output

In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four
prints visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic
and social Republics’, as he called them. The first print (Fig. 1) of theseries, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women
of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering
homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. As you wouldrecall, artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty
as a female figure – here you can recognise the torch of Enlightenment
she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in theother. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered
remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu’s
utopian  vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct
nations, identified through their flags and national costume. Leading
the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States
and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France,
The  Rise  of  Nationalism  in  Europe
Fig. 1 — The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations, a print prepared by
Frédéric Sorrieu, 1848.
Chapter I
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
New words
Absolutist – Literally, a government or
system of rule that has no restraints onthe power exercised. In history, the term
refers to a form of monarchical
government that was centralised,militarised and repressive
Utopian – A vision of a society that is so
ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
In what way do you think this print (Fig. 1)
depicts a utopian vision?ActivityIndia and the Contemporary World
4identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue.
She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, redand gold flag. Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this
image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation – the
flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify thenumerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under
a democratic constitution. Following the German peoples are the
peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy,Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia. From the heavens
above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have
been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations ofthe world.
This chapter will deal with many of the issues visualised by Sorrieu
in Fig. 1. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as aforce which brought about sweeping changes in the political and
mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the
emergence of the nation-state  in place of the multi-national dynastic
empires of Europe. The concept and practices of a modern  state, in
which a centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearlydefined territory, had been developing over a long period of timein Europe. But a nation-state  was one in which the majority of its
citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of commonidentity and shared history or descent. This commonness did notexist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through
the actions of leaders and the common people. This chapter will
look at the diverse processes through which nation-states andnationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe.Ernst Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’
In a lecture delivered at the University of
Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher ErnstRenan (1823-92) outlined his understanding ofwhat makes a nation. The lecture  wassubsequently published as a famous essay entitled‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’).In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggestedby others that a nation is formed by a commonlanguage, race, religion, or territory:
‘A nation is the culmination of a long past ofendeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past,great men, glory, that is the social capital uponwhich one bases a national idea. To havecommon glories in the past, to have a commonwill in the present, to have performed great deedstogether, to wish to perform still more, theseare the essential conditions of being a people. Anation is therefore a large-scale solidarity … Itsexistence is a daily plebiscite … A province is its
inhabitants; if anyone has the right to beconsulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation neverhas any real interest in annexing or holding on toa country against its will. The existence of nationsis a good thing, a necessity even. Their existenceis a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost ifthe world had only one law and only one master.’
SourceSource A
Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan
understands them. Why, in his view, are nations
important?DiscussNew words
Plebiscite – A direct vote by which all the
people of a region are asked to accept or reject
a proposal5
Nationalism   in   Europe1  The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The first clear expression of nationalism came with
the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you
would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state
in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.The political and constitutional changes that came
in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to abody of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed
that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries
introduced various measures and practices that
could create a sense of collective identity amongstthe French people. The ideas of la patrie (the
fatherland) and le citoyen  (the citizen) emphasised
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under aconstitution. A new French flag, the tricolour,   was chosen to replace
the former royal standard. The Estates General  was elected by the
body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. Newhymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated,
all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system
was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizenswithin its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished
and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spokenand written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the
destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europefrom despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe
to become nations.
When the news of the events in France reached the different cities
of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes
began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns
prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland,Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the
outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to
carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
Fig. 2 — The cover of a German almanac
designed by the journalist Andreas Rebmann in1798.The image of the French Bastille being stormedby the revolutionary crowd has been placednext to a similar fortress meant to represent thebastion of despotic rule in the German provinceof Kassel. Accompanying the illustration is theslogan: ‘The people must seize their ownfreedom!’ Rebmann lived in the  city of Mainzand was  a member of a German Jacobin group.India and the Contemporary World
6Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control,
Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had
already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchyNapoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in
the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles
in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. TheCivil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code –
did away with all privileges based on birth, established  equality
before the law and secured  the right to property. This Code wasexported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic,
in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified
administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freedpeasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild
restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems
were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen
Fig. 3 —  Europe after the
Congress of Vienna, 1815.ICELAND