender can forge an authserv-id that the user would trust if the message arrived from a different domain. A legitimate Authentication-Results: typically appears just above a Received: field by the same domain from which the message was relayed. Additional Received: fields may appear between that and the top of the header, as the message got transferred internally between servers belonging to that same, trusted ADMD.The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority maintains a registry of Email Authentication Parameters. Not all parameters need to be registered, though. For example, there can be local \"policy\" values designed for a site's internal use only, which correspond to local configuration and need no registration.","title":"Authentication-Results"}]

[{"image_text":"Email authentication can be complicated by the presence of an intermediate relay. A and B clearly belong to the author's Administrative Management Domain, while D and E are part of the recipient network. What role does C play?","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Email-flow-with-an-intermediate-relay.png/280px-Email-flow-with-an-intermediate-relay.png"},{"image_text":"A schematic representation of the most common ways that an email message can get transferred from its author to its recipient.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mailflows-reloaded.png/280px-Mailflows-reloaded.png"},{"image_text":"SPF authenticates the sender IP address.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/SPF.png/280px-SPF.png"},{"image_text":"DKIM authenticates parts of the message content.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/DomainKeys_Identified_Mail_%28DKIM%29.png/280px-DomainKeys_Identified_Mail_%28DKIM%29.png"}]

[{"title":"DMARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMARC"},{"title":"Email encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_encryption"},{"title":"Email spoofing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email_spoofing"},{"title":"Ident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ident_protocol"},{"title":"Secure messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_messaging"}]

[{"reference":"Hang Hu; Peng Peng; Gang Wang (2017). \"Towards the Adoption of Anti-spoofing Protocols\". arXiv:1711.06654 [cs.CR].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.06654","url_text":"1711.06654"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CR","url_text":"cs.CR"}]},{"reference":"kerner, Sean Michael (2 January 2018). \"DMARC Email Security Adoption Grows in U.S. Government\". eWeek. Retrieved 24 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eweek.com/security/dmarc-email-security-adoption-grows-in-u.s.-government","url_text":"\"DMARC Email Security Adoption Grows in U.S. Government\""}]},{"reference":"\"Email Authentication Summit\". workshop. Federal Trade Commission. November 9–10, 2004. Archived from the original on 3 June 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2013. The Report, however, identified domain-level authentication as a promising technological development","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120603201012/https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/workshops/e-authentication/","url_text":"\"Email Authentication Summit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission","url_text":"Federal Trade Commission"}]},{"reference":"Michael Hammer (14 August 2020). \"third party authorization\". dmarc-ietf (Mailing list). Retrieved 14 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://mailarchive.ietf.org/arch/msg/dmarc/-pX7yWlSk39ShOjAzWMxhxlKh1E/","url_text":"\"third party authorization\""}]},{"reference":"Hang Hu; Gang Wang (15 August 2018). End-to-End Measurements of Email Spoofing Attacks. pp. 1095–1112. ISBN 9781939133045.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/hu","url_text":"End-to-End Measurements of Email Spoofing Attacks"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781939133045","url_text":"9781939133045"}]},{"reference":"John Klensin (October 2008). \"Trace Information\". Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. IETF. sec. 4.4. doi:10.17487/RFC5321. RFC 5321. Retrieved 1 February 2013. When the SMTP server accepts a message either for relaying or for final delivery, it inserts a trace record (also referred to interchangeably as a \"time stamp line\" or \"Received\" line) at the top of the mail data. This trace record indicates the identity of the host that sent the message, the identity of the host that received the message (and is inserting this time stamp), and the date and time the message was received. Relayed messages will have multiple time stamp lines.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Klensin","url_text":"John Klensin"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321#section-4.4","url_text":"\"Trace Information\""},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","url_text":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5321"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","url_text":"5321"}]},{"reference":"Scott Kitterman (April 2014). Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in E-Mail, Version 1. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC7208. RFC 7208. Retrieved 26 April 2014. There are three places that techniques can be used to ameliorate unintended SPF failures with mediators.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7208","url_text":"Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in E-Mail, Version 1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC7208","url_text":"10.17487/RFC7208"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7208","url_text":"7208"}]},{"reference":"J. Klensin (October 2008). \"Alias\". Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. IETF. sec. 3.9.1. doi:10.17487/RFC5321. RFC 5321. Retrieved 15 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321#section-3.9.1","url_text":"\"Alias\""},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","url_text":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5321"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","url_text":"5321"}]},{"reference":"Scott Kitterman (Nov 21, 2009). \"How reliable is it to block/reject on SPF fail?\". spf-help. gossamer-threads.com. I think it's generally fine as long as you offer a mechanism for whitelisting of non-SRS forwarders.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gossamer-threads.com/lists/spf/help/35352#35352","url_text":"\"How reliable is it to block/reject on SPF fail?\""}]},{"reference":"D. Crocker; T. Hansen; M. Kucherawy, eds. (September 2011). DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC6376. RFC 6376. Retrieved 18 February 2013. DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) permits a person, role, or organization to claim some responsibility for a message by associating a domain name with the message, which they are authorized to use.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6376","url_text":"DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC6376","url_text":"10.17487/RFC6376"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6376","url_text":"6376"}]},{"reference":"Dave Crocker (16 Oct 2007). \"DKIM Frequently Asked Questions\". DKIM.org. Retrieved 17 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dkim.org/info/dkim-faq.html","url_text":"\"DKIM Frequently Asked Questions\""}]},{"reference":"E. Allman; J. Fenton; M. Delany; J. Levine (August 2009). DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Author Domain Signing Practices (ADSP). IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC5616. RFC 5616. Retrieved 18 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5616","url_text":"DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Author Domain Signing Practices (ADSP)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5616","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5616"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5616","url_text":"5616"}]},{"reference":"Barry Leiba (25 November 2013). \"Change the status of ADSP (RFC 5617) to Historic\". IETF.","urls":[{"url":"http://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/status-change-adsp-rfc5617-to-historic/","url_text":"\"Change the status of ADSP (RFC 5617) to Historic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IETF","url_text":"IETF"}]},{"reference":"P. Hoffman; J. Levine; A. Hathcock (April 2009). Vouch By Reference. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC5518. RFC 5518. Retrieved 18 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5518","url_text":"Vouch By Reference"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5518","url_text":"10.17487/RFC5518"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5518","url_text":"5518"}]},{"reference":"Murray Kucherawy (May 2019). Message Header Field for Indicating Message Authentication Status. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC8601. RFC 8601. Retrieved 12 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Kucherawy","url_text":"Murray Kucherawy"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8601","url_text":"Message Header Field for Indicating Message Authentication Status"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC8601","url_text":"10.17487/RFC8601"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8601","url_text":"8601"}]},{"reference":"H. Eidnes; G. de Groot; P. Vixie (March 1998). Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation. IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC2317. RFC 2317. Retrieved 18 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2317","url_text":"Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2317","url_text":"10.17487/RFC2317"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2317","url_text":"2317"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","external_links_name":"5321"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322","external_links_name":"5322"},{"Link":"https://www.iana.org/assignments/email-auth/email-auth.xml","external_links_name":"Email Authentication Parameters"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.06654","external_links_name":"1711.06654"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CR","external_links_name":"cs.CR"},{"Link":"http://www.eweek.com/security/dmarc-email-security-adoption-grows-in-u.s.-government","external_links_name":"\"DMARC Email Security Adoption Grows in U.S. Government\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120603201012/https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/workshops/e-authentication/","external_links_name":"\"Email Authentication Summit\""},{"Link":"https://mailarchive.ietf.org/arch/msg/dmarc/-pX7yWlSk39ShOjAzWMxhxlKh1E/","external_links_name":"\"third party authorization\""},{"Link":"https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/hu","external_links_name":"End-to-End Measurements of Email Spoofing Attacks"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321#section-4.4","external_links_name":"\"Trace Information\""},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","external_links_name":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5321"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","external_links_name":"5321"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7208","external_links_name":"Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in E-Mail, Version 1"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC7208","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC7208"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7208","external_links_name":"7208"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321#section-3.9.1","external_links_name":"\"Alias\""},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","external_links_name":"Simple Mail Transfer Protocol"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5321","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5321"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321","external_links_name":"5321"},{"Link":"http://www.gossamer-threads.com/lists/spf/help/35352#35352","external_links_name":"\"How reliable is it to block/reject on SPF fail?\""},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6376","external_links_name":"DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Signatures"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC6376","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC6376"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6376","external_links_name":"6376"},{"Link":"http://www.dkim.org/info/dkim-faq.html","external_links_name":"\"DKIM Frequently Asked Questions\""},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5616","external_links_name":"DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) Author Domain Signing Practices (ADSP)"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5616","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5616"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5616","external_links_name":"5616"},{"Link":"http://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/status-change-adsp-rfc5617-to-historic/","external_links_name":"\"Change the status of ADSP (RFC 5617) to Historic\""},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5518","external_links_name":"Vouch By Reference"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC5518","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC5518"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5518","external_links_name":"5518"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8601","external_links_name":"Message Header Field for Indicating Message Authentication Status"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC8601","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC8601"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8601","external_links_name":"8601"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2317","external_links_name":"Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2317","external_links_name":"10.17487/RFC2317"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2317","external_links_name":"2317"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant

Palatal consonant

["1 Characteristics","2 Distinction from alveolo-palatal, apical palatalized consonants and consonant clusters","3 Examples","4 See also","5 References"]

Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the roof of the mouth This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Palatal consonant" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. Palatals are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex. Characteristics The most common type of palatal consonant is the extremely common approximant , which ranks among the ten most common sounds in the world's languages. The nasal is also common, occurring in around 35 percent of the world's languages, in most of which its equivalent obstruent is not the stop , but the affricate . Only a few languages in northern Eurasia, the Americas and central Africa contrast palatal stops with postalveolar affricates—as in Hungarian, Czech, Latvian, Macedonian, Slovak, Turkish and Albanian. Consonants with other primary articulations may be palatalized, that is, accompanied by the raising of the tongue surface towards the hard palate. For example, English (spelled sh) has such a palatal component, although its primary articulation involves the tip of the tongue and the upper gum (this type of articulation is called palatoalveolar). In phonology, alveolo-palatal, palatoalveolar and palatovelar consonants are commonly grouped as palatals, since these categories rarely contrast with true palatals. Sometimes palatalized alveolars or dentals can be analyzed in this manner as well. Distinction from alveolo-palatal, apical palatalized consonants and consonant clusters Further information: Alveolo-palatal consonant § Palato-velar Palatal consonants can be distinguished from apical palatalized consonants and consonant clusters of a consonant and the palatal approximant . The common laminal "palatalized" alveolars, which also contrast with palatals, have a unique place of articulation and should be called alveolo-palatal consonants. Palatal consonants have their primary articulation toward or in contact with the hard palate, whereas palatalized consonants have a primary articulation in some other area and a secondary articulation involving movement towards the hard palate. Palatal and palatalized consonants are both single phonemes, whereas a sequence of a consonant and is logically two phonemes. However, (post)palatal consonants in general do not contrast with palatalized velars, which in theory have slightly wider place of articulation than postpalatals. Irish distinguishes the dorsal palatal nasal /ɲ/ (slender ng) from both the laminal alveolo-palatal nasal ("fortis") /ȵ/ (slender nn) and the apical palatalized alveolar nasal ("lenis") /nʲ/ (slender n), nonetheless most modern Irish speakers may either merge the latter two or depalatalize the apical palatalized consonant. So is the difference between the two Migueleño Chiquitano stops. In both languages alveolo-palatal consonants correspond to the palatalization or slender of alveolars while palatal consonants correspond to the palatalization or slender of velars. Spanish marginally distinguishes palatal consonants from sequences of a dental and the palatal approximant, e.g. in lleísmo Spanish the laterals ll (/l̠ʲ/→ʎ) and ly (/lj/→lɟʝ), and for all Spanish speakers, in the case of nasals: uñón /uȵon/→ "large nail" unión /unjon/→ "union" So is the difference between Russian clusters ня and нъя (the Russian palatal approximant never becomes ). However, phonetically speaking, the Spanish one is simultaneous alveolo-palatal and dento-alveolar or dento-alveolo-palatal while the Russian soft one is alveolopalatal laminal (except for /rʲ/ which is apical with a secondary articulation). Neither are true palatals like the Irish one. Sometimes the term palatal is used imprecisely to mean "palatalized". Also, languages that have sequences of consonants and /j/, but no separate palatal or palatalized consonants (e.g. English), will often pronounce the sequence with /j/ as a single palatal or palatalized consonant. This is due to the principle of least effort and is an example of the general phenomenon of coarticulation. (On the other hand, Spanish speakers can be careful to pronounce /nj/ as two separate sounds to avoid possible confusion with /ɲ/.) Examples For a table of examples of palatal /ɲ ʎ/ in the Romance languages, see Palatalization (sound change) § Mouillé. IPA Description Example Language Orthography IPA Meaning ɲ̊ voiceless palatal nasal Iaai 'to dedicate' ɲ voiced palatal nasal Malay banyak many c voiceless palatal plosive Hungarian hattyú swan ɟ voiced palatal plosive Latvian ģimene family c͡ç voiceless palatal affricate Skolt Sámi sääˊmǩiõll 'Skolt Sami' ɟ͡ʝ voiced palatal affricate Skolt Sámi vuõˊlǧǧem 'I leave' ç voiceless palatal fricative German nicht not ʝ voiced palatal fricative Spanish rayo lightning bolt j palatal approximant English yes c͡ʎ̥˔ (c͡𝼆) voiceless palatal lateral affricate Hadza tlakate 'rhinoceros' ɟ͡ʎ̝ voiced palatal lateral affricate Sandawe dlani 'arrow' ʎ̥˔ (𝼆) voiceless palatal lateral fricative Dahalo 'leaf' ʎ̝ voiced palatal lateral fricative Jebero 'shotgun' ʎ voiced palatal lateral approximant Italian gli the (masculine plural) ʎ̆ voiced palatal lateral flap Ilgar Mildyagru cʼ palatal ejective stop Haida c͡ʎ̥˔ʼ (c͡𝼆ʼ) palatal lateral ejective affricate Hadza 'bone' ʄ̥ (ƈ) voiceless palatal implosive Ngiti kátdyɛ̀kɛ̀ 'sorghum' ʄ voiced palatal implosive Swahili hujambo hello k͡ǂ q͡ǂɡ͡ǂ ɢ͡ǂŋ͡ǂ ɴ͡ǂ palatal clicks (many distinct consonants) Nǁng ǂoo man, male See also Palatalization (phonetics) Palatalization (sound change) Place of articulation Index of phonetics articles References ^ "PHOIBLE Online -Segments". phoible.org. Retrieved 2018-10-22. ^ Ian Maddieson (with a chapter contributed by Sandra Ferrari Disner); Patterns of sounds; Cambridge University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-521-26536-3 ^ Although in Old Tibetan the orthography did indicate a distinction between 'gy' and 'g.y' initials, the latter is commonly reconstructed as a cluster. ^ Recasens, Daniel (2013), "On the articulatory classification of (alveolo)palatal consonants" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 11, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000199, S2CID 145463946 ^ Valenzuela & Gussenhoven (2013), p. 101. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFValenzuelaGussenhoven2013 (help) ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 209. Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. vteArticulationArticulatory phonetics – Coarticulation – International Phonetic AlphabetPlaceLabial Bilabial Labiodental Coronal Linguolabial Interdental Dental Denti-alveolar Alveolar Postalveolar Palato-alveolar Retroflex Active place Apical Laminal Subapical Dorsal Alveolo-palatal Palatal Velar Uvular Laryngeal Pharyngeal/epiglottal Glottal Double articulation Labial–coronal Labial–palatal Labial–velar Labial–uvular Coronal–velar Uvular–epiglottal Pathological Velopharyngeal Other Bidental MannerObstruent Plosive Affricate Fricative Sibilant Sonorant Nasal Vowel Approximant Semivowel Vibrant Tap/flap Trill Liquid Rhotic Lateral Occlusive Continuant Airstream Egressive Ingressive Ejective Implosive Click Pulmonic Ejective Percussive Secondary articulation Labialization Rounding Palatalization Labio-palatalization Velarization Uvularization Pharyngealization Glottalization Nasalization Tongue shape Sulcal Domed Voice Voiceless Aspirated Tenuis Voice onset time Phonation Modal Breathy Slack Creaky Stiff vteInternational Phonetic Alphabet (chart)IPA topicsIPA International Phonetic Association History of the alphabet Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA) Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS) Journal of the IPA (JIPA) Special topics Cursive forms Case variants Obsolete and nonstandard symbols Naming conventions Sinological extensions World Orthography IPA chart for English dialects Encodings ASCII encodings SAMPA X-SAMPA Kirshenbaum TIPA Phonetic symbols in Unicode IPA number IPA Braille ConsonantsPulmonic consonants Place → Labial Coronal Dorsal Laryngeal Manner ↓ Bi­labial Labio­dental Linguo­labial Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal/epi­glottal Glottal Nasal m̥ m ɱ̊ ɱ n̼ n̥ n ɳ̊ ɳ ɲ̊ ɲ ŋ̊ ŋ ɴ̥ ɴ Plosive p b p̪ b̪ t̼ d̼ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ Sibilant affricate ts dz t̠ʃ d̠ʒ tʂ dʐ tɕ dʑ Non-sibilant affricate pɸ bβ p̪f b̪v t̪θ d̪ð tɹ̝̊ dɹ̝ t̠ɹ̠̊˔ d̠ɹ̠˔ cç ɟʝ kx ɡɣ qχ ɢʁ ʡʜ ʡʢ ʔh Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ɕ ʑ Non-sibilant fricative ɸ β f v θ̼ ð̼ θ ð θ̠ ð̠ ɹ̠̊˔ ɹ̠˔ ɻ̊˔ ɻ˔ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Approximant ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ ʔ̞ Tap/flap ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ̼ ɾ̥ ɾ ɽ̊ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̆ Trill ʙ̥ ʙ r̥ r ɽ̊r̥ ɽr ʀ̥ ʀ ʜ ʢ Lateral affricate tɬ dɮ tꞎ d𝼅 c𝼆 ɟʎ̝ k𝼄 ɡʟ̝ Lateral fricative ɬ ɮ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼆 ʎ̝ 𝼄 ʟ̝ Lateral approximant l ɭ ʎ ʟ ʟ̠ Lateral tap/flap ɺ̥ ɺ 𝼈̥ 𝼈 ʎ̆ ʟ̆ IPA help  audio full chart template Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. Non-pulmonic consonants BL LD D A PA RF P V U EG Ejective Stop pʼ tʼ ʈʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ ʡʼ Affricate p̪fʼ t̪θʼ tsʼ t̠ʃʼ tʂʼ tɕʼ kxʼ qχʼ Fricative ɸʼ fʼ θʼ sʼ ʃʼ ʂʼ ɕʼ xʼ χʼ Lateral affricate tɬʼ c𝼆ʼ k𝼄ʼ q𝼄ʼ Lateral fricative ɬʼ Click(top: velar;bottom: uvular) Tenuis kʘqʘ kǀqǀ kǃqǃ k𝼊q𝼊 kǂqǂ Voiced ɡʘɢʘ ɡǀɢǀ ɡǃɢǃ ɡ𝼊ɢ𝼊 ɡǂɢǂ Nasal ŋʘɴʘ ŋǀɴǀ ŋǃɴǃ ŋ𝼊ɴ𝼊 ŋǂɴǂ ʞ  Tenuis lateral kǁqǁ Voiced lateral ɡǁɢǁ Nasal lateral ŋǁɴǁ Implosive Voiced ɓ ɗ ᶑ ʄ ɠ ʛ Voiceless ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ IPA help  audio full chart template Co-articulated consonants Nasal n͡m Labial–alveolar ŋ͡m Labial–velar Plosive t͡pd͡b Labial–alveolar k͡pɡ͡b Labial–velar q͡ʡ Uvular–epiglottal q͡p Labial–uvular Fricative/approximant ɥ̊ɥ Labial–palatal ʍw Labial–velar ɧ Sj-sound (variable) Lateral approximant ɫ Velarized alveolar Implosive ɠ̊͜ɓ̥ ɠ͡ɓ Labial–velar Ejective t͡pʼ Labial–alveolar IPA help full chart template Other Nasal labial–velar approximant Nasal palatal approximant Voiceless bidental fricative Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop Voiceless nasal glottal approximant Vowels Front Central Back Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ u Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ Close-mid e ø ɘ ɵ ɤ o Mid e̞ ø̞ ə ɤ̞ o̞ Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ɞ ʌ ɔ Near-open æ ɐ Open a ɶ ä ɑ ɒ IPA help  audio full chart template Legend: unrounded • rounded

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonetic transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_transcription"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"Help:IPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA"},{"link_name":"IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters"},{"link_name":"consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant"},{"link_name":"articulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"hard palate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate"},{"link_name":"retroflex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex_consonant"}],"text":"This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.Palatals are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex.","title":"Palatal consonant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"obstruent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruent"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_stop"},{"link_name":"affricate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate_consonant"},{"link_name":"t͡ʃ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate"},{"link_name":"postalveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Latvian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_language"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_language"},{"link_name":"Slovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language"},{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"palatalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"palatoalveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatoalveolars"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"alveolo-palatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant"},{"link_name":"palatoalveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatoalveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"palatovelar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatovelar"},{"link_name":"alveolars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"dentals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant"}],"text":"The most common type of palatal consonant is the extremely common approximant [j], which ranks among the ten most common sounds in the world's languages.[1] The nasal [ɲ] is also common, occurring in around 35 percent of the world's languages,[2] in most of which its equivalent obstruent is not the stop [c], but the affricate [t͡ʃ]. Only a few languages in northern Eurasia, the Americas and central Africa contrast palatal stops with postalveolar affricates—as in Hungarian, Czech, Latvian, Macedonian, Slovak, Turkish and Albanian.Consonants with other primary articulations may be palatalized, that is, accompanied by the raising of the tongue surface towards the hard palate. For example, English [ʃ] (spelled sh) has such a palatal component, although its primary articulation involves the tip of the tongue and the upper gum (this type of articulation is called palatoalveolar).In phonology, alveolo-palatal, palatoalveolar and palatovelar consonants are commonly grouped as palatals, since these categories rarely contrast with true palatals. Sometimes palatalized alveolars or dentals can be analyzed in this manner as well.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alveolo-palatal consonant § Palato-velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant#Palato-velar"},{"link_name":"alveolo-palatal consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant"},{"link_name":"primary articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_articulation"},{"link_name":"hard palate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate"},{"link_name":"palatalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"secondary articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_articulation"},{"link_name":"phonemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemes"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_phonology"},{"link_name":"palatal nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_nasal"},{"link_name":"alveolar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_nasal"},{"link_name":"Migueleño Chiquitano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguele%C3%B1o_Chiquitano"},{"link_name":"palatalization or slender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)"},{"link_name":"palatalization or slender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_phonology"},{"link_name":"lleísmo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lle%C3%ADsmo"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"principle of least effort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_effort"},{"link_name":"coarticulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coarticulation"}],"text":"Further information: Alveolo-palatal consonant § Palato-velarPalatal consonants can be distinguished from apical palatalized consonants and consonant clusters of a consonant and the palatal approximant [j]. The common laminal \"palatalized\" alveolars, which also contrast with palatals, have a unique place of articulation and should be called alveolo-palatal consonants. Palatal consonants have their primary articulation toward or in contact with the hard palate, whereas palatalized consonants have a primary articulation in some other area and a secondary articulation involving movement towards the hard palate. Palatal and palatalized consonants are both single phonemes, whereas a sequence of a consonant and [j] is logically two phonemes. However, (post)palatal consonants in general do not contrast with palatalized velars, which in theory have slightly wider place of articulation than postpalatals.[3]Irish distinguishes the dorsal palatal nasal /ɲ/ (slender ng) from both the laminal alveolo-palatal nasal (\"fortis\") /ȵ/ (slender nn) and the apical palatalized alveolar nasal (\"lenis\") /nʲ/ (slender n), nonetheless most modern Irish speakers may either merge the latter two or depalatalize the apical palatalized consonant. So is the difference between the two Migueleño Chiquitano stops. In both languages alveolo-palatal consonants correspond to the palatalization or slender of alveolars while palatal consonants correspond to the palatalization or slender of velars.Spanish marginally distinguishes palatal consonants from sequences of a dental and the palatal approximant, e.g. in lleísmo Spanish the laterals ll (/l̠ʲ/→ʎ) and ly (/lj/→lɟʝ), and for all Spanish speakers, in the case of nasals:uñón /uȵon/→[uɲ̟on] \"large nail\"unión /unjon/→[unɟʝon] \"union\"So is the difference between Russian clusters ня and нъя (the Russian palatal approximant never becomes [ɟʝ]). However, phonetically speaking, the Spanish one is simultaneous alveolo-palatal and dento-alveolar or dento-alveolo-palatal[4] while the Russian soft one is alveolopalatal laminal (except for /rʲ/ which is apical with a secondary articulation). Neither are true palatals like the Irish one.Sometimes the term palatal is used imprecisely to mean \"palatalized\". Also, languages that have sequences of consonants and /j/, but no separate palatal or palatalized consonants (e.g. English), will often pronounce the sequence with /j/ as a single palatal or palatalized consonant. This is due to the principle of least effort and is an example of the general phenomenon of coarticulation. (On the other hand, Spanish speakers can be careful to pronounce /nj/ as two separate sounds to avoid possible confusion with /ɲ/.)","title":"Distinction from alveolo-palatal, apical palatalized consonants and consonant clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romance languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages"},{"link_name":"Palatalization (sound change) § Mouillé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)#Mouill%C3%A9"}],"text":"For a table of examples of palatal /ɲ ʎ/ in the Romance languages, see Palatalization (sound change) § Mouillé.","title":"Examples"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_t-design

Quantum t-design

["1 Motivation","2 Spherical t-Designs","2.1 Construction","3 Unitary t-Designs","3.1 Bounds for unitary designs","4 See also","5 References"]

