Initial commit

Dockerfile

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+# Base image
+FROM python:3.12
+
+# Set working directory inside the container
+WORKDIR /app/rag-system
+
+# Install system dependencies
+RUN apt-get update && apt-get install -y \
+    build-essential \
+    libpoppler-cpp-dev \
+    wget \
+    && apt-get clean \
+    && rm -rf /var/lib/apt/lists/*
+
+RUN pip install torch torchvision torchaudio --index-url https://download.pytorch.org/whl/cpu
+
+
+# Install Poetry
+RUN pip install --no-cache-dir poetry
+
+# Copy project files
+COPY poetry.lock pyproject.toml /app/
+COPY rag-system /app/rag-system/
+
+# Set environment variables
+ENV PYTHONPATH=/app/rag-system/src
+ENV TOKENIZERS_PARALLELISM=false
+ENV TORCH_CPP_LOG_LEVEL=ERROR
+ENV PYTORCH_DISABLE_SYSTEM_MONITORING=1
+
+# Configure Poetry
+RUN poetry config virtualenvs.create false
+
+# Install dependencies with Poetry
+RUN poetry install --no-root --no-dev
+
+# Run preprocessing
+RUN python3 -m src.preprocessing
+
+# Expose the app's default port
+EXPOSE 7860
+
+# Command to start the app
+CMD ["python3", "app.py"]

README.md

@@ -1,10 +1,21 @@
----
-title: RAG Question Answering System
-emoji: 🦀
-colorFrom: indigo
-colorTo: blue
-sdk: docker
-pinned: false
----
+**Todo List**
 
-Check out the configuration reference at https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces-config-reference
+- [x] Find and download documents.
+- [x] [Optional] Convert documents into TXT format
+- [x] Chunk documents
+  - [ ] Use a third-party module
+  - [ ] Structure chunks by files
+- [x] Implement retriever
+  - [ ] BM25
+  - [ ] Semantic search
+- [x] Write an interface for using LLM
+  - [ ] Use LiteLLM
+- [x] [Optional, additional points] Implement Reranker
+- [-] [Optional, additional points] Investigate Citations: show chunks, or input files, or exact paragraph where the information is stored
+- [ ] Implement Web UI
+  - [ ] Input query
+  - [ ] Output
+  - [ ] Select retriever ratio (30% BM25 and 70% Semantic search)
+  - [ ] [Optional] Show the exact chunk where the data was retrieved from
+- [ ] Create a Dockerfile
+- [ ] [Optional] Host the system on HF Spaces

pyproject.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+[tool.poetry]
+name = "nlp-rag-question-answering-system"
+version = "0.1.0"
+description = "RAG Question Answering system for information retrieval from the provided documents."
+authors = ["Maksym Batiuk <batiukmaks@gmail.com>", "Olena Morozevych <olenka.moro@gmail.com>"]
+readme = "README.md"
+
+[tool.poetry.dependencies]
+python = "^3.12"
+langchain-text-splitters = "^0.3.2"
+pdftotext = "^3.0.0"
+numpy = "^2.2.0"
+sentence-transformers = "^3.3.1"
+rank-bm25 = "^0.2.2"
+litellm = "^1.54.0"
+gradio = "^5.8.0"
+
+
+[build-system]
+requires = ["poetry-core"]
+build-backend = "poetry.core.masonry.api"

rag-system/app.py

@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+import gradio as gr
+from src.rag.question_answerer import QuestionAnsweringBot
+from src.rag.retriever import Retriever
+
+
+def ask_question(
+    question: str,
+    model: str,
+    api_key: str,
+    semantic_usage: float,
+    initial_top_n: int,
+    final_top_n: int,
+) -> tuple[str, str]:
+    """
+    Handles question input from the user and returns the answer with relevant context chunks.
+
+    Args:
+        question (str): User's question.
+        api_key (str): The API key for LiteLLM.
+        semantic_usage (float): Weight for semantic usage in retrieval (0-1).
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple[str, str]: The answer and the relevant context chunks.
+    """
+    # Set the API key and model name
+    qa_bot.model = model
+    qa_bot.api_key = api_key
+
+    # Get the answer and context chunks
+    answer, contexts = qa_bot.answer_question(
+        question=question,
+        bm25_weight=(1 - semantic_usage),
+        initial_top_n=initial_top_n,
+        final_top_n=final_top_n,
+    )
+
+    # Format contexts as a single string
+    formatted_contexts = "\n".join(
+        [
+            f"Context {i}:\n{chunk}" + "\n-----------------------------------\n"
+            for i, chunk in enumerate(contexts, 1)
+        ]
+    )
+
+    return answer, formatted_contexts
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    # Initialize retriever and bot
+    retriever = Retriever(chunked_dir="data/chunked")
+    qa_bot = QuestionAnsweringBot(retriever=retriever)
+
+    # Gradio UI
+    with gr.Blocks() as demo:
+        # Add custom CSS for Montserrat font, button styling, and purple slider/checkbox
+        demo.css = """
+            @import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Montserrat:wght@400;600&display=swap');
+
+            * {
+                font-family: 'Montserrat', sans-serif !important;
+            }
+
+            #custom-button {
+                color: #9d00ff !important;
+                background-color: transparent !important;
+                border: 2px solid #9d00ff !important;
+                border-radius: 5px !important;
+                padding: 10px 20px !important;
+                font-weight: bold !important;
+                font-size: 16px !important;
+                cursor: pointer !important;
+            }
+
+            #custom-button:hover {
+                background-color: #9d00ff !important;
+                color: white !important;
+            }
+
+
+            /* Slider bar background */
+            input[type="range"]::-webkit-slider-runnable-track{
+                background: #e4e4e4;
+                border-radius: 3px;
+                height: 8px;
+            }
+
+            /* Circle */
+            input[type="range"]::-webkit-slider-thumb {
+                -webkit-appearance: none;
+                appearance: none;
+                width: 15px;
+                height: 15px;
+                background: #9d00ff;
+                border-radius: 50%;
+                cursor: pointer;
+            }
+        """
+
+        # Short Description
+        gr.Markdown(
+            """
+            <h1 style='text-align: center; color: #9d00ff;'>RAG Contextual Answering</h1>
+            <p style='text-align: center;'>This tool allows you to ask questions and receive contextual answers 
+            with relevant information from the files.</p>
+            """
+        )
+
+        # Input Section
+        with gr.Group():
+            with gr.Row():
+                model = gr.Textbox(
+                    value="groq/llama3-8b-8192",
+                    label="Model Name",
+                    placeholder="Enter your model name here",
+                )
+                api_key = gr.Textbox(
+                    label="API Key",
+                    placeholder="Enter your API key here",
+                    type="password",
+                )
+
+            question = gr.Textbox(
+                value="Which survival instincts prey have?",
+                label="Question",
+                placeholder="Type your question here...",
+            )
+            semantic_usage = gr.Slider(
+                label="Semantic usage (0 - only key phrases search, 1 - only semantic search)",
+                minimum=0, maximum=1, value=0.5, step=0.001,
+            )
+            with gr.Row():
+                initial_top_n = gr.Slider(
+                    label="BM25 & Semantic Search Top N",
+                    minimum=1, maximum=100, value=50, step=1,
+                )
+                final_top_n = gr.Slider(
+                    label="Reranker Top N",
+                    minimum=1, maximum=100, value=5, step=1,
+                )
+
+        # Submit Button
+        submit_button = gr.Button("Get Answer", elem_id="custom-button")
+
+        # Answer and Context Sections
+        answer = gr.Textbox(label="Answer", interactive=False, lines=5)
+        chunks_response = gr.Textbox(
+            label="Context Chunks",
+            interactive=False,
+        )
+
+        # Button Action
+        submit_button.click(
+            ask_question,
+            inputs=[
+                question,
+                model,
+                api_key,
+                semantic_usage,
+                initial_top_n,
+                final_top_n,
+            ],
+            outputs=[answer, chunks_response],
+        )
+
+        # Footer
+        gr.Markdown(
+            """
+            <h3 style='text-align: center; color: #9d00ff;'>Made by Maksym Batiuk and Olena Morozevych.</h3>
+            """
+        )
+
+    # Launch the Gradio app
+    demo.launch(server_name="0.0.0.0", server_port=7860)

rag-system/data/chunked/Bio1AL_Diveristy_Mammals.json

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+[
+    "Presbytis\n\n24\n\nCapuchin monkey\n\nTalapoin monkey\n\nChimpanzee\n\nBaboon\n\nGorilla\n\nRing-tailed lemur\n\nRelative brain size: The degree of flexibility in the behavior of a\nspecies is related to both absolute and relative brain size. It is no\nsurprise that in terms of actual brain weight, the great apes are\nclosest to man. But when comparison is based on brain size\nrelative to body size it is the versatile Capuchin monkey that turns\nout to be closest to man.\n\nAverage for all mammals\n\nBrain weight relative to body size\n\n465\n165\n420\n39\n80\nActual brain weight (grams)\n\nman\n\nGorilla\n\n1330\n\n\f\n\nStation 3. Primates\n\nBODY PLAN of PRIMATES\nHands and feet: The structure of primate hands and feet varies\naccording to the ways of life of each species.\nPLEISTO\n-CENE\n\n2 MYA\n\nPLIOCENE\n\n7 MYA\n\nBaboon: long\nslender foot of\nground-living\nmonkey.\n\nGibbon: short\nopposable thumb\nwell distant from\narm-swinging\n(brachiating) grip\nof fingers.\n\nSiamang and orangutan; broad\nfoot with long grasping big toe\nfor climbing.",
+    "a Golden hamster carrying a baby\n\na house mouse\n\n\f\n\nStation 2. Aquatic Adaptations",
+    "A Grey seal (earless/true seal) swimming, with most\nof propulsive force coming from its lumbar region and\nhind flippers.\nSea lion (eared seal, note the ears in the photo)\nswimming, with most of propulsive force coming from its\nhindlimbs.\n\n\f\n\nStation 3. Primates",
+    "d\n\nSphenacodon\n\nf\nsq\n\n(early therapsid\nfrom Upper\nPennsylvanian)\n\nq\n\no\n\n!\n\nag\n\nAsioryctes\n\nf\n\nd\n\nsq\nrl\n\nmm\nar\n\nd\nty/ag\n\n(early placental\nmammal from\nUpper Cretaceous)\n\ncp\n\n!\n\nd\n\nAbbreviations: ag = angular; ar = articular; cp = coronoid process; d = dentary; f = lateral temporal fenestra; j = jugal; mm = attachment site for\nmammalian jaw muscles; o = eye socket; q = quadrate; rl = reflected lamina; sq = squamosal; ty = tympanic.\n\n\f\n\nStation 1A3. Mammalian Characteristics",
+    "About 8 days after giving birth, female rats start to produce a pheromone - an odor produced in the\ngut and broadcast via the feces - which inhibits Wanderlust in the young. It ceases to be produced\nwhen the young are 27 days old and almost weaned.\nFinally, some studies have involved a surgical removal of part of the brain which is involved with\nsmell (the main accessory olfactory bulbs). Removal of the bulbs in the Golden hamster, irrespective of\nprevious sexual experience, brings an immediate cessation of all sexual behavior. In sexually\nexperienced rats ,the operation has little effect, but in sexually naive rats the effect is as severe as in\nhamsters. Thus it appears that rats can learn to do without their sense of smell once they have gained\nsome sexual experience.",
+    "simpler molars, and canine teeth that are often enlarged to form tusks.\nCamels and ruminates tend to be longer-legged, walk on the central two\ntoes, and have more complex teeth suited to grinding up tough grasses.\nThey have a multi-chambered stomach called a rumin, which allows them\nrumen\nsmall\ncecum\nintestine\nto digest cellulose with the aid of fermenting microorganisms. Ruminates\nFood is chewed several times. It takes\n(cattle, goats, deer) \u201cchew the cud\u201d, which means they regurgitate and\napproximately 80 hours for digestion, and\nrechew partly-digested food.\nabout 60% of the cellulose is used.\nAbsorption of\nfermentation products\nsmall\nintestine",
+    "WHALES, DOLPHINS, and PORPOISES\nORDER: CETATEANS\nThe cetaceans, which total approximately 75 species, are exclusively aquatic, more completely so\nthan any other mammals; at no stage of life do they leave the water. Cetaceans range in size from the\ngigantic Blue Whale, believed to be the largest animal that has ever existed, to medium-sized dolphins\nand porpoises, some of which are only about 3 feet long. Typically a cetacean\u2019s head is joined to its\nbody without a distinct neck. Except in a few species, the head cannot be turned independently.\nCharacteristic of mammals, however, cetaceans do possess seven neck vertebrae, though much\ncompressed. In some larger whales these are fused into a single disc only a few inches thick.\nA cetacean\u2019s body is streamlined, and in some species the head is extended into a \u201cbeak.\u201d Many\nhave a definite dorsal fin consisting of a thick folded ridge of skin without a bony support, adding to",
+    "Ungulates (\"hoofed animal\") are mammals that use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed, to sustain their\nbodyweight while moving. They comprise the majority of large land mammals. In addition to hooves, most\nungulates have reduced canine teeth, bunodont molars (molars with low, rounded cusps), and an astragalus\n(one of the ankle bones at the end of the lower leg) with a short, robust head. Another characteristic of most\nungulates is the fusion of the radius and ulna along the length of the forelimb. This fusion prevents an\nungulate from rotating its forelimb.\nAbsorption of\nfermentation products\nEven-toed ungulates\u2019 (Artiodactyla) weight is borne roughly equally by\nthe third and fourth toes. The appearance and spread of coarse, hard-to\nreticulum omasum abomasum colon\n-digest grasses favored the development of their complex digestive\nsystems. Pigs and hippos have short legs, four toes of fairly equal size,\nsimpler molars, and canine teeth that are often enlarged to form tusks.",
+    "Station 4. Feeding\n\nMAMMAL TEETH\n\nincisors\ncanines\n\nDiet greatly influences teeth form and function. Carnivores have large,\nsharp canine teeth used for stabbing and tearing meat. Their\npremolars and molars have been adapted for shearing rather than\nWolf\ngrinding.\n(carnivore)\nRuminates have teeth adaptations for grinding grasses. Primitive\nherbivorous mammals have molars with separate cusps (bunodont),\ndesigned to pulp and crush relatively soft food. Fibrous vegetation is\ntough and ungulates have developed modifications of the bunodont\npattern. In addition to their bunodont molars, these grazers have\nreplaced their canines and incisors in the upper jaw with a horny pad.\nThey use this together with the lower front teeth for cropping\nvegetation.\nBunodont\nmolar seen in\npigs.\nIn perissodactyls, such as the rhinoceros,\nshearing edges (lophs) have formed by a\ncoalescing of the cusps to form two\ncrosswise lophs and one lengthwise\n(lophodont).\n\nincisors\ncanines\n\npremolars and molars",
+    "Station 1A1. Mammals\n\nClassification of the Major Taxa of\nMammalia\n! Phylum Chordata\n! Subphylum Vertebrata\n! Class Mammalia\n! Subclass Prototheria\n! Order Monotremata\n! Subclass Theria\n! Infraclass Metatheria\n! Order Marsupialia\n! Infraclass Eutheria\n! Order Edentata\n! Order Pholidota\n! Order Carnivora\n! Order Rodentia\n! Order Lagomorpha\n! Order Cetacea\n! Order Artiodactyla\nThese four orders\n! Order Tubuldentata\nare more closely\n! Order Dermoptera\nrelated to each\n! Order Insectivora\nother than to other\norders\n! Order Chiroptera\n! Order Primates\n! Order Perissodactyla\n! Order Hyracoidea\n! Order Proboscidea\n! Order Sirenia\n\nexamples\n\nmonotremes or egg-layers\nplatypuses, echidna\nmarsupials\nkangaroos, opossums\nplacentals\narmadillos, sloths, anteaters\npangolins\nseals, bears, wolfs, badgers\nrodents\nrabbits\ndolphins and whales\neven-toed ungulates: goats, hippos, giraffes\naardvarks\ncolugos\nmoles and shrews\nbats\nprimates\nodd-toed ungulates: horses, rhinos, tapirs\nhyraxes\nelephants\nmanatees",
+    "her fitness is maximized by mating with the best quality male who has already proved himself. The\notherwise solitary female Golden hamster must attract a male when she is sexually receptive. She\ndoes this by scent marking with strong-smelling vaginal secretions in the two days before her peak of\nreceptivity. If no male arrives she ceases marking, to start again two days before the next peak.\nIn gregarious species such as the House mouse, a dominant male can mate with 20 females in 6\nhours if their cycles are synchronized. The odor of urine of adult sexually mature male rodents (e.g.\nmice, voles, deer mice) accelerates not only the peak of female sexual receptivity but also the onset\nof sexual maturity in young females, and brings sexually quiescent females into breeding condition.\nThis effect is particularly strong in dominant males, whereas urine from castrated males has no such\neffect. It would appear that the active ingredient - a pheromone - is made from, or dependent upon the",
+    "Station 1A5. Mammalian Characteristics\n\nWhat Are the Most Common Mammals?\nWith mammals placed in proper numerical perspective vis-\u00e0-vis other animals, what about the\nrelative abundance of the different mammals themselves? Counting actual numbers of animals\nis far more difficult than numbers of species. The only way it can be done is to take a small\nsample area and laboriously count every nose in it. This has been done many times in different\nparts of the world. While results vary widely depending on the terrain and the time of year,\nnevertheless in most areas the rodents turn out to have by far the largest populations. The five\nmammals pictured here show what lives on 250 acres of sagebrush country in the western U.S.,\nbased on a study of a 2.5-acre sample area. They illustrate two general principles: 1) carnivores\n(in this case, badgers) tend to be far less numerous than the animals they eat and 2) the\nsmaller the animal, the larger its population in a given area.",
+    "changed as it grew. In the inconstant, unpredictable environment of the cooling Mesozoic, dinosaurs\nmay have been at a disadvantage to mammals because they required a succession of different food\nsupplies to become available exactly on cue as their young grew, and faced a protracted period when\nyoung were at a competitive disadvantage to adults. If this reconstruction is correct, then it was parental\ncare (also evolved by birds), and particularly lactation, that assured the supremacy of mammals. The\nprotracted parent-offspring bond established during nursing in turn set the scene for the subsequent\nevolution of intricate mammalian societies.",