A quantum t-design is a probability distribution over either pure quantum states or unitary operators which can duplicate properties of the probability distribution over the Haar measure for polynomials of degree t or less. Specifically, the average of any polynomial function of degree t over the design is exactly the same as the average over Haar measure. Here the Haar measure is a uniform probability distribution over all quantum states or over all unitary operators. Quantum t-designs are so called because they are analogous to t-designs in classical statistics, which arose historically in connection with the problem of design of experiments. Two particularly important types of t-designs in quantum mechanics are projective and unitary t-designs. A spherical design is a collection of points on the unit sphere for which polynomials of bounded degree can be averaged over to obtain the same value that integrating over surface measure on the sphere gives. Spherical and projective t-designs derive their names from the works of Delsarte, Goethals, and Seidel in the late 1970s, but these objects played earlier roles in several branches of mathematics, including numerical integration and number theory. Particular examples of these objects have found uses in quantum information theory, quantum cryptography, and other related fields. Unitary t-designs are analogous to spherical designs in that they reproduce the entire unitary group via a finite collection of unitary matrices. The theory of unitary 2-designs was developed in 2006 specifically to achieve a practical means of efficient and scalable randomized benchmarking to assess the errors in quantum computing operations, called gates. Since then unitary t-designs have been found useful in other areas of quantum computing and more broadly in quantum information theory and applied to problems as far reaching as the black hole information paradox. Unitary t-designs are especially relevant to randomization tasks in quantum computing since ideal operations are usually represented by unitary operators. Motivation In a d-dimensional Hilbert space when averaging over all quantum pure states the natural group is SU(d), the special unitary group of dimension d. The Haar measure is, by definition, the unique group-invariant measure, so it is used to average properties that are not unitarily invariant over all states, or over all unitaries. A particularly widely used example of this is the spin 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} system. For this system the relevant group is SU(2) which is the group of all 2x2 unitary operators with determinant 1. Since every operator in SU(2) is a rotation of the Bloch sphere, the Haar measure for spin-1/2 particles is invariant under all rotations of the Bloch sphere. This implies that the Haar measure is the rotationally invariant measure on the Bloch sphere, which can be thought of as a constant density distribution over the surface of the sphere. An important class of complex projective t-designs, are symmetric informationally complete positive operator-valued measures POVM's, which are complex projective 2-design. Since such 2-designs must have at least d 2 {\displaystyle d^{2}} elements, a SIC-POVM is a minimal sized complex projective 2-designs. Spherical t-Designs Complex projective t-designs have been studied in quantum information theory as quantum t-designs. These are closely related to spherical 2t-designs of vectors in the unit sphere in R d {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{d}} which when naturally embedded in C d {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{d}} give rise to complex projective t-designs. Formally, we define a probability distribution over quantum states ( p i , | ϕ i ⟩ ) {\displaystyle (p_{i},|\phi _{i}\rangle )} to be a complex projective t-design if ∑ i p i ( | ϕ i ⟩ ⟨ ϕ i | ) ⊗ t = ∫ ψ ( | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | ) ⊗ t d ψ {\displaystyle \sum _{i}p_{i}(|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|)^{\otimes t}=\int _{\psi }(|\psi \rangle \langle \psi |)^{\otimes t}d\psi } Here, the integral over states is taken over the Haar measure on the unit sphere in C d {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{d}} Exact t-designs over quantum states cannot be distinguished from the uniform probability distribution over all states when using t copies of a state from the probability distribution. However, in practice even t-designs may be difficult to compute. For this reason approximate t-designs are useful. Approximate t-designs are most useful due to their ability to be efficiently implemented. i.e. it is possible to generate a quantum state | ϕ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\phi \rangle } distributed according to the probability distribution p i | ϕ i ⟩ {\displaystyle p_{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle } in O ( log c ⁡ d ) {\displaystyle O(\log ^{c}d)} time. This efficient construction also implies that the POVM of the operators N p i | ϕ i ⟩ ⟨ ϕ i | {\displaystyle Np_{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|} can be implemented in O ( log c ⁡ d ) {\displaystyle O(\log ^{c}d)} time. The technical definition of an approximate t-design is: If ∑ i p i | ϕ i ⟩ ⟨ ϕ i | = ∫ ψ | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | d ψ {\displaystyle \sum _{i}p_{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|=\int _{\psi }|\psi \rangle \langle \psi |d\psi } and ( 1 − ϵ ) ∫ ψ ( | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | ) ⊗ t d ψ ≤ ∑ i p i ( | ϕ i ⟩ ⟨ ϕ i | ) ⊗ t ≤ ( 1 + ϵ ) ∫ ψ ( | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | ) ⊗ t d ψ {\displaystyle (1-\epsilon )\int _{\psi }(|\psi \rangle \langle \psi |)^{\otimes t}d\psi \leq \sum _{i}p_{i}(|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|)^{\otimes t}\leq (1+\epsilon )\int _{\psi }(|\psi \rangle \langle \psi |)^{\otimes t}d\psi } then ( p i , | ϕ i ⟩ ) {\displaystyle (p_{i},|\phi _{i}\rangle )} is an ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } -approximate t-design. It is possible, though perhaps inefficient, to find an ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } -approximate t-design consisting of quantum pure states for a fixed t. Construction For convenience d is assumed to be a power of 2. Using the fact that for any d there exists a set of N d {\displaystyle N^{d}} functions {0,...,d-1} → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } {0,...,d-1} such that for any distinct k 1 , . . . , k N ∈ {\displaystyle k_{1},...,k_{N}\in } {0,...,d-1} the image under f, where f is chosen at random from S, is exactly the uniform distribution over tuples of N elements of {0,...,d-1}. Let | ψ ⟩ = ∑ i = 1 d α i | i ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =\sum _{i=1}^{d}\alpha _{i}|i\rangle } be drawn from the Haar measure. Let P d {\displaystyle P_{d}} be the probability distribution of α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} and let P = lim d → ∞ d P d {\displaystyle P=\lim _{d\rightarrow \infty }{\sqrt {d}}P_{d}} . Finally let α {\displaystyle \alpha } be drawn from P. If we define X = | α | {\displaystyle X=|\alpha |} with probability 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} and X = − | α | {\displaystyle X=-|\alpha |} with probability 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} then: E [ X j ] = 0 {\displaystyle E=0} for odd j and E [ X j ] = ( j 2 ) ! {\displaystyle E=({\tfrac {j}{2}})!} for even j. Using this and Gaussian quadrature we can construct p f , g = ∑ i = 1 d a f , i 2 | S 1 | | S 2 | {\displaystyle p_{f,g}={\frac {\sum _{i=1}^{d}a_{f,i}^{2}}{|S_{1}||S_{2}|}}} so that p f , g | ψ f , g ⟩ {\displaystyle p_{f,g}|\psi _{f,g}\rangle } is an approximate t-design. Unitary t-Designs Unitary t-designs are analogous to spherical designs in that they reproduce the entire unitary group via a finite collection of unitary matrices. The theory of unitary 2-designs was developed in 2006 specifically to achieve a practical means of efficient and scalable randomized benchmarking to assess the errors in quantum computing operations, called gates. Since then unitary t-designs have been found useful in other areas of quantum computing and more broadly in quantum information theory and in fields as far reaching as black hole physics. Unitary t-designs are especially relevant to randomization tasks in quantum computing since ideal operations are usually represented by unitary operators. Elements of a unitary t-design are elements of the unitary group, U(d), the group of d × d {\displaystyle d\times d} unitary matrices. A t-design of unitary operators will generate a t-design of states. Suppose U k {\displaystyle {U_{k}}} is a unitary t-design (i.e. a set of unitary operators). Then for any pure state | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } let | ψ k ⟩ = U k | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi _{k}\rangle =U_{k}|\psi \rangle } . Then | ψ k ⟩ {\displaystyle {|\psi _{k}\rangle }} will always be a t-design for states. Formally define a unitary t-design, X, if 1 | X | ∑ U ∈ X U ⊗ t ⊗ ( U ∗ ) ⊗ t = ∫ U ( d ) U ⊗ t ⊗ ( U ∗ ) ⊗ t d U {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{|X|}}\sum _{U\in X}U^{\otimes t}\otimes (U^{*})^{\otimes t}=\int _{U(d)}U^{\otimes t}\otimes (U^{*})^{\otimes t}dU} Observe that the space linearly spanned by the matrices U ⊗ r ⊗ ( U ∗ ) ⊗ s d U {\displaystyle U^{\otimes r}\otimes (U^{*})^{\otimes s}dU} over all choices of U is identical to the restriction U ∈ X {\displaystyle U\in X} and r + s = t {\displaystyle r+s=t} This observation leads to a conclusion about the duality between unitary designs and unitary codes. Using the permutation maps it is possible to verify directly that a set of unitary matrices forms a t-design. One direct result of this is that for any finite X ⊆ U ( d ) {\displaystyle X\subseteq U(d)} 1 | X | 2 ∑ U , V ∈ X | tr ⁡ ( U ∗ V ) | 2 t ≥ ∫ U ( d ) | tr ⁡ ( U ∗ V ) | 2 t d U {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{|X|^{2}}}\sum _{U,V\in X}|\operatorname {tr} (U*V)|^{2t}\geq \int _{U(d)}|\operatorname {tr} (U*V)|^{2t}dU} With equality if and only if X is a t-design. 1 and 2-designs have been examined in some detail and absolute bounds for the dimension of X, |X|, have been derived. Bounds for unitary designs Define Hom ⁡ ( U ( d ) , t , t ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Hom} (U(d),t,t)} as the set of functions homogeneous of degree t in U {\displaystyle U} and homogeneous of degree t in U ∗ {\displaystyle U^{*}} , then if for every f ∈ Hom ⁡ ( U ( d ) , t , t ) {\displaystyle f\in \operatorname {Hom} (U(d),t,t)} : 1 | X | ∑ U ∈ X f ( U ) = ∫ U ( d ) f ( U ) d U {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{|X|}}\sum _{U\in X}f(U)=\int _{U(d)}f(U)dU} then X is a unitary t-design. We further define the inner product for functions f {\displaystyle f} and g {\displaystyle g} on U ( d ) {\displaystyle U(d)} as the average value of f ¯ g {\displaystyle {\bar {f}}g} as: ⟨ f , g ⟩ := ∫ U ( d ) f ( U ) ¯ g ( U ) d X {\displaystyle \langle f,g\rangle :=\int _{U(d)}{\bar {f(U)}}g(U)dX} and ⟨ f , g ⟩ X {\displaystyle \langle f,g\rangle _{X}} as the average value of f ¯ g {\displaystyle {\bar {f}}g} over any finite subset X ⊂ U ( d ) {\displaystyle X\subset U(d)} . It follows that X is a unitary t-design if and only if ⟨ 1 , f ⟩ X = ⟨ 1 , f ⟩ ∀ f {\displaystyle \langle 1,f\rangle _{X}=\langle 1,f\rangle \quad \forall f} . From the above it is demonstrable that if X is a t-design then | X | ≥ dim ⁡ ( Hom ⁡ ( U ( d ) , ⌈ t 2 ⌉ , ⌊ t 2 ⌋ ) ) {\displaystyle |X|\geq \dim(\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),\left\lceil {\tfrac {t}{2}}\right\rceil ,\left\lfloor {\tfrac {t}{2}}\right\rfloor ))} is an absolute bound for the design. This imposes an upper bound on the size of a unitary design. This bound is absolute meaning it depends only on the strength of the design or the degree of the code, and not the distances in the subset, X. A unitary code is a finite subset of the unitary group in which a few inner product values occur between elements. Specifically, a unitary code is defined as a finite subset X ⊂ U ( d ) {\displaystyle X\subset U(d)} if for all U ≠ M {\displaystyle U\neq M} in X | tr ⁡ ( U ∗ M ) | 2 {\displaystyle |\operatorname {tr} (U^{*}M)|^{2}} takes only distinct values. It follows that | X | ≤ dim ⁡ ( Hom ⁡ ( U ( d ) , s , s ) ) {\displaystyle |X|\leq \dim(\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),s,s))} and if U and M are orthogonal: | X | ≤ dim ⁡ ( Hom ⁡ ( U ( d ) , s , s − 1 ) ) {\displaystyle |X|\leq \dim(\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),s,s-1))} See also Spherical design Equiangular lines Welch bounds References ^ a b c d e Dankert, Christoph; Cleve, Richard; Emerson, Joseph; Livine, Etera (2009-07-06). "Exact and approximate unitary 2-designs and their application to fidelity estimation". Physical Review A. 80 (1): 012304. arXiv:quant-ph/0606161. Bibcode:2009PhRvA..80a2304D. doi:10.1103/physreva.80.012304. ISSN 1050-2947. S2CID 46914367. ^ Hayashi, A.; Hashimoto, T.; Horibe, M. (2005-09-21). "Reexamination of optimal quantum state estimation of pure states". Physical Review A. 72 (3): 032325. arXiv:quant-ph/0410207. Bibcode:2005PhRvA..72c2325H. doi:10.1103/physreva.72.032325. ISSN 1050-2947. S2CID 115394183. ^ a b Emerson, Joseph; Alicki, Robert; Życzkowski, Karol (2005-09-21). "Scalable noise estimation with random unitary operators". Journal of Optics B: Quantum and Semiclassical Optics. 7 (10). IOP Publishing: S347–S352. arXiv:quant-ph/0503243. Bibcode:2005JOptB...7S.347E. doi:10.1088/1464-4266/7/10/021. ISSN 1464-4266. S2CID 17729419. ^ a b Hayden, Patrick; Preskill, John (2007-09-26). "Black holes as mirrors: quantum information in random subsystems". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2007 (9): 120. arXiv:0708.4025. Bibcode:2007JHEP...09..120H. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2007/09/120. ISSN 1029-8479. S2CID 15261400. ^ Renes, Joseph M.; Blume-Kohout, Robin; Scott, A. J.; Caves, Carlton M. (June 2004). "Symmetric Informationally Complete Quantum Measurements". Journal of Mathematical Physics. 45 (6): 2171–2180. arXiv:quant-ph/0310075. Bibcode:2004JMP....45.2171R. doi:10.1063/1.1737053. hdl:10072/21107. ISSN 0022-2488. S2CID 17371881. ^ a b c Ambainis, Andris; Emerson, Joseph (2007). "Quantum t-designs: T-wise independence in the quantum world". arXiv:quant-ph/0701126. ^ Collins, Benoît; Śniady, Piotr (2006-03-22). "Integration with Respect to the Haar Measure on Unitary, Orthogonal and Symplectic Group". Communications in Mathematical Physics. 264 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 773–795. arXiv:math-ph/0402073. Bibcode:2006CMaPh.264..773C. doi:10.1007/s00220-006-1554-3. ISSN 0010-3616. S2CID 16122807. ^ Gross, D.; Audenaert, K.; Eisert, J. (2007). "Evenly distributed unitaries: On the structure of unitary designs". Journal of Mathematical Physics. 48 (5): 052104. arXiv:quant-ph/0611002. Bibcode:2007JMP....48e2104G. doi:10.1063/1.2716992. ISSN 0022-2488. S2CID 119572194. ^ Aidan Roy; A. J. Scott (2009). "Unitary designs and codes". Designs, Codes and Cryptography. 53: 13–31. arXiv:0809.3813. doi:10.1007/s10623-009-9290-2. S2CID 19010867.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spherical design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_design"},{"link_name":"quantum information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information_theory"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"quantum cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cryptography"},{"link_name":"unitary group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_group"},{"link_name":"unitary matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrices"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DCEL-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DCEL-1"},{"link_name":"randomized benchmarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_benchmarking"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emerson2005-3"},{"link_name":"quantum computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing"},{"link_name":"quantum information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information_theory"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayden2007-4"}],"text":"A spherical design is a collection of points on the unit sphere for which polynomials of bounded degree can be averaged over to obtain the same value that integrating over surface measure on the sphere gives. Spherical and projective t-designs derive their names from the works of Delsarte, Goethals, and Seidel in the late 1970s, but these objects played earlier roles in several branches of mathematics, including numerical integration and number theory. Particular examples of these objects have found uses in quantum information theory,[2] quantum cryptography, and other related fields.Unitary t-designs are analogous to spherical designs in that they reproduce the entire unitary group via a finite collection of unitary matrices.[1] The theory of unitary 2-designs was developed in 2006 [1] specifically to achieve a practical means of efficient and scalable randomized benchmarking[3] to assess the errors in quantum computing operations, called gates. Since then unitary t-designs have been found useful in other areas of quantum computing and more broadly in quantum information theory and applied to problems as far reaching as the black hole information paradox.[4] Unitary t-designs are especially relevant to randomization tasks in quantum computing since ideal operations are usually represented by unitary operators.","title":"Quantum t-design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"special unitary group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_unitary_group"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bloch sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_sphere"},{"link_name":"POVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POVM"},{"link_name":"SIC-POVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIC-POVM"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"In a d-dimensional Hilbert space when averaging over all quantum pure states the natural group is SU(d), the special unitary group of dimension d.[citation needed] The Haar measure is, by definition, the unique group-invariant measure, so it is used to average properties that are not unitarily invariant over all states, or over all unitaries.A particularly widely used example of this is the spin \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n system. For this system the relevant group is SU(2) which is the group of all 2x2 unitary operators with determinant 1. Since every operator in SU(2) is a rotation of the Bloch sphere, the Haar measure for spin-1/2 particles is invariant under all rotations of the Bloch sphere. This implies that the Haar measure is the rotationally invariant measure on the Bloch sphere, which can be thought of as a constant density distribution over the surface of the sphere.An important class of complex projective t-designs, are symmetric informationally complete positive operator-valued measures POVM's, which are complex projective 2-design. Since such 2-designs must have at least \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d^{2}}\n \n elements, a SIC-POVM is a minimal sized complex projective 2-designs.[5]","title":"Motivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-6"},{"link_name":"POVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POVM"}],"text":"Complex projective t-designs have been studied in quantum information theory as quantum t-designs.[6] These are closely related to spherical 2t-designs of vectors in the unit sphere in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{d}}\n \n which when naturally embedded in \n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{d}}\n \n give rise to complex projective t-designs.Formally, we define a probability distribution over quantum states \n \n \n \n (\n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p_{i},|\\phi _{i}\\rangle )}\n \n to be a [6] complex projective t-design if∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n ⟨\n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n ψ\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n d\n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i}p_{i}(|\\phi _{i}\\rangle \\langle \\phi _{i}|)^{\\otimes t}=\\int _{\\psi }(|\\psi \\rangle \\langle \\psi |)^{\\otimes t}d\\psi }Here, the integral over states is taken over the Haar measure on the unit sphere in \n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{d}}Exact t-designs over quantum states cannot be distinguished from the uniform probability distribution over all states when using t copies of a state from the probability distribution. However, in practice even t-designs may be difficult to compute. For this reason approximate t-designs are useful.Approximate t-designs are most useful due to their ability to be efficiently implemented. i.e. it is possible to generate a quantum state \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ϕ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\phi \\rangle }\n \n distributed according to the probability distribution \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{i}|\\phi _{i}\\rangle }\n \n in \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n log\n \n c\n \n \n ⁡\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(\\log ^{c}d)}\n \n time.\nThis efficient construction also implies that the POVM of the operators \n \n \n \n N\n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n ⟨\n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Np_{i}|\\phi _{i}\\rangle \\langle \\phi _{i}|}\n \n can be implemented in \n \n \n \n O\n (\n \n log\n \n c\n \n \n ⁡\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(\\log ^{c}d)}\n \n time.The technical definition of an approximate t-design is:If \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n ⟨\n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n d\n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i}p_{i}|\\phi _{i}\\rangle \\langle \\phi _{i}|=\\int _{\\psi }|\\psi \\rangle \\langle \\psi |d\\psi }and \n \n \n \n (\n 1\n −\n ϵ\n )\n \n ∫\n \n ψ\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n d\n ψ\n ≤\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n ⟨\n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n ≤\n (\n 1\n +\n ϵ\n )\n \n ∫\n \n ψ\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n d\n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1-\\epsilon )\\int _{\\psi }(|\\psi \\rangle \\langle \\psi |)^{\\otimes t}d\\psi \\leq \\sum _{i}p_{i}(|\\phi _{i}\\rangle \\langle \\phi _{i}|)^{\\otimes t}\\leq (1+\\epsilon )\\int _{\\psi }(|\\psi \\rangle \\langle \\psi |)^{\\otimes t}d\\psi }then \n \n \n \n (\n \n p\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n |\n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p_{i},|\\phi _{i}\\rangle )}\n \n is an \n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n \n-approximate t-design.It is possible, though perhaps inefficient, to find an \n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n \n-approximate t-design consisting of quantum pure states for a fixed t.","title":"Spherical t-Designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gaussian quadrature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_quadrature"}],"sub_title":"Construction","text":"For convenience d is assumed to be a power of 2.Using the fact that for any d there exists a set of \n \n \n \n \n N\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle N^{d}}\n \n functions {0,...,d-1} \n \n \n \n →\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rightarrow }\n \n {0,...,d-1} such that for any distinct \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n k\n \n N\n \n \n ∈\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{1},...,k_{N}\\in }\n \n {0,...,d-1} the image under f, where f is chosen at random from S, is exactly the uniform distribution over tuples of N elements of {0,...,d-1}.Let \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n α\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n i\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle =\\sum _{i=1}^{d}\\alpha _{i}|i\\rangle }\n \n be drawn from the Haar measure. Let \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{d}}\n \n be the probability distribution of \n \n \n \n \n α\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha _{1}}\n \n and let \n \n \n \n P\n =\n \n lim\n \n d\n →\n ∞\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n P\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle P=\\lim _{d\\rightarrow \\infty }{\\sqrt {d}}P_{d}}\n \n. Finally let \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n be drawn from P. If we define \n \n \n \n X\n =\n \n |\n \n α\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X=|\\alpha |}\n \n with probability \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n X\n =\n −\n \n |\n \n α\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X=-|\\alpha |}\n \n with probability \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}}\n \n then:\n\n \n \n \n E\n [\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n ]\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E[X^{j}]=0}\n \n for odd j and \n \n \n \n E\n [\n \n X\n \n j\n \n \n ]\n =\n (\n \n \n \n j\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n !\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E[X^{j}]=({\\tfrac {j}{2}})!}\n \n for even j.Using this and Gaussian quadrature we can construct \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n f\n ,\n g\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n a\n \n f\n ,\n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n S\n \n 1\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n S\n \n 2\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{f,g}={\\frac {\\sum _{i=1}^{d}a_{f,i}^{2}}{|S_{1}||S_{2}|}}}\n \n so that \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n f\n ,\n g\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n f\n ,\n g\n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{f,g}|\\psi _{f,g}\\rangle }\n \n is an approximate t-design.","title":"Spherical t-Designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unitary group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_group"},{"link_name":"unitary matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrices"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DCEL-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DCEL-1"},{"link_name":"randomized benchmarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_benchmarking"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emerson2005-3"},{"link_name":"quantum computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayden2007-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Unitary t-designs are analogous to spherical designs in that they reproduce the entire unitary group via a finite collection of unitary matrices.[1] The theory of unitary 2-designs was developed in 2006 [1] specifically to achieve a practical means of efficient and scalable randomized benchmarking[3] to assess the errors in quantum computing operations, called gates. Since then unitary t-designs have been found useful in other areas of quantum computing and more broadly in quantum information theory and in fields as far reaching as black hole physics.[4] Unitary t-designs are especially relevant to randomization tasks in quantum computing since ideal operations are usually represented by unitary operators.Elements of a unitary t-design are elements of the unitary group, U(d), the group of \n \n \n \n d\n ×\n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d\\times d}\n \n unitary matrices. A t-design of unitary operators will generate a t-design of states.Suppose \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {U_{k}}}\n \n is a unitary t-design (i.e. a set of unitary operators). Then for any pure state \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n let \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n =\n \n U\n \n k\n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi _{k}\\rangle =U_{k}|\\psi \\rangle }\n \n. Then \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {|\\psi _{k}\\rangle }}\n \n will always be a t-design for states.Formally define a unitary t-design, X, if1\n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n U\n ∈\n X\n \n \n \n U\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n ⊗\n (\n \n U\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n \n U\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n ⊗\n (\n \n U\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n t\n \n \n d\n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{|X|}}\\sum _{U\\in X}U^{\\otimes t}\\otimes (U^{*})^{\\otimes t}=\\int _{U(d)}U^{\\otimes t}\\otimes (U^{*})^{\\otimes t}dU}Observe that the space linearly spanned by the matrices \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n ⊗\n r\n \n \n ⊗\n (\n \n U\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⊗\n s\n \n \n d\n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U^{\\otimes r}\\otimes (U^{*})^{\\otimes s}dU}\n \n over all choices of U is identical to the restriction \n \n \n \n U\n ∈\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U\\in X}\n \n and \n \n \n \n r\n +\n s\n =\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r+s=t}\n \n This observation leads to a conclusion about the duality between unitary designs and unitary codes.Using the permutation maps it is possible[6] to verify directly that a set of unitary matrices forms a t-design.[7]One direct result of this is that for any finite \n \n \n \n X\n ⊆\n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\subseteq U(d)}1\n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n U\n ,\n V\n ∈\n X\n \n \n \n |\n \n tr\n ⁡\n (\n U\n ∗\n V\n )\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n t\n \n \n ≥\n \n ∫\n \n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n \n |\n \n tr\n ⁡\n (\n U\n ∗\n V\n )\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n t\n \n \n d\n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{|X|^{2}}}\\sum _{U,V\\in X}|\\operatorname {tr} (U*V)|^{2t}\\geq \\int _{U(d)}|\\operatorname {tr} (U*V)|^{2t}dU}With equality if and only if X is a t-design.1 and 2-designs have been examined in some detail and absolute bounds for the dimension of X, |X|, have been derived.[8]","title":"Unitary t-Designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Bounds for unitary designs","text":"Define \n \n \n \n Hom\n ⁡\n (\n U\n (\n d\n )\n ,\n t\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),t,t)}\n \n as the set of functions homogeneous of degree t in \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n and homogeneous of degree t in \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U^{*}}\n \n, then if for every \n \n \n \n f\n ∈\n Hom\n ⁡\n (\n U\n (\n d\n )\n ,\n t\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\in \\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),t,t)}\n \n:1\n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n U\n ∈\n X\n \n \n f\n (\n U\n )\n =\n \n ∫\n \n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n f\n (\n U\n )\n d\n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{|X|}}\\sum _{U\\in X}f(U)=\\int _{U(d)}f(U)dU}then X is a unitary t-design.We further define the inner product for functions \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n and \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n on \n \n \n \n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U(d)}\n \n as the average value of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n ¯\n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {f}}g}\n \n as:⟨\n f\n ,\n g\n ⟩\n :=\n \n ∫\n \n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n (\n U\n )\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n g\n (\n U\n )\n d\n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle f,g\\rangle :=\\int _{U(d)}{\\bar {f(U)}}g(U)dX}and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n f\n ,\n g\n \n ⟩\n \n X\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle f,g\\rangle _{X}}\n \n as the average value of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n ¯\n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {f}}g}\n \n over any finite subset \n \n \n \n X\n ⊂\n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\subset U(d)}\n \n.It follows that X is a unitary t-design if and only if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n 1\n ,\n f\n \n ⟩\n \n X\n \n \n =\n ⟨\n 1\n ,\n f\n ⟩\n \n ∀\n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle 1,f\\rangle _{X}=\\langle 1,f\\rangle \\quad \\forall f}\n \n.From the above it is demonstrable that if X is a t-design then \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n |\n \n ≥\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n Hom\n ⁡\n (\n U\n (\n d\n )\n ,\n \n ⌈\n \n \n \n t\n 2\n \n \n \n ⌉\n \n ,\n \n ⌊\n \n \n \n t\n 2\n \n \n \n ⌋\n \n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X|\\geq \\dim(\\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),\\left\\lceil {\\tfrac {t}{2}}\\right\\rceil ,\\left\\lfloor {\\tfrac {t}{2}}\\right\\rfloor ))}\n \n is an absolute bound for the design. This imposes an upper bound on the size of a unitary design. This bound is absolute meaning it depends only on the strength of the design or the degree of the code, and not the distances in the subset, X.[9]A unitary code is a finite subset of the unitary group in which a few inner product values occur between elements. Specifically, a unitary code is defined as a finite subset \n \n \n \n X\n ⊂\n U\n (\n d\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X\\subset U(d)}\n \n if for all \n \n \n \n U\n ≠\n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U\\neq M}\n \n in X \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n tr\n ⁡\n (\n \n U\n \n ∗\n \n \n M\n )\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\operatorname {tr} (U^{*}M)|^{2}}\n \n takes only distinct values.It follows that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n |\n \n ≤\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n Hom\n ⁡\n (\n U\n (\n d\n )\n ,\n s\n ,\n s\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X|\\leq \\dim(\\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),s,s))}\n \n and if U and M are orthogonal: \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n X\n \n |\n \n ≤\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n Hom\n ⁡\n (\n U\n (\n d\n )\n ,\n s\n ,\n s\n −\n 1\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |X|\\leq \\dim(\\operatorname {Hom} (U(d),s,s-1))}","title":"Unitary t-Designs"}]

[]

[{"title":"Spherical design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_design"},{"title":"Equiangular lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiangular_lines"},{"title":"Welch bounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welch_bounds"}]

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S2CID 46914367.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0606161","url_text":"quant-ph/0606161"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhRvA..80a2304D","url_text":"2009PhRvA..80a2304D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysreva.80.012304","url_text":"10.1103/physreva.80.012304"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1050-2947","url_text":"1050-2947"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46914367","url_text":"46914367"}]},{"reference":"Hayashi, A.; Hashimoto, T.; Horibe, M. (2005-09-21). \"Reexamination of optimal quantum state estimation of pure states\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_ATK

Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems

["1 History","2 Organization","2.1 Flight Systems Group","2.2 Defense Systems Group","2.3 Space Systems Group","3 Products","3.1 Rockets","3.2 Rocket engines","3.3 Spacecraft","3.4 Munitions","3.5 Firearms","4 See also","5 References"]

American aerospace and defense company Northrop Grumman Innovation SystemsCompany typeOperating DivisionIndustrySpace industryAerospace industryDefense industryPredecessorsAlliant TechsystemsOrbital Sciences CorporationFoundedFebruary 9, 2015; 9 years ago (2015-02-09) (as Orbital ATK)June 5, 2018 (2018-06-05) (as Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems)DefunctJanuary 1, 2020FateRenamedSuccessorNorthrop Grumman Space SystemsHeadquartersDulles, Virginia, United StatesArea servedWorldwideKey peopleDavid W. Thompson (President and CEO)Blake E. Larson (COO)Garrett E. Pierce (CFO)Antonio L. Elias (CTO)ProductsElectronics, Rocket engines, Military vehicles, Firearms, Autocannons, Missiles, Ammunition, Precision-guided munitions, Satellites, Missile approach warning systems, Launch vehicles, SpacecraftRevenueUS$4.455 billion (2016)Net incomeUS$293 million (2016)Total assetsUS$5.418 billion (2016)Total equityUS$1.817 billion (2016)Number of employees~12,500 (2016)WebsiteInnovation Systems at the Wayback Machine (archived June 23, 2019) Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (NGIS) was a sector (business segment) of Northrop Grumman from 2018 to 2019. It was formed from Orbital ATK Inc. a company which resulted from the merger of Orbital Sciences Corporation and parts of Alliant Techsystems in 2015. Orbital ATK was purchased by Northrop Grumman in 2018. Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems designed, built, and delivered space, defense, and aviation-related systems to customers around the world both as a prime contractor and as a merchant supplier. It had a workforce of approximately 12,000 employees dedicated to aerospace and defense including about 4,000 engineers and scientists; 7,000 manufacturing and operations specialists; and 1,000 management and administration personnel. With Northrop Grumman's reorganization of its divisions effective January 1, 2020, NGIS was split, with most of the sector merging with other Northrop Grumman businesses into a new Space Systems sector. History Former logo of Orbital ATK, the company's original name following the merger of Orbital Sciences Corporation and the supoff aerospace division of Alliant Techsystems. A merger of Orbital Sciences Corporation and the defense and aerospace divisions of Alliant Techsystems (ATK) was announced on April 29, 2014. The two companies had collaborated on several previous projects, including the use of 400 ATK rocket motors in Orbital's launch vehicles. The deal officially closed on February 9, 2015. ATK's sporting-goods division spun off to form Vista Outdoor on the same day. On September 18, 2017, Northrop Grumman announced plans to purchase Orbital ATK for US$7.8 billion in cash plus assumption of US$1.4 billion in debt. Orbital ATK shareholders approved the buyout on November 29, 2017. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) approved the acquisition with conditions on June 5, 2018, and on June 6, 2018, Orbital ATK was absorbed and became Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. Organization Flight Systems Group Based in Chandler, Arizona, the Flight Systems Group includes the Pegasus, Minotaur, and Antares launch vehicles as well as solid-propulsion and aerostructures programs. The company also operates a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar wide body jetliner, which is named Stargazer and is used to air launch Pegasus rockets carrying payloads into space. The Stargazer aircraft is also used for testing under specific programs. The Flight Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Space Systems on January 1, 2020. Defense Systems Group The Defense Systems Group, based in the Baltimore, Maryland area, produces tactical missiles, defense electronics, and medium- and large-caliber ammunition. The division also produces fuzing and warheads for both tactical missiles and munitions; precision metal and composite structures for medium and large-caliber ammunition, military aircraft, ground vehicles, and missile systems; load, assembly, and pack (LAP) of medium caliber munitions; and propellants and powders for the canister and commercial markets. The Defense Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Defense Systems on January 1, 2020. Space Systems Group Orbital ATK's Space Systems Group provides satellites for commercial, scientific, and security purposes. This group also produces the Cygnus spacecraft, which delivers cargo to the International Space Station. The group is based at the company's headquarters on Warp Drive in Dulles, Virginia. The Space Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Space Systems on January 1, 2020. Products Rockets 2016 Oshkosh L-ATV (configured as a Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) equipped with EOS R-400S-MK2 remote weapon system integrated with Orbital ATK's M230-LF 30 mm lightweight automatic chain gun. A product of Orbital ATK: The machine cannon M242 Bushmaster as standard armament of the infantry fighting vehicle M2 Bradley. Orbital ATK holds a trademark on the term "chain gun". Antares, two- or three-stage medium-lift expendable launch vehicle Minotaur I, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle Minotaur IV, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle Minotaur V, five-stage launch vehicle used for geosynchronous transfer orbits and trans-lunar orbits Minotaur VI, five-stage medium-lift expendable launch vehicle Minotaur-C, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle Pegasus, air-launched four-stage small-lift launch vehicle OmegA, A cancelled medium to heavy lift launch vehicle. Rocket engines GEM-40, solid rocket booster used on the Delta II rocket GEM-60, solid rocket booster used on the Delta IV rocket GEM-63, solid rocket booster used on the Atlas V rocket GEM-63XL, solid rocket booster planned to be used on the Vulcan rocket Castor 4, solid rocket used on the Maxus sounding rocket Castor 30, solid rocket used on the Antares rocket Castor 120, solid rocket used on the Minotaur-C rocket Space Launch System Solid Rocket Booster, based on the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Spacecraft The spacecraft Cygnus transporting cargo to the ISS on behalf of NASA. Al Yah 3, communications satellite for Al Yah Satellite Communications HYLAS-4, communications satellite for Avanti Communications SES-16, communications satellite for SES S.A. Landsat 9, environmental satellite for NASA and United States Geological Survey (USGS) JPSS-2, weather and environmental satellite for NASA and NOAA ICESat-2, ice-topography satellite for NASA Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), space telescope for NASA Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICE), science mission for NASA Cygnus, automated cargo spacecraft to supply the ISS Dawn, space probe for NASA currently in decaying orbit around Ceres Munitions Mk310 PABM-T air burst rounds for MK44. Firearms XM25 CDTE, an airburst grenade launcher. See also Spaceflight portal Northrop Grumman business sectors Thiokol References ^ a b c Berger, Brian (February 12, 2015). "Orbital ATK Org Charts Detail the Newly Merged Company". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ a b "Company Overview". Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017. ^ "Orbital ATK will become Northrop Grumman's fourth business sector". June 6, 2018. Retrieved August 16, 2018. ^ "Northrop launches new divisions focused on space, cyber, unmanned tech". September 20, 2019. Archived from the original on September 23, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2020. ^ Aitoro, Jill R. (April 29, 2014). "Why the merger of ATK and Orbital Sciences makes sense". Washington Business Journal. Archived from the original on February 20, 2015. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ a b c d Wall, Mike (February 10, 2015). "Orbital ATK, Merger of Orbital Sciences and ATK, Begins Operations". Space.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2015. ^ "Northrop Grumman to Acquire Orbital ATK for $9.2 Billion" (PDF) (Press release). Falls Church and Dulles, Virginia: Northrop Grumman Corporation. September 18, 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 27, 2018. ^ "Orbital ATK Shareholders Vote to Approve Acquisition by Northrop Grumman". news.northropgrumman.com (Press release). Falls Church, Virginia: Northrop Grumman Corporation. November 29, 2017. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved July 23, 2018. ^ "FTC Imposes Conditions on Northrop Grumman's Acquisition of Solid Rocket Motor Supplier Orbital ATK, Inc" (Press release). Federal Trade Commission. June 5, 2018. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 6, 2018. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Erwin, Sandra (June 5, 2018). "Acquisition of Orbital ATK approved, company renamed Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems". SpaceNews. Retrieved July 23, 2018. ^ "Orbital ATK". www.orbitalatk.com. Archived from the original on June 1, 2018. Retrieved August 23, 2020. ^ "30mm & 20mm x 173mm Munition System". www.orbitalatk.com. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2017. ^ "Brochure" (PDF). orbitalatk.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 29, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2017. vteNorthrop GrummanSubsidiaries Scaled Composites Products ADM-160 MALD AGM-88E AARGM AGM-88G AARGM-ER Antares (rocket) AN/AAQ-37 AN/APG-77 AN/APG-78 Longbow AN/APG-80 AN/APG-81 AN/APG-83 AN/APY-2 AN/SPQ-9B AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radar AN/TPS-80 Ground/Air Task Oriented Radar AN/ZPY-1 Battlefield Airborne Communications Node Cygnus (spacecraft) Ground Based Strategic Deterrent IMETS James Webb Space Telescope MESA radar Mission Extension Vehicle Northrop BQM-74 Chukar Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton Northrop Grumman MQ-8 Fire Scout Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk Nautilus Deep Space Observatory Northrop Grumman Guardian OmegA Antecedents & former assets Grumman Litton Industries Northrop Corporation Los Angeles Assembly Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems Sperry Marine Northrop Grumman Northrop Grumman Ship Systems Ingalls Shipbuilding Newport News Shipbuilding The Apprentice School Orbital ATK Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems Ryan Aeronautical Xetron People Jack Northrop Leroy Grumman Wesley G. Bush Burt Rutan T. Claude Ryan Kathy J. Warden vteSatellite communicationsMain articles Satellite television Satellite radio Satellite Internet access Amateur satellite Ground station High-throughput satellite Relay satellite Transponder Carriage dispute Hardware SAT>IP Monoblock LNB DiSEqC USALS Automatic Tracking Satellite Dish Motor-driven Satellite dish Multi-satellite Satellite dish (Parabolic antennas) Satellite phone Satellite modem Satellite data unit Spacebus Very-small-aperture terminal Satellite radio / TV DVB-SH S-DMB DVB-RCS DVB-S2 DVB-S2X ISDB-S3 Digital audio radio service Broadcast companies Astra Digital Radio DirecTV Dish Network Sirius XM Holdings Sky UK Allente 1worldspace Relay satellite companies AST SpaceMobile EchoStar Eutelsat Globalstar Hispasat Hughes Inmarsat Intelsat Intersputnik Iridium SED Systems SES Star One Starlink Telesat Tooway Turksat Viasat Satellite manufacturers Airbus Boeing INVAP Lockheed Martin Northrop Grumman SpaceX SSL Thales Alenia Space Trade organizations Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems ETSI Satellite Digital Radio Lists List of communications satellite firsts List of communication satellite companies Category Commons

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The Flight Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Space Systems on January 1, 2020.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baltimore, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wall-6"}],"sub_title":"Defense Systems Group","text":"The Defense Systems Group, based in the Baltimore, Maryland[6] area, produces tactical missiles, defense electronics, and medium- and large-caliber ammunition. The division also produces fuzing and warheads for both tactical missiles and munitions; precision metal and composite structures for medium and large-caliber ammunition, military aircraft, ground vehicles, and missile systems; load, assembly, and pack (LAP) of medium caliber munitions; and propellants and powders for the canister and commercial markets. The Defense Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Defense Systems on January 1, 2020.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commercial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berger-1"},{"link_name":"Cygnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Dulles, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulles,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wall-6"}],"sub_title":"Space Systems Group","text":"Orbital ATK's Space Systems Group provides satellites for commercial, scientific, and security purposes.[1] This group also produces the Cygnus spacecraft, which delivers cargo to the International Space Station. The group is based at the company's headquarters on Warp Drive in Dulles, Virginia.[6] The Space Systems Group became part of Northrop Grumman Space Systems on January 1, 2020.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oshkosh_JLTV.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oshkosh L-ATV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshkosh_L-ATV"},{"link_name":"Joint Light Tactical Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Light_Tactical_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"M230-LF 30 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M230_chain_gun"},{"link_name":"chain gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_gun"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M2_Bradley_Armament.JPEG"},{"link_name":"M242 Bushmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M242_Bushmaster"},{"link_name":"M2 Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2_Bradley"},{"link_name":"chain gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_gun"},{"link_name":"Antares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antares_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"Minotaur I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur_I"},{"link_name":"Minotaur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur_IV"},{"link_name":"Minotaur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur_V"},{"link_name":"geosynchronous transfer orbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit"},{"link_name":"trans-lunar orbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-lunar_orbit"},{"link_name":"Minotaur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur_(rocket_family)"},{"link_name":"Minotaur-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur-C"},{"link_name":"Pegasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_Pegasus"},{"link_name":"OmegA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OmegA"}],"sub_title":"Rockets","text":"2016 Oshkosh L-ATV (configured as a Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) equipped with EOS R-400S-MK2 remote weapon system integrated with Orbital ATK's M230-LF 30 mm lightweight automatic chain gun.A product of Orbital ATK: The machine cannon M242 Bushmaster as standard armament of the infantry fighting vehicle M2 Bradley. Orbital ATK holds a trademark on the term \"chain gun\".Antares, two- or three-stage medium-lift expendable launch vehicle\nMinotaur I, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle\nMinotaur IV, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle\nMinotaur V, five-stage launch vehicle used for geosynchronous transfer orbits and trans-lunar orbits\nMinotaur VI, five-stage medium-lift expendable launch vehicle\nMinotaur-C, four-stage small-lift expendable launch vehicle\nPegasus, air-launched four-stage small-lift launch vehicle\nOmegA, A cancelled medium to heavy lift launch vehicle.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GEM-40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite-Epoxy_Motor"},{"link_name":"Delta II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_II"},{"link_name":"GEM-60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite-Epoxy_Motor"},{"link_name":"Delta IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_IV"},{"link_name":"GEM-63","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite-Epoxy_Motor"},{"link_name":"Atlas V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_V"},{"link_name":"GEM-63XL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite-Epoxy_Motor"},{"link_name":"Vulcan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"Castor 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_(rocket_stage)"},{"link_name":"Maxus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxus_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"sounding rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounding_rocket"},{"link_name":"Castor 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_(rocket_stage)"},{"link_name":"Antares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antares_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"Castor 120","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_(rocket_stage)"},{"link_name":"Minotaur-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur-C"},{"link_name":"Space Launch System Solid Rocket Booster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster"}],"sub_title":"Rocket engines","text":"GEM-40, solid rocket booster used on the Delta II rocket\nGEM-60, solid rocket booster used on the Delta IV rocket\nGEM-63, solid rocket booster used on the Atlas V rocket\nGEM-63XL, solid rocket booster planned to be used on the Vulcan rocket\nCastor 4, solid rocket used on the Maxus sounding rocket\nCastor 30, solid rocket used on the Antares rocket\nCastor 120, solid rocket used on the Minotaur-C rocket\nSpace Launch System Solid Rocket Booster, based on the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISS-45_Cygnus_5_approaching_the_ISS_-_crop.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cygnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"ISS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Al Yah 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications"},{"link_name":"Al Yah Satellite Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications"},{"link_name":"HYLAS-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HYLAS-4"},{"link_name":"Avanti Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avanti_Communications"},{"link_name":"SES-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SES-16"},{"link_name":"SES S.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SES_S.A."},{"link_name":"Landsat 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsat_9"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"United States Geological Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey"},{"link_name":"JPSS-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Polar_Satellite_System"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"NOAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA"},{"link_name":"ICESat-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICESat-2"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transiting_Exoplanet_Survey_Satellite"},{"link_name":"space telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_telescope"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Ionospheric Connection Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionospheric_Connection_Explorer"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Cygnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"cargo spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_spacecraft"},{"link_name":"ISS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"decaying orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_decay"},{"link_name":"Ceres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)"}],"sub_title":"Spacecraft","text":"The spacecraft Cygnus transporting cargo to the ISS on behalf of NASA.Al Yah 3, communications satellite for Al Yah Satellite Communications\nHYLAS-4, communications satellite for Avanti Communications\nSES-16, communications satellite for SES S.A.\nLandsat 9, environmental satellite for NASA and United States Geological Survey (USGS)\nJPSS-2, weather and environmental satellite for NASA and NOAA\nICESat-2, ice-topography satellite for NASA\nTransiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), space telescope for NASA\nIonospheric Connection Explorer (ICE), science mission for NASA\nCygnus, automated cargo spacecraft to supply the ISS\nDawn, space probe for NASA currently in decaying orbit around Ceres","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"air burst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_burst"},{"link_name":"MK44","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mk44_Bushmaster_II"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Munitions","text":"Mk310 PABM-T air burst rounds for MK44.[12][13]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"XM25 CDTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM25_CDTE"},{"link_name":"airburst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_burst"},{"link_name":"grenade launcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenade_launcher"}],"sub_title":"Firearms","text":"XM25 CDTE, an airburst grenade launcher.","title":"Products"}]

[{"image_text":"Former logo of Orbital ATK, the company's original name following the merger of Orbital Sciences Corporation and the supoff aerospace division of Alliant Techsystems.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d4/Logo_for_Orbital_ATK.svg/220px-Logo_for_Orbital_ATK.svg.png"},{"image_text":"2016 Oshkosh L-ATV (configured as a Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) equipped with EOS R-400S-MK2 remote weapon system integrated with Orbital ATK's M230-LF 30 mm lightweight automatic chain gun.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Oshkosh_JLTV.jpg/220px-Oshkosh_JLTV.jpg"},{"image_text":"A product of Orbital ATK: The machine cannon M242 Bushmaster as standard armament of the infantry fighting vehicle M2 Bradley. Orbital ATK holds a trademark on the term \"chain gun\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/M2_Bradley_Armament.JPEG/220px-M2_Bradley_Armament.JPEG"},{"image_text":"The spacecraft Cygnus transporting cargo to the ISS on behalf of NASA.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ISS-45_Cygnus_5_approaching_the_ISS_-_crop.jpg/220px-ISS-45_Cygnus_5_approaching_the_ISS_-_crop.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Spaceflight portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight"},{"title":"Northrop Grumman business sectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman#Business_sectors"},{"title":"Thiokol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiokol"}]

[{"reference":"Berger, Brian (February 12, 2015). \"Orbital ATK Org Charts Detail the Newly Merged Company\". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved February 19, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://spacenews.com/orbital-atk-org-charts-detail-the-newly-merged-company/","url_text":"\"Orbital ATK Org Charts Detail the Newly Merged Company\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20150213031803/http://spacenews.com/orbital-atk-org-charts-detail-the-newly-merged-company/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Company Overview\". Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170705121634/http://www.orbitalatk.com/about/company-overview/","url_text":"\"Company Overview\""},{"url":"https://www.orbitalatk.com/about/company-overview/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Orbital ATK will become Northrop Grumman's fourth business sector\". June 6, 2018. Retrieved August 16, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://spacenews.com/acquisition-of-orbital-atk-approved-company-renamed-northrop-grumman-innovation-systems/","url_text":"\"Orbital ATK will become Northrop Grumman's fourth business sector\""}]},{"reference":"\"Northrop launches new divisions focused on space, cyber, unmanned tech\". September 20, 2019. Archived from the original on September 23, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2019/09/20/northrop-launches-new-divisions-focused-on-space-cyber-unmanned-tech/","url_text":"\"Northrop launches new divisions focused on space, cyber, unmanned tech\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20190923153156/https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2019/09/20/northrop-launches-new-divisions-focused-on-space-cyber-unmanned-tech/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Aitoro, Jill R. (April 29, 2014). \"Why the merger of ATK and Orbital Sciences makes sense\". Washington Business Journal. Archived from the original on February 20, 2015. Retrieved February 19, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/blog/fedbiz_daily/2014/04/why-the-merger-of-atk-and-orbital-sciences-makes.html?page=all","url_text":"\"Why the merger of ATK and Orbital Sciences makes sense\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150220023916/http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/blog/fedbiz_daily/2014/04/why-the-merger-of-atk-and-orbital-sciences-makes.html?page=all","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wall, Mike (February 10, 2015). \"Orbital ATK, Merger of Orbital Sciences and ATK, Begins Operations\". Space.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Xperia_Tablet_Z

Sony Xperia Tablet Z

["1 Hardware","2 Software","3 Variants","4 Reception","5 Successor","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

2013 Android tablet by Sony Xperia Xperia Tablet ZJapanese Xperia Tablet ZManufacturerSonyProduct familyXperia seriesTypeTablet computerRelease dateMay 2013 (2013-05)Operating systemAndroid 4.1.2 "Jelly Bean" (Upgradeable to Android 5.1.1 "Lollipop")CPU1.5GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro APQ8064 quad-core processorMemory2GBStorage16/32 GB (option for microSD up to 64 GB)Display10 inch screen with full HD, 1,920x1,200 resolution, 224ppiSoundInternal speakersInputMulti-touch touchscreen displayCameraRear: 8.0 MP with Exmor R for mobile imaging engine and a backside illuminated sensor Front: 2.0 megapixels with 720p for video chatConnectivityWi-Fi 802.11b/g/n4G LTEDimensions266 mm x 6.9 mm x 172 mmMass494g (1.09 pounds)PredecessorSony Xperia Tablet SSuccessorSony Xperia Tablet Z2 The Xperia Tablet Z is a touchscreen Android tablet designed and manufactured by Sony and was first announced in Japan in January 2013. It was then announced globally in Barcelona at the Mobile World Congress on February 25, 2013. The tablet is one of the lightest and thinnest 10.1-inch tablet in the world with a weight of 1.09 pounds (495 grams) and is just 0.27 inches (6.9 mm) thick. The Tablet Z succeeds the Xperia Tablet S with a faster processor, a better front-facing camera, a higher-resolution screen, and Ingress Protection Ratings of IP55 and IP57, for dust-protected, water-jet protected, and waterproof in up to one meter of water for up to thirty minutes. It was released in May 2013. The device retails at $500 for the 16GB (Wi-Fi only) version and $600 for the 32gb (Wi-Fi only) version. Hardware The capacitive touchscreen display measures 10.1 inches with a WUXGA resolution of 1920 x 1200 and a 224 ppi density. It includes Sony's Mobile Bravia Engine 2 technology which is used in Sony's Bravia branded televisions. The tablet features a Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset comes with quad-core Krait CPU clocked at 1.5 GHz, Adreno 320 GPU, 2 GB of RAM, and 16 or 32 GB of internal storage. The tablet also has an external slot with micro SD card allowing expandable storage up to 64 GB. The rear camera of the tablet has 8 megapixels with Exmor R sensor and with full HD video recording capabilities while the front camera has 2 megapixels and is capable of 720p video recording. The Xperia Tablet Z is NFC (Near Field Communication) enabled which can be used with Xperia SmartTags, NFC enabled accessories such as speakers or for low value financial transactions, as NFC becomes more widespread in use, with the appropriate applications from Google Play. The tablet also comes with an infrared port and with the help of the TV SideView app the Xperia Tablet Z can be used as a remote control. The tablet is water resistant and can stay in one meter of water for 30 minutes. Software The tablet was released with the Sony UI on top of Android 4.1.2 Jelly Bean. It received Android 4.4.2 KitKat in June 2014. Xperia Tablet Z is also PlayStation Certified allowing users access to Sony's PlayStation Suite. In May 2015, the Sony Xperia Tablet Z received Android 5.0 Lollipop. Variants The device was sold in Wi-Fi and 4G/LTE versions. The availability of the 4G/LTE version varied by country. Reception The Xperia Tablet Z has received very positive critical reception. The device has been praised for its design, performance, and low weight, while criticized for its somewhat high price. PCMag praised the device, saying that "The Sony Xperia Tablet Z is among the finest Android tablets available, combining an incredibly thin and light design with top-notch performance." Sony Xperia Tablet Z won EISA’s European Tablet of the Year (2013-2014) award, said to be "the perfect choice for anyone seeking a combination of unique style and technology". Xperia Tablet Z is also placed at number 4 in top 10 ranking Best tablet 2013 by TechRadar. Successor Main article: Sony Xperia Z2 Tablet A successor to the Xperia Tablet Z was announced by Sony on February 24, 2014, with the unveiling of the Sony Xperia Z2 Tablet. This tablet was released in March 2014 in the UK and July 2014 in the US. See also Sony Tablet Sony Xperia Tablet S Sony Xperia Z series Comparison of tablet computers References ^ "Xperia Tablet Z release date and price". Expert Reviews. Retrieved 2013-02-26. ^ a b "Android 5.0, Lollipop rolls for the Xperia Z Series, Android 5.1 coming for Xperia M2 and Xperia M2 Aqua…". Sony Mobile. Retrieved 2015-06-04. ^ a b Olivarez-Giles, Nathan. "Sony's Waterproof, Ultra-Slim Xperia Tablet Z Launches In U.S. Spring 2013". Wired. Retrieved 2013-02-26. ^ "Xperia Tablet Z – The New Tablet That Swims!". Archived from the original on 2014-02-27. ^ "Xperia™ SmartTags". Sony Mobile Communications. ^ "Xperia™ SmartTags". Google Play. ^ "MWC 2013: Sony Xperia Tablet Z Release Date and Price are May for $499". AndroidGeeks. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23. Retrieved 2013-02-26. ^ "Sony Xperia Tablet Z Wi-Fi Kitkat 4.4.2 update". ITCSE. Archived from the original on 2014-06-04. Retrieved 2014-06-05. ^ EISA - European Table 2013-2014 Archived 2013-08-20 at the Wayback Machine ^ Best tablet 2013 Number 1: Sony Xperia Tablet Z External links Sony Global website Preceded bySony Xperia Tablet S Sony Xperia Tablet Z 2013 Succeeded bySony Xperia Z2 tablet vteSony Xperia Z seriesSmartphones Xperia Z ZL ZR Z Ultra Xperia Z1 Z1 Compact Xperia Z2 Xperia Z3 Z3 Compact Xperia Z3+ (Xperia Z4) Xperia Z5 Z5 Compact Z5 Premium Tablets Xperia Tablet Z Xperia Z Ultra WiFi(SGP412) Xperia Z2 Tablet Xperia Z3 Tablet Compact Xperia Z4 Tablet Regional/carrier variants are not included. Telephones portal vteSony tabletsSony Tablet S P Xperia Tablet S Z Z2 Z3 Compact Z4 vteAndroid tablet computers Acer Iconia Tab Ainol NOVO7 Amazon Fire HD HDX Archos Archos 5 (Archos Generation 6) Archos 5 (Archos Generation 7) Archos 43 Archos 70 Archos 101 Asus Eee Pad Transformer (TF101) Eee Pad Transformer Prime (TF201) Transformer Pad (TF300T) Transformer Pad Infinity (TF700T) Transformer Pad TF701T Nexus 7 2012 version 2013 version Barnes & Noble Nook Color Nook Tablet Nook HD/HD+ Samsung Galaxy Tab 4 Nook BQ Aquaris M10 DataWind Aakash 2 Google Pixel C HP Slate 7 Slate 21 HTC Flyer/EVO View 4G Jetstream Nexus 9 Huawei Mediapad M5 JadooTV JadooTab JPay JP4 JP5 JP6 Kobo Arc LeapFrog Epic Lenovo IdeaPad series LePad ThinkPad Tablet LG Optimus Pad LTE G Pad 7.0 8.0 8.3 10.1 MobyMax MobyMax Tablet Motorola Xoom Xyboard Nokia N1 Notion Ink Adam tablet NVIDIA Shield Tablet Pakistan Aeronautical Complex PAC-PAD 1 PAC-PAD Takhti 7 PocketBook IQ 701 A 10" Samsung Galaxy Tab series 7.0 7.7 8.9 10.1 Galaxy Tab 2 7.0 10.1 Galaxy Tab 3 7.0 8.0 10.1 Lite 7.0 Galaxy Tab 4 7.0 8.0 10.1 Galaxy Tab Pro 8.4 10.1 12.2 Galaxy Tab S S 8.4 S 10.5 S2 8.0 S2 9.7 S3 S4 S5e S6 S6 5G S6 Lite S7 S8 S9 Galaxy Tab A A 8.0 A 9.7 A 10.1 A 8.4 A7 A8 Galaxy Tab E E 9.6 Galaxy Note series 8.0 10.1 10.1 2014 Galaxy Note Pro 12.2 Nexus 10 Sony Sony Tablet S P Xperia Tablet S Z Z2 Z4 Toshiba Toshiba Thrive Toys "R" Us Tabeo ViewSonic G Tablet Xiaomi Mi Pad 2 3 4 5 6 Redmi Pad Pro SE Poco Pad Android smartphones Other Android devices List of features in Android

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It was then announced globally in Barcelona at the Mobile World Congress on February 25, 2013. The tablet is one of the lightest and thinnest 10.1-inch tablet in the world with a weight of 1.09 pounds (495 grams) and is just 0.27 inches (6.9 mm) thick. The Tablet Z succeeds the Xperia Tablet S with a faster processor, a better front-facing camera, a higher-resolution screen, and Ingress Protection Ratings of IP55 and IP57, for dust-protected, water-jet protected, and waterproof in up to one meter of water for up to thirty minutes. It was released in May 2013.[3] The device retails at $500 for the 16GB (Wi-Fi only) version and $600 for the 32gb (Wi-Fi only) version.","title":"Sony Xperia Tablet Z"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"capacitive touchscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitive_touchscreen"},{"link_name":"WUXGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WUXGA"},{"link_name":"Qualcomm Snapdragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualcomm_Snapdragon"},{"link_name":"megapixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megapixels"},{"link_name":"Exmor R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exmor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Near Field Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_Field_Communication"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Google Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Play"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xperia_Tablet_Z_launch-3"}],"text":"The capacitive touchscreen display measures 10.1 inches with a WUXGA resolution of 1920 x 1200 and a 224 ppi density. It includes Sony's Mobile Bravia Engine 2 technology which is used in Sony's Bravia branded televisions. The tablet features a Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro chipset comes with quad-core Krait CPU clocked at 1.5 GHz, Adreno 320 GPU, 2 GB of RAM, and 16 or 32 GB of internal storage. The tablet also has an external slot with micro SD card allowing expandable storage up to 64 GB. The rear camera of the tablet has 8 megapixels with Exmor R sensor and with full HD video recording capabilities while the front camera has 2 megapixels and is capable of 720p video recording.[4] The Xperia Tablet Z is NFC (Near Field Communication) enabled which can be used with Xperia SmartTags, NFC enabled accessories such as speakers[5] or for low value financial transactions, as NFC becomes more widespread in use, with the appropriate applications from Google Play.[6] The tablet also comes with an infrared port and with the help of the TV SideView app the Xperia Tablet Z can be used as a remote control.[7] The tablet is water resistant and can stay in one meter of water for 30 minutes.[3]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Android 4.1.2 Jelly Bean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_Jelly_Bean"},{"link_name":"Android 4.4.2 KitKat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_KitKat"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Certified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Certified"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Suite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Suite"},{"link_name":"Android 5.0 Lollipop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_5.0_Lollipop"}],"text":"The tablet was released with the Sony UI on top of Android 4.1.2 Jelly Bean. It received Android 4.4.2 KitKat in June 2014.[8] Xperia Tablet Z is also PlayStation Certified allowing users access to Sony's PlayStation Suite.In May 2015, the Sony Xperia Tablet Z received Android 5.0 Lollipop.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G"},{"link_name":"LTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE_(telecommunication)"},{"link_name":"4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G"},{"link_name":"LTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE_(telecommunication)"}],"text":"The device was sold in Wi-Fi and 4G/LTE versions. The availability of the 4G/LTE version varied by country.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PCMag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine"},{"link_name":"EISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Imaging_and_Sound_Association"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Xperia Tablet Z has received very positive critical reception. The device has been praised for its design, performance, and low weight, while criticized for its somewhat high price. PCMag praised the device, saying that \"The Sony Xperia Tablet Z is among the finest Android tablets available, combining an incredibly thin and light design with top-notch performance.\"Sony Xperia Tablet Z won EISA’s European Tablet of the Year (2013-2014) award, said to be \"the perfect choice for anyone seeking a combination of unique style and technology\".[9]Xperia Tablet Z is also placed at number 4 in top 10 ranking Best tablet 2013 by TechRadar.[10]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A successor to the Xperia Tablet Z was announced by Sony on February 24, 2014, with the unveiling of the Sony Xperia Z2 Tablet. This tablet was released in March 2014 in the UK and July 2014 in the US.","title":"Successor"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatic_fever