+    "A NURSING MONOTREME\nThe most primitive mammals are the monotremes, whose\nmammary glands have not concentrated into milk\n-producing organs, as they have in the higher mammals.\nThe milk of the platypus, for example, seeps from a\nnumber of porelike holes in her abdomen and is lapped\nup by the little ones.\n\nNURSING MARSUPIALS\nMore advanced are the marsupials such as opossums and kangaroos shown\nhere. They have true nipples, but these are located inside a pouch, or\nmarsupium, to which their comparatively unformed babies crawl at birth. They\nlive there for several months until they are much larger and more developed.!\n\n\f\n\nStation 1C1. Mammalian Hair",
+    "down.\nAnother possibility is that the mammals usurped the dinosaurs\u2019 supremacy on account of one critical\ndifference: the development of lactation and parental care in mammals.\nAn Olive baboon nursing her young (right), and an Orca nursing her calf while swimming (below).\nWhen a mammalian infant sucks at its mother\u2019s nipple it may withdraw a little milk, but more\nimportantly it stimulates \u201clet-down,\u201d whereby muscles squeeze much more milk out of a honeycomb\nof tubes and cavities in the mammae; this milk collects in ducts from which it can be sucked. Some\n30-60 seconds of preliminary sucking are required to\nstimulate let-down. Thus the process is not\ncontrolled simply by nerves (as they transmit\nmessages almost instantaneously), but by a\nchemical envoy (a hormone) that travels within the\nmother\u2019s bloodstream. In fact, sucking triggers a\nnerve impulse which races to the pituitary, and in\nresponse this organ releases two chemicals into the\nblood. When these chemical couriers reach the",
+    "Station 1D3. The Role of Scent\nurine. However, the presence of the urine odor of an adult male will regularize all the lengthened cycles\nwithin 6-8 hours and the females will come into heat synchronously.\nFemale mice also produce a pheromone in the urine which has the effect of stimulating pheromone\nproduction in the male, but the female pheromone is not under the control of the sex glands (ovaries).\nIt is not known what controls its production. A sexually quiescent female could stimulate pheromone\nproduction in a male, which would then bring her into sexual readiness.\nIt is thought that the reproductive success of the House mouse owes much to this system of\npheromonal cuing. Although only the House mouse has been studied in such detail, parts of the model\nhave been discovered in other species and it may be of widespread occurrence.\nAbout 8 days after giving birth, female rats start to produce a pheromone - an odor produced in the",
+    "Harem of Elephant seals\nresting on a beach\n\nPack of wolves howling to define and\ndefend territory, and to reinforce social\nhierarchy.\n\nHerd of African savannah elephants led by a\nmatriarch\n\n\f\n\nStation 1A4. Mammalian Characteristics",
+    "Siamang and orangutan; broad\nfoot with long grasping big toe\nfor climbing.\n\nPROSIMIANS\n\nMIOCENE\n\nANTHROPOIDS\n\n26 MYA\nEarliest\napes\nOLIGOCENE\n\nMacaque: short\nopposable thumb in\nhand adapted for\nwalking with palm\nflat on ground.\n\nGorilla: thumb\nopposable to\nother digits, allows\nprecision grip.\n\nHand of a spider\nmonkey, showing 38 MYA\nthe much reduced\nthumb of an arm\n-swinging species.\n\nEOCENE\n\nEarliest true primates\n54 MYA\nInsectivores\n\nTamarin: long foot of branch-running\nspecies with claws on all digits except big\ntoes for anchoring (all other monkeys and\napes have flat nails on all digits)\n\nPALEOCENE\n\n65 MYA\n\nInsectivore-like primates\nCRETACEOUS\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding\n\nUNGULATES",
+    "WALRUSES, SEALS and SEA LIONS\nSUPERFAMILY: PINNIPEDIA\nPinnipeds include walruses (Family Odobenidae), earless (true) seals (Family Phocidae), and\neared seals (Family Otariida). On land, eared seals are much more agile than the other groups.\nWhen moving, the weight of the body is supported off the ground by the outwardly turned\nforeflippers, and the hindflippers are flexed forwards under the body. When the animal is moving\nslowly, the foreflippers are moved alternately and the hindflippers advanced on the opposite side.\nOnly the heel of the foot is placed on the ground, the digits being held up. As its speed\nincreases, first the hindflippers and then the foreflippers are moved together, the animal moving\nforward in a gallop. In this form of locomotion, the counterbalancing action of the neck is very\nimportant, the body being balanced over the foreflippers. It has been suggested that if the neck\nwere only half its length, eared seals would be unable to move on land. Walruses move in a",
+    "Sea otter\n\nFur seals\n\nThe skin plays an important part in maintaining a constant body temperature. Horses sweat\nprofusely over most of their bodies to cool themselves. The coyote sweats through its tongue by\npanting and depends on its fur to prevent heat loss in cold weather. Mammals must eat regularly\nto maintain their high temperatures.\n\n\f\n\nStation 1D1. The Role of Scent",
+    "SKELETAL ADAPTATIONS of PRIMATES\nBIPEDAL vs. ARBOREAL\nSkeletons: The quadrupedal lemurs and most monkeys, like the guenons, retain the basic\nshape of early primates - a long back, a short, narrow rib-cage, long narrow hip bones, and legs\nas long as or longer than the arms. Most live in trees and move about by running along or\nleaping between branches. Their long tail serves as a rudder or balancing aid while climbing\nand leaping. Ground-living monkeys, such as the baboons, generally have more rudimentary\ntails.\nNeither apes nor the slower-moving Prosimians have tails. In the orangutan and other apes,\nthe back is shorter, the rib cage broader and the pelvis bones more robust - features related to a\nvertical posture. Arms are longer than legs, considerably so in species, such as the gibbons and\norangutan, that move by arm-swinging (brachiation). Further dexterity of the hands has\naccompanied the development of the vertical posture in apes, some of which (and more rarely",
+    "even small fish become caught on the bristly fringes. The whale then\nuses its tongue to move them into its throat for swallowing. Even the\nlargest whale has a throat passageway not much larger than an orange\n- not large enough to accommodate anything the size of the Bible\u2019s\nJonah.\nThe tough, pliable baleen was one of the highly valued commercial\nproducts obtained from whales. It was used in corsets and in similar\nproducts in which stiffness with flexibility was important. Today, these\nproducts typically use plastics decreasing the need to harvest whales.\nBaleen whales can be distinguished from the toothed whales by\nhaving two blowholes instead of one. When they blow, the twin spouts\nare distinctive. In contrast to toothed whales, baleen whales do not\necholocate. Instead they often vocalize, such as the unique and\ncomplex songs of Humpback whales. Baleen whales are gentle giants\nof the ocean.!",
+    "HOW ABUNDANT ARE MAMMALS?\nAlthough mammals are generally considered to be the dominant and probably most diversified class of living\nvertebrates, they are far from being the most numerous. If the total numbers of species for all the major\nanimal groups are compared, mammals come out near the bottom. The sizes of the different creatures in this\ndrawing illustrate this point. The very small frog represents the 1,500 living species of amphibians.\nThen come the other vertebrate classes in order of increasing number of species:\nmammals, reptiles, birds and fishes. The large snail next in line\nrepresents the invertebrates: all the one-celled animals, all the\nworms, clams, lobsters, spiders-everything else, in short,\nexcept the insects. Strictly speaking the insects should\nshould be lumped with the other invertebrates, but there are\nso many of them-more different species than in all the other\ngroups put together-that they have been represented",
+    "groups put together-that they have been represented\nseparately here by the huge butterfly at the right.",
+    "MAMMALS\n5,000\nAMPHIBIANS\n1,500\n\nREPTILES\n6,000\n\nBIRDS\n8,600\n\nFISHES\n20,000\n\nINVERTEBRAES (EXCEPT INSECTS)\n232,000\n\nINSECTS\n700,000\n\n\f\n\nStation 1A5. Mammalian Characteristics",
+    "Station 1A3. Mammalian Characteristics\n\nANATOMICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL\nFEATURES of MAMMALS\nIt would be correct to say that mammals are a group of warm-blooded animals with backbones\nand a four-chambered heart, whose bodies are insulated by hair, that have sweat glands\nincluding milk producing sweat glands that they use to nurse their infants, and that share a\nunique jaw articulation. This, however, fails to convey how these few shared characteristics\nunderpin the evolution of a group with astonishingly intricate adaptations, thrilling behavior and\nhighly complex societies. Mammals are also the group to which humans belong, and through\nthem we can understand much about ourselves. Another answer to the question \u201cWhat is a\nmammal?\u201d would therefore be that the essence of mammals lies in their complex diversity of\nform and function, and above all their individual flexibility of behavior.\n\nHarem of Elephant seals\nresting on a beach",
+    "RODENTS\n(Rodentia)\n5,770\n\nRABBITS\n(Lagomorpha)\n60\n\nBADGERS\n(Carnivora)\n30\n\nPRONGHORNS\n(Artiodactyla)\n10\n\nBATS\n(Chiroptera)\n8\n\n\f\n\nStation 1B1. Lactation",
+    "Lactation and the Rise of Mammals\nThe decline of the huge, naked, ectothermic dinosaurs may have been triggered by the cooling\nclimate of the Mesozoic era, with its daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature. But these would\nhave affected smaller (or infant) dinosaurs more than the giants that predominated among dinosaurs,\ndue to the smaller reptile\u2019s relatively greater surface-area-to-volume ratio and hence more rapid heat\nloss. So why did the mammals finally prosper, and the dinosaurs decline?\nEarly mammals may have avoided competition with dinosaurs by becoming nocturnal, and the key\nthat unlocked this chilly niche to them may have been the evolution of endothermy (internal self\n-regulation of body temperature). In addition to allowing them to forage out of the sun\u2019s warming rays,\nendothermy may have improved mammals\u2019 competitive ability by allowing them to grow faster and\ntherefore breed more prolifically than reptiles, whose bodies more or less \u201cswitch off\u201d when they cool",
+    "response this organ releases two chemicals into the\nblood. When these chemical couriers reach the\nmammae, one (lactogenic hormone) stimulates the\nsecretion of milk by the glands, the other (oxytocin)\nprompts the ejection of stored milk from the nipple.",
+    "ODOR IN RODENT REPRODUCTION\nReproduction - from initial sexual attraction and the advertisement of sexual status through\ncourtship, mating, the maintenance of pregnancy and the successful rearing of young - is influenced,\nif not actually controlled, by odor signals.\nMale rats are attracted to the urine of females that are in the sexually receptive phase of the\nestrous cycle and sexually experienced males are more strongly attracted than naive males.\nFurthermore, if an experienced male is presented with the odor of a novel mature female alongside\nthe odor of his mate he prefers the novel odor. Females, on the other hand, prefer the odor of their\nstud male to that of a stranger. The male\u2019s reproductive fitness is most improved by his seeking out\nand impregnating as many females as possible. The female needs to produce many healthy young so\nher fitness is maximized by mating with the best quality male who has already proved himself. The",
+    "BALEEN WHALES\nSUBORDER: MYSTICETI\nWhales of this suborder (about 15 species) do not have functional teeth. Instead they have baleen,\nor \u201cwhalebone,\u201d frayed, flexible horny sheets of oral epithelium suspended from the hard palate. Made\nof keratin, baleen can be white, black, yellowish, or two-toned. In a large whale, more than 300 plates\nof baleen hang down like stiff curtains from the upper jaw on each side of the mouth. A plate may be as\nmuch as 12 feet long, and a foot or more in width. The outer edge (or tongue side) is extended into\nbristles that form a hair-like fringe of thin tubes. Baleen continues to grow throughout the whale\u2019s life,\nreplacing material worn away by the action of water and the tongue.\nWhen feeding, a whale swims into a swarm of small crustaceans\nwith its mouth open. As it closes its mouth, water is forced out at the\nsides and through the sieve-like screen of baleen. Small crustaceans or\neven small fish become caught on the bristly fringes. The whale then",
+    "Only a few thousand Blue Whales still exist. Whaling has\nreduced their numbers from an estimated 250,000. They\nare now protected by international agreements, but not all\ncountries abide by the regulations. Unfortunately, the\nregulations are not always based on the best biological\ndata, and represent the interests of whalers as much as, or\nmore than, the welfare of the whales.\n\nFlencing of a sperm whale (stripping\nthe blubber from the body) in 1958.\n\n\f\n\nStation 2. Aquatic Adaptations",
+    "premolars and molars\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding - Bats\n\nCHIROPTERA\nThere are two suborders of bats: megabats and microbats. The major distinctions are that:\n* Microbats use echolocation, whereas megabats do not (except for Rousettus and relatives).\n* Microbats lack the claw at the second toe of the forelimb.\n* The ears of microbats do not form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the\near.\n* Microbats lack underfur; they have only guard hairs or are naked.\n* Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen while microbats eat insects, small amounts of blood, small mammals, and fish.\n\nMajor variations in the tail shape of bats:\n\nknee\nwrist\ntail\nuropatagium\ncalcar\n\nelbow\npropatagium\near\ntragus\n\nFoot with five toes\nplagiopatagium\n\nhumerus\nradius\n\nSheath-tailed bat\n\nFifth finger\n\nFree-tailed bat\n\nMouse-tailed bat\n\nthumb\n\nSecond finger\ndactylopatagium\nThird finger\nFourth finger\n\nMouse-eared bat\n\nTube-nosed fruit bat\n\nFlying fox\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding - Bats",
+    "ANATOMICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL\nFEATURES of MAMMALS\nMammals have a few skeletal features that distinguish their class. They have three middle ear\nbones used in hearing - two of these bones derived from bones used for eating by their\nancestors. The earliest therapsids (mammal-like reptiles) had a jaw joint composed of the\ncranium (brain case)\narticular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and\norbit\nthe quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw).\n(eye socket)\nReptiles and birds also use this system. In contrast,\nmammals\u2019 jaw joint is composed only of the dentary (the\nbony crest\n(occipital crest)\nlower jaw bone jaw bone that carries the teeth) and the\nincisors\noccipital condyle\nsquamosal. In mammals the quadrate and articular bones canines\nauditory bullae\nhave become the incus and malleus bones in the middle\nincisors\nlower jaw (mandible)\near.\ncheek-teeth\nMammals have a neocortex region in the brain. Most",
+    "THE SCENT OF A MAMMAL\nMammals are unique among animals with backbones in the potency and social importance of\ntheir smells. This quality also stems from their skin, wherein both sebaceous and sweat glands\nbecome adapted to produce complicated odors with which mammals communicate. The sites of\nscent glands vary between species: capybaras have them aloft their snout, mule deer have them\non the lower leg, elephants have them behind the eyes and hyraxes have them in the middle of\ntheir back. It is very common for scent glands to be concentrated in the ano-genital region (urine\nand feces also serve as socially important odors); the perfume gland of civets lie in a pocket\nbetween the anus and genitals and for centuries their greasy secretions have been scooped out\nto make the base of expensive perfumes. Glands around the genitals of Musk deer are a\nsimilarly unwholesome starting point of other odors (musk) greatly prized by some people. Most",
+    "their general fishlike appearance. A cetacean\u2019s front legs are flippers, with no exposed claws or digits.\nA much reduced bony structure for a pelvic girdle is still in evidence internally, but external hind limbs\nare lacking. The tail, which provides the principal driving force for swimming, is extended into a broad\nhorizontal appendage, separated into two flukes by a notch in the middle. The thin skin lacks hairs\nexcept for a few bristles around the mouth and on the belly in some species. Underneath the skin is a\nthick layer of blubber (mostly fat) that serves as a heat insulator as well as a\nfood reserve. Blubber may be 2 feet thick in some of the larger whales and\nmay account for more than 40 percent of the animal\u2019s total weight.\n7 neck vertebrae\na full thickness of\nblubber from an Orca",
+    "accompanied the development of the vertical posture in apes, some of which (and more rarely\nsome monkeys) may at times move about bipedally like man.",
+    "within the hypothalamus. In regulating their body temperature independent of the environment,\nmammals (and birds) are unshackled from the alternative, ectothermic, condition typical of all\nother animals and involving body temperatures rising and falling with the outside temperature.",
+    "cecum\n\nThe progress of food through the four stomach chambers of a cow is indicated in black. The vegetation is swallowed after\nbeing only partially chewed. It goes into two connecting chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, where it is broken down\ninto pulp by bacteria and then regurgitated as cud. After rechewing, it is passed to the other two chambers, the omasum\nand the abomasum where it is worked on by gastric juices before entering the intestine.\n\nOdd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) are hindgut fermenters; that is,\nthey digest plant cellulose in their intestines rather than their stomach. They\ninclude fast runners with long legs and only one toe like the horse, zebra, and\ndonkey, as well as heavier, slower animals with several functional toes like\ntapirs and rhinoceroses.\n\nstomach\n\ncolon\n\nFood is chewed once. It takes about\n48 hours for digestion, and about 45%\nof the cellulose is used.\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding\n\nMAMMAL TEETH\n\nincisors\ncanines",