Rheumatic fever

["1 Signs and symptoms","2 Pathophysiology","2.1 Rheumatic heart disease","3 Diagnosis","3.1 Major criteria","4 Prevention","4.1 Vaccine","5 Treatment","5.1 Infection","5.2 Inflammation","5.3 Heart failure","6 Epidemiology","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Post-streptococcal inflammatory disease Medical conditionRheumatic feverOther namesAcute rheumatic fever (ARF)Rheumatic heart disease at autopsy with characteristic findings (thickened mitral valve, thickened chordae tendineae, hypertrophied left ventricular myocardium)SpecialtyCardiologySymptomsFever, multiple painful joints, involuntary muscle movements, erythema marginatumComplicationsRheumatic heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, infection of the valvesUsual onset2–4 weeks after a streptococcal throat infection, age 5–14 yearsCausesAutoimmune disease triggered by pathogenic strains of StreptococcusRisk factorsGenetic factors, malnutrition and poverty.Diagnostic methodBased on symptoms and infection historyPreventionPrompt antibiotics for Streptococcus infections, improved sanitationTreatmentProlonged periods of antibiotics, valve replacement surgery, valve repairFrequency325,000 children a yearDeaths319,400 (2015) Rheumatic fever (RF) is an inflammatory disease that can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain. The disease typically develops two to four weeks after a streptococcal throat infection. Signs and symptoms include fever, multiple painful joints, involuntary muscle movements, and occasionally a characteristic non-itchy rash known as erythema marginatum. The heart is involved in about half of the cases. Damage to the heart valves, known as rheumatic heart disease (RHD), usually occurs after repeated attacks but can sometimes occur after one. The damaged valves may result in heart failure, atrial fibrillation and infection of the valves. Rheumatic fever may occur following an infection of the throat by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes. If the infection is left untreated, rheumatic fever occurs in up to three percent of people. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve the production of antibodies against a person's own tissues. Due to their genetics, some people are more likely to get the disease when exposed to the bacteria than others. Other risk factors include malnutrition and poverty. Diagnosis of RF is often based on the presence of signs and symptoms in combination with evidence of a recent streptococcal infection. Treating people who have strep throat with antibiotics, such as penicillin, decreases the risk of developing rheumatic fever. In order to avoid antibiotic misuse this often involves testing people with sore throats for the infection; however, testing might not be available in the developing world. Other preventive measures include improved sanitation. In those with rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease, prolonged periods of antibiotics are sometimes recommended. Gradual return to normal activities may occur following an attack. Once RHD develops, treatment is more difficult. Occasionally valve replacement surgery or valve repair is required. Otherwise complications are treated as usual. Rheumatic fever occurs in about 325,000 children each year and about 33.4 million people currently have rheumatic heart disease. Those who develop RF are most often between the ages of 5 and 14, with 20% of first-time attacks occurring in adults. The disease is most common in the developing world and among indigenous peoples in the developed world. In 2015 it resulted in 319,400 deaths down from 374,000 deaths in 1990. Most deaths occur in the developing world where as many as 12.5% of people affected may die each year. Descriptions of the condition are believed to date back to at least the 5th century BCE in the writings of Hippocrates. The disease is so named because its symptoms are similar to those of some rheumatic disorders. Signs and symptoms A culture-positive case of streptococcal pharyngitis with typical tonsillar exudate in a 16-year-old The disease typically develops two to four weeks after a throat infection. Symptoms include: fever, painful joints with those joints affected changing with time, involuntary muscle movements, and occasionally a characteristic non-itchy rash known as erythema marginatum. The heart is involved in about half of the cases. Damage to the heart valves usually occurs only after several attacks but may occasionally occur after a single case of RF. The damaged valves may result in heart failure and also increase the risk of atrial fibrillation and infection of the valves. Pathophysiology Rheumatic fever is a systemic disease affecting the connective tissue around arterioles, and can occur after an untreated strep throat infection, specifically due to group A streptococcus (GAS), Streptococcus pyogenes. The similarity between antigens of Streptococcus pyogenes and multiple cardiac proteins can cause a life-threatening type II hypersensitivity reaction. Usually, self reactive B cells remain anergic in the periphery without T cell co-stimulation. During a streptococcal infection, mature antigen-presenting cells such as B cells present the bacterial antigen to CD4+T cells which differentiate into helper T2 cells. Helper T2 cells subsequently activate the B cells to become plasma cells and induce the production of antibodies against the cell wall of Streptococcus. However the antibodies may also react against the myocardium and joints, producing the symptoms of rheumatic fever. S. pyogenes is a species of aerobic, cocci, gram-positive bacteria that are non-motile, non-spore forming, and forms chains and large colonies. S. pyogenes has a cell wall composed of branched polymers which sometimes contain M protein, a virulence factor that is highly antigenic. The antibodies which the immune system generates against the M protein may cross-react with heart muscle cell protein myosin, heart muscle glycogen and smooth muscle cells of arteries, inducing cytokine release and tissue destruction. However, the only proven cross-reaction is with perivascular connective tissue. This inflammation occurs through direct attachment of complement and Fc receptor-mediated recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages. Characteristic Aschoff bodies, composed of swollen eosinophilic collagen surrounded by lymphocytes and macrophages can be seen on light microscopy. The larger macrophages may become Anitschkow cells or Aschoff giant cells. Rheumatic valvular lesions may also involve a cell-mediated immunity reaction as these lesions predominantly contain T-helper cells and macrophages. In rheumatic fever, these lesions can be found in any layer of the heart causing different types of carditis. The inflammation may cause a serofibrinous pericardial exudate described as "bread-and-butter" pericarditis, which usually resolves without sequelae. Involvement of the endocardium typically results in fibrinoid necrosis and wart formation along the lines of closure of the left-sided heart valves. Warty projections arise from the deposition, while subendocardial lesions may induce irregular thickenings called MacCallum plaques. Rheumatic heart disease Pathophysiology of rheumatic heart disease Micrograph showing an Aschoff body (right of image), as seen in rheumatic heart disease. H&E stain Chronic rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is characterized by repeated inflammation with fibrinous repair. The cardinal anatomic changes of the valve include leaflet thickening, commissural fusion, and shortening and thickening of the tendinous cords. It is caused by an autoimmune reaction to Group A β-hemolytic streptococci (GAS) that results in valvular damage. Fibrosis and scarring of valve leaflets, commissures and cusps leads to abnormalities that can result in valve stenosis or regurgitation. The inflammation caused by rheumatic fever, usually during childhood, is referred to as rheumatic valvulitis. About half of patients with rheumatic fever develop inflammation involving valvular endothelium. The majority of morbidity and mortality associated with rheumatic fever is caused by its destructive effects on cardiac valve tissue. The complicated pathogenesis of RHD is not fully understood, though it has been observed to use molecular mimicry via group A streptococci carbohydrates and genetic predisposition involving HLA Class II genes that trigger autoimmune reactions. Molecular mimicry occurs when epitopes are shared between host antigens and Streptococcus antigens. This causes an autoimmune reaction against native tissues in the heart that are incorrectly recognized as "foreign" due to the cross-reactivity of antibodies generated as a result of epitope sharing. The valvular endothelium is a prominent site of lymphocyte-induced damage. CD4+ T cells are the major effectors of heart tissue autoimmune reactions in RHD. Normally, T cell activation is triggered by the presentation of bacterial antigens. In RHD, molecular mimicry results in incorrect T cell activation, and these T lymphocytes can go on to activate B cells, which will begin to produce self-antigen-specific antibodies. This leads to an immune response attack mounted against tissues in the heart that have been misidentified as pathogens. Rheumatic valves display increased expression of VCAM-1, a protein that mediates the adhesion of lymphocytes. Self-antigen-specific antibodies generated via molecular mimicry between human proteins and streptococcal antigens up-regulate VCAM-1 after binding to the valvular endothelium. This leads to the inflammation and valve scarring observed in rheumatic valvulitis, mainly due to CD4+ T cell infiltration. While the mechanisms of genetic predisposition remain unclear, a few genetic factors have been found to increase susceptibility to autoimmune reactions in RHD. The dominant contributors are a component of MHC class II molecules, found on lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells, specifically the DR and DQ alleles on human chromosome 6. Certain allele combinations appear to increase RHD autoimmune susceptibility. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II allele DR7 (HLA-DR7) is most often associated with RHD, and its combination with certain DQ alleles is seemingly associated with the development of valvular lesions. The mechanism by which MHC class II molecules increase a host's susceptibility to autoimmune reactions in RHD is unknown, but it is likely related to the role HLA molecules play in presenting antigens to T cell receptors, thus triggering an immune response. Also found on human chromosome 6 is the cytokine TNF-α which is also associated with RHD. High expression levels of TNF-α may exacerbate valvular tissue inflammation, because as this cytokine circulates in the bloodstream, it triggers the activation of multiple pathways that stimulate further pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is an inflammatory protein involved in pathogen recognition. Different variants of MBL2 gene regions are associated with RHD. RHD-induced mitral valve stenosis has been associated with MBL2 alleles encoding for high production of MBL. Aortic valve regurgitation in RHD patients has been associated with different MBL2 alleles that encode for low production of MBL. In addition, the allele IGHV4-61, located on chromosome 14, which helps code for the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) is linked to greater susceptibility to RHD because it may affect protein structure of the IgH. Other genes are also being investigated to better understand the complexity of autoimmune reactions that occur in RHD. Diagnosis Synovial fluid examination Type WBC (per mm3) % neutrophils Viscosity Appearance Normal <200 0 High Transparent Osteoarthritis <5000 <25 High Clear yellow Trauma <10,000 <50 Variable Bloody Inflammatory 2,000–50,000 50–80 Low Cloudy yellow Septic arthritis >50,000 >75 Low Cloudy yellow Gonorrhea ~10,000 60 Low Cloudy yellow Tuberculosis ~20,000 70 Low Cloudy yellow Inflammatory: Arthritis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria (Pappenheim's stain), the trigger for rheumatic fever The original method of diagnosing rheumatic heart disease was through heart auscultation, specifically listening for the sound of blood regurgitation from possibly dysfunctional valves. However, studies have shown that echocardiography is much more efficient in detecting RHD due to its high sensitivity. An echocardiogram has the ability to detect signs of RHD before the development of more obvious symptoms such as tissue scarring and stenosis. Modified Jones criteria were first published in 1944 by T. Duckett Jones, MD. They have been periodically revised by the American Heart Association in collaboration with other groups. According to revised Jones criteria, the diagnosis of rheumatic fever can be made when two of the major criteria, or one major criterion plus two minor criteria, are present along with evidence of streptococcal infection: elevated or rising antistreptolysin O titre or anti-DNase B. A recurrent episode can be diagnosed when three minor criteria are present. Exceptions are chorea and indolent carditis, each of which by itself can indicate rheumatic fever. An April 2013 review article in the Indian Journal of Medical Research stated that echocardiographic and Doppler (E & D) studies, despite some reservations about their utility, have identified a massive burden of rheumatic heart disease, which suggests the inadequacy of the 1992 Jones' criteria. E & D studies have identified subclinical carditis in patients with rheumatic fever, as well as in follow-ups of rheumatic heart disease patients who initially presented as having isolated cases of Sydenham's chorea. Signs of a preceding streptococcal infection include: recent scarlet fever, raised antistreptolysin O or other streptococcal antibody titre, or positive throat culture. The last revision of 2015 suggested variable diagnostic criteria in low-risk and high-risk populations to avoid overdiagnosis in the first category and underdiagnosis in the last one. Low-risk populations were defined as those with acute rheumatic fever annual incidence ≤2 per 100 000 school-aged children or all-age rheumatic heart disease prevalence of ≤1 per 1000. All other populations were categorised as having a moderate or high risk. Major criteria Joint manifestations are the unique clinical signs that have different implications for different population-risk categories : Only polyarthritis (a temporary migrating inflammation of the large joints, usually starting in the legs and migrating upwards) is considered as a major criterion in low-risk populations, whereas monoarthritis, polyarthritis and polyarthralgia (joint pain without swelling) are all included as major criteria in high-risk populations. Carditis: Carditis can involve the pericardium (pericarditis which resolves without sequelae), some regions of the myocardium (which might not provoke systolic dysfunction), and more consistently the endocardium in the form of valvulitis. Carditis is diagnosed clinically (palpitations, shortness of breath, heart failure, or a new heart murmur) or by echocardiography/Doppler studies revealing mitral or aortic valvulitis. Both of clinical and subclinical carditis are now considered a major criterion. Subcutaneous nodules: Painless, firm collections of collagen fibers over bones or tendons. They commonly appear on the back of the wrist, the outside elbow, and the front of the knees. Erythema marginatum: A long-lasting reddish rash that begins on the trunk or arms as macules, which spread outward and clear in the middle to form rings, which continue to spread and coalesce with other rings, ultimately taking on a snake-like appearance. This rash typically spares the face and is made worse with heat. Sydenham's chorea (St. Vitus' dance): A characteristic series of involuntary rapid movements of the face and arms. This can occur very late in the disease for at least three months from onset of infection. Minor criteria Arthralgia: Polyarthralgia in low-risk populations and monoarthralgia in others. However, joint manifestations cannot be considered in both major and minor categories in the same patient. Fever: ≥ 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in low-incidence populations and ≥ 38 °C (100.4 °F) in high-risk populations. Raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate (≥60 mm in the first hour in lox-risk populations and ≥30 mm/h in others) or C reactive protein (>3.0 mg/dL). ECG showing a prolonged PR interval after accounting for age variability (Cannot be included if carditis is present as a major symptom) Prevention Rheumatic fever can be prevented by effectively and promptly treating strep throat with antibiotics. Globally, rheumatic fever is seen in populations that are socioeconomically disadvantaged and with limited access to health care. Overcrowding and exposure to domestic air pollution have been cited as associated risk factors. In those who have previously had rheumatic fever, antibiotics may be used in a preventative manner as secondary prophylaxis. Antibiotic prophylaxis after an episode of acute rheumatic fever is recommended owing to the high likelihood of recurrence. Streptococcal pharyngitis may occur asymptomatically and rheumatic fever may recur even after a treated infection. The American Heart Association recommends, based on low quality evidence but with high predicted efficacy, that people with mitral stenosis due to rheumatic heart disease receive prophylactic antibiotics for 10 years or until age 40, whichever would be longer. The AHA also supports good dental hygiene in people with RHD, and antibiotics for the prevention of infective endocarditis during dental procedures are recommended in high-risk patients. Vaccine No vaccines are currently available to protect against S. pyogenes infection, although research is underway to develop one. Difficulties in developing a vaccine include the wide variety of strains of S. pyogenes present in the environment and the large amount of time and number of people that will be needed for appropriate trials for safety and efficacy of the vaccine. Treatment The management of rheumatic fever is directed toward the reduction of inflammation with anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin or corticosteroids. Individuals with positive cultures for strep throat should also be treated with antibiotics. Infection People with positive cultures for Streptococcus pyogenes should be treated with penicillin as long as allergy is not present. The use of antibiotics will not alter cardiac involvement in the development of rheumatic fever. Some suggest the use of benzathine benzylpenicillin. Monthly injections of long-acting penicillin must be given for a period of five years in patients having one attack of rheumatic fever. If there is evidence of carditis, the length of therapy may be up to 40 years. Another important cornerstone in treating rheumatic fever includes the continual use of low-dose antibiotics (such as penicillin, sulfadiazine, or erythromycin) to prevent recurrence. Inflammation Aspirin at high doses has historically been used for treatment of rheumatic fever. However, due to side effects like gastritis and salicylate poisoning, necessitating serum monitoring of salicylate levels, and the risk of Reye syndrome, a serious and potentially deadly condition that may arise in children treated with aspirin or aspirin-containing products, alternatives to aspirin have been sought, especially in children. While evidence suggests that treatment of rheumatic fever–associated arthritis with naproxen may be equally effective as with aspirin, its role in managing carditis has not been established. Management of carditis in acute rheumatic fever is controversial and based on dated literature. Corticosteroids may be considered, especially in people with allergies to NSAIDs or severe disease, although use of steroids may cause tissue atrophy, which could present challenges during future cardiac surgery for valve repair. Heart failure Some patients develop significant carditis which manifests as congestive heart failure. This requires the usual treatment for heart failure: ACE inhibitors, diuretics, beta blockers, and digoxin. Unlike typical heart failure, rheumatic heart failure responds well to corticosteroids. Epidemiology Deaths from rheumatic heart disease per million persons in 2012   0–7  8–14  15–20  21–25  26–32  33–38  39–45  46–52  53–63  64–250 Disability-adjusted life year for rheumatic heart disease per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.   no data   less than 20   20–40   40–60   60–80   80–100   100–120   120–140   140–160   160–180   180–200   200–330   more than 330 About 33 million people are affected by rheumatic heart disease with an additional 47 million having asymptomatic damage to their heart valves. As of 2010 globally it resulted in 345,000 deaths, down from 463,000 in 1990. In Western countries, rheumatic fever has become fairly rare since the 1960s, probably due to the widespread use of antibiotics to treat streptococcus infections. While it has been far less common in the United States since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been a few outbreaks since the 1980s. The disease is most common among Indigenous Australians (particularly in central and northern Australia), Māori, and Pacific Islanders, and is also common in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, the Indian subcontinent, and North Africa. Rheumatic fever primarily affects children between ages 5 and 17 years and occurs approximately 20 days after strep throat. In up to a third of cases, the underlying strep infection may not have caused any symptoms. The rate of development of rheumatic fever in individuals with untreated strep infection is estimated to be 3%. The incidence of recurrence with a subsequent untreated infection is substantially greater (about 50%). The rate of development is far lower in individuals who have received antibiotic treatment. Persons who have had a case of rheumatic fever have a tendency to develop flare-ups with repeated strep infections. The recurrence of rheumatic fever is relatively common in the absence of maintenance of low dose antibiotics, especially during the first three to five years after the first episode. Recurrent bouts of rheumatic fever can lead to valvular heart disease. Heart complications may be long-term and severe, particularly if valves are involved. In countries in Southeast-Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Oceania, the percentage of people with rheumatic heart disease detected by listening to the heart was 2.9 per 1000 children and by echocardiography it was 12.9 per 1000 children. To assist in the identification of RHD in low resource settings and where prevalence of GAS infections is high, the World Heart Federation has developed criteria for RHD diagnosis using echocardiography, supported by clinical history if available. The WHF additionally defines criteria for use in people younger than age 20 to diagnose "borderline" RHD, as identification of cases of RHD among children is a priority to prevent complications and progression. However, spontaneous regression is more likely in borderline RHD than in definite cases, and its natural history may vary between populations. Echocardiographic screening among children and timely initiation of secondary antibiotic prophylaxis in children with evidence of early stages of rheumatic heart disease may be effective to reduce the burden of rheumatic heart disease in endemic regions. 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PMID 25433627. ^ Shrestha NR, Karki P, Mahto R, et al. (2 March 2016). "Prevalence of subclinical rheumatic heart disease in eastern nepal: A school-based cross-sectional study". JAMA Cardiology. 1 (1): 89–96. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2015.0292. ISSN 2380-6583. PMID 27437661. ^ Beaton A, Okello E, Lwabi P, Mondo C, McCarter R, Sable C (26 June 2012). "Echocardiography screening for rheumatic heart disease in Ugandan schoolchildren". Circulation. 125 (25): 3127–3132. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.092312. ISSN 1524-4539. PMID 22626741. ^ Reményi B, Wilson N, Steer A, Ferreira B, Kado J, Kumar K, Lawrenson J, Maguire G, Marijon E, Mirabel M, Mocumbi AO, Mota C, Paar J, Saxena A, Scheel J, Stirling J, Viali S, Balekundri VI, Wheaton G, Zühlke L, Carapetis J (2012). "World Heart Federation criteria for echocardiographic diagnosis of rheumatic heart disease—an evidence-based guideline". Nature Reviews Cardiology. 9 (5): 297–309. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2012.7. PMC 5523449. PMID 22371105. ^ Karki P, Uranw S, Bastola S, Mahato R, Shrestha NR, Sherpa K, et al. (2021). "Effectiveness of Systematic Echocardiographic Screening for Rheumatic Heart Disease in Nepalese Schoolchildren: A Cluster Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA Cardiology. 6 (4): 420–426. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2020.7050. ISSN 2380-6583. PMC 7818193. PMID 33471029. ^ a b Beaton A, Okello E, Rwebembera J, Grobler A, Engelman D, Alepere J, et al. (2022). "Secondary Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Latent Rheumatic Heart Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 386 (3): 230–240. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2102074. PMID 34767321. ^ Grahame M, Mitchell AB, Scott JT (1970). "Chronic post-rheumatic fever (Jaccoud's) arthropathy". Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 29 (6): 622–625. doi:10.1136/ard.29.6.622. PMC 1010593. PMID 5496065. External links "Jones major criteria". Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. ClassificationDICD-10: I00-I02ICD-9-CM: 390–392MeSH: D012213DiseasesDB: 11487External resourcesMedlinePlus: 003940eMedicine: med/3435 med/2922 emerg/509 ped/2006Patient UK: Rheumatic fever vte Bacillota (low-G+C) Infectious diseases Bacterial diseases: G+ BacilliLactobacillales(Cat-)Streptococcusαoptochin susceptible S. pneumoniae Pneumococcal infection optochin resistant Viridans streptococci: S. mitis S. mutans S. oralis S. sanguinis S. sobrinus S. anginosus group βA bacitracin susceptible: S. pyogenes Group A streptococcal infection Streptococcal pharyngitis Scarlet fever Erysipelas Rheumatic fever B bacitracin resistant, CAMP test+: S. agalactiae Group B streptococcal infection ungrouped Streptococcus iniae Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection γ D BEA+: Streptococcus bovis Enterococcus BEA+: Enterococcus faecalis Urinary tract infection Enterococcus faecium Bacillales(Cat+)StaphylococcusCg+ S. aureus Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome Toxic shock syndrome MRSA Cg- novobiocin susceptible S. epidermidis novobiocin resistant S. saprophyticus Bacillus Bacillus anthracis Anthrax Bacillus cereus Food poisoning Listeria Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis ClostridiaClostridium (spore-forming)motile: Clostridium botulinum Botulism Clostridium tetani Tetanus nonmotile: Clostridium perfringens Gas gangrene Clostridial necrotizing enteritis Clostridioides (spore-forming) Clostridioides difficile Pseudomembranous colitis Finegoldia (non-spore forming) Finegoldia magna MollicutesMycoplasmataceae Ureaplasma urealyticum Ureaplasma infection Mycoplasma genitalium Mycoplasma pneumoniae Mycoplasma pneumonia Anaeroplasmatales Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Erysipeloid vteCardiovascular disease (heart)IschemiaCoronary disease Coronary artery disease (CAD) Coronary artery aneurysm Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) Coronary thrombosis Coronary vasospasm Myocardial bridge Active ischemia Angina pectoris Prinzmetal's angina Stable angina Acute coronary syndrome Myocardial infarction Unstable angina Sequelae hours Hibernating myocardium Myocardial stunning days Myocardial rupture weeks Ventricular aneurysm Dressler syndrome LayersPericardium Pericarditis Acute Chronic / Constrictive Pericardial effusion Cardiac tamponade Hemopericardium Myocardium Myocarditis Chagas disease Cardiomyopathy Dilated Alcoholic Hypertrophic Tachycardia-induced Restrictive Loeffler endocarditis Cardiac amyloidosis Endocardial fibroelastosis Viral Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia Endocardium / valvesEndocarditis infective endocarditis Subacute bacterial endocarditis non-infective endocarditis Libman–Sacks endocarditis Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis Valves mitral prolapse stenosis regurgitation aortic stenosis regurgitation tricuspid stenosis regurgitation pulmonary stenosis regurgitation Conduction / arrhythmiaBradycardia Sinus bradycardia Sick sinus syndrome Heart block: Sinoatrial AV 1° 2° 3° Intraventricular Bundle branch block Right Left Left anterior fascicle Left posterior fascicle Bifascicular Trifascicular Adams–Stokes syndrome Tachycardia (paroxysmal and sinus)Supraventricular Atrial Multifocal Junctional AV nodal reentrant Junctional ectopic Ventricular Accelerated idioventricular rhythm Catecholaminergic polymorphic Torsades de pointes Premature contraction Atrial Junctional Ventricular Pre-excitation syndrome Lown–Ganong–Levine Wolff–Parkinson–White Flutter / fibrillation Atrial flutter Ventricular flutter Atrial fibrillation Familial Ventricular fibrillation Pacemaker Ectopic pacemaker / Ectopic beat Multifocal atrial tachycardia Pacemaker syndrome Parasystole Wandering atrial pacemaker Long QT syndrome Andersen–Tawil Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Romano–Ward Cardiac arrest Sudden cardiac death Asystole Pulseless electrical activity Sinoatrial arrest Other / ungrouped hexaxial reference system Right axis deviation Left axis deviation QT Short QT syndrome T T wave alternans ST J wave ST elevation ST depression Strain pattern Cardiomegaly Ventricular hypertrophy Left Right Pulmonary Atrial enlargement Left Right Athletic heart syndrome Other Cardiac fibrosis Heart failure Diastolic heart failure Cardiac asthma Rheumatic fever Obstructive shock vteHypersensitivity and autoimmune diseasesType I/allergy/atopy(IgE)Foreign Atopic dermatitis Allergic urticaria Allergic rhinitis (Hay fever) Allergic asthma Anaphylaxis Food allergy common allergies include: Milk Egg Peanut Tree nut Seafood Soy Wheat Penicillin allergy Autoimmune Autoimmune urticaria Eosinophilic esophagitis Type II/ADCC IgM IgGForeign Hemolytic disease of the newborn AutoimmuneCytotoxic Autoimmune hemolytic anemia Immune thrombocytopenic purpura Bullous pemphigoid Pemphigus vulgaris Rheumatic fever Goodpasture syndrome Guillain–Barré syndrome "Type V"/receptor Graves' disease Myasthenia gravis Pernicious anemia Type III(Immune complex)Foreign Henoch–Schönlein purpura Hypersensitivity vasculitis Reactive arthritis Farmer's lung Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis Serum sickness Arthus reaction Autoimmune Lupus Subacute bacterial endocarditis Rheumatoid arthritis Type IV/cell-mediated(T cells)Foreign Allergic contact dermatitis Mantoux test Autoimmune Type 1 diabetes Hashimoto's thyroiditis Multiple sclerosis Coeliac disease Giant cell arteritis Postorgasmic illness syndrome Reactive arthritis GVHD Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease Unknown/multipleForeign Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis Transplant rejection Latex allergy (I+IV) Autoimmune Sjögren syndrome Autoimmune hepatitis Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome APS1 APS2 Autoimmune adrenalitis Systemic autoimmune disease Authority control databases: National Germany Israel Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inflammatory disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#Disorders"},{"link_name":"heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart"},{"link_name":"joints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint"},{"link_name":"skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"streptococcal throat infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee2012-2"},{"link_name":"fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"painful joints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia"},{"link_name":"involuntary muscle movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorea"},{"link_name":"itchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itch"},{"link_name":"erythema marginatum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythema_marginatum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"rheumatic heart disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease#Inflammatory_disorders"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"heart failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_failure"},{"link_name":"atrial fibrillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation"},{"link_name":"infection of the valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"Streptococcus pyogenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"antibodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"malnutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2015Def-3"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"penicillin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sp2021-4"},{"link_name":"antibiotic misuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse"},{"link_name":"sore throats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sore_throat"},{"link_name":"developing world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_world"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"preventive measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare"},{"link_name":"sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"valve replacement surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve_replacement"},{"link_name":"valve repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_valve_repair"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robbins-8"},{"link_name":"developing world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_world"},{"link_name":"indigenous peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_people"},{"link_name":"developed world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_world"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBD2015De-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GDB2013-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"},{"link_name":"Hippocrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"rheumatic disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatic_disorders"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Medical conditionRheumatic fever (RF) is an inflammatory disease that can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain.[1] The disease typically develops two to four weeks after a streptococcal throat infection.[2] Signs and symptoms include fever, multiple painful joints, involuntary muscle movements, and occasionally a characteristic non-itchy rash known as erythema marginatum.[1] The heart is involved in about half of the cases.[1] Damage to the heart valves, known as rheumatic heart disease (RHD), usually occurs after repeated attacks but can sometimes occur after one.[1] The damaged valves may result in heart failure, atrial fibrillation and infection of the valves.[1]Rheumatic fever may occur following an infection of the throat by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes.[1] If the infection is left untreated, rheumatic fever occurs in up to three percent of people.[6] The underlying mechanism is believed to involve the production of antibodies against a person's own tissues.[1] Due to their genetics, some people are more likely to get the disease when exposed to the bacteria than others.[1] Other risk factors include malnutrition and poverty.[1] Diagnosis of RF is often based on the presence of signs and symptoms in combination with evidence of a recent streptococcal infection.[3]Treating people who have strep throat with antibiotics, such as penicillin, decreases the risk of developing rheumatic fever.[4] In order to avoid antibiotic misuse this often involves testing people with sore throats for the infection; however, testing might not be available in the developing world.[1] Other preventive measures include improved sanitation.[1] In those with rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease, prolonged periods of antibiotics are sometimes recommended.[1] Gradual return to normal activities may occur following an attack.[1] Once RHD develops, treatment is more difficult.[1] Occasionally valve replacement surgery or valve repair is required.[1] Otherwise complications are treated as usual.[1]Rheumatic fever occurs in about 325,000 children each year and about 33.4 million people currently have rheumatic heart disease.[1][7] Those who develop RF are most often between the ages of 5 and 14,[1] with 20% of first-time attacks occurring in adults.[8] The disease is most common in the developing world and among indigenous peoples in the developed world.[1] In 2015 it resulted in 319,400 deaths down from 374,000 deaths in 1990.[5][9] Most deaths occur in the developing world where as many as 12.5% of people affected may die each year.[1] Descriptions of the condition are believed to date back to at least the 5th century BCE in the writings of Hippocrates.[10] The disease is so named because its symptoms are similar to those of some rheumatic disorders.[11]","title":"Rheumatic fever"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pos_strep.JPG"},{"link_name":"streptococcal pharyngitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis"},{"link_name":"throat infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strep_throat"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee2012-2"},{"link_name":"involuntary muscle movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorea"},{"link_name":"erythema marginatum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythema_marginatum"},{"link_name":"heart failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_failure"},{"link_name":"atrial fibrillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation"},{"link_name":"infection of the valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lancet2012-1"}],"text":"A culture-positive case of streptococcal pharyngitis with typical tonsillar exudate in a 16-year-oldThe disease typically develops two to four weeks after a throat infection.[2] Symptoms include: fever, painful joints with those joints affected changing with time, involuntary muscle movements, and occasionally a characteristic non-itchy rash known as erythema marginatum. The heart is involved in about half of the cases. Damage to the heart valves usually occurs only after several attacks but may occasionally occur after a single case of RF. The damaged valves may result in heart failure and also increase the risk of atrial fibrillation and infection of the valves.[1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"systemic disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_disease"},{"link_name":"connective tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue"},{"link_name":"arterioles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriole"},{"link_name":"strep throat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis"},{"link_name":"group A streptococcus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus#Group_A"},{"link_name":"Streptococcus pyogenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes"},{"link_name":"Streptococcus pyogenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes"},{"link_name":"type II hypersensitivity reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_hypersensitivity_reaction"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"B cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_cell"},{"link_name":"anergic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonal_anergy"},{"link_name":"T cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_cell"},{"link_name":"antigen-presenting cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell"},{"link_name":"CD4+T cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD4%2B_T_cells_and_antitumor_immunity"},{"link_name":"helper T2 cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_helper_cell#Determination_of_the_effector_T_cell_response"},{"link_name":"plasma cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cell"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"aerobic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_organism"},{"link_name":"cocci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccus"},{"link_name":"gram-positive bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria"},{"link_name":"spore forming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_spore"},{"link_name":"colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"cell wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure#Cell_wall"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymers"},{"link_name":"M protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_protein_(Streptococcus)"},{"link_name":"virulence factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulence_factor"},{"link_name":"antigenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic"},{"link_name":"heart muscle cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_muscle_cell"},{"link_name":"myosin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myosin"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"glycogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen"},{"link_name":"cytokine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine"},{"link_name":"connective tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Fc receptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fc_receptor"},{"link_name":"Aschoff bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aschoff_body"},{"link_name":"eosinophilic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophilic"},{"link_name":"collagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagen"},{"link_name":"Anitschkow cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anitschkow_cell"},{"link_name":"Aschoff giant cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aschoff_cell"},{"link_name":"cell-mediated immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity"},{"link_name":"T-helper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-helper"},{"link_name":"macrophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophages"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RobbinsPath-16"},{"link_name":"carditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carditis"},{"link_name":"pericarditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericarditis"},{"link_name":"fibrinoid necrosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis"},{"link_name":"wart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wart"},{"link_name":"MacCallum plaques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacCallum_plaques"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Rheumatic fever is a systemic disease affecting the connective tissue around arterioles, and can occur after an untreated strep throat infection, specifically due to group A streptococcus (GAS), Streptococcus pyogenes. The similarity between antigens of Streptococcus pyogenes and multiple cardiac proteins can cause a life-threatening type II hypersensitivity reaction.[12] Usually, self reactive B cells remain anergic in the periphery without T cell co-stimulation. During a streptococcal infection, mature antigen-presenting cells such as B cells present the bacterial antigen to CD4+T cells which differentiate into helper T2 cells. Helper T2 cells subsequently activate the B cells to become plasma cells and induce the production of antibodies against the cell wall of Streptococcus. However the antibodies may also react against the myocardium and joints,[13] producing the symptoms of rheumatic fever. S. pyogenes is a species of aerobic, cocci, gram-positive bacteria that are non-motile, non-spore forming, and forms chains and large colonies.[14]S. pyogenes has a cell wall composed of branched polymers which sometimes contain M protein, a virulence factor that is highly antigenic. The antibodies which the immune system generates against the M protein may cross-react with heart muscle cell protein myosin,[15] heart muscle glycogen and smooth muscle cells of arteries, inducing cytokine release and tissue destruction. However, the only proven cross-reaction is with perivascular connective tissue.[citation needed] This inflammation occurs through direct attachment of complement and Fc receptor-mediated recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages. Characteristic Aschoff bodies, composed of swollen eosinophilic collagen surrounded by lymphocytes and macrophages can be seen on light microscopy. The larger macrophages may become Anitschkow cells or Aschoff giant cells. Rheumatic valvular lesions may also involve a cell-mediated immunity reaction as these lesions predominantly contain T-helper cells and macrophages.[16]In rheumatic fever, these lesions can be found in any layer of the heart causing different types of carditis. The inflammation may cause a serofibrinous pericardial exudate described as \"bread-and-butter\" pericarditis, which usually resolves without sequelae. Involvement of the endocardium typically results in fibrinoid necrosis and wart formation along the lines of closure of the left-sided heart valves. Warty projections arise from the deposition, while subendocardial lesions may induce irregular thickenings called MacCallum plaques.[citation needed]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rheum.heart.disease.jpeg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rheumatic_heart_disease_-_3a_-_very_high_mag.jpg"},{"link_name":"Micrograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph"},{"link_name":"Aschoff body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aschoff_body"},{"link_name":"H&E stain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%26E_stain"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RobbinsPath-16"},{"link_name":"streptococci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococci"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"commissures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissure"},{"link_name":"cusps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cusps_of_heart_valves"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-essential-18"},{"link_name":"endothelium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelium"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-essential-18"},{"link_name":"molecular mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_mimicry"},{"link_name":"genetic predisposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_predisposition"},{"link_name":"autoimmune reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_reaction"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"epitopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitope"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"CD4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD4"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"B cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_cell"},{"link_name":"VCAM-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VCAM-1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roberts-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roberts-23"},{"link_name":"MHC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex"},{"link_name":"DR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLA-DR"},{"link_name":"DQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLA-DQ"},{"link_name":"human chromosome 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome_6_(human)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanevicha-24"},{"link_name":"Human leukocyte antigen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_leukocyte_antigen"},{"link_name":"HLA-DR7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLA-DR7"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanevicha-24"},{"link_name":"TNF-α","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor-alpha"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanevicha-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Mannose-binding lectin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannose-binding_lectin"},{"link_name":"MBL2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBL2"},{"link_name":"mitral valve stenosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitral_valve_stenosis"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Rheumatic heart disease","text":"Pathophysiology of rheumatic heart diseaseMicrograph showing an Aschoff body (right of image), as seen in rheumatic heart disease. H&E stainChronic rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is characterized by repeated inflammation with fibrinous repair. The cardinal anatomic changes of the valve include leaflet thickening, commissural fusion, and shortening and thickening of the tendinous cords.[16] It is caused by an autoimmune reaction to Group A β-hemolytic streptococci (GAS) that results in valvular damage.[17] Fibrosis and scarring of valve leaflets, commissures and cusps leads to abnormalities that can result in valve stenosis or regurgitation.[18] The inflammation caused by rheumatic fever, usually during childhood, is referred to as rheumatic valvulitis. About half of patients with rheumatic fever develop inflammation involving valvular endothelium.[19] The majority of morbidity and mortality associated with rheumatic fever is caused by its destructive effects on cardiac valve tissue.[18] The complicated pathogenesis of RHD is not fully understood, though it has been observed to use molecular mimicry via group A streptococci carbohydrates and genetic predisposition involving HLA Class II genes that trigger autoimmune reactions.[20]Molecular mimicry occurs when epitopes are shared between host antigens and Streptococcus antigens.[21] This causes an autoimmune reaction against native tissues in the heart that are incorrectly recognized as \"foreign\" due to the cross-reactivity of antibodies generated as a result of epitope sharing. The valvular endothelium is a prominent site of lymphocyte-induced damage. CD4+ T cells are the major effectors of heart tissue autoimmune reactions in RHD.[22] Normally, T cell activation is triggered by the presentation of bacterial antigens. In RHD, molecular mimicry results in incorrect T cell activation, and these T lymphocytes can go on to activate B cells, which will begin to produce self-antigen-specific antibodies. This leads to an immune response attack mounted against tissues in the heart that have been misidentified as pathogens. Rheumatic valves display increased expression of VCAM-1, a protein that mediates the adhesion of lymphocytes.[23] Self-antigen-specific antibodies generated via molecular mimicry between human proteins and streptococcal antigens up-regulate VCAM-1 after binding to the valvular endothelium. This leads to the inflammation and valve scarring observed in rheumatic valvulitis, mainly due to CD4+ T cell infiltration.[23]While the mechanisms of genetic predisposition remain unclear, a few genetic factors have been found to increase susceptibility to autoimmune reactions in RHD. The dominant contributors are a component of MHC class II molecules, found on lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells, specifically the DR and DQ alleles on human chromosome 6.[24] Certain allele combinations appear to increase RHD autoimmune susceptibility. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II allele DR7 (HLA-DR7) is most often associated with RHD, and its combination with certain DQ alleles is seemingly associated with the development of valvular lesions.[24] The mechanism by which MHC class II molecules increase a host's susceptibility to autoimmune reactions in RHD is unknown, but it is likely related to the role HLA molecules play in presenting antigens to T cell receptors, thus triggering an immune response. Also found on human chromosome 6 is the cytokine TNF-α which is also associated with RHD.[24] High expression levels of TNF-α may exacerbate valvular tissue inflammation, because as this cytokine circulates in the bloodstream, it triggers the activation of multiple pathways that stimulate further pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion.[25] Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is an inflammatory protein involved in pathogen recognition. Different variants of MBL2 gene regions are associated with RHD. RHD-induced mitral valve stenosis has been associated with MBL2 alleles encoding for high production of MBL.[26] Aortic valve regurgitation in RHD patients has been associated with different MBL2 alleles that encode for low production of MBL.[27] In addition, the allele IGHV4-61, located on chromosome 14, which helps code for the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) is linked to greater susceptibility to RHD because it may affect protein structure of the IgH.[28] Other genes are also being investigated to better understand the complexity of autoimmune reactions that occur in RHD.[citation needed]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Streptococcus pyogenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes"},{"link_name":"echocardiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echocardiography"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"T. Duckett Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._Duckett_Jones"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"American Heart Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heart_Association"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"antistreptolysin O titre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antistreptolysin_O_titre"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"anti-DNase B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-DNase_B"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robbins-8"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"chorea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorea_(disease)"},{"link_name":"indolent carditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indolent_carditis"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"scarlet fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_fever"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-davidson617-41"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"}],"text":"Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria (Pappenheim's stain), the trigger for rheumatic feverThe original method of diagnosing rheumatic heart disease was through heart auscultation, specifically listening for the sound of blood regurgitation from possibly dysfunctional valves. However, studies have shown that echocardiography is much more efficient in detecting RHD due to its high sensitivity. An echocardiogram has the ability to detect signs of RHD before the development of more obvious symptoms such as tissue scarring and stenosis.[31] Modified Jones criteria were first published in 1944 by T. Duckett Jones, MD.[32] They have been periodically revised by the American Heart Association in collaboration with other groups.[33][34] According to revised Jones criteria, the diagnosis of rheumatic fever can be made when two of the major criteria, or one major criterion plus two minor criteria, are present along with evidence of streptococcal infection: elevated or rising antistreptolysin O titre[35] or anti-DNase B.[8][36] A recurrent episode can be diagnosed when three minor criteria are present.[34] Exceptions are chorea and indolent carditis, each of which by itself can indicate rheumatic fever.[37][38][39] An April 2013 review article in the Indian Journal of Medical Research stated that echocardiographic and Doppler (E & D) studies, despite some reservations about their utility, have identified a massive burden of rheumatic heart disease, which suggests the inadequacy of the 1992 Jones' criteria. E & D studies have identified subclinical carditis in patients with rheumatic fever, as well as in follow-ups of rheumatic heart disease patients who initially presented as having isolated cases of Sydenham's chorea.[40] Signs of a preceding streptococcal infection include: recent scarlet fever, raised antistreptolysin O or other streptococcal antibody titre, or positive throat culture.[41] The last revision of 2015 suggested variable diagnostic criteria in low-risk and high-risk populations to avoid overdiagnosis in the first category and underdiagnosis in the last one.[34] Low-risk populations were defined as those with acute rheumatic fever annual incidence ≤2 per 100 000 school-aged children or all-age rheumatic heart disease prevalence of ≤1 per 1000.[34] All other populations were categorised as having a moderate or high risk.[34]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polyarthritis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyarthritis"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-42"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"Carditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carditis"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-43"},{"link_name":"heart murmur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_murmur"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-43"},{"link_name":"tendons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendons"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Erythema marginatum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythema_marginatum"},{"link_name":"rash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash"},{"link_name":"macules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macule"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sydenham's chorea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydenham%27s_chorea"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Arthralgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"Fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"erythrocyte sedimentation rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythrocyte_sedimentation_rate"},{"link_name":"C reactive protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_reactive_protein"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"ECG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiogram"},{"link_name":"PR interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PR_interval"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-davidson617-41"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Major criteria","text":"Joint manifestations are the unique clinical signs that have different implications for different population-risk categories : Only polyarthritis[42] (a temporary migrating inflammation of the large joints, usually starting in the legs and migrating upwards) is considered as a major criterion in low-risk populations, whereas monoarthritis, polyarthritis and polyarthralgia (joint pain without swelling) are all included as major criteria in high-risk populations.[34]\nCarditis: Carditis can involve the pericardium (pericarditis which resolves without sequelae), some regions of the myocardium (which might not provoke systolic dysfunction), and more consistently the endocardium in the form of valvulitis.[43] Carditis is diagnosed clinically (palpitations, shortness of breath, heart failure, or a new heart murmur) or by echocardiography/Doppler studies revealing mitral or aortic valvulitis. Both of clinical and subclinical carditis are now considered a major criterion.[34][43]\nSubcutaneous nodules: Painless, firm collections of collagen fibers over bones or tendons. They commonly appear on the back of the wrist, the outside elbow, and the front of the knees.[citation needed]\nErythema marginatum: A long-lasting reddish rash that begins on the trunk or arms as macules, which spread outward and clear in the middle to form rings, which continue to spread and coalesce with other rings, ultimately taking on a snake-like appearance. This rash typically spares the face and is made worse with heat.[citation needed]\nSydenham's chorea (St. Vitus' dance): A characteristic series of involuntary rapid movements of the face and arms. This can occur very late in the disease for at least three months from onset of infection.[citation needed]Minor criteriaArthralgia: Polyarthralgia in low-risk populations and monoarthralgia in others.[34] However, joint manifestations cannot be considered in both major and minor categories in the same patient.[34]\nFever: ≥ 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in low-incidence populations and ≥ 38 °C (100.4 °F) in high-risk populations.[34]\nRaised erythrocyte sedimentation rate (≥60 mm in the first hour in lox-risk populations and ≥30 mm/h in others) or C reactive protein (>3.0 mg/dL).[34]\nECG showing a prolonged PR interval[34][41][44] after accounting for age variability (Cannot be included if carditis is present as a major symptom)","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"strep throat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strep_throat"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ger2009-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nu2017-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nu2017-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phillips2017-47"},{"link_name":"domestic air pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_pollution"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phillips2017-47"},{"link_name":"secondary prophylaxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_prophylaxis"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ger2009-45"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chowdhury2023-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nishimura2014-49"},{"link_name":"American Heart Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heart_Association"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nishimura2014-49"},{"link_name":"infective endocarditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nishimura2014-49"}],"text":"Rheumatic fever can be prevented by effectively and promptly treating strep throat with antibiotics.[45] Globally, rheumatic fever is seen in populations that are socioeconomically disadvantaged and with limited access to health care.[46] Overcrowding[46][47] and exposure to domestic air pollution[47] have been cited as associated risk factors.In those who have previously had rheumatic fever, antibiotics may be used in a preventative manner as secondary prophylaxis.[45] Antibiotic prophylaxis after an episode of acute rheumatic fever is recommended owing to the high likelihood of recurrence.[48] Streptococcal pharyngitis may occur asymptomatically and rheumatic fever may recur even after a treated infection.[49] The American Heart Association recommends, based on low quality evidence but with high predicted efficacy, that people with mitral stenosis due to rheumatic heart disease receive prophylactic antibiotics for 10 years or until age 40, whichever would be longer.[49] The AHA also supports good dental hygiene in people with RHD, and antibiotics for the prevention of infective endocarditis during dental procedures are recommended in high-risk patients.[49]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sciencemediacentre.co.nz-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Vaccine","text":"No vaccines are currently available to protect against S. pyogenes infection, although research is underway to develop one.[50] Difficulties in developing a vaccine include the wide variety of strains of S. pyogenes present in the environment and the large amount of time and number of people that will be needed for appropriate trials for safety and efficacy of the vaccine.[51]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anti-inflammatory medications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-inflammatory_medication"},{"link_name":"aspirin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin"},{"link_name":"corticosteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-42"}],"text":"The management of rheumatic fever is directed toward the reduction of inflammation with anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin or corticosteroids. Individuals with positive cultures for strep throat should also be treated with antibiotics.[42]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"allergy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergy"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-42"},{"link_name":"benzathine benzylpenicillin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzathine_benzylpenicillin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"penicillin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin"},{"link_name":"sulfadiazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfadiazine"},{"link_name":"erythromycin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythromycin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Infection","text":"People with positive cultures for Streptococcus pyogenes should be treated with penicillin as long as allergy is not present. The use of antibiotics will not alter cardiac involvement in the development of rheumatic fever.[42] Some suggest the use of benzathine benzylpenicillin.[citation needed]Monthly injections of long-acting penicillin must be given for a period of five years in patients having one attack of rheumatic fever. If there is evidence of carditis, the length of therapy may be up to 40 years. Another important cornerstone in treating rheumatic fever includes the continual use of low-dose antibiotics (such as penicillin, sulfadiazine, or erythromycin) to prevent recurrence.[citation needed]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"gastritis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastritis"},{"link_name":"salicylate poisoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin_poisoning"},{"link_name":"Reye syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reye_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chowdhury2023-48"},{"link_name":"naproxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naproxen"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chowdhury2023-48"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chillers2015-55"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chowdhury2023-48"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chillers2015-55"}],"sub_title":"Inflammation","text":"Aspirin at high doses has historically been used for treatment of rheumatic fever.[52] However, due to side effects like gastritis and salicylate poisoning, necessitating serum monitoring of salicylate levels, and the risk of Reye syndrome, a serious and potentially deadly condition that may arise in children treated with aspirin or aspirin-containing products, alternatives to aspirin have been sought, especially in children.[48] While evidence suggests that treatment of rheumatic fever–associated arthritis with naproxen may be equally effective as with aspirin,[48][53] its role in managing carditis has not been established.[54] Management of carditis in acute rheumatic fever is controversial and based on dated literature.[55] Corticosteroids may be considered, especially in people with allergies to NSAIDs or severe disease,[48] although use of steroids may cause tissue atrophy, which could present challenges during future cardiac surgery for valve repair.[55]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carditis"},{"link_name":"congestive heart failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure"},{"link_name":"ACE inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACE_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"diuretics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diuretic"},{"link_name":"beta blockers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_blocker"},{"link_name":"digoxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digoxin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Heart failure","text":"Some patients develop significant carditis which manifests as congestive heart failure. This requires the usual treatment for heart failure: ACE inhibitors, diuretics, beta blockers, and digoxin.[citation needed] Unlike typical heart failure, rheumatic heart failure responds well to corticosteroids.[citation needed]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg"},{"link_name":"Disability-adjusted life year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"asymptomatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nu2017-46"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loz2012-57"},{"link_name":"streptococcus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Indigenous Australians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australians"},{"link_name":"Māori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people"},{"link_name":"Pacific Islanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Islander"},{"link_name":"Sub-Saharan Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Indian subcontinent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent"},{"link_name":"North Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"valvular heart disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"World Heart Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heart_Federation"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nu2017-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nu2017-46"},{"link_name":"screening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beaton2022-67"},{"link_name":"antibiotic resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance"},{"link_name":"narrow-spectrum antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrow-spectrum_antibiotic"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beaton2022-67"}],"text":"Deaths from rheumatic heart disease per million persons in 2012   0–7  8–14  15–20  21–25  26–32  33–38  39–45  46–52  53–63  64–250Disability-adjusted life year for rheumatic heart disease per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[56]   no data   less than 20   20–40   40–60   60–80   80–100   100–120   120–140   140–160   160–180   180–200   200–330   more than 330About 33 million people are affected by rheumatic heart disease with an additional 47 million having asymptomatic damage to their heart valves.[46] As of 2010 globally it resulted in 345,000 deaths, down from 463,000 in 1990.[57]In Western countries, rheumatic fever has become fairly rare since the 1960s, probably due to the widespread use of antibiotics to treat streptococcus infections. While it has been far less common in the United States since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been a few outbreaks since the 1980s.[58] The disease is most common among Indigenous Australians (particularly in central and northern Australia), Māori, and Pacific Islanders, and is also common in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, the Indian subcontinent, and North Africa.[59]Rheumatic fever primarily affects children between ages 5 and 17 years and occurs approximately 20 days after strep throat. In up to a third of cases, the underlying strep infection may not have caused any symptoms.[citation needed]The rate of development of rheumatic fever in individuals with untreated strep infection is estimated to be 3%. The incidence of recurrence with a subsequent untreated infection is substantially greater (about 50%).[60] The rate of development is far lower in individuals who have received antibiotic treatment. Persons who have had a case of rheumatic fever have a tendency to develop flare-ups with repeated strep infections.[citation needed]The recurrence of rheumatic fever is relatively common in the absence of maintenance of low dose antibiotics, especially during the first three to five years after the first episode. Recurrent bouts of rheumatic fever can lead to valvular heart disease. Heart complications may be long-term and severe, particularly if valves are involved. In countries in Southeast-Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Oceania, the percentage of people with rheumatic heart disease detected by listening to the heart was 2.9 per 1000 children and by echocardiography it was 12.9 per 1000 children.[61][62][63][64] To assist in the identification of RHD in low resource settings and where prevalence of GAS infections is high, the World Heart Federation has developed criteria for RHD diagnosis using echocardiography, supported by clinical history if available.[65] The WHF additionally defines criteria for use in people younger than age 20 to diagnose \"borderline\" RHD, as identification of cases of RHD among children is a priority to prevent complications and progression.[46] However, spontaneous regression is more likely in borderline RHD than in definite cases, and its natural history may vary between populations.[46]Echocardiographic screening among children and timely initiation of secondary antibiotic prophylaxis in children with evidence of early stages of rheumatic heart disease may be effective to reduce the burden of rheumatic heart disease in endemic regions.[66][67] The efficacy of treating latent RHD in populations with high prevalence is balanced by the potential development of antibiotic resistance, which might be offset through use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics like benzathine benzapenicillin.[67] Public health research is ongoing to determine if screening is beneficial and cost effective.","title":"Epidemiology"}]

[{"image_text":"A culture-positive case of streptococcal pharyngitis with typical tonsillar exudate in a 16-year-old","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pos_strep.JPG/220px-Pos_strep.JPG"},{"image_text":"Pathophysiology of rheumatic heart disease","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Rheum.heart.disease.jpeg/220px-Rheum.heart.disease.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Micrograph showing an Aschoff body (right of image), as seen in rheumatic heart disease. H&E stain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Rheumatic_heart_disease_-_3a_-_very_high_mag.jpg/220px-Rheumatic_heart_disease_-_3a_-_very_high_mag.jpg"},{"image_text":"Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria (Pappenheim's stain), the trigger for rheumatic fever","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/220px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Deaths from rheumatic heart disease per million persons in 2012   0–7  8–14  15–20  21–25  26–32  33–38  39–45  46–52  53–63  64–250","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Disability-adjusted life year for rheumatic heart disease per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[56]   no data   less than 20   20–40   40–60   60–80   80–100   100–120   120–140   140–160   160–180   180–200   200–330   more than 330 ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Rheumatic_heart_disease_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Rapid strep test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_strep_test"},{"title":"Chronic post–RF arthropathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_post%E2%80%93RF_arthropathy"},{"title":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}]

[{"reference":"Marijon E, Mirabel M, Celermajer DS, Jouven X (10 March 2012). \"Rheumatic heart disease\". The Lancet. 379 (9819): 953–64. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61171-9. PMID 22405798. S2CID 20197628.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2811%2961171-9","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61171-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22405798","url_text":"22405798"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20197628","url_text":"20197628"}]},{"reference":"Lee KY, Rhim JW, Kang JH (March 2012). \"Kawasaki disease: laboratory findings and an immunopathogenesis on the premise of a \"protein homeostasis system\"\". Yonsei Medical Journal. 53 (2): 262–75. doi:10.3349/ymj.2012.53.2.262. PMC 3282974. PMID 22318812.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282974","url_text":"\"Kawasaki disease: laboratory findings and an immunopathogenesis on the premise of a \"protein homeostasis system\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3349%2Fymj.2012.53.2.262","url_text":"10.3349/ymj.2012.53.2.262"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282974","url_text":"3282974"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22318812","url_text":"22318812"}]},{"reference":"\"Rheumatic Fever 1997 Case Definition\". cdc.gov. 3 February 2015. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://wwwn.cdc.gov/NNDSS/script/casedef.aspx?CondYrID=823&DatePub=1/1/1997%2012:00:00%20AM","url_text":"\"Rheumatic Fever 1997 Case Definition\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150219064133/http://wwwn.cdc.gov/NNDSS/script/casedef.aspx?CondYrID=823&DatePub=1%2F1%2F1997%2012%3A00%3A00%20AM","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Spinks A, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB (9 December 2021). \"Antibiotics for treatment of sore throat in children and adults\". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021 (12): CD000023. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000023.pub5. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 8655103. PMID 34881426.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8655103","url_text":"\"Antibiotics for treatment of sore throat in children and adults\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD000023.pub5","url_text":"10.1002/14651858.CD000023.pub5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1469-493X","url_text":"1469-493X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8655103","url_text":"8655103"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34881426","url_text":"34881426"}]},{"reference":"GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (8 October 2016). \"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\". The Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903","url_text":"\"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2816%2931012-1","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5388903","url_text":"5388903"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27733281","url_text":"27733281"}]},{"reference":"Turkington C, Ashby BL (2007). The Encyclopedia of Infectious Diseases (3rd ed.). New York: Facts On File. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-8160-7507-2. The risk of severe complications is the primary concern with strep throat, and the reason why it is so important to be properly diagnosed and treated. One of the most serious complications is rheumatic fever, a disease that affects up to 3 percent of those with untreated strep infection. Rheumatic fever can lead to rheumatic heart disease.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7507-2","url_text":"978-0-8160-7507-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatic_heart_disease","url_text":"rheumatic heart disease"}]},{"reference":"GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators (8 October 2016). \"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\". The Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577","url_text":"\"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2816%2931678-6","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5055577","url_text":"5055577"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27733282","url_text":"27733282"}]},{"reference":"Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 403–6. ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-2973-1","url_text":"978-1-4160-2973-1"}]},{"reference":"GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (17 December 2014). \"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013\". The Lancet. 385 (9963): 117–171. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340604","url_text":"\"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2814%2961682-2","url_text":"10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340604","url_text":"4340604"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25530442","url_text":"25530442"}]},{"reference":"Quinn RW (1991). \"Did scarlet fever and rheumatic fever exist in Hippocrates' time?\". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 13 (6): 1243–4. doi:10.1093/clinids/13.6.1243. PMID 1775859.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fclinids%2F13.6.1243","url_text":"10.1093/clinids/13.6.1243"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1775859","url_text":"1775859"}]},{"reference":"\"4.2 Biocompatibility and the Relationship to Standards: Meaning and Scope of Biomaterials Testing\". Comprehensive Biomaterials II. Elsevier. 2017. pp. 7–29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/type-ii-hypersensitivity","url_text":"\"4.2 Biocompatibility and the Relationship to Standards: Meaning and Scope of Biomaterials Testing\""}]},{"reference":"Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Baker DL, et al. (2004). Basic immunology: functions and disorders of the immune system (2 ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4160-2403-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-2403-3","url_text":"978-1-4160-2403-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Streptococcus pyogenes – Pathogen Safety Data Sheets\". Public Health Agency of Canada. 18 February 2011. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/strep-pyogenes-eng.php","url_text":"\"Streptococcus pyogenes – Pathogen Safety Data Sheets\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada","url_text":"Public Health Agency of Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170117064053/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/strep-pyogenes-eng.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Faé KC, da Silva DD, Oshiro SE, et al. (May 2006). \"Mimicry in recognition of cardiac myosin peptides by heart-intralesional T cell clones from rheumatic heart disease\". J. Immunol. 176 (9): 5662–70. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.176.9.5662. PMID 16622036.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.176.9.5662","url_text":"\"Mimicry in recognition of cardiac myosin peptides by heart-intralesional T cell clones from rheumatic heart disease\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.176.9.5662","url_text":"10.4049/jimmunol.176.9.5662"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16622036","url_text":"16622036"}]},{"reference":"Cotran, Ramzi S., Kumar, Vinay, Fausto, Nelson, Nelso Fausto, Robbins, Stanley L., Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-0187-8. Archived from the original on 10 September 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050910050801/http://www.robbinspathology.com/","url_text":"Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-0187-8","url_text":"978-0-7216-0187-8"},{"url":"http://www.robbinspathology.com/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kaplan MH, Bolande R, Rakita L, Blair J (1964). \"Presence of Bound Immunoglobulins and Complement in the Myocardium in Acute Rheumatic Fever. Association with Cardiac Failure\". The New England Journal of Medicine. 271 (13): 637–45. doi:10.1056/NEJM196409242711301. PMID 14170842.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM196409242711301","url_text":"10.1056/NEJM196409242711301"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14170842","url_text":"14170842"}]},{"reference":"Brice EA, Commerford PJ (2005). \"Rheumatic Fever and Valvular Heart Disease\". In Rosendorff C (ed.). Essential Cardiology: Principles and Practice. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press. pp. 545–563. doi:10.1007/978-1-59259-918-9_30. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_array

Parallel array

["1 Examples","2 Pros and cons","3 See also","4 References"]

In computing, a group of parallel arrays (also known as structure of arrays or SoA) is a form of implicit data structure that uses multiple arrays to represent a singular array of records. It keeps a separate, homogeneous data array for each field of the record, each having the same number of elements. Then, objects located at the same index in each array are implicitly the fields of a single record. Pointers from one object to another are replaced by array indices. This contrasts with the normal approach of storing all fields of each record together in memory (also known as array of structures or AoS). For example, one might declare an array of 100 names, each a string, and 100 ages, each an integer, associating each name with the age that has the same index. Examples An example in C using parallel arrays: int ages = {0, 17, 2, 52, 25}; char *names = {"None", "Mike", "Billy", "Tom", "Stan"}; int parent = {0 /*None*/, 3 /*Tom*/, 1 /*Mike*/, 0 /*None*/, 3 /*Tom*/}; for (i = 1; i <= 4; i++) { printf("Name: %s, Age: %d, Parent: %s \n", names, ages, names]); } in Perl (using a hash of arrays to hold references to each array): my %data = ( first_name => , last_name => , height_in_cm => ); for $i (0..$#{$data{first_name}}) { printf "Name: %s %s\n", $data{first_name}, $data{last_name}; printf "Height in CM: %i\n", $data{height_in_cm}; } Or, in Python: first_names = last_names = heights_in_cm = for i in range(len(first_names)): print("Name: %s %s" % (first_names, last_names)) print("Height in cm: %s" % heights_in_cm) # Using zip: for first_name, last_name, height_in_cm in zip(first_names, last_names, heights_in_cm): print(f"Name: {first_name} {last_name}") print(f"Height in cm: {height_in_cm}") Pros and cons This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Parallel array" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains a pro and con list. Please help rewriting it into consolidated sections based on topics. (May 2021) Parallel arrays have a number of practical advantages over the normal approach: They can save a substantial amount of space in some cases by avoiding alignment issues. For example, some architectures work best if 4-byte integers are always stored beginning at memory locations that are multiple of 4. If the previous field was a single byte, 3 bytes might be wasted. Many modern compilers can automatically avoid such problems, though in the past some programmers would explicitly declare fields in order of decreasing alignment restrictions. If the number of items is small, array indices can occupy significantly less space than full pointers, particularly on some architectures. Sequentially examining a single field of each record in the array is very fast on modern machines, since this amounts to a linear traversal of a single array, exhibiting ideal locality of reference and cache behaviour. They may allow efficient processing with SIMD instructions in certain instruction set architectures Several of these advantage depend strongly on the particular programming language and implementation in use. However, parallel arrays also have several strong disadvantages, which serves to explain why they are not generally preferred: They have significantly worse locality of reference when visiting the records non-sequentially and examining multiple fields of each record, because the various arrays may be stored arbitrarily far apart. They obscure the relationship between fields of a single record (e.g. no type information relates the index between them, an index may be used erroneously). They have little direct language support (the language and its syntax typically express no relationship between the arrays in the parallel array, and cannot catch errors). Since the bundle of fields is not a "thing", passing it around is tedious and error-prone. For example, rather than calling a function to do something to one record (or structure or object), the function must take the fields as separate arguments. When a new field is added or changed, many parameter lists must change, where passing objects as whole would avoid such changes entirely. They are expensive to grow or shrink, since each of several arrays must be reallocated. Multi-level arrays can ameliorate this problem, but impacts performance due to the additional indirection needed to find the desired elements. Perhaps worst of all, they greatly raise the possibility of errors. Any insertion, deletion, or move must always be applied consistently to all of the arrays, or the arrays will no longer be synchronized with each other, leading to bizarre outcomes. The bad locality of reference can be alleviated in some cases: if a structure can be divided into groups of fields that are generally accessed together, an array can be constructed for each group, and its elements are records containing only these subsets of the larger structure's fields. (see data oriented design). This is a valuable way of speeding up access to very large structures with many members, while keeping the portions of the structure tied together. An alternative to tying them together using array indexes is to use references to tie the portions together, but this can be less efficient in time and space. Another alternative is to use a single array, where each entry is a record structure. Many language provide a way to declare actual records, and arrays of them. In other languages it may be feasible to simulate this by declaring an array of n*m size, where m is the size of all the fields together, packing the fields into what is effectively a record, even though the particular language lacks direct support for records. Some compiler optimizations, particularly for vector processors, are able to perform this transformation automatically when arrays of structures are created in the program. See also An example in the linked list article Column-oriented DBMS References Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Page 209 of section 10.3: Implementing pointers and objects. Skeet, Jon (3 June 2014). "Anti-pattern: parallel collections". Retrieved 28 October 2014.

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For example, some architectures work best if 4-byte integers are always stored beginning at memory locations that are multiple of 4. If the previous field was a single byte, 3 bytes might be wasted. Many modern compilers can automatically avoid such problems, though in the past some programmers would explicitly declare fields in order of decreasing alignment restrictions.\nIf the number of items is small, array indices can occupy significantly less space than full pointers, particularly on some architectures.\nSequentially examining a single field of each record in the array is very fast on modern machines, since this amounts to a linear traversal of a single array, exhibiting ideal locality of reference and cache behaviour.\nThey may allow efficient processing with SIMD instructions in certain instruction set architecturesSeveral of these advantage depend strongly on the particular programming language and implementation in use.However, parallel arrays also have several strong disadvantages, which serves to explain why they are not generally preferred:They have significantly worse locality of reference when visiting the records non-sequentially and examining multiple fields of each record, because the various arrays may be stored arbitrarily far apart.\nThey obscure the relationship between fields of a single record (e.g. no type information relates the index between them, an index may be used erroneously).\nThey have little direct language support (the language and its syntax typically express no relationship between the arrays in the parallel array, and cannot catch errors).\nSince the bundle of fields is not a \"thing\", passing it around is tedious and error-prone. For example, rather than calling a function to do something to one record (or structure or object), the function must take the fields as separate arguments. When a new field is added or changed, many parameter lists must change, where passing objects as whole would avoid such changes entirely.\nThey are expensive to grow or shrink, since each of several arrays must be reallocated. Multi-level arrays can ameliorate this problem, but impacts performance due to the additional indirection needed to find the desired elements.\nPerhaps worst of all, they greatly raise the possibility of errors. Any insertion, deletion, or move must always be applied consistently to all of the arrays, or the arrays will no longer be synchronized with each other, leading to bizarre outcomes.The bad locality of reference can be alleviated in some cases: if a structure can be divided into groups of fields that are generally accessed together, an array can be constructed for each group, and its elements are records containing only these subsets of the larger structure's fields. (see data oriented design). This is a valuable way of speeding up access to very large structures with many members, while keeping the portions of the structure tied together. An alternative to tying them together using array indexes is to use references to tie the portions together, but this can be less efficient in time and space.Another alternative is to use a single array, where each entry is a record structure. Many language provide a way to declare actual records, and arrays of them. In other languages it may be feasible to simulate this by declaring an array of n*m size, where m is the size of all the fields together, packing the fields into what is effectively a record, even though the particular language lacks direct support for records. Some compiler optimizations, particularly for vector processors, are able to perform this transformation automatically when arrays of structures are created in the program.[citation needed]","title":"Pros and cons"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECAC_Hockey

ECAC Hockey

["1 History","2 Membership","2.1 Ivy League Teams","2.2 Members","2.3 Membership timeline","3 Men's tournament sites","4 Men's tournament champions","5 Men's regular season champion","6 Women's ECAC championship games","7 Men's conference records","8 Conference arenas","9 Awards","9.1 Men's","9.2 All-Conference teams","9.3 Individual awards","10 NCAA Records","11 References","12 External links"]