+    "A nectar eating bat\u2019s tongue can be as much as 150% as\nlong as its body - the longest of any mammal. Nectar\ndroplets cling to the tip of the tongue when it is withdrawn\nfrom a flower.\n\nVampire bats gently scrapes the skin\nof sleeping mammals and birds, and\nlaps up the oozing blood.\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding - Bats",
+    "A Musk Ox, northernmost of hoofed\nmammals. Their long, coarse guard hairs\nand fine underfur exclude the arctic cold.\n\nThe vibrissae of this harbor seal are attached\nto a substantial nerve network. Tactile\ninformation is transmitted from the vibrissae\nto the brain.\n\n\f\n\nStation 1C2. Mammalian Hair",
+    "appear like a flashing light to a bat using a CF component. As the bat closes on the insect, the CF\ncomponent of each pulse is suppressed in amplitude and reduced to under 10 msec while the amplified\nterminal FM sweep is used for critical\nlocation and capture of the prey.",
+    "A cross-section of the skin and fur of\na fur seal.\n\n\f\n\nStation 1C3. Mammalian Hair\n\nHAIR FUNCTION\nEndothermy is costly. Mammals must work, expending energy either to warm or cool\nthemselves depending on the vagaries of their surroundings. There are many adaptations\ninvolved in minimizing these running costs and the most ubiquitous is mammalian hair. The coat\nmay be adapted in many ways, but there is often an outer layer of longer, more bristle-like,\nwater-repellent guard hairs that provide a tough covering for densely packed, soft underfur. The\nvolume of air trapped amongst the hairs depend on whether or not they are erected by muscles\nin the skin. Hair may protect the skin from the sun\u2019s rays or from freezing wind, slowing the\nescape of watery sweat in the desert or keeping aquatic mammals dry as they dive. Hairs are\nwaterproofed by sebum, the oil secretions of sebaceous glands associated with their roots.\n\nSea otter\n\nFur seals",
+    "were only half its length, eared seals would be unable to move on land. Walruses move in a\nsimilar, though much more clumsy, manner.\nOn land, true seals crawl along on their bellies, humping along by\nflexing their bodies, taking the weight alternately on the chest and\npelvis. Some, such as the elephant seal or Grey seal, use the\nforeflippers to take the weight of the body. Grey seals may also use the\nterminal digits of the foreflippers to produce a powerful grip when\nmoving on rocks. Other true seals, such as the Weddell seal, make no\nuse of the foreflippers. Ribbon and Crabeater seals can make good\nSea lion (eared seal) on land\nprogress over ice or compacted snow by\nsupporting weight with\nalternate backwards strokes of the foreflippers\nforeflippers and hindflippers\nturned out for walking.\nand vigorous flailing movements of the\nhindflippers and hind end of the body, almost as\nthough they were swimming on the surface of\nWeddell seals (true seal) on\nland with full weight on torso.",
+    "incisors\nlower jaw (mandible)\near.\ncheek-teeth\nMammals have a neocortex region in the brain. Most\nmammals also possess specialized teeth and utilize a placenta in their ontogeny. Mammals also\nhave a double occipital condyle: they have two knobs at the base of the skull which fit into the\ntopmost neck vertebra, whereas other vertebrates have a single occipital condyle.\nPaleontologists use the jaw joint and middle ear as criteria for identifying fossil mammals.\no\nj",
+    "Station 1C1. Mammalian Hair\n\nHAIR TYPES\nHair is composed of keratin and is modified epidermis. Mammalian hair is highly variable. It\nvaries in form, shape, density and color location not only within an organism but also throughout\nthe year. Most of this variability relates form and function. All hairs have a nerve plexus at their\nbase. Hair is categorized as vibrissae (whiskers), fur, or guard. Vibrissae are specialized tactile\norgans that are long, thick and are typically straight or slightly bent. Vibrissae are usually few in\nnumber and are typically found on the head or feet. Fur hairs are numerous, short, thin and are\ntypically found in a group. Guard hairs are longer, thick and are usually distributed within the fur.\nExamine a few pelts and try to identify the three types. You may even notice more than three\ntypes as some hairs in the fur are intermediate between guard and fur.",
+    "presence of, the male sex hormone testosterone. Male urine has such a powerful effect that if a newly\npregnant female mouse is exposed to the urine odor of a male who is a complete stranger to her she\nwill resorb her litter and come rapidly into heat. If she then mates with the stranger she will become\npregnant and carry the litter to term. The odor of the urine of females has either no effect upon timing\nof the onset of sexual maturity in young females, or slightly retards it. If female mice are housed\ntogether in groups of 30 or more and males are absent, the normal 4- or 5- day estrous cycles start to\nlengthen and the incidence of pseudopregnancy increases, indicating the power of the odor of female",
+    "similarly unwholesome starting point of other odors (musk) greatly prized by some people. Most\ncarnivores have scent-secreting anal sacs, whose function is largely unknown, although in the\ncase of the skunk it is quite clear enough. The evolution of scent glands has led to a multitude of\nscent-marking behaviors. Scent marks have the advantage of being a long lasting form of\ncommunication. Probably the messages being communicated include the sex, status, age and\ndiet of the sender. Most people are familiar with animals demarking their territory by leaving\ntraces of urine. Have you noticed a remarkable change in the smell of your urine after eating\nasparagus?\nskunk\nMusk deer\nIndian civet",
+    "incisors\ncanines\n\npremolars and molars\n\npremolars and molars\n\nDeer\n(ruminate)\nIn horses the lophs are very\ncomplex and folded\n(hypsodont).\n\nIn ruminant artiodactyls, such as\nthe ox, the cusps take on a\ncrescent shape (selenodont)\n\nRodents have no canines at all. The gap left by their absence is called\nthe diastema. Rodent\u2019s most prominent teeth are long, self\nincisors\ndiastemas\n-sharpening incisors used for gnawing. Mouse-like rodents lack\npremolars, but squirrel- and cavy-like rodents have one or two on\nPorcupine\neach side.\n(rodent)\n\npremolars and molars\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding - Bats",
+    "Mouse-eared bat\n\nTube-nosed fruit bat\n\nFlying fox\n\n\f\n\nStation 4. Feeding - Bats\n\nFEEDING TYPES:\nBloodsuckers and Nectar Drinkers\nIn evolution, the \u201csuccess\u201d of a species or group of species is measured by its ability to survive.\nSurvival is made more likely by a process known as adaptive radiation - the branching out of a group\nof animals into a variety of niches not previously occupied. Bats started out as insect eaters, and\nalthough the majority are still insectivorous, there are now bats that live on fruit, fish, nectar, blood,\nrodents, frogs and even other bats. With this great variability in their way of life, bats have become\nthe second largest mammalian order and are now spread over most of the globe.\n\nAn Epauletted fruit bat feeding\non wild figs.\n\nA fringe-lipped bat eating a\nt\u00fangara frog. These bats learn\nsocially the call of new prey\nfrogs through acoustic cues.",
+    "INSECTIVORY AND ECHOLOCATION\nSonograms show the search, approach and terminal phases of the hunt in two species of bat.\n(a) The North American big brown bat produces frequency modulated (FM) calls steeply\nsweeping from 70-30 kHz. While foraging the bat emits 5-6 pulses per second, each of about 10\nmilliseconds (msec) duration until an insect is located. Immediately the pulse rate increases, duration\nshortens, with the frequency sweep starting at a lower frequency. As an insect is caught (or just missed) the\nrepetition rate peaks at 200 per second, with each pulse lasting about 1 msec.\n(b) Hunting horseshoe bats produce their long (average 50 msec) constant frequency (CF) calls\nat a rate of 10 per second. They often feed among dense foliage. A problem facing a bat is how to\ndistinguish fluttering insect wings from leaves and twigs oscillating in the wind. While foliage produces a\nrandom background scatter of echoes, the insect with a relatively constant rapid wing beat frequency will",
+    "Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations\n\nTHE BLUE WHALE\nThe Blue Whale, the largest animal that has ever lived on land or in the sea, can measure\nmore than 100 feet long and weigh as much as 200 tons. Females are slightly larger than the\nmales. A Blue Whale\u2019s gigantic head is about a quarter of the animal\u2019s total length.\nBecause of its streamlined body, the Blue Whale appears to be a fast swimmer. Ordinarily its\ntop speed is only about 15 miles per hour, and\nit can continue swimming at this speed for two\nhours or longer. Harpooned whales, however,\nhave been known to go twice as fast, though\nthey cannot maintain this faster speed for a\nlong time.",
+    "Skeleton of a guenon\n\nSkeleton of an orangutan\n\n\f\n\nStation 3. Primates\n\nBODY PLAN of PRIMATES\nTeeth: Insectivorous precursors of primates had numerous\nteeth with sharp cusps. In Prosimians (lower primates) such\nas Lemur, the first lower premolar is almost canine-like in\nform, while the crowns of the lower incisors and canines lie\nflat to form a tooth-comb, as in bush babies, which is used in\nfeeding and grooming. In leaf-eating monkeys of the Old\nWorld, such as Presbytis, the squared-off molars bear four\ncusps joined by transverse ridges on the large grinding\nsurface that helps break up the fibrous diet. In apes such as\nthe gorilla, the lower molars have five cusps and a more\ncomplicated pattern of ridges.\n\nLemur\n\nPresbytis\n\n24\n\nCapuchin monkey\n\nTalapoin monkey\n\nChimpanzee\n\nBaboon\n\nGorilla\n\nRing-tailed lemur",
+    "Lactation and the Rise of Mammals\nYoung dinosaurs, like modern crocodiles, hatched as minuscule replicas of their parents; their small size\nrequired that they ate quite different food from the adults of their species. They grew slowly at a rate\ndependent upon their foraging success, gradually approaching adulthood, as feeble inferiors until they\nfinally attained full size. In contrast, the evolution of lactation enabled an infant mammal to grow rapidly\ntowards adult competence under the protection of parental care. At independence the young mammal is\nalmost fully grown and unlike the still infantile reptile of the same age, enters roughly the same niche as\nadult members of its species. For example, a Grizzly bear is born at roughly the same percentage of its\nmother\u2019s weight (1-2 percent) as was a hatching dinosaur, but remains dependent on her for protection\nfor up to 4 1/2 years. The dinosaur, on the other hand, had to fend for itself in a series of niches that",
+    "HAIR FUNCTION\nTwo fundamental traits of mammals lie not in their skeletons, but at the boundaries to their\nbodies - the skin. These two features are hair and skin glands, including the mammary glands\nthat secrete milk, and the sweat and sebaceous glands. None may seem spectacular, and some\nor all may have evolved before the mammal-like reptiles crossed the official divide. But these\ntraits are associated with endothermy, a condition that affects every aspect of mammalian life.\nEndothermic animals are those whose internal body temperature is maintained \u201cfrom\nwithin\u201d (endo-) by the oxidation (essentially, the burning) of food within the body. Some\nendotherms maintain a constant internal temperature (homoethermic), whereas that of others\nvaries (heterothermic). The temperature is regulated by a \u201cthermostat\u201d in the brain, situated\nwithin the hypothalamus. In regulating their body temperature independent of the environment,",
+    "A Greater horseshoe swoops on a butterfly. Such a battle is not necessarily one-sided.\nSome moths and butterflies have evolved listening membranes that detect the bat\u2019s\nsonar pulses giving the moth opportunity to escape. To counter this some tropical bats\nonly send out signals at wavelengths that cannot be detected by the moths.",
+    "Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations\n\nGrooming, which is an important subsidiary function of the limbs, is generally carried out by\nthe hindflippers in eared seals and by the foreflippers in true seals. How the Ross seal, which\nhas practically no claws, grooms itself is a mystery.\nThe anatomical differences of eared and true seals is also reflected in different swimming\ntechniques. The main source of power in the eared seal comes from the front end of the body,\nand it is here that the main muscle mass is concentrated. True seals, on the other hand, have\ntheir main muscles in the lumbar region. The muscles of the hindlimb itself are mainly\nconcerned with orientation of the limb and spreading and contracting the digits. They propel\nthemselves forward by moving their hind flippers left and right.",
+    "dorsal fin\nblowhole\nflukes\n\nflipper\n\nRudimentary pelvic girdle of a whale\n\n\f\n\nStation 2. Aquatic Adaptations"
+]

rag-system/data/chunked/bless_animal_guide.json

@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+[
+    "14\n\n\f\n\nRed Fox Vulpes vulpes\n\nSize: The Red Fox is the size of a small dog. Its\ntotal body length measures 45-90 cm (18-35\u201d). The\nheight at the shoulder is 35-50 cm (14-20 in) and its\nweight is 2-14 kg (5-31 lb).\nDescription: It has a narrow muzzle, an elongated\nbody, relatively short limbs and a tail longer than\nhalf the body length. The long, dense and fluffy fur\nis a reddish-rusty colour on the body, while the\nchin, throat, chest and tail tip are white. The paws\nand backs of the ears are black. Other red fox\ncolours include silver/black or brown. The red fox\n15",
+    "called a Black Bear the coat colour varies from\nblack to blond.\nHabitat: The Black Bear prefers areas with thick\nvegetation and large quantities of edible material.\nAlthough found in the largest numbers in the wild,\nthe Black Bear can adapt to surviving in semi-urban\nregions and undisturbed rural areas as long as they\nhave accessible food and some vegetative cover.\nBehaviour: The Black Bear is highly dexterous\nwith its paws, has great physical strength and is\nsure-footed and able to run at speeds up to 48 km/hr\n(25-30 mph). It has an extremely good sense of\nsmell and has a constant need to eat as it hibernates\nthrough the winter. It is also a strong swimmer,\nregularly climbs trees to feed and escape enemies\nand may be active day or night. The black bear is\nan omnivore eating plants, berries, insects, fawns,\ncalves and carrion. Sows birth 2-3 cubs in Jan.-Feb.\nevery second year. Predators of cubs include\ncougars, coyotes, and wolves.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n19",
+    "39\n\n\f\n\nMephitidae (Skunks)\nStriped Skunk\n\n40\n\n\f\n\nStriped Skunk Mephitis mephitis hudsonica\n\nSize: The Striped Skunk measures 52-77 cm (2130\u201d) in total body length and usually weighs 2-6 kg\n(4-10 lb). It is similar to the size of a large\ndomestic cat. The western Canadian subspecies is\nlarger than the eastern subspecies, with a heavily\nfurred, medium-sized tail.\nDescription: It is stout, short limbed and has a\nsmall, conical head and a long heavily furred tail.\nThe fur colour generally consists of a black base\nwith a white stripe from the head along each side of\nthe back to the rump and tail. The sharp claws on\nits front feet aid in digging for insects and worms.\nIt possesses 2 scent glands on each side of the anus.\n41",
+    "76\n\n\f\n\nMeadow Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonius\n\nSize: The Meadow Jumping Mouse has a body\nlength of 18-24 cm (7-9 in), including the tail\nmeasuring 11-17 cm (4-7 in) and has hind feet 3-4\ncm (1-1.4 in) long. The average adult weight is 18 g\n(0.6 oz).\nDescription: This small, slender mouse has fur that\nis dense and coarse. A broad dark brown stripe is\nalways present on its back, the sides are paler\nyellow and the underbody and feet are white. Its\nnose is short and pointy and its eyes are relatively\nbig. The enlarged hind feet and short forefeet are\ndistinctive characteristics.\nHabitat: In Alberta it is found in central and\nnorthern regions of the province. It prefers moist\ngrasslands with thick vegetated areas usually near\n77",
+    "wetlands, in dense grasses, alder thickets and in the\nundergrowth of forest clearings.\nBehaviour: The Arctic Shrew is solitary, territorial\nand active day and night. It has a voracious appetite\ndue to its quick metabolism and eats insects, worms\nand small invertebrates. The female gives birth to\n1-2 litters each year ranging in size from 4-10\noffspring. The only known predators are owls.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n92\n\n\f\n\nMasked Shrew Sorex cinereus",
+    "16\n\n\f\n\nUrsidae (Bears)\nBlack Bear\n\n17\n\n\f\n\nBlack Bear Ursus americanus\n\nSize: The adult Black Bear averages 45-200 kg\n(100-440 lb) in weight and typically measures from\n150-180 cm (59-71 in) in head and body length.\nDescription: This medium sized bear has a broad\nskull, a narrow muzzle and large jaw hinges. The\nsnout and face form a straight line. The ears are\nprominent and are set well back on the head. The\npaws are relatively large 23 cm (5-9 in) and the\nclaws are short, curved and black. Despite being\n18",
+    "litter size is 2 young per female. Owing to its\nsolitary nature and avoidance of humans, little is\nknown about Silver-haired Bats in Alberta. It is\nknown to be a strong flier during migration,\nhowever, this species experiences mortality at wind\nenergy projects. It is relatively resistant to white\nnose syndrome.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB\n\n112\n\n\f\n\nREPTILIA\n\nColubridae (Rear-fanged snakes)\nRed-sided Garter Snake\nWestern Terrestrial Garter Snake\nPlains Garter Snake\n\n113\n\n\f\n\nRed-sided Garter Snake Thamnophis sirtalis\nparietalis",