Not to be confused with Eastern College Athletic Conference. American collegiate ice hockey conference ECAC HockeyFormerlyEastern College Athletic Conference (1962–2004)ECAC Hockey League (2004–2007)AssociationNCAAFounded1961; 63 years ago (1961)CommissionerDoug ChristiansenSports fielded Ice hockey men's: 12 teams women's: 12 teams DivisionDivision INo. of teams12HeadquartersClifton Park, New YorkRegionNortheastern United StatesOfficial websitewww.ecachockey.comLocations Locations of current ECAC Hockey member institutions. ECAC Hockey is one of the six conferences that compete in NCAA Division I ice hockey. The conference used to be affiliated with the Eastern College Athletic Conference, a consortium of over 300 colleges in the eastern United States. This relationship ended in 2004; however, the ECAC abbreviation was retained in the name of the hockey conference. ECAC Hockey is the only ice hockey conference with identical memberships in both its women's and men's divisions. Cornell has won the most ECAC men's hockey championships with 13, followed by Harvard at 11. Quinnipiac, which joined the league in 2005, already has 7 regular season championships. ECAC Hockey teams have won 10 NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Championships, most recently in 2023. History ECAC Hockey was founded in 1961 as a loose association of college hockey teams in the Northeast. Cornell won the first NCAA championship for ECAC Hockey in 1967 in 4-1 victory over fellow ECAC Hockey team Boston University. The Big Red won their second title in 1970 to complete the first and thus far only undefeated campaign in NCAA Division I men's ice hockey history, this time with a 6-4 victory over Clarkson. ECAC Hockey completed back-to-back titles when Boston University won the 1971 championship with a 4-2 victory over Minnesota. The Terriers then made it two in a row for their school and three straight for ECAC Hockey when they repeated as champions in 1972 with a 4-0 victory over Cornell. Boston University won their third title in 1978 with a 5-3 victory over Boston College, another ECAC Hockey member at that time. In June 1983, concerns that the Ivy League schools were potentially leaving the conference and disagreements over schedule length versus academics caused Boston University, Boston College, Providence, Northeastern and New Hampshire to decide to leave the ECAC to form what would become Hockey East, which began play in the 1984–85 season. By that fall, Maine also departed the ECAC for the new conference. This left the ECAC with twelve teams (Army, Brown, Clarkson, Colgate, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, RPI, St. Lawrence, Vermont, and Yale). Army would stay in the conference until the end of the 1990–91 season, at which point they became independent (they now play in Atlantic Hockey) and were replaced by Union College. Vermont left the ECAC for Hockey East at the end of the 2004–05 season, and were replaced in the conference by Quinnipiac. RPI won its second national championship, and first as a member of ECAC Hockey when it defeated Providence of the newly formed Hockey East, 2-1 at the 1985 championship tournament. The Engineers previously won in 1954 as a member of the Tri-State League. Harvard won its first and thus-far only NCAA Division I Hockey Championship when the Crimson topped Minnesota, 4-3 in overtime at the 1989 Tournament. After seven titles and multiple Frozen Four representatives in the preceding 23-year period, ECAC Hockey suffered through a 23-year drought before Yale won its first title at the 2013 Tournament with a 4-0 victory over first-time finalists Quinnipiac. The 2013 Tournament was also unique in that with Quinnipiac defeating fellow ECAC Hockey school Union to advance to the Frozen Four before losing to Yale in the final, the only teams to defeat an ECAC school at the Tournament were other schools from ECAC Hockey. The Dutchmen gained a measure of revenge when it won the 2014 Championship with a 7-4 victory over Minnesota. After finishing runner up again in 2016, Quinnipiac finally broke through to win their first title at the 2023 Tournament with a 3-2 overtime victory over Minnesota. The ECAC began sponsoring an invitational women's tournament in 1985. ECAC teams began playing an informal regular season schedule in the 1988–89 season, with the conference officially sponsoring women's hockey beginning in the 1993–94 season. ECAC teams won two of the three pre-NCAA American Women's College Hockey Alliance national championships, New Hampshire winning in 1998 and Harvard in 1999. The ECAC was the only Division I men's hockey conference that neither gained nor lost members during the major conference realignment in 2011 and 2012 that followed the Big Ten Conference's announcement that it would launch a men's hockey league in the 2013–14 season. Membership There are 12 member schools in the ECAC. Since the 2006–07 season, all schools have participated with men's and women's teams, making ECAC Hockey the only Division I hockey conference with a full complement of teams for both sexes. Ivy League Teams Six Ivy League universities with Division I ice hockey programs are members of ECAC Hockey. Those schools are: Harvard, Dartmouth, Cornell, Yale, Princeton, and Brown University. Columbia University does not currently have a varsity intercollegiate ice hockey program. Penn supported an intercollegiate varsity hockey program in the past and was an ECAC Hockey member from 1966 to 1978 before the team was disbanded. The Ivy school that has the best record against other Ivy opponents in regular season ECAC games is crowned the Ivy League ice hockey champion. The Ivy League schools require their teams to play seasons that are about three weeks shorter than those of the other schools in the league. Thus, they enter the league schedule with fewer non-conference warm-up games. Harvard competes in the annual Beanpot Tournament. Members Institution Location Nickname (men's) Nickname (women's) Founded Historical Affiliation Enrollment Primary Conference Colors Brown University Providence, Rhode Island Bears Bears 1764 Nonsectarian, founded by Baptists 9,380 Ivy League       Clarkson University Potsdam, New York Golden Knights Golden Knights 1896 Private/Non-sectarian 4,300 Liberty League (D-III)     Colgate University Hamilton, New York Raiders Raiders 1819 Private/Baptists 2,982 Patriot League     Cornell University Ithaca, New York Big Red Big Red 1865 Private/Non-sectarian 23,600 Ivy League     Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire Big Green Big Green 1769 Private/Congregationalist 5,753 Ivy League     Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts Crimson Crimson 1636 Private/Unitarian 20,042 Ivy League       Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey Tigers Tigers 1746 Nonsectarian, but founded by Presbyterians 6,677 Ivy League     Quinnipiac University Hamden, Connecticut Bobcats Bobcats 1929 Private/Non-sectarian 10,290 MAAC     Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York Engineers Engineers 1824 Private/Non-sectarian 7,633 Liberty League (D-III)     St. Lawrence University Canton, New York Saints Saints 1856 Non-denominational, founded by Universalist Church of America 2,487 Liberty League (D-III)     Union College Schenectady, New York Garnet Chargers Garnet Chargers 1795 Private/Non-sectarian 2,050 Liberty League (D-III)     Yale University New Haven, Connecticut Bulldogs Bulldogs 1701 Private/Congregationalist 12,458 Ivy League     ECAC membersUnion Garnet ChargersBrown BearsYale BulldogsRPI EngineersQuinnipiac BobcatsHarvard CrimsonCornell Big RedClarkson Golden KnightsSt. Lawrence SaintsColgate Raiders Membership timeline   Men     Women     Both   Men's tournament sites A men's game between Dartmouth and Princeton at Thompson Arena in Hanover The ECAC Championship Game has been held at the following sites: 1962–1966 — Boston Arena (now Matthews Arena), Boston 1966–1992 — Boston Garden, Boston 1993–2002 — Olympic Center (now Herb Brooks Arena), Lake Placid, New York 2003–2010 — Times Union Center (Pepsi Arena through 2006), Albany, New York 2011–2013 — Boardwalk Hall, Atlantic City, New Jersey 2014–2019 — Herb Brooks Arena, Lake Placid, New York 2020 - Canceled due to COVID-19 pandemic 2021 - People's United Center, Hamden, Connecticut 2022-2024 - Herb Brooks Arena, Lake Placid, New York The winner of the game is awarded the Whitelaw Cup and receives an automatic bid to the NCAA Men's Division I Hockey Tournament. Men's tournament champions 1962 St. Lawrence def. Clarkson 5–2 1963 Harvard def. Boston College 4–3 (ot) 1964 Providence def. St. Lawrence 3–1 1965 Boston College def. Brown 6–2 1966 Clarkson def. Cornell 6–2 1967 Cornell def. Boston University 4–3 1968 Cornell def. Boston College 6–3 1969 Cornell def. Harvard 4–2 1970 Cornell def. Clarkson 3–2 1971 Harvard def. Clarkson 7–4 1972 Boston University def. Cornell 4–1 1973 Cornell def. Boston College 3–2 1974 Boston University def. Harvard 4–2 1975 Boston University def. Harvard 7–3 1976 Boston University def. Brown 9–2 1977 Boston University def. New Hampshire 8–6 1978 Boston College def. Providence 4–2 1979 New Hampshire def. Dartmouth 3–2 1980 Cornell def. Dartmouth 5–1 1981 Providence def. Cornell 8–4 1982 Northeastern def. Harvard 5–2 1983 Harvard def. Providence 4–1 1984 Rensselaer def. Boston University 5–2 1985 Rensselaer def. Harvard 3–1 1986 Cornell def. Clarkson 3–2 (ot) 1987 Harvard def. St. Lawrence 6–3 1988 St. Lawrence def. Clarkson 3–0 1989 St. Lawrence def. Vermont 4–1 1990 Colgate def. Rensselaer 5–4 1991 Clarkson def. St. Lawrence 5–4 1992 St. Lawrence def. Cornell 4–2 1993 Clarkson def. Brown 3–1 1994 Harvard def. Rensselaer 3–0 1995 Rensselaer def. Princeton 5–1 1996 Cornell def. Harvard 2–1 1997 Cornell def. Clarkson 2–1 1998 Princeton def. Clarkson 5–4 (2ot) 1999 Clarkson def. St. Lawrence 3–2 2000 St. Lawrence def. Rensselaer 2–0 2001 St. Lawrence def. Cornell 3–1 2002 Harvard def. Cornell 4–3 (2ot) 2003 Cornell def. Harvard 3–2 (ot) 2004 Harvard def. Clarkson 4–2 2005 Cornell def. Harvard 3–1 2006 Harvard def. Cornell 6–2 2007 Clarkson def. Quinnipiac 4–2 2008 Princeton def. Harvard 4–1 2009 Yale def. Cornell 5–0 2010 Cornell def. Union 3–0 2011 Yale def. Cornell 6–0 2012 Union def. Harvard 3–1 2013 Union def. Brown 3–1 2014 Union def. Colgate 4–2 2015 Harvard def. Colgate 4–2 2016 Quinnipiac def. Harvard 4–1 2017 Harvard def. Cornell 4–1 2018 Princeton def Clarkson 2–1 2019 Clarkson def Cornell 3–2 (ot) 2020 Tournament Canceled 2021 St. Lawrence def Quinnipiac 3–2 (ot) 2022 Harvard def Quinnipiac 3-2 (ot) 2023 Colgate def Harvard 3-2 2024 Cornell def St. Lawrence 3-1 Men's regular season champion The Cleary Cup, named for former Harvard player and coach Bill Cleary since 2001, is awarded to the team with the best record in league games at the end of the regular–season. There is no tie–breaking procedure should two or more teams end the season with the same record and the trophy is shared. A tie breaking procedure is applied to determine the top seed in the ECAC conference tournament. The Cleary Cup winner is not given any special consideration in the NCAA tournament as the ECAC awards its automatic bid to the winner of the ECAC tournament. 1984–85 Rensselaer 1985–86 Harvard 1986–87 Harvard 1987–88 Harvard and St. Lawrence 1988–89 Harvard 1989–90 Colgate 1990–91 Clarkson 1991–92 Harvard 1992–93 Harvard 1993–94 Harvard 1994–95 Clarkson 1995–96 Vermont 1996–97 Clarkson 1997–98 Yale 1998–99 Clarkson 1999–00 St. Lawrence 2000–01 Clarkson 2001–02 Cornell 2002–03 Cornell 2003–04 Colgate 2004–05 Cornell 2005–06 Colgate and Dartmouth 2006–07 St. Lawrence 2007–08 Clarkson 2008–09 Yale 2009–10 Yale 2010–11 Union 2011–12 Union 2012–13 Quinnipiac 2013–14 Union 2014–15 Quinnipiac 2015–16 Quinnipiac 2016–17 Harvard and Union 2017–18 Cornell 2018–19 Cornell and Quinnipiac 2019–20 Cornell 2020–21 Quinnipiac 2021–22 Quinnipiac 2022–23 Quinnipiac 2023–24 Quinnipiac Women's ECAC championship games 1984 Providence def. New Hampshire 1985 Providence def. New Hampshire 1986 New Hampshire def. Northeastern 1987 New Hampshire def. Northeastern 1988 Northeastern def. Providence 1989 Northeastern def. Providence 1990 New Hampshire def. Providence (in Durham, New Hampshire) 1991 New Hampshire def. Northeastern (Durham) 1992 Providence def. New Hampshire (in Providence, Rhode Island) 1993 Providence def. New Hampshire (in Boston) 1994 Providence def. Northeastern (Providence) 1995 Providence def. New Hampshire (Providence) 1996 New Hampshire def. Providence (Durham) 1997 Northeastern def. New Hampshire (Boston) 1998 Brown def. New Hampshire (Boston) 1999 Harvard def. New Hampshire (Providence) 2000 Brown def. Dartmouth (Providence) 2001 Dartmouth def. Harvard (in Hanover, New Hampshire) 2002 Brown def. Dartmouth (Hanover) 2003 Dartmouth def. Harvard (Providence) 2004 Harvard def. St. Lawrence (in Schenectady, New York) 2005 Harvard def. Dartmouth (Schenectady) 2006 Harvard def. Brown (in Canton, New York) 2007 Dartmouth def. St. Lawrence (Hanover) 2008 Harvard def. St. Lawrence (Boston) 2009 Dartmouth def. Rensselaer (Boston) 2010 Cornell def. Clarkson (in Ithaca, New York) 2011 Cornell def. Dartmouth (Ithaca) 2012 St. Lawrence def. Cornell (Ithaca) 2013 Cornell def. Harvard (Ithaca) 2014 Cornell def. Clarkson (in Potsdam, New York) 2015 Harvard def. Cornell (Potsdam) 2016 Quinnipiac def. Clarkson (Hamden, Connecticut) 2017 Clarkson def. Cornell (Potsdam) 2018 Clarkson def. Colgate (Potsdam) 2019 Clarkson def. Cornell (Ithaca) 2020 Princeton def. Cornell (Ithaca) 2021 Colgate def. St. Lawrence (Hamilton) 2022 Colgate def. Yale (New Haven) 2023 Colgate def. Clarkson (New Haven) 2024 Colgate def. Clarkson (Hamilton) Men's conference records Team's records against current conference opponents. (As of the end of the 2018-19 season.) School Brown Clarkson Colgate Cornell Dartmouth Harvard Princeton Quinnipiac Rensselaer St. Lawrence Union Yale Total W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T W L T Win% Brown 19 68 9 25 58 8 43 80 7 69 83 8 47 116 13 90 72 12 10 24 6 30 63 9 30 48 13 25 23 14 77 102 8 452 727 103 .396 Clarkson 68 19 9 88 53 18 56 67 17 73 31 7 57 58 12 84 34 7 12 16 3 99 51 11 127 72 11 33 27 5 76 40 8 771 468 109 .612 Colgate 58 25 8 53 88 18 58 84 15 51 51 7 25 56 8 59 48 8 16 23 2 63 65 5 72 80 5 44 29 4 51 51 6 550 600 86 .480 Cornell 80 43 8 67 56 18 84 58 15 83 49 6 78 66 11 91 53 8 22 17 4 63 38 11 64 45 8 43 22 9 85 61 8 760 508 106 .592 Dartmouth 83 69 8 31 73 7 51 51 7 49 83 6 66 139 13 104 89 16 10 21 2 42 46 6 42 61 4 26 31 7 98 112 15 603 775 91 .441 Harvard 116 47 13 58 57 12 56 25 8 66 78 11 139 67 13 157 59 12 15 14 5 58 37 8 62 44 7 34 17 6 144 91 22 905 536 117 .618 Princeton 72 90 11 34 84 7 48 59 8 53 91 8 89 104 16 58 158 12 12 17 1 36 68 11 25 70 11 25 36 7 109 141 11 562 919 103 .387 Quinnipiac 24 10 6 16 12 3 23 16 2 17 22 4 21 10 2 14 15 5 17 12 1 17 7 9 15 15 4 18 17 5 22 7 5 204 143 46 .578 Rensselaer 63 30 9 51 97 11 65 63 5 38 63 11 46 42 6 37 58 8 69 37 11 7 17 9 60 83 7 53 40 11 57 52 6 546 582 94 .485 St. Lawrence 48 30 13 72 127 11 80 72 5 45 64 17 61 42 4 44 62 7 70 25 11 15 15 4 83 60 7 38 29 3 64 41 11 620 567 93 .521 Union 23 25 14 27 33 5 29 44 4 22 43 9 31 26 7 17 34 6 36 25 7 17 18 5 40 53 11 29 38 3 27 27 5 298 366 76 .454 Yale 102 77 8 40 76 8 51 51 6 61 85 8 112 98 15 91 144 22 141 109 11 7 22 5 52 57 6 41 64 11 27 27 5 725 810 105 .474 Harvard and Princeton both record a loss on January 4, 1941. The game was played in Princeton with the score either 5–3 Harvard or 6–2 Princeton. Conference arenas Meehan Auditorium, February 22, 2020. School Hockey arena (built) Capacity Brown Meehan Auditorium (1962) 3,100 Clarkson Cheel Arena (1991) 3,000 Colgate Class of 1965 Arena (2016) 2,222 Cornell Lynah Rink (1957) 4,267 Dartmouth Thompson Arena (1975) 4,500 Harvard Bright-Landry Hockey Center (1956/1979) 3,095 Princeton Hobey Baker Memorial Rink (1923) 2,092 Quinnipiac M&T Bank Arena (2007) 3,386 Rensselaer Houston Field House (1949) 4,780 St. Lawrence Appleton Arena (1951) 2,300 Union Frank L. Messa Rink at Achilles Center (1975) 2,225 Yale Ingalls Rink (1958) 3,500 Awards Men's At the conclusion of each regular season schedule the coaches of each ECAC team vote which players they choose to be on the two to four All-Conference teams: first team and second team (rookie team starting in 1987–88 and third team beginning in 2005–06). Additionally they vote to award up to 7 individual trophies to an eligible player at the same time. ECAC Hockey also awards a Conference Tournament Most Outstanding Player as well as an All-Tournament Team, which are voted on at the conclusion of the conference tournament. Three awards have been bestowed every year that ECAC has been in operation while the 'Best Defensive Defenseman' was retired from 1967–68 thru 1991–92 and the All-Tournament team was discontinued from 1973 thru 1988. All-Conference teams Award Inaugural year First Team 1961–62 Second Team 1961–62 Third Team 2005–06 Rookie Team 1987–88 All-Tournament Team 1962* Individual awards Award Inaugural year Player of the Year 1961–62 Rookie of the Year 1961–62 Tim Taylor Award 1986–87 Best Defensive Defenseman 1961–62* Best Defensive Forward 1992–93 Ken Dryden Award 1995–96 Student-Athlete of the Year 2006–07 Wayne Dean Sportsmanship Award 2022–23 † Most Outstanding Player in Tournament 1962 † Open to both men and women. NCAA Records In 2000, St. Lawrence University won the second longest game in NCAA tournament history. St. Lawrence defeated Boston University in quadruple overtime by a score of 3–2. Currently, this game is the fifth longest game in NCAA division I history. On March 4, 2006, Union College played host to the longest NCAA men's ice hockey game in NCAA history. In Game 2 of the first round of the 2006 ECACHL Tournament (best of three series) between Yale University and Union, Yale won 3–2 1:35 into the 5th overtime. Overall, the game took 141:35 to decide the winner. On March 11, 2010, Quinnipiac defeated Union College 3–2. The game, which lasted 150 minutes and 22 seconds, set a new record for the longest hockey game in NCAA history. The record lasted until March 6, 2015 when a Hockey East playoff game between UMass and Notre Dame lasted just over a minute longer. Cornell University recorded the only undefeated and untied season for a Division I NCAA champion in 1970. References ^ a b c d "timeline of ECACH history, ECACHockey.com" (PDF). ecachockey.com. ^ "History of ECAC Hockey". College Hockey Historical Archives. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved January 29, 2013. ^ "HockeyEastOnline.com - About Hockey East". www.hockeyeastonline.com. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved September 6, 2007. ^ "Women's Season Summaries" (PDF). ECAC Hockey. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 9, 2022. Retrieved January 27, 2013. ^ "Cornell Men's Hockey Downs Yale to Win 2012 Ivy League Title". Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012. ^ Brown's website characterizes it as "the Baptist answer to Congregationalist Yale and Harvard; Presbyterian Princeton; and Episcopalian Penn and Columbia", but adds that at the time it was "the only one that welcomed students of all religious persuasions." ^ "facts about Brown University". brown.edu. Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2016. ^ "History & Facts About Clarkson University". www.clarkson.edu. Archived from the original on February 5, 2018. Retrieved November 30, 2018. ^ "Origins of Colgate University". www.colgate.edu. ^ "Key Facts and Figures About Colgate University". www.colgate.edu. ^ University, Office of Web Communications, Cornell. "University Facts - Cornell University". www.cornell.edu.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "This Page Has Moved" (PDF). www.dartmouth.edu. ^ Harvard at a glance Archived April 8, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ "University Chapel: Orange Key Virtual Tour of Princeton University". www.princeton.edu. Archived from the original on February 23, 2008. Retrieved November 12, 2020. – Princeton online campus tour ^ "Facts & Figures". Princeton University. ^ "About Us". Quinnipiac University. ^ "Quick Facts - RPI INFO". info.rpi.edu. ^ "SLU Quick Facts (2018)". St. Lawrence University. ^ "Union at a Glance". Union College. ^ "Yale Facts". Yale University. August 3, 2015. ^ "ECAC Hockey – 1961-62 Season Summary" (PDF). www.ecachockey.com. Retrieved November 12, 2020. ^ "ECAC Hockey – 1982-83 Season Summary" (PDF). www.ecachockey.com. Retrieved November 12, 2020. ^ "ECAC Hockey – 1984-85 Season Summary" (PDF). www.ecachockey.com. Retrieved November 12, 2020. ^ "Harvard Men's Hockey Series Results" (PDF). Retrieved November 12, 2020. ^ "Men's Hockey Series History". Princeton University Athletics. ^ "Gostisbehere, Bodie, Carr earn spots on ECAC Hockey All-League Teams". Union Athletics. March 21, 2013. Retrieved August 1, 2013. ^ "ECAC Hockey Awards". College hockey Historical Archive. Retrieved August 1, 2013. ^ "All-Tournament Honors" (PDF). ECAC Hockey. Retrieved May 12, 2014. ^ "St. Lawrence University". www.stlawu.edu. Archived from the original on May 25, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2007. ^ "Almanac ... Longest Games". College Hockey News. ^ "Quinnipiac makes history in 5 OT hockey game". ESPN.com. March 13, 2010. ^ "Statistics | College Hockey". USCHO.com. Retrieved October 14, 2018. ^ "DI Men's Ice Hockey". NCAA.com. External links ECAC Hockey home pages: Men Archived May 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Women Archived May 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine ECAC Hockey to Celebrate 50th Anniversary Archived July 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine (September 8, 2010 press release). ECAC Hockey official website. Retrieved September 25, 2010. vteECAC HockeyTeams Brown Bears men women Clarkson Golden Knights men women Colgate Raiders men women Cornell Big Red men women Dartmouth Big Green men women Harvard Crimson men women Princeton Tigers men women Quinnipiac Bobcats men women Rensselaer Engineers men women St. Lawrence Saints men women Union Garnet Chargers men women Yale Bulldogs men women Venues Meehan Auditorium (Brown) Cheel Arena (Clarkson) Class of 1965 Arena (Colgate) Lynah Rink (Cornell) Thompson Arena (Dartmouth) Bright Hockey Center (Harvard) Hobey Baker Memorial Rink (Princeton) People's United Center (Quinnipiac) Houston Field House (Rensselaer) Appleton Arena (St. Lawrence) Achilles Rink (Union) Ingalls Rink (Yale) Herb Brooks Arena (Men's tournament) Men's awards All-ECAC Hockey Team Player of the Year Rookie of the Year Tim Taylor Award (Coach of the Year) Best Defensive Defenseman Best Defensive Forward Ken Dryden Award (Best Goaltender) Student-Athlete of the Year Wayne Dean Sportsmanship Award Most Outstanding Player in Tournament All-Tournament Team Women's awards Women's champions Men's seasons 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 vteECAC Hockey Men's Ice Hockey Tournaments (Champions) 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 ECAC Hockey NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship vteNCAA Division I hockey conferencesCurrent Atlantic Hockey America Big Ten Conference Central Collegiate Hockey Association ECAC Hockey Hockey East National Collegiate Hockey Conference New England Women's Hockey Alliance Western Collegiate Hockey Association Independents Former Atlantic Hockey Association College Hockey America Great West Hockey Conference Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference Tri-State League Championships: Men / Women

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eastern College Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_College_Athletic_Conference"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ECACHockeyLocations.png"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_I"},{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"Eastern College Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_College_Athletic_Conference"},{"link_name":"colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecachockey.com-1"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_champions"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Eastern College Athletic Conference.American collegiate ice hockey conferenceLocations of current ECAC Hockey member institutions.ECAC Hockey is one of the six conferences that compete in NCAA Division I ice hockey. The conference used to be affiliated with the Eastern College Athletic Conference, a consortium of over 300 colleges in the eastern United States. This relationship ended in 2004; however, the ECAC abbreviation was retained in the name of the hockey conference.[1] ECAC Hockey is the only ice hockey conference with identical memberships in both its women's and men's divisions. Cornell has won the most ECAC men's hockey championships with 13, followed by Harvard at 11. Quinnipiac, which joined the league in 2005, already has 7 regular season championships. ECAC Hockey teams have won 10 \nNCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Championships, most recently in 2023.","title":"ECAC Hockey"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_United_States"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Cornell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_Big_Red_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_NCAA_University_Division_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Boston University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University_Terriers_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_NCAA_University_Division_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division I men's ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Clarkson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarkson_Golden_Knights_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1971 championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_NCAA_University_Division_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_NCAA_University_Division_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"1978","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Boston College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_College_Eagles_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"Boston University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University"},{"link_name":"Boston College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_College"},{"link_name":"Providence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_College"},{"link_name":"Northeastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_University"},{"link_name":"New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Hockey East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockey_East"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecachockey.com-1"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Maine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vermont"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Hockey"},{"link_name":"Union College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_College_(New_York)"},{"link_name":"Quinnipiac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinnipiac_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecachockey.com-1"},{"link_name":"RPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPI_Engineers_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1985 championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"1954","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_NCAA_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Crimson_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"1989 Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Yale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Bulldogs_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"2013 Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"Quinnipiac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinnipiac_Bobcats_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Garnet_Chargers_men%27s_ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"2014 Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"2023 Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"American Women's College Hockey Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Women%27s_College_Hockey_Alliance"},{"link_name":"the major conference realignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%9314_NCAA_conference_realignment#Hockey"},{"link_name":"Big Ten Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Ten_Conference"}],"text":"ECAC Hockey was founded in 1961 as a loose association of college hockey teams in the Northeast.[2]Cornell won the first NCAA championship for ECAC Hockey in 1967 in 4-1 victory over fellow ECAC Hockey team Boston University.The Big Red won their second title in 1970 to complete the first and thus far only undefeated campaign in NCAA Division I men's ice hockey history, this time with a 6-4 victory over Clarkson.ECAC Hockey completed back-to-back titles when Boston University won the 1971 championship with a 4-2 victory over Minnesota. The Terriers then made it two in a row for their school and three straight for ECAC Hockey when they repeated as champions in 1972 with a 4-0 victory over Cornell.Boston University won their third title in 1978 with a 5-3 victory over Boston College, another ECAC Hockey member at that time.In June 1983, concerns that the Ivy League schools were potentially leaving the conference and disagreements over schedule length versus academics caused Boston University, Boston College, Providence, Northeastern and New Hampshire to decide to leave the ECAC to form what would become Hockey East, which began play in the 1984–85 season.[1] By that fall, Maine also departed the ECAC for the new conference.[3]This left the ECAC with twelve teams (Army, Brown, Clarkson, Colgate, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, RPI, St. Lawrence, Vermont, and Yale). Army would stay in the conference until the end of the 1990–91 season, at which point they became independent (they now play in Atlantic Hockey) and were replaced by Union College. Vermont left the ECAC for Hockey East at the end of the 2004–05 season, and were replaced in the conference by Quinnipiac.[1]RPI won its second national championship, and first as a member of ECAC Hockey when it defeated Providence of the newly formed Hockey East, 2-1 at the 1985 championship tournament. The Engineers previously won in 1954 as a member of the Tri-State League.Harvard won its first and thus-far only NCAA Division I Hockey Championship when the Crimson topped Minnesota, 4-3 in overtime at the 1989 Tournament.After seven titles and multiple Frozen Four representatives in the preceding 23-year period, ECAC Hockey suffered through a 23-year drought before Yale won its first title at the 2013 Tournament with a 4-0 victory over first-time finalists Quinnipiac. The 2013 Tournament was also unique in that with Quinnipiac defeating fellow ECAC Hockey school Union to advance to the Frozen Four before losing to Yale in the final, the only teams to defeat an ECAC school at the Tournament were other schools from ECAC Hockey.The Dutchmen gained a measure of revenge when it won the 2014 Championship with a 7-4 victory over Minnesota.After finishing runner up again in 2016, Quinnipiac finally broke through to win their first title at the 2023 Tournament with a 3-2 overtime victory over Minnesota.The ECAC began sponsoring an invitational women's tournament in 1985. ECAC teams began playing an informal regular season schedule in the 1988–89 season, with the conference officially sponsoring women's hockey beginning in the 1993–94 season.[4] ECAC teams won two of the three pre-NCAA American Women's College Hockey Alliance national championships, New Hampshire winning in 1998 and Harvard in 1999.The ECAC was the only Division I men's hockey conference that neither gained nor lost members during the major conference realignment in 2011 and 2012 that followed the Big Ten Conference's announcement that it would launch a men's hockey league in the 2013–14 season.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecachockey.com-1"}],"text":"There are 12 member schools in the ECAC. Since the 2006–07 season, all schools have participated with men's and women's teams, making ECAC Hockey the only Division I hockey conference with a full complement of teams for both sexes.[1]","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ivy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_League"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_College"},{"link_name":"Cornell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell"},{"link_name":"Yale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale"},{"link_name":"Princeton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Penn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Beanpot Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beanpot_(Ice_Hockey)"}],"sub_title":"Ivy League Teams","text":"Six Ivy League universities with Division I ice hockey programs are members of ECAC Hockey. Those schools are: Harvard, Dartmouth, Cornell, Yale, Princeton, and Brown University. Columbia University does not currently have a varsity intercollegiate ice hockey program. Penn supported an intercollegiate varsity hockey program in the past and was an ECAC Hockey member from 1966 to 1978 before the team was disbanded. The Ivy school that has the best record against other Ivy opponents in regular season ECAC games is crowned the Ivy League ice hockey champion. The Ivy League schools require their teams to play seasons that are about three weeks shorter than those of the other schools in the league.[5] Thus, they enter the league schedule with fewer non-conference warm-up games. Harvard competes in the annual Beanpot Tournament.","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Union_Dutchmen_men%27s_ice_hockey_players.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_Bears_ice_hockey_players_Jan_2023.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yale_University_Bulldogs_vs._Union_College_Dutchmen_-_February_8,_2014_(12399315653)_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RPI_Engineer_Altti_Nykanen_with_the_puck.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quinnipiac_Bobcats_2023-2024_team_members.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_Crimson_players_after_game.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornell_ice_hockey_players_March_2019_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clarkson_Golden_Knights_ice_hockey_players_Feb_2023.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St._Lawrence_Saints_players_2023.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colgate_Mens_Hockey_13.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Members","text":"ECAC membersUnion Garnet ChargersBrown BearsYale BulldogsRPI EngineersQuinnipiac BobcatsHarvard CrimsonCornell Big RedClarkson Golden KnightsSt. Lawrence SaintsColgate Raiders","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Membership timeline","text":"Men     Women     Both","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dartmouth_vs_Princeton_ice_hockey_1,_2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thompson Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thompson_Arena"},{"link_name":"Boston Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Arena"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Boston Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Garden"},{"link_name":"Olympic Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Center_Arena"},{"link_name":"Lake Placid, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Placid,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Times Union Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Union_Center"},{"link_name":"Albany, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Boardwalk Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boardwalk_Hall"},{"link_name":"Atlantic City, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_City,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Herb Brooks Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Brooks_Arena"},{"link_name":"Lake Placid, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Placid,_New_York"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"People's United Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_United_Center"},{"link_name":"Hamden, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamden,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Herb Brooks Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Brooks_Arena"},{"link_name":"Lake Placid, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Placid,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Whitelaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotty_Whitelaw"},{"link_name":"NCAA Men's Division I Hockey Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Championship"}],"text":"[21][22]A men's game between Dartmouth and Princeton at Thompson Arena in HanoverThe ECAC Championship Game has been held at the following sites:1962–1966 — Boston Arena (now Matthews Arena), Boston\n1966–1992 — Boston Garden, Boston\n1993–2002 — Olympic Center (now Herb Brooks Arena), Lake Placid, New York\n2003–2010 — Times Union Center (Pepsi Arena through 2006), Albany, New York\n2011–2013 — Boardwalk Hall, Atlantic City, New Jersey\n2014–2019 — Herb Brooks Arena, Lake Placid, New York\n2020 - Canceled due to COVID-19 pandemic\n2021 - People's United Center, Hamden, Connecticut\n2022-2024 - Herb Brooks Arena, Lake Placid, New YorkThe winner of the game is awarded the Whitelaw Cup and receives an automatic bid to the NCAA Men's Division I Hockey Tournament.","title":"Men's tournament sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1962","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1963","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1968","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1971","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1974","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1976","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1978","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1979","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1981","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1983","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_ECAC_Hockey_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"},{"link_name":"2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_ECAC_Hockey_men%27s_ice_hockey_tournament"}],"text":"1962 St. Lawrence def. Clarkson 5–2\n1963 Harvard def. Boston College 4–3 (ot)\n1964 Providence def. St. Lawrence 3–1\n1965 Boston College def. Brown 6–2\n1966 Clarkson def. Cornell 6–2\n1967 Cornell def. Boston University 4–3\n1968 Cornell def. Boston College 6–3\n1969 Cornell def. Harvard 4–2\n1970 Cornell def. Clarkson 3–2\n1971 Harvard def. Clarkson 7–4\n1972 Boston University def. Cornell 4–1\n1973 Cornell def. Boston College 3–2\n1974 Boston University def. Harvard 4–2\n1975 Boston University def. Harvard 7–3\n1976 Boston University def. Brown 9–2\n1977 Boston University def. New Hampshire 8–6\n1978 Boston College def. Providence 4–2\n1979 New Hampshire def. Dartmouth 3–2\n1980 Cornell def. Dartmouth 5–1\n1981 Providence def. Cornell 8–4\n1982 Northeastern def. Harvard 5–2\n1983 Harvard def. Providence 4–1\n1984 Rensselaer def. Boston University 5–2\n1985 Rensselaer def. Harvard 3–1\n1986 Cornell def. Clarkson 3–2 (ot)\n1987 Harvard def. St. Lawrence 6–3\n1988 St. Lawrence def. Clarkson 3–0\n1989 St. Lawrence def. Vermont 4–1\n1990 Colgate def. Rensselaer 5–4\n1991 Clarkson def. St. Lawrence 5–4\n1992 St. Lawrence def. Cornell 4–2\n1993 Clarkson def. Brown 3–1\n1994 Harvard def. Rensselaer 3–0\n1995 Rensselaer def. Princeton 5–1\n1996 Cornell def. Harvard 2–1\n1997 Cornell def. Clarkson 2–1\n1998 Princeton def. Clarkson 5–4 (2ot)\n1999 Clarkson def. St. Lawrence 3–2\n2000 St. Lawrence def. Rensselaer 2–0\n2001 St. Lawrence def. Cornell 3–1\n2002 Harvard def. Cornell 4–3 (2ot)\n2003 Cornell def. Harvard 3–2 (ot)\n2004 Harvard def. Clarkson 4–2\n2005 Cornell def. Harvard 3–1\n2006 Harvard def. Cornell 6–2\n2007 Clarkson def. Quinnipiac 4–2\n2008 Princeton def. Harvard 4–1\n2009 Yale def. Cornell 5–0\n2010 Cornell def. Union 3–0\n2011 Yale def. Cornell 6–0\n2012 Union def. Harvard 3–1\n2013 Union def. Brown 3–1\n2014 Union def. Colgate 4–2\n2015 Harvard def. Colgate 4–2\n2016 Quinnipiac def. Harvard 4–1\n2017 Harvard def. Cornell 4–1\n2018 Princeton def Clarkson 2–1\n2019 Clarkson def Cornell 3–2 (ot)\n2020 Tournament Canceled\n2021 St. Lawrence def Quinnipiac 3–2 (ot)\n2022 Harvard def Quinnipiac 3-2 (ot)\n2023 Colgate def Harvard 3-2\n2024 Cornell def St. Lawrence 3-1","title":"Men's tournament champions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bill Cleary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Cleary_(hockey)"}],"text":"The Cleary Cup, named for former Harvard player and coach Bill Cleary since 2001, is awarded to the team with the best record in league games at the end of the regular–season. There is no tie–breaking procedure should two or more teams end the season with the same record and the trophy is shared. A tie breaking procedure is applied to determine the top seed in the ECAC conference tournament. The Cleary Cup winner is not given any special consideration in the NCAA tournament as the ECAC awards its automatic bid to the winner of the ECAC tournament.1984–85 Rensselaer\n1985–86 Harvard\n1986–87 Harvard\n1987–88 Harvard and St. Lawrence\n1988–89 Harvard\n1989–90 Colgate\n1990–91 Clarkson\n1991–92 Harvard\n1992–93 Harvard\n1993–94 Harvard\n1994–95 Clarkson\n1995–96 Vermont\n1996–97 Clarkson\n1997–98 Yale\n1998–99 Clarkson\n1999–00 St. Lawrence\n2000–01 Clarkson\n2001–02 Cornell\n2002–03 Cornell\n2003–04 Colgate\n2004–05 Cornell\n2005–06 Colgate and Dartmouth\n2006–07 St. Lawrence\n2007–08 Clarkson\n2008–09 Yale\n2009–10 Yale\n2010–11 Union\n2011–12 Union\n2012–13 Quinnipiac\n2013–14 Union\n2014–15 Quinnipiac\n2015–16 Quinnipiac\n2016–17 Harvard and Union\n2017–18 Cornell\n2018–19 Cornell and Quinnipiac\n2019–20 Cornell\n2020–21 Quinnipiac\n2021–22 Quinnipiac\n2022–23 Quinnipiac\n2023–24 Quinnipiac","title":"Men's regular season champion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Durham, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Providence, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"Hanover, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Schenectady, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Canton, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_(village),_New_York"},{"link_name":"Ithaca, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Potsdam, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_(village),_New_York"},{"link_name":"Hamden, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamden,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_ECAC_Hockey_Women%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"[23]1984 Providence def. New Hampshire\n1985 Providence def. New Hampshire\n1986 New Hampshire def. Northeastern\n1987 New Hampshire def. Northeastern\n1988 Northeastern def. Providence\n1989 Northeastern def. Providence\n1990 New Hampshire def. Providence (in Durham, New Hampshire)\n1991 New Hampshire def. Northeastern (Durham)\n1992 Providence def. New Hampshire (in Providence, Rhode Island)\n1993 Providence def. New Hampshire (in Boston)\n1994 Providence def. Northeastern (Providence)\n1995 Providence def. New Hampshire (Providence)\n1996 New Hampshire def. Providence (Durham)\n1997 Northeastern def. New Hampshire (Boston)\n1998 Brown def. New Hampshire (Boston)\n1999 Harvard def. New Hampshire (Providence)\n2000 Brown def. Dartmouth (Providence)\n2001 Dartmouth def. Harvard (in Hanover, New Hampshire)\n2002 Brown def. Dartmouth (Hanover)\n2003 Dartmouth def. Harvard (Providence)\n2004 Harvard def. St. Lawrence (in Schenectady, New York)\n2005 Harvard def. Dartmouth (Schenectady)\n2006 Harvard def. Brown (in Canton, New York)\n2007 Dartmouth def. St. Lawrence (Hanover)\n2008 Harvard def. St. Lawrence (Boston)\n2009 Dartmouth def. Rensselaer (Boston)\n2010 Cornell def. Clarkson (in Ithaca, New York)\n2011 Cornell def. Dartmouth (Ithaca)\n2012 St. Lawrence def. Cornell (Ithaca)\n2013 Cornell def. Harvard (Ithaca)\n2014 Cornell def. Clarkson (in Potsdam, New York)\n2015 Harvard def. Cornell (Potsdam)\n2016 Quinnipiac def. Clarkson (Hamden, Connecticut)\n2017 Clarkson def. Cornell (Potsdam)\n2018 Clarkson def. Colgate (Potsdam)\n2019 Clarkson def. Cornell (Ithaca)\n2020 Princeton def. Cornell (Ithaca)\n2021 Colgate def. St. Lawrence (Hamilton)\n2022 Colgate def. Yale (New Haven)\n2023 Colgate def. Clarkson (New Haven)\n2024 Colgate def. Clarkson (Hamilton)","title":"Women's ECAC championship games"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Team's records against current conference opponents. (As of the end of the 2018-19 season.)Harvard and Princeton both record a loss on January 4, 1941. The game was played in Princeton with the score either 5–3 Harvard or 6–2 Princeton.[24][25]","title":"Men's conference records"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meehan_Auditorium_Brown_University.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meehan_Auditorium_Brown_University.jpg"}],"text":"Meehan Auditorium, February 22, 2020.","title":"Conference arenas"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"2005–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"1967–68","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"1991–92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ECAC_Hockey&action=edit&section=14"},{"link_name":"First Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_All-ECAC_Hockey_Teams#First_Team"},{"link_name":"1961–62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Second Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_All-ECAC_Hockey_Teams#Second_Team"},{"link_name":"1961–62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Third Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_All-ECAC_Hockey_Teams#Third_Team"},{"link_name":"2005–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Rookie Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_All-ECAC_Hockey_Teams#Rookie_Team"},{"link_name":"1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"All-Tournament Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_All-Tournament_Team"},{"link_name":"1962","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ECAC_Hockey&action=edit&section=15"},{"link_name":"Player of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Player_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"1961–62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Rookie of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Rookie_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"1961–62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Tim Taylor Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Taylor_Award_(ECAC_Hockey)"},{"link_name":"1986–87","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Best Defensive Defenseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Best_Defensive_Defenseman"},{"link_name":"1961–62","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%E2%80%9362_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Best Defensive Forward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Best_Defensive_Forward"},{"link_name":"1992–93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Ken Dryden Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Ken_Dryden_Award"},{"link_name":"1995–96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Student-Athlete of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Student-Athlete_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"2006–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Wayne Dean Sportsmanship Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Dean_Sportsmanship_Award"},{"link_name":"2022–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_ice_hockey_season"},{"link_name":"Most Outstanding Player in Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ECAC_Hockey_Most_Outstanding_Player_in_Tournament"},{"link_name":"1962","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_ECAC_Hockey_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_Tournament"}],"sub_title":"Men's","text":"At the conclusion of each regular season schedule the coaches of each ECAC team vote which players they choose to be on the two to four All-Conference teams:[26] first team and second team (rookie team starting in 1987–88 and third team beginning in 2005–06). Additionally they vote to award up to 7 individual trophies to an eligible player at the same time. ECAC Hockey also awards a Conference Tournament Most Outstanding Player as well as an All-Tournament Team, which are voted on at the conclusion of the conference tournament. Three awards have been bestowed every year that ECAC has been in operation while the 'Best Defensive Defenseman' was retired from 1967–68 thru 1991–92[27]\nand the All-Tournament team was discontinued from 1973 thru 1988.[28]All-Conference teams[edit]\n\n\n\n\nAward\n\nInaugural year\n\n\n\n\nFirst Team\n\n1961–62\n\n\nSecond Team\n\n1961–62\n\n\nThird Team\n\n2005–06\n\n\nRookie Team\n\n1987–88\n\n\nAll-Tournament Team\n\n1962*\n\n\n\nIndividual awards[edit]\n\n\n\n\nAward\n\nInaugural year\n\n\n\n\nPlayer of the Year\n\n1961–62\n\n\nRookie of the Year\n\n1961–62\n\n\nTim Taylor Award\n\n1986–87\n\n\nBest Defensive Defenseman\n\n1961–62*\n\n\nBest Defensive Forward\n\n1992–93\n\n\nKen Dryden Award\n\n1995–96\n\n\nStudent-Athlete of the Year\n\n2006–07\n\n\nWayne Dean Sportsmanship Award\n\n2022–23 †\n\n\nMost Outstanding Player in Tournament\n\n1962\n\n† Open to both men and women.","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boston University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"In 2000, St. Lawrence University won the second longest game in NCAA tournament history. St. Lawrence defeated Boston University in quadruple overtime by a score of 3–2. Currently, this game is the fifth longest game in NCAA division I history.[29]\nOn March 4, 2006, Union College played host to the longest NCAA men's ice hockey game in NCAA history. In Game 2 of the first round of the 2006 ECACHL Tournament (best of three series) between Yale University and Union, Yale won 3–2 1:35 into the 5th overtime. Overall, the game took 141:35 to decide the winner.[30]\nOn March 11, 2010, Quinnipiac defeated Union College 3–2. The game, which lasted 150 minutes and 22 seconds, set a new record for the longest hockey game in NCAA history.[31] The record lasted until March 6, 2015 when a Hockey East playoff game between UMass and Notre Dame lasted just over a minute longer.[32]\nCornell University recorded the only undefeated and untied season for a Division I NCAA champion in 1970.[33]","title":"NCAA Records"}]