+    "27\n\n\f\n\nMarten Martes Americana\n\nSize: The Marten, often called a pine marten, has a\ntotal body length of 55-65 cm (22-26 in), a tail\nlength of 14-16 cm (5-6 in) and an average weight\nof .5-1.4 kg (1-3 lb).\nDescription: It can be compared to the size of a\nsmall house cat, except the Marten has a more\nslender body, shorter legs, a bushy tail and a\nfoxlike pointed face. Its body fur colour is yellowbrown with a buff-coloured bib under its chin. The\ntail and legs are dark brown. (It is lighter in colour\nand smaller than the fisher). Each foot has 5 toes\nwith sharp curved claws. Descent of trees headfirst\nis possible by rotating its hind limbs. The fur\n28",
+    "Behaviour: Their diet consists of earthworms,\nslugs and amphibian larvae and small mammals\nand birds. They are most active from April to late\nOctober and then hibernate in communal sites \u2013\nsink holes, burrows or rocks. They are cold tolerant\nsnakes that emerge to bask on sunny winter days.\nWhen harassed they rarely bite, but writhe to\nescape and emit a foul smelling secretion.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB.\n\n119\n\n\f\n\nAMPHIBIA\n\nAmbystomatidae (Mole\nSalamanders)\nWestern (Barred) Tiger\nSalamander\n\n120\n\n\f\n\nWestern Tiger Salamander Ambystoma\nmavortium",
+    "67\n\n\f\n\nThirteen-lined Ground Squirrel Ictidomys\ntridecemlineatus\n\nSize: Its body length is 17-30 cm (7-12\u201d), its tail is\n6-13 cm (3-5\u201d) and its weight is 110-270 g (4-10\noz).\nDescription: The Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel\nis brown in colour, with thirteen alternating brown\nand white lines (sometimes partially broken into\nspots) on its back and sides. It is also known as the\nstriped gopher or the leopard ground squirrel.\nHabitat: It is widely distributed over grasslands\nand prairies of Alberta.\n68",
+    "87\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Pocket Gopher Thomomys\ntalpoides\n\nSize: The Northern Pocket Gopher on average\nweighs 110 g (4 oz) and has a body length of 20 cm\n(8 in).\nDescription: It has a thick body and neck, short fur\nand small eyes and ears. The fur colour is often rich\nbrown or yellow brown, but also can be gray with\nwhite markings under the chin. It is named for its\nlarge, external, fur lined cheek pouches used to\ncarry food and nesting materials. Long curved\nclaws on 3 digits of its forepaws are used for\ndigging.\nHabitat: It is the most commonly found true\ngopher in Alberta, using fields, prairie and alpine\n88",
+    "54\n\nDave Conlin\n\nBeaver\n\n57\n\nTim Osborne\n\nRed Squirrel\n\n60\n\nDave Conlin\n\nNorthern Flying Squirrel\n\n62\n\nWoodchuck\n\n64\n\nRichardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel\n\n66\n\nDr. Robert Lane\n\nThirteen-lined Ground Squirrel\n\n68\n\nNick Parayko\n\nLeast Chipmunk\n\n70\n\nDave Conlin\n\nMuskrat\n\n73\n\nTim Osborne\n\nWestern Deer Mouse\n\n75\n\nMeadow Jumping Mouse\n\n77\n\nWestern Jumping Mouse\n\n79\n\nWestern Meadow Vole\n\n81\n\nSouthern Red-backed Vole\n\n83\n\nNorthern Bog Lemming\n\n85\n\nNorthern Pocket Gopher\n\n88\n\nArctic Shrew\n\n91\n\nMasked Shrew\n\n93\n\n137\n\nScott Heron via Creative\nCommons ShareAlike\nSimon Barrette \u201cCephas\u201d\nvia Creative Commons\n\nMissouri Dept of\nConservation\nU.S. Fish and Wildlife\nService via Creative\nCommons\nU.S. Forest Service via\nCreative Commons\n\u201cJapanese Tea\u201d via Creative\nCommons\nDr. Gordon Robertson via\nCreative Commons\nMarco Valentini\nU.S. National Park Service\nvia Creative Commons\nAndrew Polandeze via\nCreative Commons\nJennifer Edalgo, Illinois\nDepartment of Natural\nResources\n\n\f\n\nPygmy Shrew\n\n95",
+    "winter it groups together with others for denning or\nfood. It does not hibernate. One young is born from\nMay to July. Predators include coyotes, bears,\ncougars and owls.\nConservation Status: Least Concern in AB",
+    "79\n\n\f\n\ndominated by alder, aspen or willow, where there is\ndense vegetation close to fresh water.\nBehaviour: The Western Jumping Mouse is\nnocturnal but the feeding ground can be identified\nby small piles of grass stems stripped of their seeds\nand by the presence of clear runways strewn with\ngrass clippings. It is an omnivore and eats seeds,\nherbs, fruits, fungi and insects. It hibernates 8-10\nmonths of the year subsisting on its fat reserves.\nAlthough it normally moves by making short hops\nand leaps, the leaps may reach 72 cm (28 in) along\nthe ground and 30 cm (12 in) into the air. A litter of\n4-8 pups is born once a year. Predators include\nbobcats, coyotes, weasels, skunks, raccoons, snakes\nand birds of prey.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n80\n\n\f\n\nWestern Meadow Vole Microtus Drummondii",
+    "wooded river flats and coulees. Brushy patches\nprovide food and good cover, in which even the\nlargest white-tail is difficult to see.\nBehaviour: The diet of White-tailed Deer\nincludes grasses, forbs, chokecherry, saskatoon and\nother shrubs. All deer are ruminants meaning they\nferment plant material before digesting it. They\noften bed down in the afternoon to digest their\nfood. One or two fawns are born to each doe in the\nspring. Fawns are left for long periods of time\nalone, however, their camouflage and lack of smell\nhelp to protect them. White-tailed Deer are very\nwary, and when alarmed they move rapidly\nbounding away in smooth, graceful leaps. Predators\ninclude wolves and cougars. Bobcats, lynx, bears,\nwolverines and packs of coyotes, usually prey\nmainly on fawns.\nConservation Status: Least Concern in AB\n\n50\n\n\f\n\nMule Deer Odocoileus hemionus",
+    "the ears. The bushy tail is orange-brown in colour\nand almost the same length as the body.\nHabitat: In Alberta, it lives in all of the province\nexcept the south-western region. It is commonly\nfound in sagebrush, coniferous woodland, along\nrivers, in alpine meadows and on the edges of the\nnorthern tundra.\nBehaviour: It can often be seen perched on its hind\nlegs holding food in its front paws while it eats. It\nmay also be seen with its stretchy cheek pouches\nfilled with food it collects and stores in its burrow\nor in small holes it has dug in the ground. It eats\nseeds, berries, nuts, fruits and insects. In summer,\nthis chipmunk has a nest in a tree, but in winter it\nuses a burrow with 2-4 entrances. These burrows\nare very hard to find because they never leave dirt\npiles at the entrances. The least chipmunk\nhibernates but wakes to eat food cached in the\nburrow. Females have a litter of 3-7 young each\nyear. Predators include hawks, owls and weasels.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "99\n\n\f\n\nWhite-tailed Jackrabbit Lepus Townsendii\n\nSize: White-tailed Jackrabbits measure 56-65 cm\n(22-26 in) in length, including the tail 7-10 cm (3-4\nin). They weigh between 3-4 kg (6-10 lb).\nDescription: The fur colour of the White-tailed\nJackrabbit is dark brown or gray-brown with pale\ngray underparts. The large ears are distinctive with\nblack tips. The tail is white with a dark central\nstripe above. They moult in autumn and become\nwhite all over except for the ears. They have long,\npowerful hind legs and are excellent at running.\n\n100",
+    "the day. It navigates using echolocation along the\nedges of vegetated habitat, bodies of water or\nstreams and eats mosquitos, spiders, beetles, moths\nand various flies. It can consume 600-1000\nmosquitoes or other flying bugs per hour and will\neat more than half its own body weight each night.\nSome of these bats hibernate in caves or old mines\nlocally, however, others migrate to the northern US.\nThe litter size is one pup per year. Predators\ninclude hawks, owls and snakes. The little brown\nbat is susceptible to rabies and white nose\nsyndrome (an introduced fungus), which has caused\na heavy decline in the population of many bat\nspecies.\nConservation Status: May be at Risk in AB\n\n104\n\n\f\n\nBig Brown Bat Eptesicus fuscus",
+    "industry refers to its high value fur as Canadian\nsable.\nHabitat: The Marten is found across the northern\nhalf of Alberta. It prefers mature coniferous forest\nwith downed logs and cavities in trees, but is also\nfound in young mixed woods forest.\nBehaviour: Ferocious describes this nocturnal little\npredator, but it can be seen in the daytime as well.\nDuring the spring and summer, the male is active\nfor about 16 hrs. a day and the female 6-8 hrs.,\nmostly travelling on the ground. During the winter,\nthe marten may only hunt for a few hours in the\nwarmest part of the day and usually under the\nsnow. Its diet consists of voles, the preferred prey,\nsquirrels, small rodents, snowshoe hares, bird eggs,\nberries and fish. In summer its den is a leaf-lined\nnest in a tree cavity, fallen logs or root masses of\nfallen trees, while in winter only the ground level\nsites are used. The litter size averages 1-5 young.\nPredators include fisher, coyote, lynx and great\nhorned owl.",
+    "eggs and nestlings, buds and flowers. Predators\ninclude owls, hawks, lynx, marten and red fox.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "Habitat: Native to short grass prairies, the\nRichardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel is found in central\nand southern Alberta. The range of this squirrel\nexpanded as forests were cleared to create\nfarmland. It is quite at home in urban areas with\nberms or vacant properties for burrows.\nBehaviour: Richardson\u2019s Ground Squirrels live\ncommunally. Individuals give audible alarm calls\nwhen predators approach their colony (a whistle for\na terrestrial predator and a chirp for an aerial\npredator). They can hibernate for up to 8 months\nfrom July to March. Each adult female owns a\nburrow system with 5-7 exits and 2-5 sleeping\nchambers. These animals are omnivores, eating\nseeds, nuts, grains, grasses and insects. Their litter\naverages 6 young per year. Predators include\nhawks, owls, snakes, weasels, badgers and coyotes.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n67\n\n\f\n\nThirteen-lined Ground Squirrel Ictidomys\ntridecemlineatus",
+    "year of 6-8 young. Their diet consists of 95% plants\nsuch as cattails and pond weeds. They also eat\nfreshwater mussels, frogs, salamanders and small\nfish. Predators are mink, foxes, coyotes, lynx,\nwolves, bears, eagles, owls and hawks. Large\npredatory fish, such as northern pike, are known to\ntake young kits.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n74",
+    "61\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Flying Squirrel Glaucomys\n\nsabrinus\n\nSize: The adult Northern Flying Squirrel measures\nfrom 25-37 cm (10-15 in) long and weighs on\naverage 110-230 g (4-8 oz).\nDescription: It has thick light brown or cinnamon\ncoloured fur on its upper body, gray fur on the\nflanks and whitish fur on the underparts. It has\nlarge eyes, long whiskers and a flat tail.\nHabitat: The Northern Flying Squirrel is found in\nmost of Alberta except for the south-east part of the\n62",
+    "117\n\n\f\n\nPlains Garter Snake Thamnophis radix\n\nSize: Plains garter snakes average 0.91 m (3 ft.) in\nlength.\nDescription: This slender snake is greenish to grey\nolive or brown with an orange or yellow stripe\ndown its back and black bars on its lip. Lateral\nstripes are greenish yellow. The belly is grey-green\nwith small dark spots along the edges and the head\nhas distinctive light yellow spots on top.\nHabitat: These garter snakes are commonly found\nnear streams and ponds and in urban areas. Mating\noccurs in April and May near the communal\nhibernation site, 5-40 young are born alive from\nJuly on and are about 18cm (7in) long.\n118",
+    "102\n\n\f\n\nLittle Brown Bat Myotis lucifugus\n\nSize: The Little Brown Bat is a small species with\nweight at 6-13 g (0.2-0.4 oz), body length at 8-10\ncm (3-4\u201d) and wingspan at 22-27 cm (9-11\u201d).\nDescription: The fur colour of this bat ranges from\npale tan to red or dark brown and is glossy in\nappearance. The belly fur is a lighter colour. It has\na short snout, small eyes and long ears.\nHabitat: Alberta\u2019s most common bat, the Little\nBrown Bat is found across the province, including\nfarms, towns and cities.\nBehaviour: This bat is nocturnal, foraging for its\ninsect prey at night and roosting in tree hollows,\nrocky outcrops, caves and human structures during\n103",
+    "Habitat: It inhabits most of Alberta except the\nsouth-east corner of the province. It prefers boreal\nforest with dense cover of shrubs, reeds and tall\ngrass and with a cold, snowy winter.\nBehaviour: Lynx make sounds like a very loud\nhouse cat. Due to its elusive nature, it is rare to see\none. Although this cat hunts on the ground, it can\nclimb trees and swim swiftly. The Lynx feeds\nalmost exclusively on snowshoe hares, however, it\nwill hunt squirrels, rodents, fawns, fish and birds if\nnecessary. It constructs rough shelters under\ndeadfall trees or rocky cavities. The female gives\nbirth to 1-4 kittens. Predators include cougars,\nwolves and coyotes.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB\n\n22\n\n\f\n\nMustelidae (Weasels)\nWolverine\nBadger\nMarten\nMink\nFisher\nLeast Weasel\nLong-tailed Weasel\nShort-tailed Weasel\n\n23\n\n\f\n\nWolverine Gulo gulo",
+    "120\n\n\f\n\nWestern Tiger Salamander Ambystoma\nmavortium\n\nSize: The Western or Barred Tiger Salamander is\nthe largest terrestrial salamander in North America,\nfrom 15 to 22cm (6-9in) - even up to 30cm (12\u201d)\nlong.\nDescription: It has a broad head and a sturdy body.\nThe back is grey, dark brown or black with muddy\nyellow markings giving a tiger-like appearance.\nThe belly is light to dark. Salamanders are an\nextremely variable, and hence, complex group of\nspecies with a lot of variability amongst and\nbetween species. They are found from southwestern\nCanada in British Columbia, Alberta,\nSaskatchewan, and Manitoba, south through the\n121",
+    "Soricidae (Shrews)\nArctic Shrew\nMasked Shrew\nPygmy Shrew\n\n90\n\n\f\n\nArctic Shrew Sorex arcticus\n\nSize: The body length of the Arctic Shrew ranges\nfrom 10-12 cm (4-5 in) including a 4 cm (2 in) long\ntail. It weighs 5-13 g (0.2-0.5 oz).\nDescription: The Arctic Shrew is most distinctive\nin its tri-coloured fur. It is dark brown or black on\nits back, lighter brown on its flanks and lighter still\ngray-brown on its underside. The fur is grayer in\nwinter. The head is long with a pointed nose and\nthe eyes and ears are very small.\nHabitat: The Arctic Shrew is present in the central\nand northern regions of Alberta. This shrew is\nfound in greatest quantity and density near bodies\nof water such as lakes, streams, marshes and\n91",
+    "streams, ponds and marshes. It avoids heavily\nwooded areas.\nBehaviour: The Meadow Jumping Mouse can\njump 2-3 feet, which is a long distance for its size.\nIt is a decent swimmer and will jump into water\nwhen in danger. When constructing its burrow, it is\nan excellent digger. On average 2-9 young are born\nin a litter, 2-3 times a year. It eats seeds primarily,\nbut also berries, fruit and insects. Hibernation lasts\nfrom fall until spring. Predators include owls,\nfoxes, hawks and weasels.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n78\n\n\f\n\nWestern Jumping Mouse Zapus princeps",
+    "rodents. It runs with a bounding gait, climbs trees\nand swims well. In May, 5-6 kits are born, usually\nin an abandoned muskrat den. Predators include\ngreat horned owls, red foxes, wolves and black\nbears.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n31\n\n\f\n\nFisher Martes pennanti\n\nSize: The Fisher has a body length of 50-70 cm\n(20-28 in) and a tail 30-42 cm (12-17 in). It weighs\nfrom 1.5 -6 kg (3-13 lb).\nDescription: It is a house cat sized member of the\nweasel family with a long slender body, short legs,\na bushy tail and rounded ears set close to its head.\nIts large feet with hairy soles have 5 toes and sharp\npartially retractable claws enabling it to move\neasily in trees. Its hind ankle joints, which can\nrotate almost 180 degrees, enable it to descend a\ntree headfirst. Its fur colour is medium to dark\nbrown, sometimes with a cream chest patch. While\n32",
+    "23\n\n\f\n\nWolverine Gulo gulo\n\nSize: An adult Wolverine is about the size of a\nmedium dog with a length from 65-107 cm (2642\u201d), a tail of 17-26 cm (7-10\u201d) and a weight of 625 kg (12-55 lb).\nDescription: The Wolverine is stocky and\nmuscular with short legs, a broad, rounded head,\nsmall eyes and short rounded ears. Its large fivetoed paws have crampon-like claws enabling it to\neasily climb up trees and steep rocky cliffs. Its thick\nfur ranges in colour from dark brown to a burnt\n24",
+    "Pygmy Shrew\n\n95\n\nPhil Myers via Creative\nCommons\n\nSnowshoe Hare\n\n98\n\nDave Conlin\n\nWhite-tailed Jackrabbit\n\n100\n\nDept. Wildlife, State of\nUtah\n\nLittle Brown Bat\n\n103\n\nNick Parayko\n\nBig Brown Bat\n\n105\n\nHoary Bat\n\n107\n\nNorthern Long-eared Bat\n\n109\n\nSilver Haired Bat\n\n111\n\nRed-sided Garter Snake\n\n114\n\nWestern Terrestrial Garter\nSnake\n\n116\n\nCreative Commons\n\nPlains Garter Snake\n\n118\n\nNick Parayko\n\nWestern Tiger Salamander\n\n121\n\nDave Conlin\n\nWestern Toad\n\n124\n\nDave Conlin\n\nCanadian Toad\n\n126\n\nDave Conlin\n\nBoreal Chorus Frog\n\n129\n\nDave Conlin\n\nWood Frog\n\n132\n\nTim Osborne\n\nNorthern Leopard Frog\n\n134\n\nBalcer via Creative\nCommons\n\n138\n\nLarry Master\n(masterimages.org)\nPaul Cryan, U.S. Geological\nSurvey via Creative\nCommons\nJomegat via Creative\nCommons\nFish and Wildlife Service,\nState of Kentucky\nLarry Master\n(masterimages.org)\n\n\f\n\n139\n\n\f\n\nProduced by:\nBig Lake Environment Support\nSociety\nP.O. Box 65053\nSt. Albert, Ab T8N 5Y3\nwww.bless.ab.ca\n\n$10, all\nproceeds go to\nBLESS\nprograms.",
+    "is lightly built enabling it to have a running speed\nof 50 km/h.\nHabitat: The Red Fox inhabits the entire province\nof Alberta, living on the edges of wooded areas,\nprairies and farmlands as well as towns and cities.\nBehaviour: These shy, curious animals favour\nliving in the open, usually in densely vegetated\nareas, though they may enter burrows to escape bad\nweather. They are great hunters, due to their acute\neyesight, hearing and sense of smell. They eat small\nrodents, birds, insects, porcupines, raccoons,\nreptiles, fruit, grasses, sedges and tubers. Small\ndogs and cats are also taken in urban areas. They\nare largely nocturnal so much of their hunting is\ndone at night but they can often be seen during the\nday. The vixen gives birth to 4-6 kits in the spring\nand raises them in a den. Predators include wolves\nand coyotes, as well as eagles, and large owls will\ntake the kits.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n16\n\n\f\n\nUrsidae (Bears)\nBlack Bear\n\n17\n\n\f\n\nBlack Bear Ursus americanus",
+    "115\n\n\f\n\nWestern Terrestrial Garter Snake\nThamnophis elegans vagrans\n\nSize: These medium sized snakes are usually 46104 cm (18-41 in.) long.\nDescription: The body is brown, grey or greenish\nwith a yellow, light orange or white dorsal stripe\nand 2 side stripes of the same colour. It is an\nimmensely variable species, and even the most\nexperienced herpetologists have trouble when it\ncomes to identification.\nHabitat: Terrestrial Garter Snakes are found in\ngrasslands and woodlands and prefer wetland\nhabitats to hunt and hide. They mate in spring\nproducing live young in litters of 1-24, from July to\n116\n\n\f\n\nSeptember. Newborns are 17-23cm (7-9.5in) long.\nNo parental care is given.\nBehaviour: This species has a mild venomous\nsaliva that immobilises prey but is harmless to\nhumans. They constrict prey but rather\ninefficiently. If harassed, they may emit a repulsive\nsecretion from their rear end. They eat soft bodied\ninvertebrates, frogs, mice and fish.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB.",
+    "110\n\n\f\n\nSilver-haired Bat Lasionycteris noctivagans\n\nSize: The length of body of the Silver-haired Bat is\n10 cm (4\u201d), the weight is 8-12 g (0.3-0.4 oz) and\nnotably, its wingspan is up to 30 cm (12\u201d).\nDescription: This medium sized bat is nearly black\nwith white tipped hairs on its back. Its flight pattern\nis slow and leisurely, often close to the ground.\nHabitat: It is found primarily in forested areas in\ncentral and southern Alberta, although it appears to\nbe present in southern Alberta only during the\nspring and fall migrations.\nBehaviour: The Silver-haired Bat uses tree roosts\nin summer. It may be found alone or in small\ngroups under bark, in abandoned bird\u2019s nests, in\nhollow trees, or hanging upside down among the\nleaves throughout the forests in central Alberta. The\n111",
+    "Western Deer Mouse Peromyscus\nsonoriensus\n\nSize: The Western Deer Mouse body is 8-10 cm (34 in) long not including the tail, which averages 513 cm (2-5 in). It weighs 18-35 g (0.6- 1 oz).\nDescription: Large beady black eyes and large\nears give the Deer Mouse good sight and hearing.\nThe colour of the fur varies from gray to red brown,\nbut all deer mice have a white underside and white\nfeet. The tail is long and multicoloured. They are\nvery similar to the Eastern Deer Mouse.\nHabitat: The Western Deer Mouse is found\nthroughout Alberta in forests, prairies and deserts,\n\n75",
+    "80\n\n\f\n\nWestern Meadow Vole Microtus Drummondii\n\nSize: The Western Meadow Vole has an average\nlength of 16 cm (7 in) and weight of 37 g (1 oz).\nDescription: It is compact and stocky with short\nlegs and tail and a rounded muzzle and head. The\nfur is dark brown and velvety with a gray-coloured\nbelly. It turns white in winter. Its broad feet have\nstrong claws for digging in soil. These voles have\nshort ears that barely protrude from the fur\nsurrounding them.\nHabitat: It is present in all of Alberta but prefers\nmoist, dense grasslands near streams, lakes, ponds\nand swamps. Overhead grass cover is essential.\nBehaviour: The Western Meadow Vole is active\nyear-round, day or night because it has to eat\n81",
+    "Animal Guide\nto Lois Hole Centennial Provincial Park,\nAlberta\n\nBig Lake Environment Support Society\n\n\f\n\nCredits\nTechnical information\nAlberta Environment data on species in Alberta, and some text\nfrom Wikipedia, some of which was modified for the Big Lake\nregion of Alberta.\nPhotographs\nLocal photographers were approached for good quality\nimages, and where good photographs were not available then\nfreely available images from Wikipedia were used (see page\n136 for individual photo credits).\nFunding\nCity of St. Albert, Environmental Initiatives Grant 2021\nCreation and Review\nLinda Brain, Lyn Druett, Miles Constable\nBig Lake Environment Support Society\nProduced by\nBig Lake Environment Support Society\nP.O. Box 65053\nSt. Albert, Ab T8N 5Y3\nwww.bless.ab.ca\nFor information contact info@bless.ab.ca\n\n3\n\n\f\n\nAnimal Guide\nto Lois Hole Centennial Provincial\nPark, Alberta\n\n2022\n4\n\n\f\n\nLocation of Lois Hole Centennial\nProvincial Park, Alberta",
+    "55\n\n\f\n\nCastoridae (Beavers)\nBeaver\n\n56\n\n\f\n\nBeaver Castor canadensis\n\nSize: The Beaver is the largest N. American rodent\nweighing from 20-35 kg (44-77 lb). The body\nlength varies from 74-90 cm (29-35 in) and the tail\nmeasures 20-35 cm (8-14 in).\nDescription: The fur is a red-brown colour. The\nflat scaly tail is used as a rudder, as a prop when\nstanding, as a lever when dragging logs and as a\nwarning when slapped on the water. The digits and\nclaws of the forepaws are long and delicate to aid in\nhandling wood and the digits of the hind feet are\nbroad with webbing to propel the animal through\nthe water.\n\n57",
+    "of individuals declines in the northern regions.\nThese bats roost in colonies within a small local\narea and usually forage within 3-4 km of their day\nroost.\nBehaviour: The big brown bat is nocturnal,\nroosting in sheltered places during the day. Roosts\ninclude tree cavities, wood piles, rock crevices,\ncaves and buildings. Although little is known about\ntheir hibernation in Alberta, the number of big\nbrown bats found in Edmonton is greater in winter\nthan in summer. It is thought that the bats move\ninto the city to use old warehouses, where\ntemperatures remain just above freezing. Their diet\nconsists of a diverse array of night flying insects,\nespecially beetles. This bat is a significant predator\nof agricultural pests. One pup per female is born\nfrom May to June. Known predators include\ncommon grackles, American kestrels, owls and\nlong-tailed weasels. These bats are relatively\nresistant to white nose syndrome.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n106\n\n\f\n\nHoary Bat Aeorestes cinereus",
+    "50\n\n\f\n\nMule Deer Odocoileus hemionus\n\nSize: Mule Deer have a height of 80-106 cm (3142\u201d) at the shoulder and a nose to tail length of 1-2\nm (4-7\u2019). Adult bucks weigh 92 kg (203 lb) on\naverage. Does are smaller and typically weigh 68\nkg (150 lb).\nDescription: Their ears are large like those of the\nmule. The coat ranges from dark brown gray, dark\nand light gray to brown and even reddish. They\n51",
+    "shelter. Predators are few but include cougar, bears\nand humans.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "85\n\n\f\n\nBehaviour: This small rodent is active year-round\nday and night. It makes runways through the\nsurface vegetation and also digs underground\nburrows. In winter, it burrows under the snow. The\ndiet for this lemming consists of grasses, sedges,\nother green vegetation, mosses as well as snails and\nslugs. Females can have 2-3 litters of 4-6 young in\nonly a 4 month breeding season. Predators include\ncoyotes, red fox, owls, hawks, weasels and snakes.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n86\n\n\f\n\nGeomyidae (Pocket Gophers)\nNorthern Pocket Gopher\n\n87\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Pocket Gopher Thomomys\ntalpoides",
+    "Behaviour: Hares and mice are the most important\nprey species for coyotes, but dead livestock, deer\nand moose are often the most important winter\nfood. Blueberries and other fruits are heavily used\nin season. Lately, urban Coyotes have been taking\nsmall dogs and cats. They seldom hunt in packs\nunless hunting large prey. Occasionally they hunt\nwith Badgers chasing down rodents escaping from\na digging Badger. For a natal den, the female\nenlarges a rodent burrow. A litter of 5-7 pups is\nborn in April or May. Predators are wolves,\ncougars, black bears and lynx.\nConservation Status: Least Concern in AB\n\n12\n\n\f\n\nGray Wolf Canis lupus",
+    "58\n\n\f\n\nSciuridae (Squirrels)\nRed Squirrel\nNorthern Flying Squirrel\nWoodchuck (Groundhog)\nRichardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel\nThirteen-lined Ground Squirrel\nLeast Chipmunk\n\n59\n\n\f\n\nRed Squirrel Tamiaschiurus hudsonicus\n\nSize: The body length of the Red Squirrel is 28-35\ncm (11-14\u201d) including the tail, which is half the\nlength of the body. Its weight is 200-250 g (7-9 oz).\nDescription: It is a small squirrel but somewhat\nlarger than the chipmunk. Its fur can range in\ncolour from rusty red to grey-brown on their backs\nto stark white on their throats, bellies and rings\naround their eyes. It has sharp, curved claws which\nenable it to easily climb and descend trees. The big,\nbushy tail is used for balance when jumping from\n60",
+    "Contents\nCREDITS ........................................................................... 3\nCANIDAE (WOLVES, COYOTES AND FOXES) ...... 10\nCOYOTE CANIS LATRANS ................................................. 11\nGRAY WOLF CANIS LUPUS ............................................. 13\nRED FOX VULPES VULPES............................................... 15\nURSIDAE (BEARS) ........................................................ 17\nBLACK BEAR URSUS AMERICANUS.................................. 18\nFELIDAE (CATS) ........................................................... 20\nCANADA LYNX LYNX CANADENSIS.................................. 21\nMUSTELIDAE (WEASELS) ......................................... 23\nWOLVERINE GULO GULO ............................................... 24\nBADGER TAXIDEA TAXUS ................................................ 26\nMARTEN MARTES AMERICANA ........................................ 28\nMINK NEOVISON VISON .................................................. 30",
+    "Leporidae (Hares)\nSnowshoe Hare\nWhite-tailed Jackrabbit\n\n97\n\n\f\n\nSnowshoe Hare Lepus americanus\n\nSize: The adult Snowshoe Hare measures 41-52 cm\n(16-20 in) in total body length with a tail 4-5 cm\n(1.5-2 in) long. It weighs about 1.5 kg (2-4 lb).\nDescription: The Snowshoe Hare has very broad\nhind feet which prevent the animal from sinking\ninto the snow. The feet also have fur on the soles to\nprotect them from freezing temperatures. In\nsummer, the fur colour is grizzled reddish or gray\nbrown, while in winter, its coat turns completely\nwhite except for black tips on the ears.\nHabitat: It is widely distributed across almost all\nof Alberta except for the southernmost region. It\ninhabits boreal forests preferably with a dense\nshrub layer, as well as treed coulees and river\n98",
+    "33\n\n\f\n\nLeast Weasel Mustela nivalis\n\nSize: The Least Weasel is a small carnivore, with a\nbody length, including the tail of 20 cm (8\u201d) and a\nweight of 70 g (3 oz).\nDescription: It has a small head with short oval\nears, black beady eyes and a pointed nose. Its body\nis long and slender turning brown in summer with\nwhite on the belly and white in winter, with a few\nblack hairs on the tip of its tail.\nHabitat: The Least Weasel is found in all natural\nregions of Alberta, particularly in fields, meadows,\nriverbanks and parkland.\n34",
+    "area than most comparably sized bats, giving it\nincreased maneuverability during slow flight.\nHabitat: The Northern Long-eared Bat is found\nmostly in eastern North America in mature forests.\nIt is relatively rare in the Alberta.\nBehaviour: This bat roosts in cracks, hollows or\nunder the bark of deciduous trees in summer and\nmigrates to caves in winter. It uses echolocation to\nnavigate through cluttered forests. Most foraging\noccurs in the first hours of dawn and dusk, when it\neats insects, with moths being its favourite. Most\nunusually, it can perch and pluck insects from a\nsurface. Females give birth to a single pup in May.\nClimate change, forestry practices and the potential\nof white-nose syndrome coming into the province\nmay put this species at risk.\nConservation Status: May be at Risk in AB\n\n110\n\n\f\n\nSilver-haired Bat Lasionycteris noctivagans",
+    "48\n\n\f\n\nWhite-tailed Deer Odocoileus virginianus\n\nSize: White-tailed Deer have a shoulder height of\n53-120 cm (21-47 in). The average weight for\nbucks is 113-125 kg (250-275 lb.), while does\nweigh about 73-82 kg (160-180 lb.).\nDescription: This deer changes from red-brown\nin summer to gray-brown in winter. The brown tail\nis broad, fringed with white and white underneath.\nWhen running the tail is held erect, hence the name\n\u201cwhite-tail\u201d. Antlers on bucks have unbranched\ntines extending up from single beams.\nHabitat: They are Alberta\u2019s most abundant deer\nfound in the prairie, parkland and southern boreal\nzones. Their range is expanding westward into the\nfoothills and mountains and northward into the\nboreal zone. Typical habitat includes aspen groves,\n49",
+    "8\n\n\f\n\nAMBYSTOMATIDAE (MOLE SALAMANDERS) .. 120\nWESTERN TIGER SALAMANDER AMBYSTOMA MAVORTIUM\n.................................................................................... 121\nBUFONIDAE (TOADS) ............................................... 123\nWESTERN TOAD ANAXYRUS BOREAS ............................. 124\nCANADIAN TOAD ANAXYRUS HEMIOPHRYS ................... 126\nHYLIDAE (TREE FROGS) ......................................... 128\nBOREAL CHORUS FROG PSEUDACRIS MACULATA.......... 129\nRANIDAE (TRUE FROGS) ........................................ 131\nWOOD FROG LITHOBATES SYLVATICA ........................... 132\nNORTHERN LEOPARD FROG LITHOBATES PIPIENS ........ 134\nPHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS ...................................... 136\n\n9\n\n\f\n\nMAMMALIA\n\nCanidae (Wolves, Coyotes and\nFoxes)\nCoyote\nGray Wolf\nRed Fox\n\n10\n\n\f\n\nCoyote Canis latrans",
+    "and is rarely far from a burrow entrance, which can\nbe identified by a large mound of excavated earth.\nBehaviour: This rodent is an excellent burrower\nconstructing a tunnel up to 14 m (46 ft) in length\nand buried 1.5 m (5\u2019), with a large chamber and 2-5\nentrances. Although the Woodchuck can swim and\nclimb trees, it prefers to retreat to its burrow to\navoid predators. It often stands erect on its hind\nlegs watching for danger and uses a high-pitched\nwhistle for warning. It eats wild grasses, other\nvegetation and occasionally grubs, insects and\nsmall animals. Instead of storing food, it puts on a\nlot of fat before hibernation to survive the winter. A\nlitter includes 2-6 young. Predators are coyotes,\nbadger, red foxes, mink, eagles, hawks and large\nowls.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n65\n\n\f\n\nRichardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel Urocitellus\nrichardsonii",
+    "92\n\n\f\n\nMasked Shrew Sorex cinereus\n\nSize: The Masked Shrew, also called the common\nshrew, is about 9 cm (4 in) in length, including a 4\ncm (2 in) long tail. It weighs about 5 g (0.2 oz). It is\none of the smallest mammals on earth.\nDescription: The fur of the Masked Shrew is graybrown in colour with a light gray underside. It has a\npointed elongated snout, small eyes and a long tail.\nHabitat: It can be found in all of Alberta and is\ncommon in poplar forests and meadows. Moisture\ndetermines the abundance of this shrew so it mostly\nlives in humid areas with high levels of vegetation\nto hide in.\n93",
+    "piles. The nest chamber is lined with straw and the\nfur of prey. It is a fearless and aggressive hunter.\nWhen stalking, it waves its head from side to side\nto pick up the scent. This carnivore eats mice, rats,\nsquirrels, chipmunks, shrews, moles, rabbits, small\nbirds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and insects. In late\nApril, 4-8 kits are born. Predators include large\nowls, coyotes, foxes and snakes. Its population has\nexperienced dramatic declines as a result of habitat\nloss and fragmentation.\nPredators include large owls, coyotes, foxes and\nsnakes This weasel is very agile and not often seen.\nConservation Status: May Be at Risk in AB\n\n37\n\n\f\n\nShort-tailed Weasel Mustela erminea",
+    "Ranidae (True Frogs)\nWood Frog\nNorthern Leopard Frog\n\n131\n\n\f\n\nWood Frog Lithobates sylvatica\n\nSize: The smallest true frog in Alberta, the wood\nfrog is 5-7 cm (2-2.8 in.) long.\nDescription: They are brown, tan or rust with a\nlight back stripe and dark eye mask. The belly is\nyellow or green and the hind legs are striped. The\nsmooth skin may have prominent ridges and warts\nhigh on the sides.\nHabitat: Wood frogs eat a variety of invertebrates,\nincluding worms and insects, with tadpoles grazing\non algae and plant detritus. Movement of prey\ntriggers the frog to lunge, open its mouth and make\n\n132",
+    "which prevents infection when the porcupine falls\nout of a tree and is stuck with its own quills. When\ntempted to eat succulent buds at the ends of\nbranches, it often falls out of trees. It is able to use\nits teeth and front paws to pull the quills out.\nHabitat: It is found throughout Alberta, usually\nnear stands of woody vegetation, its main source of\nfood.\nBehaviour: This quiet, gentle animal is not always\neasy to see, but noisy chewing, cut twigs and\nmissing bark may advertise its presence. In\nsummer, it is nocturnal and feeds on greens, forbs,\nshrubs and trees; in winter, the inner bark, twigs\nand buds of trees are eaten. When in danger, it\nchatters its teeth, turns its rear to a predator and\nswings its tail. When a quill comes in contact, it\nbecomes embedded in the attacker\u2019s skin. It does\nnot throw the quills; they have to contact the\nattacker. The Porcupine leads a solitary life but in\nwinter it groups together with others for denning or",
+    "Behaviour: The least weasel does not dig its own\nden, but nests in an abandoned burrow. The nest\nchamber is lined with straw and skins from its prey.\nIts diet includes mice, shrews and pocket gophers\ncaptured in their burrows and snow tunnels. It also\neats insects. This fierce hunter is capable of killing\na rabbit 5-10 times its own weight. There are 3-6\nkits in a litter. Predators include red foxes, and\nowls. This weasel is very agile and not often seen.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n35\n\n\f\n\nLong-tailed Weasel Neogale frenata",
+    "the raccoon is fierce in defence, but include black\nbears, wolves, lynx and bald eagles.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "Habitat: The Skunk is most common in the central\nand southern parts of Alberta. It inhabits mixed\nwoodlands, brushy corners and open fields\ninterspersed with wooded ravines and rocky\noutcrops. It is also quite at home in urban areas\nwith some brush or ravines.\nBehaviour: The Skunk is nocturnal with slow and\ndeliberate behaviour enabled by its ability to spray\nits foul-smelling fluid 4-5 m, 6 times in succession.\nWhile primarily an insectivore (grasshoppers,\nbeetles, crickets and caterpillars), it will also eat\nmice, voles, eggs, bird chicks, berries and corn. It\nlives in abandoned dens, stumps, rock piles or\nunder buildings and decks in urban areas. It does\nnot truly hibernate, but generally remains inactive\nduring winter surviving on its fat stores. In winter,\nthe striped skunk will forage for short periods.\nLitters consist of 2-12 kits born in mid-May to\nJune. The Skunk has few natural enemies (except\nfor Great Horned Owls) but if starving, cougars,",