[{"image_text":"Locations of current ECAC Hockey member institutions.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/ECACHockeyLocations.png/220px-ECACHockeyLocations.png"},{"image_text":"A men's game between Dartmouth and Princeton at Thompson Arena in Hanover","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Dartmouth_vs_Princeton_ice_hockey_1%2C_2007.jpg/220px-Dartmouth_vs_Princeton_ice_hockey_1%2C_2007.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"timeline of ECACH history, ECACHockey.com\" (PDF). ecachockey.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ecachockey.com/men/history/M_timeline.pdf?dec=","url_text":"\"timeline of ECACH history, ECACHockey.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of ECAC Hockey\". College Hockey Historical Archives. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved January 29, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.augenblick.org/chha/ecac_his.html","url_text":"\"History of ECAC Hockey\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120415203828/http://www.augenblick.org/chha/ecac_his.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"HockeyEastOnline.com - About Hockey East\". www.hockeyeastonline.com. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game

Ender's Game

["1 Synopsis","2 Creation and inspiration","3 Critical response","4 Accolades","5 Revisions","6 Adaptations","6.1 Film","6.2 Video game","6.3 Comics","6.4 Audioplay","7 Translations","8 See also","9 Notes","10 External links"]

1985 novel by Orson Scott Card This article is about the novel. For the titular series, see Ender's Game (novel series). For other uses, see Ender's Game (disambiguation). Ender's Game 1985 first edition (hardcover)AuthorOrson Scott CardCover artistJohn HarrisLanguageEnglishSeriesEnder's Game seriesGenreScience fictionPublisherTor BooksPublication dateJanuary 1985Publication placeUnited States/CanadaMedia typePrint (Hardcover, Paperback & Ebook)Pages324ISBN0-312-93208-1OCLC23355613Followed bySpeaker for the Dead  Ender's Game is a 1985 military science fiction novel by American author Orson Scott Card. Set at an unspecified date in Earth's future, the novel presents an imperiled humankind after two conflicts with an insectoid alien species they dub "the buggers". In preparation for an anticipated third invasion, Earth's international military force recruits young children, including the novel's protagonist, Andrew "Ender" Wiggin, to be trained as elite officers. The children learn military strategy and leadership by playing increasingly difficult war games, including some in zero gravity, where Ender's tactical genius is revealed. The book originated as a short story of the same name, published in the August 1977 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact. The novel was published on January 15, 1985. Later, by elaborating on characters and plotlines depicted in the novel, Card wrote additional books in the Ender's Game series. Card released an updated version of Ender's Game in 1991, changing some political facts to account for the then-recent dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. The novel has been translated into 34 languages. Reception of the book has been mostly positive. It has become suggested reading for many military organizations, including the United States Marine Corps. Ender's Game was recognized as "best novel" by the 1985 Nebula Award and the 1986 Hugo Award in the genres of science fiction and fantasy. Its four sequels—Speaker for the Dead (1986), Xenocide (1991), Children of the Mind (1996), and Ender in Exile (2008)—follow Ender's subsequent travels to many different worlds in the galaxy. In addition, the later novella A War of Gifts (2007) and novel Ender's Shadow (1999), plus other novels in the Shadow saga, take place during the same time period as the original. A film adaptation of the same name, written for the screen and directed by Gavin Hood, and starring Asa Butterfield as Ender, was released in October 2013. Card co-produced the film. The novel has also been adapted into two comic book series. Synopsis Ender's Game series Chronology In chronological order Earth Unaware Earth Afire Earth Awakens The Swarm The Hive The Queens "Mazer in Prison" "The Polish Boy" "Teacher's Pest" "Pretty Boy" "Cheater" Ender's Game 'Recruiting Valentine' A War of Gifts Ender's Shadow 'The League War' Children of the Fleet Ender in Exile Shadow of the Hegemon Shadow Puppets Shadow of the Giant Shadows in Flight "Investment Counselor" Speaker for the Dead Xenocide Children of the Mind The Last Shadow In publication order Ender's Game Speaker for the Dead Xenocide Children of the Mind Ender's Shadow Shadow of the Hegemon Shadow Puppets First Meetings Shadow of the Giant A War of Gifts: An Ender Story Ender in Exile Shadows in Flight Earth Unaware Earth Afire Earth Awakens The Swarm Children of the Fleet The Hive The Last Shadow The Queens vte    Chart       Short Stories     Novels     Comics     Audioplay     Film First Meetings(in the Enderverse)(2002 (2003)) Ender's Game Investment Counselor The Polish Boy Teacher's Pest    Formic Wars:Burning Earth(2011) Formic Wars:Silent Strike(2012) First FormicWar Trilogy Earth Unaware(2012) Earth Afire(2013) Earth Awakens(2014) War of Gifts(2010) Mazer in Prison Recruiting Valentine The League War War of Gifts OSCs InterGalacticMedicine Show(2008) Mazer in Prison Cheater Pretty Boy A Young Man withProspects Second FormicWar Trilogy The Swarm(2016) The Hive(2019) The Queens(TBA) Mazer in Prison(2005) Mazer in Prison(2010) The Polish Boy(2002) Cheater(2006) Pretty Boy(2006) Teacher's Pest(2003)      Ender's Shadow(1999) Ender's Shadow: Battle School(2009) Command School(2010) Ultimate collection(2012)      Ender's GameAlive(2013)       Recruiting Valentine(2009)     The League War(2010)    Ender's Game(1977)   Ender's Game(1985) Ender's Game: Battle School(2009) Command School(2010) Ultimate collection(2012)   Ender's Game(2013) Ender's Stocking(2007)   A War of Gifts(2007)    War of Gifts(2009)         The Shadow Trilogy Shadow of the Hegemon(2001) Shadow Puppets(2002) Shadow of the Giant(2005) Ender's Homecoming(2008) A Young Man withProspects (2007) Ender in Flight(2008) The Gold Bug(2007) Ender in Exile(2008) Ender in Exile(2011)   Gold Bug(2010) Fleet School Children of the Fleet(2017) ...(TBC)    Governor Wiggin(2017) Investment Counselor(1999) Renegat(2017) Shadows in Flight(2012)     Speaker for the Dead(2011) Gloriously Bright(1991)    The Speaker Trilogy Speaker for the Dead(1986) Xenocide(1991) Children of the Mind(1996) Messenger(2018) The Last Shadow(2021) ^ a b c The events of Ender's Game, Ender's Shadow and A War of Gifts take place in roughly the same time period.The events of A War of Gifts only take place during the time at Battle School). ^ a b The events of Ender in Exile and the Shadow Trilogy take place in roughly the same time period.- First part of Ender in Exile (2/3) takes place during the Shadow Trilogy.- Last part of Ender in Exile (1/3) takes places after Shadow of the Giant. ^ a b Note on the following (maybe not yet so common) Trilogies:"Speaker Trilogy": Original set of sequels to Ender's Game, also referred to as:- "Ender Quartet" (Ender's Game combined with "Speaker Trilogy"), also referred to as:- "Ender Quintet" ("Ender Quartet" combined with Ender in Exile)."Shadow Trilogy": Original set of sequels to Ender's Shadow, also referred to as:- "Bean Quartet"/"Shadow Quartet" (Ender's Shadow combined with "Shadow Trilogy"), also referred to as:- "Bean Quintet"/"Shadow Quintet" ("Bean Quartet" combined with Shadows in Flight), could be referred to as:- "Bean Sextet"/"Shadow Sextet" ("Bean Quintet" combined with The Last Shadow) ^ Title is also mentioned in regard to a possible sequel for the film. vte War breaks out between humans and an insect-like alien race called the Formics. The humans achieve a narrow victory then create the International Fleet (I.F.) and train gifted children to become commanders at their orbiting Battle School. Andrew "Ender" Wiggin is born a "Third": a rare exception to Earth's two-child policy, allowed by the government due to the promise shown by his two older siblings. The eldest, Peter, is an intelligent sociopath who bullies Ender. His sister, Valentine, is deeply empathic. The I.F. removed Ender's monitoring device when he was six years old, seemingly ending his chances of Battle School. He is bullied by a fellow student, Stilson, but Ender violently attacks him. Stilson later dies from his wounds. Colonel Hyrum Graff visits Ender after hearing about the fight. Ender attests that by showing superiority now, he has prevented future struggle. Graff offers him a place in the Battle School. Once at Battle School, Graff and the other leaders covertly work to keep Ender isolated. Ender finds solace in playing a simulated adventure game that involves being killed by and eventually killing a giant. The cadets participate in competitive war simulations in zero gravity, where Ender quickly masters the competition with novel tactics. To further wear Ender down, he is promoted to command a new army composed of raw recruits, then pitted against multiple armies at once, but Ender's success continues. Ender's jealous ex-commander, Bonzo Madrid, draws him into a fight outside the simulation, and once again seeking to preemptively stop future conflicts, Ender uses excessive force, and Bonzo dies from his injuries. Meanwhile on Earth, Peter Wiggin uses a global communication system to post political essays under the pseudonym "Locke", hoping to establish himself as a respected orator and then as a powerful politician. Valentine, despite not trusting Peter, agrees to publish alongside him as "Demosthenes". Their essays are soon taken seriously by the government and the people. Ender, now ten years old, is promoted to Command School. After some preliminary battles in the simulator, he is introduced to Mazer Rackham, a hero from the Formic war who saw key patterns in the Formic behavior. Ender participates in space combat simulations created and controlled by Mazer. As the fighting becomes harder, he is joined by some of his friends from the Battle School as sub-commanders. Ender grows depressed by the battles, his isolation, and the way Mazer treats him. For his final test, under observation by I.F.'s commanders, Ender finds his fleet far outnumbered by Formic ships surrounding their homeworld. He sacrifices his entire fleet to fire a Molecular Disruption Device at the planet. The Device destroys the planet and paralyzes the surrounding bugger fleet. The commanders cheer and celebrate. Mazer informs Ender that the "simulations" were real battles, directing human spacecraft against Formic fleets via an ansible and that Ender has won the war. Ender realizes that he has committed genocide and become just like Peter. Ender and Valentine join a group of space colonists. On their new planet, Ender becomes the colony's governor. He discovers a structure that matches the simulation of the giant game from Battle School and inside finds the dormant egg of a Formic queen. The queen telepathically communicates to Ender that before the first Formic war, they had assumed humans were a non-sentient race, for want of collective consciousness, but realized their mistake too late. Instead, she had reached out to Ender to draw him here and requested that he take the egg to a new planet for the Formics to colonize. Ender takes the egg and, with information from the queen, writes The Hive Queen under the alias "Speaker for the Dead". Peter, now the leader of Earth and 77 with heart failure, recognizes Ender as the author of The Hive Queen. He asks Ender to write a book about him, which Ender titles The Hegemon. The combined works create a new type of funeral, in which the Speaker for the Dead tells the whole and unapologetic story of the deceased, adopted by many on Earth and its colonies. Ender and Valentine leave the colony and travel to other worlds, looking for a safe place to establish the unborn Hive Queen. Creation and inspiration The original "Ender's Game" is a short story that provides a small snapshot of Ender's experiences in Battle School and Command School; the full-length novel encompasses more of Ender's life before, during, and after the war, and also contains some chapters describing the political exploits of his older siblings back on Earth. In a commentary track for the 20th anniversary audiobook edition of the novel, as well as in the 1991 Author's Definitive Edition, Card stated that Ender's Game was written specifically to establish the character of Ender for his role of the Speaker in Speaker for the Dead, the outline for which he had written before novelizing Ender's Game. Additionally, in the post-script of the 20th anniversary audiobook edition, Card mentions that he named Ender so that he could have a name that sounded like "endgame" from chess. In his 1991 introduction to the novel, Card discussed the influence of Isaac Asimov's Foundation series on the novelette and novel. Historian Bruce Catton's work on the American Civil War also influenced Card. Ender's Game was the first science-fiction novel published entirely online, when it appeared on Delphi a year before print publication. Critical response Ender's Game won the Nebula Award for best novel in 1985, and the Hugo Award for best novel in 1986, considered the two most prestigious awards in science fiction. Ender's Game was also nominated for a Locus Award in 1986. In 1999, it placed No. 59 on the reader's list of Modern Library 100 Best Novels. It was also honored with a spot on American Library Association's "100 Best Books for Teens". In 2008, the novel, along with Ender's Shadow, won the Margaret A. Edwards Award, which honors an author and specific works by that author for lifetime contribution to young adult literature. Ender's Game was included in Damien Broderick's book Science Fiction: The 101 Best Novels 1985–2010. It ranked number nine on Locus's top SF novels published before 1990. The New York Times writer Gerald Jonas asserts that the novel's plot summary resembles a "grade Z, made-for-television, science-fiction rip-off movie", but says that Card develops the elements well despite this "unpromising material". Jonas further praises the development of the character Ender Wiggin: "Alternately likable and insufferable, he is a convincing little Napoleon in short pants." The novel has received criticism for its portrayal of violence and its justification. Elaine Radford's review, "Ender and Hitler: Sympathy for the Superman", posits that Ender Wiggin is an intentional reference by Card to Adolf Hitler and criticizes the violence in the novel, particularly at the hands of the protagonist. Card responded to Radford's criticisms in Fantasy Review, the same publication. Radford's criticisms are echoed in John Kessel's essay "Creating the Innocent Killer: Ender's Game, Intention, and Morality", wherein Kessel states: "Ender gets to strike out at his enemies and still remain morally clean. Nothing is his fault." Noah Berlatsky makes similar claims in his analysis of the relationship between colonization and science fiction, where he describes Ender's Game as in part a justification of "Western expansion and genocide". However, more recently, science fiction scholar Mike Ryder has refuted the claims of Kessel and Radford, arguing that Ender is exploited by powers beyond his control. The U.S. Marine Corps Professional Reading List makes the novel recommended reading at several lower ranks, and again at Officer Candidate/Midshipman. The book was placed on the reading list by Captain John F. Schmitt, author of FMFM-1 (Fleet Marine Force Manual, on maneuver doctrine) for "provid useful allegories to explain why militaries do what they do in a particularly effective shorthand way". In introducing the novel for use in leadership training, Marine Corps University's Lejeune program opines that it offers "lessons in training methodology, leadership, and ethics as well. . . . Ender's Game has been a stalwart item on the Marine Corps Reading List since its inception". It is also used as an early fictional example of game-based learning. Accolades Publication Country Accolade Year Rank Amazon.com United States Best of the Century: Best Books of the Millennium Poll 1999 32 Locus United States Best 20th Century Science Fiction Novels: Reader's Poll 2012 2 Modern Library United States Modern Library 100 Best Novels: Reader's List 1999 59 NPR United States Top 100 Science Fiction, Fantasy Books: Readers' Poll 2011 3 Publishers Weekly United States Bestselling Science Fiction Novels of 2012 2012 1 Science Channel United States Top 10 Sci-fi Books of All Time 2013 5 The weeks ending June 9, August 11, September 1, September 8, October 27, November 3, November 10, and November 24, 2013, the novel was No. 1 on The New York Times' Best Sellers List of Paperback Mass-Market Fiction. Revisions In 1991, Card made several minor changes to reflect the political climates of the time, including the decline of the Soviet Union. In the afterword of Ender in Exile (2008), Card stated that many of the details in chapter 15 of Ender's Game were modified for use in the subsequent novels and short stories. In order to more closely match the other material, Card has rewritten chapter 15 and plans to offer a revised edition of the book. Adaptations Film Main article: Ender's Game (film) After several years of speculation on the possibility, Summit Entertainment financed and coordinated the development of a film in 2011, serving as its distributor. Gavin Hood directed the film, which lasts 1 hour and 54 minutes. Filming began in New Orleans, Louisiana, on February 27, 2012, and was released on November 1, 2013 (USA). A movie preview trailer was released in May 2013 and a second trailer was released later that year. Card has called Ender's Game "unfilmable", "because everything takes place in Ender's head", and refused to sign a film deal unless he could ensure that the film was "true to the story". Of the film that he eventually agreed to, Card said it was "the best that good people could do with a story they really cared about and believed in", and while warning fans not to expect a completely faithful adaptation, called the film "damn good". The movie starred Asa Butterfield as Ender Wiggin and Harrison Ford as Colonel Hyrum Graff. It grossed $125 million worldwide, and received mixed reviews from critics. Video game In 2008 it was announced an Ender's Game video game was in the works. It was to be known as Ender's Game: Battle Room and was a planned digitally distributed video game for all viable downloadable platforms. It was under development by Chair Entertainment, which also developed the Xbox Live Arcade games Undertow and Shadow Complex. Chair had sold the licensing of Empire to Card, which became a bestselling novel. Little was revealed about the game, save its setting in the Ender universe and that it would have focused on the Battle Room. In December 2010, it was announced that the video game development had stopped and the project put on indefinite hold. Orson Scott Card and Amaze Entertainment also came to an agreement regarding a video game adaption of the novel but nothing ever materialized. Comics Main article: Ender's Game (comics) Marvel Comics and Orson Scott Card announced on April 19, 2008, that they would be publishing a limited series adaptation of Ender's Game as the first in a comic series that would adapt all of Card's Ender's Game novels. Card was quoted as saying that it is the first step in moving the story to a visual medium. The first five-issue series, titled Ender's Game: Battle School, was written by Christopher Yost, while the second five-issue series, Ender's Shadow: Battle School, was written by Mike Carey. Audioplay Ender's Game Alive: The Full Cast Audioplay, is an 2013 audio drama written by Orson Scott Card, based on the Ender's Game novel. At over seven hours in length, this retelling of Ender's Game hints at storylines from "Teacher's Pest", "The Polish Boy", "The Gold Bug", Ender's Shadow, Shadow of the Hegemon, Shadow of the Giant, Shadows in Flight, Earth Unaware, and Speaker for the Dead, and gives new insight into the beginnings of Ender's philotic connection with the Hive Queen. Ender's Game Alive is directed by Gabrielle de Cuir, produced by Stefan Rudnicki at Skyboat Media, published by Audible.com, and performed by a cast of over 30 voice actors playing over 100 roles. Audible also commissioned a German-language adaptation of the same script. Titled Ender's Game/Das grosse Spiel - Das ungekürzte Hörspiel ("The unabridged audio drama"), this adaptation was produced by "Lauscherlounge", directed by Balthasar von Weymarn and performed by a cast of 100 different voice actors including children. Translations Ender's Game has been translated into 34 languages: Albanian: Loja e Enderit ("Ender's Game"). Bulgarian: Играта на Ендър ("Ender's Game"). Catalan: El joc de l'Ender ("Ender's Game"), 2000. Chinese: 安德的游戏 (pinyin：Ān dé de yóu xì) ("Ender's Game"), 2003. Croatian: Enderova igra ("Ender's Game"), 2007. Czech: Enderova hra ("Ender's Game"), 1994. Danish: Ender's strategi ("Ender's Strategy"), 1990. Dutch: Ender Wint, De Tactiek van Ender ("Ender Wins", "The Tactics of Ender"), 1989, 1994 (two editions) Estonian: Enderi mäng ("Ender's Game"), 2000. Finnish: Ender ("Ender"), 1990. French: La Stratégie Ender ("The Ender Strategy"), 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001. Galician: O xogo de Ender ("Ender's Game"), 2011 Georgian: ენდერის თამაში (enderis TamaSi) ("Ender's Game"), 2015. German: Das große Spiel ("The Great Game"), 1986, 2005. Greek: Το παιχνίδι του Έντερ (Tǒ pehníthi too Ender) ("Ender's Game"), 1996. Hebrew: המשחק של אנדר (Ha-Misḥaq šel Ender) ("Ender's Game"), 1994. Hungarian: Végjáték ("Endgame"), 1991. Italian: Il gioco di Ender ("Ender's Game"). Japanese: エンダーのゲーム (Endā no Gēmu) ("Ender's Game"), 1987. Korean: 엔더의 게임 (Endeoŭi Geim) ("Ender's Game"), 1992, 2000 (two editions). Latvian: Endera spēle ("Ender's Game"), 2008. Lithuanian: Enderio Žaidimas ("Ender's Game"), 2007 Norwegian: Enders spill ("Ender's Game"), 1999. Persian: بازی اندر (Bazi ē Ender), 2011 Polish: Gra Endera ("Ender's Game"), 1994. Portuguese: O Jogo do Exterminador ("The Game of the Exterminator") (Brazil). Portuguese: O jogo final ("The Final Game") (Portugal). Romanian: Jocul lui Ender ("Ender's Game"). Russian: Игра Эндера (Igra Endera) ("Ender's Game"), 1995, 1996, 2002, 2003 (two editions). Slovene: Enderjeva igra ("Ender's Game"), 2010. Serbian: Eндерова игра (Enderova igra) ("Ender's Game"), 1988. Spanish: El juego de Ender ("Ender's Game"). Swedish: Enders spel ("Ender's Game"), 1991, 1998. Thai: เกมพลิกโลก ("The Game that Changed the World"), 2007. Turkish: Ender'in Oyunu ("Ender's Game"). Ukrainian: Гра Ендера ("Ender's Game"), 2013. Vietnamese: Trò chơi của Ender ("Ender's Game"), 2014. See also List of Ender's Game characters Formics The Last Starfighter - 1984 film with a similar premise Notes ^ "Short Stories by Orson Scott Card". Hatrack River Enterprises Inc. 2009. Archived from the original on 2020-02-02. Retrieved 2009-01-03. ^ "Commandant's Professional Reading List - Primary Level Enlisted". Library of the Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2017-01-09. ^ "1985 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Archived from the original on 2018-11-06. Retrieved 2009-07-15. ^ a b "1986 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Archived from the original on 2016-04-11. Retrieved 2009-07-15. ^ Sneider, Jeff (29 November 2011). "Asa Butterfield locks 'Ender's Game'". Variety. Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2017. ^ a b Card, Orson Scott (1991). "Introduction". Ender's Game (Author's definitive ed.). New York: Tor Books. 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"The Literature of Drones: Ethics and Remote Killing in Ender's Game". Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction (144). ^ "USMC Professional Reading Program (website)". Reading List by Grade. Marine Corps University. 2014-12-13. Archived from the original (Website) on 2014-12-14. Retrieved 2014-12-13. ^ a b "Ender's Game Discussion Guide" (PDF). USMC Professional Reading Program. Marine Corps University. 2009-09-25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2010-09-08. ^ Pellegrino, Joseph; Scott, Amy (2004). "The Transition from Simulation to Game-Based Learning". Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Conference. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.5486. ^ "Locus Online: Books and Publishing News, November 1999, Page 3". Locusmag.com. 1999-11-23. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ "Locus Roundtable » All-Time Novel Results, 2012". Locusmag.com. 2012-12-22. Archived from the original on 2016-09-27. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ Search for a Title or Author. "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". Modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-28. Retrieved 2013-11-09. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help) ^ "Your Picks: Top 100 Science-Fiction, Fantasy Books". NPR. 2011-08-11. Archived from the original on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ "Ender's Game". Publishers Weekly. Archived from the original on 2016-04-23. Retrieved 2013-11-03. ^ Sci Fi (2012-10-11). "Top 10 Sci-fi Books of All Time : Science Channel". Science.discovery.com. Archived from the original on 2013-11-03. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ "Paperback Mass-Market Fiction". The New York Times. 2013-06-09. Archived from the original on 2019-07-29. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ "Paperback Mass-Market Fiction". The New York Times. 2013-08-11. Archived from the original on 2019-07-29. Retrieved 2013-11-09. ^ "Paperback Mass-Market Fiction". The New York Times. 2013-09-01. Archived from the original on 2019-07-29. 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"Summit plays 'Ender's Game'". Variety. Archived from the original on February 29, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2020. ^ "Gavin Hood Attached to Ender's Game". comingsoon.net. September 21, 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-09-22. Retrieved 2010-09-21. ^ Zeitchik, Steven (September 20, 2010). "Gavin Hood looks to play 'Ender's Game'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved May 28, 2011. ^ Christine (2012-03-01). "'Ender's Game' begins filming at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans". Onlocationvacations.com. Archived from the original on 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2013-05-17. ^ "Ender's Game Trailer, News, Videos, and Reviews". ComingSoon.net. Archived from the original on 2013-03-23. Retrieved 2013-05-17. ^ "Ender's Game Trailer". Summit Entertainment. Archived from the original on 2013-07-05. Retrieved 2013-05-14. ^ "Ender's Game Trailer 2". Summit Entertainment. Archived from the original on 2013-08-15. Retrieved 2013-08-18. ^ "Orson Scott Card Talks About 'Ender's Game' Book And Movie". Neon Tommy. 2013-04-20. Archived from the original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-05-17. ^ "Ender's Game". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on 2019-08-20. Retrieved 2020-04-20. ^ "Ender's Game Reviews". Metacritic. Archived from the original on 2020-05-23. Retrieved 2020-04-20. ^ "L. Kietzmann (2008) – Undertow team creating Orson Scott Card's Ender's Game's game". 29 January 2008. Archived from the original on 2018-02-26. Retrieved 2018-02-25. ^ a b Croal, N'Gai (January 29, 2008). "Exclusive: Chair Entertainment's Donald and Geremy Mustard Shed Some Light On Their Plans For 'Ender's Game'". Newsweek. Archived from the original on June 3, 2008. Retrieved 2009-01-05. ^ "Ender's Game tabled by Chair". Joystiq. December 14, 2010. Archived from the original on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2012-03-29. ^ "Orson Scott Card interview — Atari computers & computer games - YouTube". YouTube. 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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ender's Game. About the novel Ender's Game from Card's website Ender's Game at Macmillan Ender's Game title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Ender's Game. Mormon Literature & Creative Arts Database. Intergalactic Medicine Show: Online science fiction magazine published by Orson Scott Card. Features a new Ender's world story in every issue. vteWorks by Orson Scott CardEnder's Game seriesBooksEnder Series Ender's Game (1985) Speaker for the Dead (1986) Xenocide (1991) Children of the Mind (1996) Ender in Exile (2008) Shadow Saga Ender's Shadow (1999) Shadow of the Hegemon (2001) Shadow Puppets (2002) Shadow of the Giant (2005) Shadows in Flight (2012) The Last Shadow (2021) Formic Wars Earth Unaware (2012) Earth Afire (2013) Earth Awakens (2014) The Swarm (2016) The Hive (2019) The Queens (TBA) First Meetings (2002) A War of Gifts: An Ender Story (2007) Children of the Fleet (2017) Short stories "Ender's Game" (1977) "Gloriously Bright" (1991) "Investment Counselor" "The Polish Boy" "Teacher's Pest" "Mazer in Prison" "Pretty Boy" "Cheater" "A Young Man with Prospects" "The Gold Bug" "Ender's Stocking" "Ender's Homecoming" "Ender in Flight" "Renegat" "Governor Wiggin" "Messenger" Other media Comics Film Characters Ender Wiggin Formics Jane The Tales of Alvin MakerBooks Seventh Son (1987) Red Prophet (1988) Prentice Alvin (1989) Alvin Journeyman (1995) Heartfire (1998) The Crystal City (2003) Other media "Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow" (poem, 1989) Red Prophet: The Tales of Alvin Maker (comic book, 2006) The Worthing seriesBooks Capitol (1979) Hot Sleep (1979) The Worthing Chronicle (1983) The Worthing Saga (1990) Other worksHomecoming Saga The Memory of Earth (1992) The Call of Earth (1992) The Ships of Earth (1994) Earthfall (1995) Earthborn (1995) Women of Genesis Sarah (2000) Rebekah (2001) Rachel and Leah (2004) The Wives of Israel (TBA) Mithermages series Sandmagic (1979) Stonefather (2008) The Lost Gate (2011) The Gate Thief (2013) Gatefather (2015) Mayflower series Lovelock (1994) Rasputin (TBA) The Empire duet Empire (2006) Hidden Empire (2009) The Pathfinder series Pathfinder (2010) Ruins (2012) Visitors (2014) Standalone novels A Planet Called Treason (1979) Songmaster (1980) Hart's Hope (1983) Saints (1984) Wyrms (1987) Treason (1988) The Abyss (1989) Lost Boys (1992) Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus (1996) Treasure Box (1996) Stone Tables (1997) Homebody (1998) Enchantment (1999) Magic Street (2005) Invasive Procedures (2007) Bully and the Beast (TBA) Story collections Unaccompanied Sonata and Other Stories (1980) Cardography (1987) The Folk of the Fringe (1989) Maps in a Mirror (1990) Keeper of Dreams (2008) Other works Listen, Mom and Dad (1977) Ainge (1981) Saintspeak (1981) Eye for Eye (1987) Loom (1990) The Secret of Monkey Island (1990) The Dig (1995) NeoHunter (1996) Magic Mirror (1999) Robota (2003) An Open Book (2004) Ultimate Iron Man (2005) Advent Rising (2005) InterGalactic Medicine Show (2005) Hamlet's Father (2011) Firefall (2014) vteHugo Award for Best NovelRetro The Sword in the Stone by T. H. White (1939) Slan by A. E. van Vogt (1941) Beyond This Horizon by Anson MacDonald (1943) Conjure Wife by Fritz Leiber (1944) Shadow Over Mars by Leigh Brackett (1945) The Mule by Isaac Asimov (1946) Farmer in the Sky by Robert A. Heinlein (1951) Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury (1954) 1950s The Demolished Man by Alfred Bester (1953) They'd Rather Be Right (aka: The Forever Machine) by Mark Clifton and Frank Riley (1955) Double Star by Robert A. Heinlein (1956) The Big Time by Fritz Leiber (1958) A Case of Conscience by James Blish (1959) 1960s Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein (1960) A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller, Jr. (1961) Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein (1962) The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick (1963) Here Gather the Stars (aka: Way Station) by Clifford D. Simak (1964) The Wanderer by Fritz Leiber (1965) Dune by Frank Herbert / ...And Call Me Conrad (aka: This Immortal) by Roger Zelazny (1966) The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress by Robert A. Heinlein (1967) Lord of Light by Roger Zelazny (1968) Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner (1969) 1970s The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin (1970) Ringworld by Larry Niven (1971) To Your Scattered Bodies Go by Philip José Farmer (1972) The Gods Themselves by Isaac Asimov (1973) Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke (1974) The Dispossessed by Ursula K. Le Guin (1975) The Forever War by Joe Haldeman (1976) Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang by Kate Wilhelm (1977) Gateway by Frederik Pohl (1978) Dreamsnake by Vonda N. McIntyre (1979) 1980s The Fountains of Paradise by Arthur C. Clarke (1980) The Snow Queen by Joan D. Vinge (1981) Downbelow Station by C. J. Cherryh (1982) Foundation's Edge by Isaac Asimov (1983) Startide Rising by David Brin (1984) Neuromancer by William Gibson (1985) Ender's Game by Orson Scott Card (1986) Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott Card (1987) The Uplift War by David Brin (1988) Cyteen by C. J. Cherryh (1989) 1990s Hyperion by Dan Simmons (1990) The Vor Game by Lois McMaster Bujold (1991) Barrayar by Lois McMaster Bujold (1992) A Fire Upon the Deep by Vernor Vinge / Doomsday Book by Connie Willis (1993) Green Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson (1994) Mirror Dance by Lois McMaster Bujold (1995) The Diamond Age by Neal Stephenson (1996) Blue Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson (1997) Forever Peace by Joe Haldeman (1998) To Say Nothing of the Dog by Connie Willis (1999) 2000s A Deepness in the Sky by Vernor Vinge (2000) Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire by J. K. Rowling (2001) American Gods by Neil Gaiman (2002) Hominids by Robert J. Sawyer (2003) Paladin of Souls by Lois McMaster Bujold (2004) Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell by Susanna Clarke (2005) Spin by Robert Charles Wilson (2006) Rainbows End by Vernor Vinge (2007) The Yiddish Policemen's Union by Michael Chabon (2008) The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman (2009) 2010s The Windup Girl by Paolo Bacigalupi / The City & the City by China Miéville (2010) Blackout/All Clear by Connie Willis (2011) Among Others by Jo Walton (2012) Redshirts by John Scalzi (2013) Ancillary Justice by Ann Leckie (2014) The Three-Body Problem by Cixin Liu, translated by Ken Liu (2015) The Fifth Season by N. K. Jemisin (2016) The Obelisk Gate by N. K. Jemisin (2017) The Stone Sky by N. K. Jemisin (2018) The Calculating Stars by Mary Robinette Kowal (2019) 2020s A Memory Called Empire by Arkady Martine (2020) Network Effect by Martha Wells (2021) A Desolation Called Peace by Arkady Martine (2022) Nettle & Bone by T. Kingfisher (2023) vteNebula Award for Best Novel1966–1980 Dune by Frank Herbert (1966) Babel-17 by Samuel R. Delany and Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes (1967) The Einstein Intersection by Samuel R. Delany (1968) Rite of Passage by Alexei Panshin (1969) The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin (1970) Ringworld by Larry Niven (1971) A Time of Changes by Robert Silverberg (1972) The Gods Themselves by Isaac Asimov (1973) Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke (1974) The Dispossessed by Ursula K. Le Guin (1975) The Forever War by Joe Haldeman (1976) Man Plus by Frederik Pohl (1977) Gateway by Frederik Pohl (1978) Dreamsnake by Vonda N. McIntyre (1979) The Fountains of Paradise by Arthur C. Clarke (1980) 1981–2000 Timescape by Gregory Benford (1981) The Claw of the Conciliator by Gene Wolfe (1982) No Enemy But Time by Michael Bishop (1983) Startide Rising by David Brin (1984) Neuromancer by William Gibson (1985) Ender's Game by Orson Scott Card (1986) Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott Card (1987) The Falling Woman by Pat Murphy (1988) Falling Free by Lois McMaster Bujold (1989) The Healer's War by Elizabeth Ann Scarborough (1990) Tehanu: The Last Book of Earthsea by Ursula K. Le Guin (1991) Stations of the Tide by Michael Swanwick (1992) Doomsday Book by Connie Willis (1993) Red Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson (1994) Moving Mars by Greg Bear (1995) The Terminal Experiment by Robert J. Sawyer (1996) Slow River by Nicola Griffith (1997) The Moon and the Sun by Vonda N. McIntyre (1998) Forever Peace by Joe Haldeman (1999) Parable of the Talents by Octavia E. Butler (2000) 2001–2020 Darwin's Radio by Greg Bear (2001) The Quantum Rose by Catherine Asaro (2002) American Gods by Neil Gaiman (2003) Speed of Dark by Elizabeth Moon (2004) Paladin of Souls by Lois McMaster Bujold (2005) Camouflage by Joe Haldeman (2006) Seeker by Jack McDevitt (2007) The Yiddish Policemen's Union by Michael Chabon (2008) Powers by Ursula K. Le Guin (2009) The Windup Girl by Paolo Bacigalupi (2010) Blackout/All Clear by Connie Willis (2011) Among Others by Jo Walton (2012) 2312 by Kim Stanley Robinson (2013) Ancillary Justice by Ann Leckie (2014) Annihilation by Jeff VanderMeer (2015) Uprooted by Naomi Novik (2016) All the Birds in the Sky by Charlie Jane Anders (2017) The Stone Sky by N. K. Jemisin (2018) The Calculating Stars by Mary Robinette Kowal (2019) A Song for a New Day by Sarah Pinsker (2020) 2021–present Network Effect by Martha Wells (2021) A Master of Djinn by P. Djèlí Clark (2022) Babel, or the Necessity of Violence by R. F. Kuang (2023) Authority control databases International VIAF National Israel United States Other MusicBrainz release group

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ender's Game (novel series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(novel_series)"},{"link_name":"Ender's Game (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"military science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Orson Scott Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card"},{"link_name":"insectoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectoids_in_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"alien species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life"},{"link_name":"buggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(novel_series)#Formics"},{"link_name":"Andrew \"Ender\" Wiggin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"war games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_games"},{"link_name":"zero gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlessness"},{"link_name":"tactical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics"},{"link_name":"genius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius"},{"link_name":"of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Analog Science Fiction and Fact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Fact"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ender's Game series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(series)"},{"link_name":"dissolution of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"United States Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarineC-2"},{"link_name":"Nebula Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1985-3"},{"link_name":"Hugo Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1986-4"},{"link_name":"Speaker for the Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_for_the_Dead"},{"link_name":"Xenocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocide"},{"link_name":"Children of the Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_the_Mind"},{"link_name":"Ender in Exile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_in_Exile"},{"link_name":"A War of Gifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_War_of_Gifts"},{"link_name":"Ender's Shadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Shadow"},{"link_name":"film adaptation of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(film)"},{"link_name":"Gavin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Hood"},{"link_name":"Asa Butterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Butterfield"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"two comic book series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(series)#Comic_books_in_the_series"}],"text":"1985 novel by Orson Scott CardThis article is about the novel. For the titular series, see Ender's Game (novel series). For other uses, see Ender's Game (disambiguation).Ender's Game is a 1985 military science fiction novel by American author Orson Scott Card. Set at an unspecified date in Earth's future, the novel presents an imperiled humankind after two conflicts with an insectoid alien species they dub \"the buggers\". In preparation for an anticipated third invasion, Earth's international military force recruits young children, including the novel's protagonist, Andrew \"Ender\" Wiggin, to be trained as elite officers. The children learn military strategy and leadership by playing increasingly difficult war games, including some in zero gravity, where Ender's tactical genius is revealed.The book originated as a short story of the same name, published in the August 1977 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact.[1] The novel was published on January 15, 1985. Later, by elaborating on characters and plotlines depicted in the novel, Card wrote additional books in the Ender's Game series. Card released an updated version of Ender's Game in 1991, changing some political facts to account for the then-recent dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. The novel has been translated into 34 languages.Reception of the book has been mostly positive. It has become suggested reading for many military organizations, including the United States Marine Corps.[2] Ender's Game was recognized as \"best novel\" by the 1985 Nebula Award[3] and the 1986 Hugo Award[4] in the genres of science fiction and fantasy. Its four sequels—Speaker for the Dead (1986), Xenocide (1991), Children of the Mind (1996), and Ender in Exile (2008)—follow Ender's subsequent travels to many different worlds in the galaxy. In addition, the later novella A War of Gifts (2007) and novel Ender's Shadow (1999), plus other novels in the Shadow saga, take place during the same time period as the original.A film adaptation of the same name, written for the screen and directed by Gavin Hood, and starring Asa Butterfield as Ender, was released in October 2013. Card co-produced the film.[5] The novel has also been adapted into two comic book series.","title":"Ender's Game"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Formics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formics"},{"link_name":"Andrew \"Ender\" Wiggin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_%22Ender%22_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"sociopath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder"},{"link_name":"Valentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"Hyrum Graff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyrum_Graff"},{"link_name":"Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"Demosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes"},{"link_name":"Mazer Rackham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazer_Rackham"},{"link_name":"ansible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansible"},{"link_name":"genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide"},{"link_name":"collective consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_consciousness"},{"link_name":"The Hive Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hive_Queen_(Ender%27s_Game)"},{"link_name":"The Hegemon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemon"}],"text":"War breaks out between humans and an insect-like alien race called the Formics. The humans achieve a narrow victory then create the International Fleet (I.F.) and train gifted children to become commanders at their orbiting Battle School.Andrew \"Ender\" Wiggin is born a \"Third\": a rare exception to Earth's two-child policy, allowed by the government due to the promise shown by his two older siblings. The eldest, Peter, is an intelligent sociopath who bullies Ender. His sister, Valentine, is deeply empathic. The I.F. removed Ender's monitoring device when he was six years old, seemingly ending his chances of Battle School. He is bullied by a fellow student, Stilson, but Ender violently attacks him. Stilson later dies from his wounds. Colonel Hyrum Graff visits Ender after hearing about the fight. Ender attests that by showing superiority now, he has prevented future struggle. Graff offers him a place in the Battle School.Once at Battle School, Graff and the other leaders covertly work to keep Ender isolated. Ender finds solace in playing a simulated adventure game that involves being killed by and eventually killing a giant. The cadets participate in competitive war simulations in zero gravity, where Ender quickly masters the competition with novel tactics. To further wear Ender down, he is promoted to command a new army composed of raw recruits, then pitted against multiple armies at once, but Ender's success continues. Ender's jealous ex-commander, Bonzo Madrid, draws him into a fight outside the simulation, and once again seeking to preemptively stop future conflicts, Ender uses excessive force, and Bonzo dies from his injuries.Meanwhile on Earth, Peter Wiggin uses a global communication system to post political essays under the pseudonym \"Locke\", hoping to establish himself as a respected orator and then as a powerful politician. Valentine, despite not trusting Peter, agrees to publish alongside him as \"Demosthenes\". Their essays are soon taken seriously by the government and the people.Ender, now ten years old, is promoted to Command School. After some preliminary battles in the simulator, he is introduced to Mazer Rackham, a hero from the Formic war who saw key patterns in the Formic behavior. Ender participates in space combat simulations created and controlled by Mazer. As the fighting becomes harder, he is joined by some of his friends from the Battle School as sub-commanders. Ender grows depressed by the battles, his isolation, and the way Mazer treats him.For his final test, under observation by I.F.'s commanders, Ender finds his fleet far outnumbered by Formic ships surrounding their homeworld. He sacrifices his entire fleet to fire a Molecular Disruption Device at the planet. The Device destroys the planet and paralyzes the surrounding bugger fleet. The commanders cheer and celebrate. Mazer informs Ender that the \"simulations\" were real battles, directing human spacecraft against Formic fleets via an ansible and that Ender has won the war. Ender realizes that he has committed genocide and become just like Peter.Ender and Valentine join a group of space colonists. On their new planet, Ender becomes the colony's governor. He discovers a structure that matches the simulation of the giant game from Battle School and inside finds the dormant egg of a Formic queen. The queen telepathically communicates to Ender that before the first Formic war, they had assumed humans were a non-sentient race, for want of collective consciousness, but realized their mistake too late. Instead, she had reached out to Ender to draw him here and requested that he take the egg to a new planet for the Formics to colonize.Ender takes the egg and, with information from the queen, writes The Hive Queen under the alias \"Speaker for the Dead\". Peter, now the leader of Earth and 77 with heart failure, recognizes Ender as the author of The Hive Queen. He asks Ender to write a book about him, which Ender titles The Hegemon. The combined works create a new type of funeral, in which the Speaker for the Dead tells the whole and unapologetic story of the deceased, adopted by many on Earth and its colonies. Ender and Valentine leave the colony and travel to other worlds, looking for a safe place to establish the unborn Hive Queen.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ender's Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Game_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"short story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story"},{"link_name":"Speaker for the Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_for_the_Dead"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-book-10"},{"link_name":"endgame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_endgame"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Isaac Asimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimov"},{"link_name":"Foundation series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_series"},{"link_name":"Bruce Catton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Catton"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-book-10"},{"link_name":"Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_(online_service)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dignazio198612-12"}],"text":"The original \"Ender's Game\" is a short story that provides a small snapshot of Ender's experiences in Battle School and Command School; the full-length novel encompasses more of Ender's life before, during, and after the war, and also contains some chapters describing the political exploits of his older siblings back on Earth. In a commentary track for the 20th anniversary audiobook edition of the novel, as well as in the 1991 Author's Definitive Edition, Card stated that Ender's Game was written specifically to establish the character of Ender for his role of the Speaker in Speaker for the Dead, the outline for which he had written before novelizing Ender's Game.[6] Additionally, in the post-script of the 20th anniversary audiobook edition, Card mentions that he named Ender so that he could have a name that sounded like \"endgame\" from chess.[7] In his 1991 introduction to the novel, Card discussed the influence of Isaac Asimov's Foundation series on the novelette and novel. Historian Bruce Catton's work on the American Civil War also influenced Card.[6]Ender's Game was the first science-fiction novel published entirely online, when it appeared on Delphi a year before print publication.[8]","title":"Creation and inspiration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nebula Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Hugo Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1986-4"},{"link_name":"Modern Library 100 Best Novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Library_100_Best_Novels"},{"link_name":"American Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Library_Association"},{"link_name":"Ender's Shadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%27s_Shadow"},{"link_name":"Margaret A. Edwards Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_A._Edwards_Award"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Damien Broderick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Broderick"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Ender Wiggin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20"},{"link_name":"Elaine Radford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Radford"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elaine-2-21"},{"link_name":"John Kessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kessel"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kessel-22"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Atlantic_SF_imperial-23"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"U.S. Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"John F. Schmitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_F._Schmitt&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USMCEnders3-26"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USMCEnders3-26"},{"link_name":"game-based learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_game"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Ender's Game won the Nebula Award for best novel in 1985,[9] and the Hugo Award for best novel in 1986,[10] considered the two most prestigious awards in science fiction.[11][12] Ender's Game was also nominated for a Locus Award in 1986.[4] In 1999, it placed No. 59 on the reader's list of Modern Library 100 Best Novels. It was also honored with a spot on American Library Association's \"100 Best Books for Teens\". In 2008, the novel, along with Ender's Shadow, won the Margaret A. Edwards Award, which honors an author and specific works by that author for lifetime contribution to young adult literature.[13] Ender's Game was included in Damien Broderick's book Science Fiction: The 101 Best Novels 1985–2010.[14] It ranked number nine on Locus's top SF novels published before 1990.[15]The New York Times writer Gerald Jonas asserts that the novel's plot summary resembles a \"grade Z, made-for-television, science-fiction rip-off movie\", but says that Card develops the elements well despite this \"unpromising material\". Jonas further praises the development of the character Ender Wiggin: \"Alternately likable and insufferable, he is a convincing little Napoleon in short pants.\"[16]The novel has received criticism for its portrayal of violence and its justification. Elaine Radford's review, \"Ender and Hitler: Sympathy for the Superman\", posits that Ender Wiggin is an intentional reference by Card to Adolf Hitler and criticizes the violence in the novel, particularly at the hands of the protagonist.[17] Card responded to Radford's criticisms in Fantasy Review, the same publication. Radford's criticisms are echoed in John Kessel's essay \"Creating the Innocent Killer: Ender's Game, Intention, and Morality\", wherein Kessel states: \"Ender gets to strike out at his enemies and still remain morally clean. Nothing is his fault.\"[18] Noah Berlatsky makes similar claims in his analysis of the relationship between colonization and science fiction, where he describes Ender's Game as in part a justification of \"Western expansion and genocide\".[19] However, more recently, science fiction scholar Mike Ryder has refuted the claims of Kessel and Radford, arguing that Ender is exploited by powers beyond his control.[20]The U.S. Marine Corps Professional Reading List makes the novel recommended reading at several lower ranks, and again at Officer Candidate/Midshipman.[21]\nThe book was placed on the reading list by Captain John F. Schmitt, author of FMFM-1 (Fleet Marine Force Manual, on maneuver doctrine) for \"provid[ing] useful allegories to explain why militaries do what they do in a particularly effective shorthand way\".[22]\nIn introducing the novel for use in leadership training, Marine Corps University's Lejeune program opines that it offers \"lessons in training methodology, leadership, and ethics as well. . . . Ender's Game has been a stalwart item on the Marine Corps Reading List since its inception\".[22] It is also used as an early fictional example of game-based learning.[23]","title":"Critical response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"The weeks ending June 9, August 11, September 1, September 8, October 27, November 3, November 10, and November 24, 2013, the novel was No. 1 on The New York Times' Best Sellers List of Paperback Mass-Market Fiction.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]","title":"Accolades"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Ender in Exile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_in_Exile"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"In 1991, Card made several minor changes to reflect the political climates of the time, including the decline of the Soviet Union. In the afterword of Ender in Exile (2008), Card stated that many of the details in chapter 15 of Ender's Game were modified for use in the subsequent novels and short stories. In order to more closely match the other material, Card has rewritten chapter 15 and plans to offer a revised edition of the book.[38]","title":"Revisions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Summit Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Gavin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Hood"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"New Orleans, Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"unfilmable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfilmable"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Asa Butterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Butterfield"},{"link_name":"Ender Wiggin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_Wiggin"},{"link_name":"Harrison Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_Ford"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mojo-52"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"After several years of speculation on the possibility, Summit Entertainment financed and coordinated the development of a film in 2011, serving as its distributor.[39][40] Gavin Hood directed the film, which lasts 1 hour and 54 minutes.[41][42] Filming began in New Orleans, Louisiana, on February 27, 2012,[43] and was released on November 1, 2013 (USA).[44] A movie preview trailer[45] was released in May 2013 and a second trailer[46] was released later that year.Card has called Ender's Game \"unfilmable\", \"because everything takes place in Ender's head\", and refused to sign a film deal unless he could ensure that the film was \"true to the story\". Of the film that he eventually agreed to, Card said it was \"the best that good people could do with a story they really cared about and believed in\", and while warning fans not to expect a completely faithful adaptation, called the film \"damn good\".[47]The movie starred Asa Butterfield as Ender Wiggin and Harrison Ford as Colonel Hyrum Graff. It grossed $125 million worldwide,[48] and received mixed reviews from critics.[49]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-devdiscuss-55"},{"link_name":"Chair Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chair_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Undertow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undertow_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Shadow Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Complex"},{"link_name":"Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_(2006_novel)"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-devdiscuss-55"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Amaze Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaze_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Video game","text":"In 2008 it was announced an Ender's Game video game was in the works.[50] It was to be known as Ender's Game: Battle Room and was a planned digitally distributed video game for all viable downloadable platforms.[51] It was under development by Chair Entertainment, which also developed the Xbox Live Arcade games Undertow and Shadow Complex. Chair had sold the licensing of Empire to Card, which became a bestselling novel. Little was revealed about the game, save its setting in the Ender universe and that it would have focused on the Battle Room.[51]In December 2010, it was announced that the video game development had stopped and the project put on indefinite hold.[52]Orson Scott Card and Amaze Entertainment also came to an agreement regarding a video game adaption of the novel but nothing ever materialized.[53]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marvel Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_Comics"},{"link_name":"Orson Scott Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card"},{"link_name":"limited series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_series_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Ender's Game: Battle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_Comics#Ender's_Game:_Battle_School"},{"link_name":"Christopher Yost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Yost"},{"link_name":"Ender's Shadow: Battle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender_Comics#Ender's_Shadow:_Command_School"},{"link_name":"Mike Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Carey_(British_writer)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"Comics","text":"Marvel Comics and Orson Scott Card announced on April 19, 2008, that they would be publishing a limited series adaptation of Ender's Game as the first in a comic series that would adapt all of Card's Ender's Game novels. Card was quoted as saying that it is the first step in moving the story to a visual medium.[54] The first five-issue series, titled Ender's Game: Battle School, was written by Christopher Yost, while the second five-issue series, Ender's Shadow: Battle School, was written by Mike Carey.[55]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"audio drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_drama"},{"link_name":"Teacher's Pest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher%27s_Pest"},{"link_name":"The Polish Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Polish_Boy"},{"link_name":"The Gold Bug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gold_Bug_(Card_short_story)"},{"link_name":"Shadow of the Hegemon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_of_the_Hegemon"},{"link_name":"Shadow of the Giant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_of_the_Giant"},{"link_name":"Shadows in Flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_in_Flight"},{"link_name":"Earth Unaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Unaware"},{"link_name":"Audible.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audible.com"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Audioplay","text":"Ender's Game Alive: The Full Cast Audioplay, is an 2013 audio drama written by Orson Scott Card, based on the Ender's Game novel. At over seven hours in length, this retelling of Ender's Game hints at storylines from \"Teacher's Pest\", \"The Polish Boy\", \"The Gold Bug\", Ender's Shadow, Shadow of the Hegemon, Shadow of the Giant, Shadows in Flight, Earth Unaware, and Speaker for the Dead, and gives new insight into the beginnings of Ender's philotic connection with the Hive Queen. Ender's Game Alive is directed by Gabrielle de Cuir, produced by Stefan Rudnicki at Skyboat Media, published by Audible.com, and performed by a cast of over 30 voice actors playing over 100 roles.[56][57]Audible also commissioned a German-language adaptation of the same script. Titled Ender's Game/Das grosse Spiel - Das ungekürzte Hörspiel (\"The unabridged audio drama\"), this adaptation was produced by \"Lauscherlounge\", directed by Balthasar von Weymarn and performed by a cast of 100 different voice actors including children.[58]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_language"},{"link_name":"Catalan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_language"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Croatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"Estonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language"},{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Galician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician_language"},{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Latvian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_language"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_language"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Portuguese"},{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Slovene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene_language"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_language"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Thai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_language"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language"}],"text":"Ender's Game has been translated into 34 languages:Albanian: Loja e Enderit (\"Ender's Game\").\nBulgarian: Играта на Ендър (\"Ender's Game\").\nCatalan: El joc de l'Ender (\"Ender's Game\"), 2000.\nChinese: 安德的游戏 (pinyin：Ān dé de yóu xì) (\"Ender's Game\"), 2003.\nCroatian: Enderova igra (\"Ender's Game\"), 2007.\nCzech: Enderova hra (\"Ender's Game\"), 1994.\nDanish: Ender's strategi (\"Ender's Strategy\"), 1990.\nDutch: Ender Wint, De Tactiek van Ender (\"Ender Wins\", \"The Tactics of Ender\"), 1989, 1994 (two editions)\nEstonian: Enderi mäng (\"Ender's Game\"), 2000.\nFinnish: Ender (\"Ender\"), 1990.\nFrench: La Stratégie Ender (\"The Ender Strategy\"), 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001.\nGalician: O xogo de Ender (\"Ender's Game\"), 2011\nGeorgian: ენდერის თამაში (enderis TamaSi) (\"Ender's Game\"), 2015.\nGerman: Das große Spiel (\"The Great Game\"), 1986, 2005.\nGreek: Το παιχνίδι του Έντερ (Tǒ pehníthi too Ender) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1996.\nHebrew: המשחק של אנדר (Ha-Misḥaq šel Ender) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1994.\nHungarian: Végjáték (\"Endgame\"), 1991.\nItalian: Il gioco di Ender (\"Ender's Game\").\nJapanese: エンダーのゲーム (Endā no Gēmu) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1987.\nKorean: 엔더의 게임 (Endeoŭi Geim) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1992, 2000 (two editions).\nLatvian: Endera spēle (\"Ender's Game\"), 2008.\nLithuanian: Enderio Žaidimas (\"Ender's Game\"), 2007\nNorwegian: Enders spill (\"Ender's Game\"), 1999.\nPersian: بازی اندر (Bazi ē Ender), 2011\nPolish: Gra Endera (\"Ender's Game\"), 1994.\nPortuguese: O Jogo do Exterminador (\"The Game of the Exterminator\") (Brazil).\nPortuguese: O jogo final (\"The Final Game\") (Portugal).\nRomanian: Jocul lui Ender (\"Ender's Game\").\nRussian: Игра Эндера (Igra Endera) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1995, 1996, 2002, 2003 (two editions).\nSlovene: Enderjeva igra (\"Ender's Game\"), 2010.\nSerbian: Eндерова игра (Enderova igra) (\"Ender's Game\"), 1988.\nSpanish: El juego de Ender (\"Ender's Game\").\nSwedish: Enders spel (\"Ender's Game\"), 1991, 1998.\nThai: เกมพลิกโลก (\"The Game that Changed the World\"), 2007.\nTurkish: Ender'in Oyunu (\"Ender's Game\").\nUkrainian: Гра Ендера (\"Ender's Game\"), 2013.\nVietnamese: Trò chơi của Ender (\"Ender's Game\"), 2014.","title":"Translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Short Stories by Orson Scott Card\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.hatrack.com/osc/stories/enders-game.shtml"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200202160057/http://www.hatrack.com/osc/stories/enders-game.shtml"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MarineC_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"Commandant's Professional Reading List - Primary Level Enlisted\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170110015130/http://guides.grc.usmcu.edu/content.php?pid=408059&sid=5775651"},{"link_name":"the 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Retrieved 2020-03-31.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of Ender's Game characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ender%27s_Game_characters"},{"title":"Formics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formics"},{"title":"The Last Starfighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Starfighter"}]

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