+    "beneath the forest floor or in the water and are\nmostly active at night. Unlike most toads, they walk\nrather than jump. Their diet consists of bees,\nbeetles, ants and spiders, slugs and worms.\nBehaviour: These toads are found near ponds and\nstreams and are active from April to September.\nBreeding occurs in shallow ponds with sandy\nbottoms. The male call is a soft peeping sound.\nFemales lay eggs in gelatinous masses of up to\n16,500 per clutch, beneath submerged vegetation\nfor protection. The eggs hatch as tadpoles in 3 \u2013 12\ndays and are fully formed as adults within 3\nmonths. Juvenile toads become mature in 2 \u2013 3\nyears. Predators include fish, dragonfly nymphs,\npredacious diving beetles, many birds and most\ncarnivores.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB.\n\n125\n\n\f\n\nCanadian Toad Anaxyrus hemiophrys",
+    "part of its diet as well as small to medium mammals\nand geese, bird eggs, roots, seeds and berries.\nFemale Wolverines burrow into snow in February\nto provide a den for 2-3 young kits. Predators\ninclude wolves and less frequently, bears.\nConservation Status May be at risk in AB",
+    "Behaviour: This burrowing rodent digs a burrow\n5-6 m (15-20 ft) long. It is well known for standing\nupright to survey its domain, for diving down into\nits burrow when it senses danger, then for poking\nout its nose and giving a bird-like trill. It is also\nvery quick with a maximum running speed of 13\nkm/hr (8 mph). Being an omnivore, its diet\nconsists of grass and weed seeds, caterpillars,\ngrasshoppers, mice and shrews. In October, it\nenters its hibernation nest in a deeper section of the\nburrow where food has been stored. During\nhibernation, respiration is decreased from 100-200\nbreaths/minute to 1 breath every 5 minutes! It\nemerges in early spring. A litter of 3-14 pups is\nborn once a year. Predators include weasels,\nraptors, hawks and snakes.\nConservation Status: Undetermined in AB (IUCN\nStatus: Least Concern)\n\n69\n\n\f\n\nLeast Chipmunk Neotamias minimus",
+    "63\n\n\f\n\nWoodchuck Marmota monax\n\nSize: The Woodchuck, also known as the\ngroundhog, may measure 42-69 cm (17-27 in) in\nlength, including the tail which is 10-19 cm (4-7 in)\nlong. It typically weighs 2-6 kg (4-14 lb).\nDescription: It is stout and has a flat head, small\nears and short, powerful limbs with curved, thick\nclaws. The fur colour ranges from gray to\ncinnamon to dark brown. Its four incisor teeth grow\n1.5 mm (1/16 in) per week; however, constant\nusage wears them down.\nHabitat: The range of the Woodchuck extends\nacross the central and northern parts of Alberta. It\nprefers open country and the edges of woodland\n64",
+    "45\n\n\f\n\nCervidae (Deer)\nMoose\nWhite-tailed Deer\nMule Deer\n\n46\n\n\f\n\nMoose Alces alces\n\nSize: Moose are the largest members of the deer\nfamily. Bulls can weigh on average 550 kg (1200\nlb) and stand 2 m (6-7 ft) at the shoulder. Cows\naverage 350 kg (770 lb). Body length varies from\n2-3 m (7-10 ft).\nDescription: Moose have dark colouration which\nvaries from dark brown to black. Other features of\nboth sexes are: broad muzzle, shoulder hump, and\na loose fold of skin under the chin called a \u201cbell\u201d.\nBulls have broad, palm-like antlers that can\nmeasure 2 m (6 ft) from tip to tip and can weigh up\nto 40 kg (88 lb).\nHabitat: In Alberta, Moose are common in most\neco-regions except for the prairie and parkland.\nThey prefer muskegs, brushy meadows and small\n47",
+    "29\n\n\f\n\nMink Neovison vison\n\nSize: The adult weight is about 1 kg (2.2 lb) and\ntotal body length ranges from 65-75 cm (25-30in).\nDescription: The Mink has a long, slender body\nwith short sturdy legs, a long neck and pointed\nface, small ears and a bushy tail. Distinguishing\ntraits include a dark, brown to black coat,\nsometimes with white spots on the chin and chest.\nHabitat: In Alberta, it can be found in the Boreal,\nFoothill and Rocky Mountain natural regions. This\nsemi-aquatic weasel is seldom seen far from\nwatercourses.\nBehaviour: The scent from the musk gland is used\nto mark the Mink\u2019s territory; although the musk\nsmells worse than that of a skunk, it cannot be\nsprayed for defence. This nocturnal hunter has a\ndiet of ducks, fish, muskrat and small birds and\n30",
+    "orange with its facial mask, legs, back and tail\ndarker than the midsection. There is usually a stripe\nof blond fur running from the shoulders to the\nlarge, bushy tail.\nHabitat: Historically found across Alberta,\nWolverines now live in the northern boreal half of\nthe province and along the mountains and foothills.\nThey are found in evergreen or mixed forests often\ninterspersed with lakes, streams and bogs. They\nrequire a very large home range; the range of a\nmale can be more than 620 km sq. (240 mi sq).\nThere have been two sightings around Big Lake in\nthe last 10 years.\nBehaviour: This largest member of the weasel\nfamily has a reputation for ferocity and strength out\nof proportion to its size, with the documented\nability to kill prey many times larger than itself. Its\nfeeding style appears voracious (the basis of the\nscientific name meaning glutton). Carrion is a large\npart of its diet as well as small to medium mammals\nand geese, bird eggs, roots, seeds and berries.",
+    "or wooded areas, usually not far from water, are\npreferred.\nBehaviour: Even though this weasel is small, it is a\nfierce predator and skilled hunter. With great speed\nand agility, it preys on mice, voles, shrews, rabbits,\nchipmunks, and nesting birds. It sometimes uses the\nburrows and nest chambers of the rodents it kills or\nit builds a nest under rocks, logs, tree roots or\nhaystacks. It is primarily nocturnal; however, it can\nbe seen during the daytime. In April-May, 4-8\nyoung are born. Predators include foxes, raptors\nand badgers.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n39\n\n\f\n\nMephitidae (Skunks)\nStriped Skunk\n\n40\n\n\f\n\nStriped Skunk Mephitis mephitis hudsonica",
+    "Predators include fisher, coyote, lynx and great\nhorned owl.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "tree to tree and for intimidating a rival with a lot of\nflicking, as well as chattering and foot stomping.\nHabitat: In Alberta, it is abundant where conifers\nare common, including urban areas.\nBehaviour: The Red Squirrel is a feisty and\nterritorial rodent that defends a year-round territory.\nIts nest is constructed of grass in the branches of\ntrees or in cavities in the trunks of trees. It is an\nomnivore, consuming conifer seeds (over 50% of\nits diet), buds, needles, mushrooms, willow leaves,\nflowers, berries, mice, eggs and small birds. Cone\nseeds are stored in a cache for winter since it does\nnot hibernate. Females produce one litter per year\nwith 1-5 young. Predators include the lynx, bobcat,\ncoyote, great horned owl, northern goshawk, redtailed hawk, crow, red fox, wolf and weasel.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n61\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Flying Squirrel Glaucomys\n\nsabrinus",
+    "132\n\n\f\n\ncontact with the tip of the tongue only. They leap to\nescape predators.\nBehaviour: Wood frogs are found in moist\nwoodlands, forested swamps, ravines and bogs.\nThey overwinter in upland areas beneath the soil\nand leaf litter. They can tolerate the freezing of\ntheir blood and tissues utilising urea and glucose as\nantifreeze. Breeding occurs from late April to June.\nMales have a duck-like call. Females deposit eggs\non submerged vegetation next to other egg masses\nfor protection in shallow clear temporary ponds.\nThe eggs hatch after 3 weeks and become juvenile\nfrogs in 6-12 weeks. Most wood frogs only breed\nonce in their lifetime. Predators include fish,\ndragonfly nymphs, predacious diving beetles, many\nbirds and most carnivores.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB.\n\n133\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Leopard Frog Lithobates pipiens",
+    "69\n\n\f\n\nLeast Chipmunk Neotamias minimus\n\nSize: The Least Chipmunk measures 16-25 cm (610 in) in total length, with a tail 10-11 cm (3.9-4.3\nin) and a weight of 25-66 g (1-2 oz). It is about the\nsize of a small bird.\nDescription: This smallest species of chipmunk is\ngray to reddish-brown on the sides of the body and\ngreyish-white on the underparts. The back is\nmarked with 5 dark brown to black stripes\nseparated by 4 white or cream coloured stripes\nrunning from the neck to the tail. Two light and 2\ndark stripes mark the face, running from the nose to\n70",
+    "42\n\n\f\n\nProcyonidae (Racoons)\nRacoon\n\n43\n\n\f\n\nRacoon Procyon lotor\n\nSize: Raccoons have a body length of 40-70 cm\n(16-28 in) not including the tail, which on average\nmeasures 25 cm (10 in). They weigh 5-12 kg (1030 lb).\nDescription: This stout, short legged animal has a\ndistinctive mask formed by black fur around the\neyes contrasting with its white face. As well, its\nbushy tail has 5-6 alternating light and dark rings.\nThe body fur is grizzly gray coloured with some\nbrown. The front paws have 5 digits with claws and\nno webbing and are very agile, almost like fingers.\n\n44",
+    "35\n\n\f\n\nLong-tailed Weasel Neogale frenata\n\nSize: The Long-tailed Weasel has a total body\nlength averaging 45 cm (16\u201d), a tail length 15 cm (6\nin) and a weight of 340 g (12 oz).\nDescription: It has a small head with short oval\nears, black beady eyes and a pointed nose. Its body\nis long and slender turning brown in summer with\nwhite on the belly and white in winter, with a few\nblack hairs on the tip of its tail.\nHabitat: Preferring open country, the Long-tailed\nWeasel inhabits the Parkland and Grassland natural\nregions of Alberta.\nBehaviour: The Long-tailed Weasel dens in\nground burrows, under stumps or beneath rock\n36",
+    "114\n\n\f\n\nBehaviour: In summer they are most active in the\nmorning and afternoon. They hibernate in common\ndens, emerging to bask in the sun. The saliva\ncontains mild venom that is toxic to amphibians.\nFor humans it might cause itching and swelling. If\ndisturbed, they might secrete a foul-smelling fluid.\nGarter snakes feed on amphibians, earthworms,\nfish, small birds and rodents. They are prey for\nlarger fish, bullfrogs, snapping turtles, hawks,\nracoons and foxes.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB.\n\n115\n\n\f\n\nWestern Terrestrial Garter Snake\nThamnophis elegans vagrans",
+    "wetlands. Forests, including mossy, rotten logs and\nstumps are preferred. It can also be found in aspen\nbluffs and shrubby vegetation.\nBehaviour: The Southern Red-backed Vole is\nactive year-round, mostly at night. It uses runways\nthrough the surface growth in warm weather and\nuses tunnels through the snow in winter.\nUnderground burrows made by other small animals\nare used. Being omnivorous, its diet includes green\nplants, fungi, seeds, nuts, roots, insects, snails and\nberries. Roots, bulbs and nuts are stored for later\nuse. This little vole plays a positive role in the\nconiferous ecosystem since they disperse the native\nfungi that is necessary for the establishment and\nsuccessful growth of conifers. Females have 2-4\nlitters of 2-8 young in a year. Predators include\ncoyotes, red fox, hawks, owls and mustelids, and\nare an important food source in winter.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n84\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Bog Lemming Synaptomys borealis",
+    "Behaviour: This small shrew is active day and\nnight, year-round. It digs tunnels but also uses\nexisting tunnels where dry grass is used to make a\nnest. One litter of 6-7 young is born during the\nbreeding season. The diet consists of insects,\nworms, snails, small rodents, salamanders and\nseeds. These shrews have to eat almost constantly\nbecause of a very high metabolism. They can only\nsurvive a couple of hours without food. Predators\ninclude larger shrews, hawks, owls, shrikes, snakes,\nherons, foxes, leopard frog, bluebird, brown trout\nand weasels.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n94\n\n\f\n\nPygmy Shrew Sorex hoyi",
+    "57\n\n\f\n\nHabitat: The Beaver lives in all natural regions of\nAlberta except the alpine subregion. The primary\nhabitat is the riparian zone inclusive of stream bed.\nThey are quite at home in urban areas with rivers\nand streams.\nBehaviour: It is largely nocturnal, although it can\nbe active in day. It constructs dams on streams to\ncreate ponds, which flood the surrounding area for\nprotection and easy access to fell trees. A lodge is\nconstructed of sticks and mud that provides\nexcellent protection at night and over winter. Some\nbeavers live along rivers and burrow into the bank.\nThe Beaver is active all winter, feeding from the\nunderwater store of twigs and leaves in the Beaver\npond. From April to June, often four kits are born.\nIt eats pond weeds, waterlilies, cattails, and the\nbark of poplar, willow, cottonwood, shrubs and\nother trees. When the food supply is exhausted, it\nmoves to another area. Predators include coyotes,\nwolves and bears.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n58",
+    "frequently. It is active the first few hours after dawn\nand during the 2-4 hour period before sunset. It digs\nburrows where it stores food for the winter and\nwhere females give birth to their young. A litter\nsize is 4-6 pups with up to 4 litters per year. The\ndiet consists of grasses, sedges, forbs, seeds, insects\nand snails. In winter, it eats green basal portions of\ngrass plants, often hidden under snow. This vole is\nan important prey, especially in winter, for red\nfoxes, coyotes, hawks, owls, snakes and weasels.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n82\n\n\f\n\nSouthern Red-backed Vole Myodes gapperi",
+    "133\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Leopard Frog Lithobates pipiens\n\nSize: This large frog species can be 11 cms (4.3 in.)\nlong.\nDescription: It is green or brown with circular dark\nspots bordered by light rings on its back, sides and\nlegs. A pair of light folds run from behind the eyes\nand down the back, with a pale stripe under each\neye across to the shoulders. The belly is pale. The\niris is golden with a black horizontal pupil. The toes\nare webbed.\n\n134",
+    "134\n\n\f\n\nHabitat: Found in ponds, swamps, marches and\nstreams with abundant vegetation. In summer they\nmove to grassy areas.\nBehaviour: These frogs eat anything that will fit\ninto their mouths, including crickets, worms and\nflies. They are preyed on by herons, snakes, turtles\nand fish, and are used in medical research. Leopard\nfrogs breed in spring. Males make a short snorelike call to attract females. Up to 6,500 eggs are\nlaid in water. These hatch after 9 days and\nmetamorphosis is complete in 70-110 days. The\njuveniles are 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2 in.) long and resemble\nadults. They may live for up to 4 years.\nConservation Status: At risk in AB. This species\nhas severely declined since the late 1970s.\nPreviously common and widespread, it has\ndisappeared from most of its Alberta range. It may\nstill occur around Big Lake, but most of the\nbreeding population in the southeast of the\nprovince. The protection of remnant breeding areas\nis essential.\n\n135\n\n\f\n\nPhotography Credits\nPhotograph\n\nPage",
+    "71\n\n\f\n\nCricetidae (Muskrats, Mice, Voles\nand Lemmings)\nMuskrat\nDeer Mouse\nMeadow Jumping Mouse\nWestern Jumping Mouse\nMeadow Vole\nSouthern Red-backed Vole\nNorthern Bog Lemming\n\n72\n\n\f\n\nMuskrat Ondatra zibethicus\n\nSize: Muskrat adults weigh about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb)\nand have a body length about 40-70 cm (16-28 in),\nwith half of that being tail.\nDescription: These medium sized, semi-aquatic\nrodents have dense, waterproof, chestnut to dark\nbrown fur. Their tail is narrow and flattened\nlaterally to be used as a rudder and for propulsion\nby vibrating it side-to-side. When they walk on\nland, their tail drags which makes tracks easy to\nrecognize. Their legs are short with small forefeet\nused for grasping objects, while the large hind feet\nare partially webbed.\n\n73",
+    "106\n\n\f\n\nHoary Bat Aeorestes cinereus\n\nSize: The largest bat in Canada averages 13-15 cm\n(5-6 in) long, with a 40 cm (16 in) wingspan and a\nweight of 26 g (0.9 oz).\nDescription: The coat of the Hoary Bat is dense\nand gray-brown with white tips to the hairs like\n\u201choar-frost\u201d. The body is covered in fur except for\nthe undersides of the wings.\nHabitat: The Hoary Bat is found all over Alberta.\nIt prefers woodland, mainly coniferous forests, but\n107",
+    "100\n\n\f\n\nHabitat: This is Alberta\u2019s largest hare and is found\nthroughout the province, including in towns and\ncities. They live on plains, prairie and in alpine\nmeadows with scattered coniferous trees. The urban\nenvironment provides more places to hide and more\nfood with a good variety of plants.\nBehaviour: It is nocturnal and lies up during the\nday in a form, a shallow depression in the ground\nhidden under vegetation. It feeds on grasses, green\nplants and cultivated crops. In winter, it feeds on\ndry grass, twigs and bark on low shrubs. It has good\neyesight, excellent hearing and can run up to 55\nkm/h (34 mph) and leap up to 5 m (16 ft). A litter\nof 4-5 leverets is born in spring-summer. Predators\ninclude foxes, badgers, coyotes, bobcats, snakes,\neagles, hawks and owls.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n101\n\n\f\n\nVespertilionidae (Evening bats)\nLittle Brown Bat\nBig Brown Bat\nHoary Bat\nNorthern Long-eared Bat\nSilver-haired Bat\n\n102\n\n\f\n\nLittle Brown Bat Myotis lucifugus",
+    "$10, all\nproceeds go to\nBLESS\nprograms.\n\nFor information contact\ninfo@bless.ab.ca\n\nPrinted by\nCollege Copy Shop\n10221 \u2013 109 St.\nEdmonton, Alberta T5J 1N2\n\n140",
+    "MINK NEOVISON VISON .................................................. 30\nFISHER MARTES PENNANTI.............................................. 32\nLEAST WEASEL MUSTELA NIVALIS .................................. 34\nLONG-TAILED WEASEL NEOGALE FRENATA.................... 36\nSHORT-TAILED WEASEL MUSTELA ERMINEA .................. 38\nMEPHITIDAE (SKUNKS)............................................. 40\nSTRIPED SKUNK MEPHITIS MEPHITIS HUDSONICA ........... 41\nRACOON PROCYON LOTOR.............................................. 44",
+    "Habitat: They feed on a variety of invertebrates\nincluding snails and insects.\nBehaviour: This species is found around\npermanent water bodies in cleared land and forests;\nalso in sloughs and open meadows with sufficient\ncover and moisture. Breeding occurs annually from\nFebruary to April. After mating a single female can\nlay 500-1500 eggs, in masses of jelly attached to\nvegetation in shallow water. The eggs hatch in 1014 days and tadpoles become juvenile frogs in 2\nmonths. They reach maturity the next summer.\nPredators include fish, dragonfly nymphs, many\nbirds and most carnivores.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB.\n\n130\n\n\f\n\nRanidae (True Frogs)\nWood Frog\nNorthern Leopard Frog\n\n131\n\n\f\n\nWood Frog Lithobates sylvatica",
+    "12\n\n\f\n\nGray Wolf Canis lupus\n\nSize: The Gray Wolf measures on average 1-2 m\n(3-6 ft) in total body length, with the tail\ncomprising a little less than one third of the total.\nThe male weighs about 66 kg (145 lb), while the\nfemale weighs about 45 kg (100 lb).\nDescription: This slender but powerfully built\ncarnivore has long legs enabling speed while\nhunting and the ability to overcome deep snow. Its\nfur colour is typically a mix of gray and brown with\nbuff facial markings and underside, which can vary\nfrom solid white to brown or black. The Gray Wolf\nlooks like a large German shepherd dog with a long\n13",
+    "bushy tail which is held straight back when\nrunning.\nHabitat: In Alberta, the Gray Wolf inhabits Boreal,\nFoothills and Mountain regions. It lives in a pack of\n5-9 members, which requires a territory ranging\nfrom 250-750 sq km (97-282 sq miles). A recent\nsiting near Big Lake is unusual and may have been\na single wolf looking for a pack of its own.\nBehaviour: There is a pack hierarchy with the\nalpha male dominant over the entire pack. The pack\nwill usually hunt in a group, but a single wolf or\nmated pair are also successful. Deer, elk, moose\nand sheep are the usual prey but beaver, waterfowl,\nrabbits and mice are also hunted. The ability of the\nGray Wolf to run up to 64 km/hr (40 mph) and to\ntravel 48 km (30 m) per day, enables its success\nwhen hunting. Barking is usually a warning and\nhowling is used for long distance communication.\nWolves rarely attack humans. In spring to early\nsummer, 4-6 pups are born and grow up in a natural\nshelter. Predators are few but include cougar, bears",
+    "NORTHERN LONG-EARED BAT MYOTIS SEPTENTRIONALIS\n.................................................................................... 109\nSILVER-HAIRED BAT LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS ..... 111\nCOLUBRIDAE (REAR-FANGED SNAKES) ............ 113\nRED-SIDED GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS SIRTALIS\nPARIETALIS ................................................................... 114\nWESTERN TERRESTRIAL GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS\nELEGANS VAGRANS ........................................................ 116\nPLAINS GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS RADIX................ 118",
+    "25\n\n\f\n\nBadger Taxidea taxus\n\nSize: The Badger measures 60-75 cm (24-30\u201d) in\ntotal length, with a tail 10-16 cm (4-6 in) and a\nweight of 6-7 kg (14-16 lb).\nDescription: It has a stocky, low-slung body with\nshort, powerful legs and huge foreclaws. The fur\ncolour is brown, black and white giving a browntan appearance. The triangular face shows a black\nand white pattern with a white stripe extending\nfrom the nose to the base of the head and extending\nthe full length of the body to the tail.\n\n26",
+    "Habitat: The pygmy shrew is found throughout the\nboreal areas of Alberta except for the south-east\ncorner of the province. It lives in moist or dry\nconditions in the grassy opening within the forest,\nas well as the shrubby borders of bogs and wet\nmeadows.\nBehaviour: Due to its fast metabolism, it has an\nextremely large appetite and is active all year round\neven burrowing through snow. To stay alive, it has\nto eat 3 times its body weight daily which means\ncapturing prey every 15-30 min., day and night.\nWith a good sense of smell and hearing, it digs\nthrough soil and leaf litter to search for food,\nmostly insects and insect larvae. A litter of 3-8\nyoung are born once a year. This shrew swims\nmaking it a prey for trout. Other predators include\nhawks, owls and snakes.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n96\n\n\f\n\nLeporidae (Hares)\nSnowshoe Hare\nWhite-tailed Jackrabbit\n\n97\n\n\f\n\nSnowshoe Hare Lepus americanus",
+    "78\n\n\f\n\nWestern Jumping Mouse Zapus princeps\n\nSize: The Western Jumping Mouse is 22-25 cm (910 in) in total length, the tail is 13-15 cm (5-6 in)\nlong and the hind feet are 3-4 cm (1-2 in) long. It\nweighs 17-40 g (0.6-1.4 oz).\nDescription: It has long hind-feet, short forelimbs\nand a long tail. The fur is coarse dark-gray brown\nover the the upper body, with a broad yellow to red\nband along the flanks and pale yellow-white\nunderparts. Some have white spots on the upper\nbody or on the tip of the tail.\nHabitat: This species of mouse is found in the\ncentral and south regions of Alberta. Mountainous\nterrain is inhabited as well as meadows and forests\n\n79",
+    "82\n\n\f\n\nSouthern Red-backed Vole Myodes gapperi\n\nSize: This small, slender vole is 12-17 cm (5-7 in)\nlong, with a tail measuring 4 cm (2 in). It weighs on\naverage 21 g (1 oz).\nDescription: The Southern Red-backed Vole has a\nshort body with a reddish band along the back and a\nshort, slim tail. The sides of the body and head are\ngray and the underparts are paler. It has a blunt\nnose and prominent rounded ears.\nHabitat: It is found throughout most of Alberta,\nexcepting the southern region. Its habitat includes\nconiferous, deciduous and mixed forests, often near\n83",
+    "predatory fish. However, the population in most of\nthe prairie provinces is secure.",
+    "June. The Skunk has few natural enemies (except\nfor Great Horned Owls) but if starving, cougars,\ncoyotes, bobcats, badgers, foxes, and eagles will\nattack them. These skunks can carry rabies, but\nthere are very few rabid skunks in Alberta.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB",
+    "52\n\n\f\n\nErethizontidae (Porcupines)\nNorth American Porcupine\n\n53\n\n\f\n\nNorth American Porcupine Erethizon\ndorsatum\n\nSize: The North American Porcupine is a large,\nrobust rodent, the second largest in Canada next to\nthe beaver. Adult males weigh on average 10 kg\n(22 lb).\nDescription: It has a thick, short tail, short\npowerful legs and long curved claws. The coat is\ncomposed of a dense, brown undercoat of fur with\nyellow-tipped guard hairs, alternating with rows of\nquills. The estimated 30,000 quills have small barbs\non the tip and are hollow, providing buoyancy\nwhen the animal swims. There are no quills on the\nmuzzle, legs or underparts. It is the only N.\nAmerican mammal with antibiotics in its skin,\n54",
+    "127\n\n\f\n\nHylidae (Tree Frogs)\nBoreal Chorus Frog\n\n128\n\n\f\n\nBoreal Chorus Frog Pseudacris maculata\n\nSize: Alberta\u2019s smallest amphibian, the Boreal\nChorus Frog, is only 2-4 cm (0.8-1.6 in.) long.\nDescription: Also called the Striped Chorus Frog it\nis brown or green with 3 broken back stripes\n(distinct or faint). There is a stripe through the eye\nand along the side. Slightly enlarged toe pads aid in\nclimbing small grasses but they are not good\nclimbers. The legs are shorter than those of the\nwestern chorus frog.\n129",
+    "Habitat: Traditionally it has resided largely in\nAlberta\u2019s southeast area, however, in recent years\nits territory has expanded to include the central part\nof the province. The original habitat was deciduous,\nmixed forests and wetlands, but they are also now\nfound in mountainous and urban areas.\nBehaviour: The Raccoon is nocturnal, but is\nsometimes seen in daylight. It walks slowly but can\nclimb a tree quickly and has the ability to descend\nheadfirst by rotating its hind feet. In the wild, they\nare omnivorous feeding on crayfish, fish, birds eggs\nand hatchlings, fruits, nuts, insects and berries.\nThey are known for washing their food but really, it\nis dabbling in the water looking for food, then it\nuses its front paws to rub the item and remove\nunwanted parts. Tree hollows, rock crevices or\nburrows dug by other mammals, are used for a den.\nA litter size is 2-5 kits. Predators are few because\nthe raccoon is fierce in defence, but include black\nbears, wolves, lynx and bald eagles.",
+    "122\n\n\f\n\nBufonidae (Toads)\n\n123\n\n\f\n\nWestern Toad Anaxyrus boreas\n\nSize: A large species, the Western Toad is 5.6 cm \u2013\n13 cm (2.2\u2013 5 in.) long.\nDescription: They have a white and cream back\nstripe on dusky grey and greenish skin and a pale\nbelly with dark mottling. The salivary glands are\non the sides of the head and oval in shape, the\npupils are horizontal and they lack cranial crests.\nHabitat: Western toads are terrestrial, controlling\ntheir body temperature by basking in sun and\nevaporative cooling. They spend daylight hours\n124",
+    "the Fisher is a close relative of the marten, it is\nalmost twice as large and 4 times as heavy.\nHabitat: In Alberta, it lives in mature forests of\nthe Boreal and Rocky Mountain regions and\nsometimes in the Parkland region. It spends most of\nits time on the forest floor where there is\ncontinuous overhead cover.\nBehaviour: The Fisher is a carnivore and a skilled\nhunter being one of the few animals to regularly\nkill porcupine. It also preys on birds, rodents,\nsquirrels and hares, but does not eat fish. Primarily\nnocturnal, it usually spends the day sleeping in\nhollow trees or logs but also may be spotted during\nthe day. In winter, it uses a snow den or burrow\nunder the snow for shelter. It does not hibernate.\nThe female gives birth to 1-4 kits. Predators include\nbears, coyotes, lynx and wolverine.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB\n\n33\n\n\f\n\nLeast Weasel Mustela nivalis",
+    "135\n\n\f\n\nPhotography Credits\nPhotograph\n\nPage\n\nPhotographer\n\nMale moose\n\nCover\n\nDave Conlin\n\nPark Sign\n\n4\n\nMiles Constable\n\nPark Map\n\n5\n\nGoogle Inc.\n\nCoyote\n\n11\n\nTim Osborne\n\nGray Wolf\n\n13\n\nCalgary Zoo\n\nRed Fox\n\n15\n\nDave Conlin\n\nBlack Bear\n\n18\n\nDave Conlin\n\nLynx\n\n21\n\nWolverine\n\n24\n\nBadger\n\n26\n\nNick Parayko\n\nMarten\n\n28\n\nTim Gage via Creative\nCommons\n\nMink\n\n30\n\nDave Conlin\n\nFisher\n\n32\n\nLeast Weasel\n\n34\n\nLong-tailed Weasel\n\n36\n\nShort-tailed Weasel\n\n38\n\nStriped Skunk\n\n41\n\nRacoon\n\n44\n\n136\n\nGovernment of the\nNorthwest Territories\nMathias Kabel via Creative\nCommons\n\nLarry Master\n(masterimages.org)\nKevin Law via Creative\nCommons\nU.S. National Park Service\nvia Creative Commons\nU.S. Fish and Wildlife\nService via Creative\nCommons\nTom Friedel via Creative\nCommons\nDave Conlin\n\n\f\n\nFemale moose\n\n47\n\nTim Osborne\n\nWhite-tailed Deer\n\n49\n\nDave Conlin\n\nMule Deer\n\n51\n\nDave Conlin\n\nNorth American Porcupine\n\n54\n\nDave Conlin\n\nBeaver\n\n57\n\nTim Osborne\n\nRed Squirrel\n\n60\n\nDave Conlin\n\nNorthern Flying Squirrel",
+    "65\n\n\f\n\nRichardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel Urocitellus\nrichardsonii\n\nSize: The Richardson\u2019s Ground Squirrel, or gopher\nin western Canada, is about 30 cm (12\u201d) long and\nhas an average weight of 750 g (2 lb).\nDescription: It is dark brown on the upper side and\ntan underneath. The tail is shorter and less bushy\nthan other ground squirrels and is constantly\ntrembling. It is also called a prairie dog or gopher,\nalthough it is neither. The ears are so short as to\nlook more like holes in the animal\u2019s head.\n66",
+    "Canidae (Wolves, Coyotes and\nFoxes)\nCoyote\nGray Wolf\nRed Fox\n\n10\n\n\f\n\nCoyote Canis latrans\n\nSize: The Coyote is smaller and slimmer than the\nGray Wolf, but larger than the Red Fox. Adult\nweight ranges from 10-23 kg (22-50 lb) and body\nlength ranges from 1-1.3 m (3-4 ft) including the\ntail which measures 30-40 cm (12-16 in). Coyotes\nstand 58-66 cm (23-26 in) high at the shoulder.\nDescription: The characteristic features of a\nCoyote include a gray to red-gray fur coat with\nblack markings on the back and tail and lighter fur\nunderneath, long ears, a slender pointed muzzle and\na bushy tail that is usually carried low and close to\nthe hind legs.\nHabitat: The Coyote is highly adaptable and can\nbe found in all regions of Alberta, including towns\nand cities.\n11",
+    "look similar to white-tailed deer except their tails\nare black tipped and their antlers divide evenly as\nthey grow.\nHabitat: Mule Deer are found throughout Alberta\nprimarily in shrub-forest areas of open coniferous\nforests, aspen parkland, river valleys and steep\nbroken terrain.\nBehaviour: Although capable of running, they are\noften seen \u201cstotting\u201d leaping with all 4 feet coming\ndown together. They eat shrubs and trees, forbes,\ngrasses, nuts, berries and mushrooms. All deer are\nruminants meaning they ferment plant material\nbefore digesting it. They often bed down in the\nafternoon to digest their food. Does usually give\nbirth to 2 fawns but their first time usually one. In\nAlberta, this takes place during June and July.\nThree main predators are coyotes, wolves and\ncougars. Bobcats, lynxes, wolverines and black\nbears attack the fawns.\nConservation Status: Least Concern in AB\n\n52\n\n\f\n\nErethizontidae (Porcupines)\nNorth American Porcupine\n\n53",
+    "37\n\n\f\n\nShort-tailed Weasel Mustela erminea\n\nSize: The body length of the Short-tailed Weasel or\nStoat is on average 33 cm (13\u201d), its tail length is 9\ncm (3 in) and its weight is 170 g (6 oz).\nDescription: It has a long body, short legs and a\nlong neck. Its head is bluntly pointed and its ears\nare small and rounded. In summer, its fur is brown\nwith white underparts, white feet and a black tip on\nthe tail. They molt to white in winter with a blacktipped tail. Its smaller size and white feet\ndistinguish this species from the long-tailed weasel.\nThe fur was considered a luxury fur in Europe,\nwhere it was called ermine and stoat.\nHabitat: Alberta\u2019s most common weasel is found\nin all natural regions, except the Grassland. Brushy\n38",
+    "84\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Bog Lemming Synaptomys borealis\n\nSize: The Northern Bog Lemming averages 13 cm\n(5 in) in length and weighs about 30 g (1 oz). The\nshort tail is only 2 cm (0.8 in) long.\nDescription: It has a cylindrical shaped body\ncovered with brown grizzled fur with pale gray\nunderparts. A patch of rust coloured hair is seen at\nthe base of the ears. It has small eyes and a blunt\nsnout.\nHabitat: The Northern Bog Lemming is found\nthroughout most of Alberta, except in the southeast\ncorner of the province. Wet northern forests, bogs,\ntundra and meadows are typical of its habitat.\n\n85",
+    "groves of aspen or coniferous trees particularly\nnear lakes, ponds or streams.\nBehaviour: They are most active in the day,\nfeeding on aquatic plants and the tender shoots of\nwillow, birch and poplar as well as aspen bark and\nminerals from natural salt licks. All deer are\nruminants meaning they ferment plant material\nbefore digesting it. They often bed down in the\nafternoon to digest their food. They will move and\nfeed at night as well. Moose have acute senses of\nsmelling and hearing, however, their sight is poor.\nWhen alarmed, Moose will often trot away with\nlong smooth strides. In spite of their large size,\nmoose can move through underbrush very quietly.\nOne or two calves are born in the spring. Predators\ninclude wolves, black bears and grizzly bears.\nConservation Status: Least concern in AB\n\n48\n\n\f\n\nWhite-tailed Deer Odocoileus virginianus",
+    "province. It prefers older coniferous and mixed\nforests. Good tree cover is important for protection\nwhen gliding between trees.\nBehaviour: This nocturnal squirrel is a proficient\nglider but a clumsy walker on the ground. After\nlaunching from atop trees, it uses a fold of skin\nbetween the front and back legs, to stretch into a\nsquare-like shape which enables it to glide. Just\nbefore reaching a tree, it raises its tail, points all of\nits limbs forward and creates a parachute effect to\nreduce the shock of landing. To avoid predators, it\nimmediately runs to the top or to the other side of\nthe tree. Holes in trees are used for nests. In winter,\nnests are shared forming aggregations of 4-10\nindividuals to maintain body temperature. It does\nnot hibernate. It is not often seen by the public as it\nis active mostly at night.\nA major food source is fungi, although it also eats\nlichens, mushrooms, tree sap, insects, carrion, bird\neggs and nestlings, buds and flowers. Predators",
+    "94\n\n\f\n\nPygmy Shrew Sorex hoyi\n\nSize: The Pygmy Shrew is tiny. It is the smallest\nmammal native to N. America with a body about 5\ncm (2 in) long including a 2 cm (0.8 in) tail. It\nweighs about 2-5 g (0.7-0.17 oz).\nDescription: Its fur is a reddish or grayish brown\nduring the summer and a white-gray colour during\nthe winter. The underside is a lighter gray. It has a\nnarrow head, pointed nose and small eyes that are\nwell hidden.\n95",
+    "TRIDECEMLINEATUS ........................................................ 68\nLEAST CHIPMUNK NEOTAMIAS MINIMUS......................... 70\nCRICETIDAE (MUSKRATS, MICE, VOLES AND\nLEMMINGS) .................................................................. 72\nMUSKRAT ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS ................................... 73\nWESTERN DEER MOUSE PEROMYSCUS SONORIENSUS ..... 75\nMEADOW JUMPING MOUSE ZAPUS HUDSONIUS .............. 77\nWESTERN JUMPING MOUSE ZAPUS PRINCEPS ................ 79\nWESTERN MEADOW VOLE MICROTUS DRUMMONDII ..... 81",
+    "125\n\n\f\n\nCanadian Toad Anaxyrus hemiophrys\n\nSize: Canadian Toads are usually 5-7 cm (2-3 in.)\nin length, with females being the longer.\nDescription: These toads are brown with a\nyellowish line down the centre of their back and\nrows of brown spots on each side with reddish\nwarts. The belly is whitish spotted with grey. The\nsalivary glands (that secrete toxins) are large oval\nand meet the skull crests that form between the\neyes. Projections on the hind feet are used for\nburrowing.\nHabitat: Found near ponds and lakes in prairies,\naspen and boreal forests, Canadian toads are\n126",
+    "108\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Long-eared Bat Myotis\nseptentrionalis\n\nSize: The Northern Long-eared Bat is a small bat\nthat measures an average of 9 cm (3-4 in) in total\nlength, including a tail 4 cm (2 in) long. It weighs\nbetween 5-8 g (0.2-0.3 oz) and has a wingspan of\n25 cm (10 in).\nDescription: The fur and wing membranes of this\nsmall bat are light brown. It has long, pointed ears\nand when folded forwards, the ears extend well past\nthe nose. It also has a long tail and a larger wing\n109",
+    "hunts over open areas or lakes. It migrates long\ndistances and spends the winter in the southwestern\nUS and Central America, although some stay and\nhibernate.\nBehaviour: The hoary bat normally roosts alone on\ntrees, hidden in the foliage, but on occasion has\nbeen seen in caves with other bats. It hunts alone\nfor its main food source, moths. It also eats wasps,\nbeetles and dragonflies. It can cover an impressive\n39 km (24 mi) each night while foraging. The\nfemale usually bears one or two pups in June.\nWhile not listed as threatened or endangered, hoary\nbats suffer significant mortality from wind turbines,\nmostly during migration.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n108\n\n\f\n\nNorthern Long-eared Bat Myotis\nseptentrionalis",
+    "Habitat: Muskrats are found in all natural regions\nof Alberta, except the alpine subregion. They live\nin a wide range of wetlands in or near rivers, lakes\nor ponds.\nBehaviour: Muskrats spend much of their life in\nwater but do not build dams, although occasionally\nlive in active Beaver lodges. They are most active\nat night or near dawn or dusk. Muskrats live in a\nfamily group and each group has a house, a feeding\narea and canals through cattails and vegetation. In\nstreams, ponds or lakes, they burrow into the bank\nand use an underwater entrance. In marshes, pushups are constructed in late fall from mud, pond\nweeds and cattails. In winter, push-ups cover a hole\nin the ice, which is kept open by continually\nchewing away the ice and pulling up underwater\nvegetation to build the insulated dome. Muskrats\nare prolific breeders; females can have 2-3 litters a\nyear of 6-8 young. Their diet consists of 95% plants\nsuch as cattails and pond weeds. They also eat",
+    "19\n\n\f\n\nFelidae (Cats)\nCanada Lynx\n\n20\n\n\f\n\nCanada Lynx Lynx canadensis\n\nSize: This medium-sized wildcat has a height at the\nshoulder of 48-56 cm (19-22 in), a body length of\n80-105 cm (31-41 in) and a weight of 8-14 kg (1831 lb).\nDescription: The Lynx has a short tail, distinctive\ntufts of black hair on the tips of the ears, large furcovered paws for walking on snow and long\nwhiskers on the face. Body colour varies from\nbrown to gold to beige-white and is marked with\ndark brown spots. It has white fur on its chest, belly\nand on the inside of its legs. The name Lynx\nmeaning light and brightness refers to the\nluminescence of its reflective eyes.\n21",
+    "terrestrial, taking to water to avoid capture. They\nhibernate in the fall by burrowing into the earth,\nemerging when the soil thaws. Adults feed on\nworms, beetles and ants and can live up to 7-12\nyears.\nBehaviour: Males call to initiate breeding with a\nbrief trill. This occurs in ponds from May to July.\nFemales lay up to 6000 eggs in long strings, which\nhatch into tiny black tadpoles in 3-12 days. Feeding\non aquatic vegetation, over 7-11 weeks they\ntransform into juveniles. Males reach maturity after\n1 year and females after 2 years. Predators include\nfish, dragonfly nymphs, predacious diving beetles,\nmany birds and most carnivores.\nConservation Status: May be at risk. Once\ncommon in boreal and parkland habitats, dramatic\ndeclines in populations and distributions are\noccurring, but population monitoring is ongoing.\nHabitats are threatened by drought, conversion to\nfarm land, agricultural chemicals, and oil and gas\nactivities.\n\n127\n\n\f\n\nHylidae (Tree Frogs)\nBoreal Chorus Frog\n\n128",
+    "26\n\n\f\n\nHabitat: In Alberta, the Badger is present from the\nNorth Saskatchewan River area to the south of the\nprovince. Typical habitat is open grasslands such as\nprairie with sandy loam soil where prey can easily\nbe dug.\nBehaviour: The Badger is generally nocturnal,\nhowever females may forage during daylight from\nlate March to mid-May. They do not hibernate and\nwill emerge from the burrow with above freezing\ntemperatures. Young are born March-April with\nlitters of 1-5 young. It preys on Northern pocket\ngophers, Richardson\u2019s ground squirrels, moles,\nmice and snakes. Insects and plants are also eaten.\nCoyotes have been known to hunt in tandem with\nbadgers, catching prey that try to flee the Badger\u2019s\nunderground digging. Predators include golden\neagles, coyotes, cougars, bears and wolves.\nConservation Status: Sensitive in AB\n\n27\n\n\f\n\nMarten Martes Americana",
+    "CERVIDAE (DEER) ...................................................... 46\nMOOSE ALCES ALCES ..................................................... 47\nWHITE-TAILED DEER ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS ........... 49\nMULE DEER ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS ........................... 51\nERETHIZONTIDAE (PORCUPINES) ........................ 53\nNORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE ERETHIZON DORSATUM . 54\nCASTORIDAE (BEAVERS) ......................................... 56\nBEAVER CASTOR CANADENSIS ........................................ 57\nSCIURIDAE (SQUIRRELS) ......................................... 59\nRED SQUIRREL TAMIASCHIURUS HUDSONICUS ................ 60\nNORTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL GLAUCOMYS SABRINUS ... 62\nWOODCHUCK MARMOTA MONAX .................................... 64\nRICHARDSON\u2019S GROUND SQUIRREL UROCITELLUS\nRICHARDSONII ................................................................ 66\nTHIRTEEN-LINED GROUND SQUIRREL ICTIDOMYS\nTRIDECEMLINEATUS ........................................................ 68",
+    "meadows with good soil. The animal usually called\na gopher in Alberta is Richardson\u2019s Ground\nSquirrel, but it isn\u2019t a true gopher.\nBehaviour: This nocturnal, burrowing, nonhibernating rodent rarely appears above ground;\nwhen it does, it rarely ventures far from a burrow\nentrance. Underground however, it has tunnels that\nextend hundreds of feet where it lives, stores food\nand mates. Food consists of underground plant\nparts and leaves of forbs. A litter has 5-6 young.\nPredators include badgers, coyotes, weasels,\nsnakes, skunks and owls. To find where a northern\npocket gopher lives, look for the crescent shaped\nmound of dirt in front of a burrow.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n89\n\n\f\n\nSoricidae (Shrews)\nArctic Shrew\nMasked Shrew\nPygmy Shrew\n\n90\n\n\f\n\nArctic Shrew Sorex arcticus",
+    "75\n\n\f\n\nbut it is not found where the ground is continually\nwet.\nBehaviour: This nocturnal mouse spends the day\nin its nest in its underground burrow or in brush\npiles, rocks, stumps or hollow trees. During the\nwinter season, it can be found active on top of snow\nor beneath logs. Typically, females have 3-5 young\nin a litter 3-4 times a year. The Deer Mouse is\nomnivorous and eats seeds, fruits, spiders,\ncaterpillars, leaves, fungi, and insects. Predators\ninclude snakes, owls, mink, marten, weasels,\nskunks, bobcat, coyote and foxes. Deer mice can be\ncarriers of infectious diseases like hantavirus and\nlyme disease.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n76\n\n\f\n\nMeadow Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonius",
+    "bottoms of the prairies. It is also found in towns\nand cities.\nBehaviour: This hare is primarily nocturnal and\nspends most of the day in a form, a shallow\ndepression in the ground. In summer, the snowshoe\nhare eats grasses and forbs, while in winter, it eats\nthe buds, bark and branches of shrubs and small\ntrees. A litter of about 4 young are born to each doe\nfrom April into summer. Does may have as many\nas 4 litters in a year. Predators include lynx,\nmartens, long-tailed weasels, minks, foxes, coyotes,\nowls, hawks, eagles, crows, ravens and black bears.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB\n\n99\n\n\f\n\nWhite-tailed Jackrabbit Lepus Townsendii",
+    "western United States to Texas and northern\nMexico.\nHabitat: They inhabit forests, fields, meadows or\ngrasslands. Adults spend most of their time\nunderground.\nBreeding throughout the year they gather by ponds\nfor spawning. Females lay eggs in water. The\nlarvae hatch in 19-50 days and have external gills.\nSome retain their gills into adulthood. Western\nTiger Salamanders can live up to 15 years.\nBehaviour: Mostly active at night, these\nSalamanders are opportunistic feeders, and will\noften eat anything they can catch, including various\ninsects, slugs, and earthworms. They are primarily\nterrestrial as adults, but their juvenile larval stage is\nentirely aquatic, having external gills. Predators\ninclude fish, dragonfly nymphs, predacious diving\nbeetles, many birds and most carnivores.\nConservation Status: Secure in AB. There has\nbeen some decline in numbers due to deforestation\nand habitat loss and the introduction of non-native\npredatory fish. However, the population in most of",
+    "104\n\n\f\n\nBig Brown Bat Eptesicus fuscus\n\nSize: The big brown bat weighs 15-25 g (0.5-0.8\noz), has a body length of 11-13 cm (4-5 in) and a\nwingspan measuring 30 cm (12 in).\nDescription: The fur of this bat is red brown with\nthe upper side being darker than the underside. The\nrounded snout is flattened looking and the ears are\nshort with rounded black tips. The flight\nmembranes are black and hairless.\nHabitat: The big brown bat is probably the most\ncommon bat in southern Alberta while the number\n105",
+    "2022\n4\n\n\f\n\nLocation of Lois Hole Centennial\nProvincial Park, Alberta\n\nMap courtesy of Google, Inc.\nThere are a great many animals to be seen in Lois Hole Centennial\nProvincial Park. This Guide features the most commonly seen animals;\nhowever, it is not a complete guide to all animals that could be seen at\nBig Lake. If you are, or become, passionate about wildlife, we\nrecommend a comprehensive guide to the mammals, amphibians and\nreptiles in Alberta. Nature is continually changing and there may be\nanimals who are expanding their range into this area for a variety of\nreasons.\n\n5",
+    "113\n\n\f\n\nRed-sided Garter Snake Thamnophis sirtalis\nparietalis\n\nSize: Common or Red-sided Garter Snakes are thin\nand about 1.2 m (4 ft.) long.\nDescription: Most have longitudinal stripes of red,\ngreen, blue, yellow, gold, orange, brown or black\non an olive background. Red markings are present\nbetween the stripes.\nHabitat: They are found in marshes, bogs,\nwetlands, ponds and forests. Mating occurs just\nbefore hibernation. Some males mimic a female\nrole to lure away other males when they outnumber\nfemales. Females may delay fertilization by storing\nthe sperm internally until spring. They give birth to\n12-40 live young between July and October.\n\n114",
+    "SOUTHERN RED-BACKED VOLE MYODES GAPPERI ......... 83\nNORTHERN BOG LEMMING SYNAPTOMYS BOREALIS ........ 85\nGEOMYIDAE (POCKET GOPHERS) ........................ 87\nNORTHERN POCKET GOPHER THOMOMYS TALPOIDES ..... 88\nSORICIDAE (SHREWS) ............................................... 90\nARCTIC SHREW SOREX ARCTICUS ................................... 91\nMASKED SHREW SOREX CINEREUS ................................. 93\nPYGMY SHREW SOREX HOYI ........................................... 95\nLEPORIDAE (HARES) .................................................. 97\nSNOWSHOE HARE LEPUS AMERICANUS ........................... 98\nWHITE-TAILED JACKRABBIT LEPUS TOWNSENDII ......... 100\nVESPERTILIONIDAE (EVENING BATS) ............... 102\nLITTLE BROWN BAT MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS ..................... 103\nBIG BROWN BAT EPTESICUS FUSCUS ........................... 105\nHOARY BAT AEORESTES CINEREUS............................... 107\nNORTHERN LONG-EARED BAT MYOTIS SEPTENTRIONALIS"
+]

rag-system/data/converted/10 Vertebrates F.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2079 @@
+VERTEBRATES
+Vertebrates other than humans, found in community environments can include,
+amphibians, birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals (which include rodents). Most of
+these animals are free-living in nature, and only occasionally enter human habitats.
+However, any of them can potentially interfere with human interests or activities,
+and thus become causes of concern or ‘pests’. In such situations, they can cause
+injury by biting or scratching, by disfiguring and damaging food, articles and
+structures by their activities, being health hazards due to their venom, or by
+carrying and spreading pathogens and/or allergens; and sometimes their mere
+presence is inappropriate or unacceptable. Some of these animals have evolved to
+live in association with humans, so much so that they are dependent on human
+proximity; these are referred to as ‘commensals’. Vertebrate pests can cause
+significant environmental, economic and social problems to humans, and as with all
+other pests, correct identification is important in their management.
+
+MAMMALS
+Bats are the only mammals that can fly in a sustained manner. They belong to the
+order Chiroptera, the name of which means “hand-wing”, and indicates the
+modification of their limbs to form webbed wings. Sizes and appearances vary
+with species, wingspans of most southwestern species range from 8 -14 inches.
+Bats are known for their excellent flight capabilities and echolocation, which
+involves emitting an ultrasonic sound and listening to its echo as it “bounces” off
+objects. This ability helps bats interpret the distance, size, speed, and even texture
+of an object. Echolocation is particularly useful to bats for locating small, flying
+insect prey at night, such as moths and gnats.
+
+General body structure of a bat (Townsend’s big-eared bat)
+Photo: US Bureau of Land Management
+
+168
+
+
+
+Common name(s): Bat
+Scientific name, classification: Different genera, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Chiroptera, Family: Different families. Mexican free-tailed bats Tadarida brasiliensis
+(Family Molossidae), Ghost-faced bats Mormoops megalophylla (Family
+Mormoopidae), California leaf-nosed bats Macrotus californicus (Family
+Phyllostomidae), Little brown bats Myotis lucifugus, Big brown bats Eptesicus fuscus
+and Pallid bats Antrozous pallidus (Family Verspertilionidae) are common species in
+the southwest U.S.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters: They have small to medium sized furry bodies,
+large, hairless ears and small black eyes. Their ‘wings’ consist of thin membranous
+skin stretched between long, thin, jointed ‘fingers’ of their forelegs, their hind legs,
+and including the tail. The tail extends beyond the membrane in some species. The
+first ‘finger’ or thumb of the forelimbs and the ‘toes’ of the hind limbs are free and
+usually not enclosed in the wing membrane, allowing the bats to grip on to surfaces
+or structures and hang upside down in their resting position. Bat faces may
+resemble that of a small dog or similar mammal, but with other unique features
+such as a long tubular nose or variously shaped flaps or folds of skin. They have
+well developed teeth on both jaws that enable them to chew and bite.
+Best identifying feature(s):
+Big brown bats are one of the larger
+species in the U.S., with bodies about
+6-7 inches in length and wingspans of
+12-16 inches. They have light brown
+or glossy copper-colored fur on their
+back, and paler fur underneath. Eyes,
+ears, muzzle and wings are all dark
+brown or black. The eyes are small and
+almost hidden in the muzzle, ears are
+small, and pointed. The muzzle is
+Big brown bat
+broad and not condensed, with fleshy
+Photo: US FWS (left), US Geological Survey (right)
+lips and shiny black nose.
+California leaf-nosed bats are
+distinctive because of their large ears
+that are longer than 1 inch, and an
+erect triangular flap called a ‘noseleaf’,
+protruding above the nose. They are
+medium sized bats, with bodies about 6
+inches in length and wingspan of 12-14
+inches. Faces are small, but not
+wrinkled. Eyes are large and black. The
+fur is grayish to dark brown on the
+California leaf-nosed bat
+back and paler underneath. Wings are
+Photo: Drew Stokes, US Geological Survey
+short and broad, and give them great
+maneuverability within short distances, but they are not suited for long-distance.
+169
+
+
+
+Ghost-faced bats get their name from
+the unusual structure of their faces, which
+have a ‘smashed-in’ appearance. The
+appearance is due to several thick skin
+flaps on their face and chin, poorly
+developed nose, large round ears that
+seem to join across the forehead which
+rises abruptly above the nose, and small
+eyes that appear to be situated within
+Ghost-faced bat
+their ears. They are medium to large
+Photo: Alex Borisenko
+sized bats, about 6 inches in length, and
+wingspan of 14-15 inches. The fur on the back is reddish-brown in color, and pale
+pink underneath.
+Mexican free-tailed bats are recognized by their long tails that extend more than
+one-third beyond the tail membranes and make up almost half the length of their
+bodies. They are medium sized bats, with bodies about 5 inches in length and
+wingspan of 12-14 inches. Wings are long and narrow. The fur on the back is dark
+or grayish brown, with a lighter underside. They have small black eyes; broad, grayblack, forward-pointing ears that are widely set on the head but close behind the
+
+Mexican free-tailed bat
+
+Mexican free-tailed bat face
+
+Photo: J. Scott Altenbach, Univ. of New Mexico
+
+Photo: Ann Froschauer, US FWS
+
+eyes; a condensed muzzle and wrinkled lips.
+Pallid bats can be identified by their light fur and long ears. The fur is lightyellowish brown or cream colored on
+the back, and almost white
+underneath. The long, pointed ears
+are light pinkish brown in color and
+about 2 inches in length. Pallid bats
+are medium to large sized bats, about
+6 inches in length and wingspan of
+15-16 inches. Their faces are light
+pinkish brown, with large black eyes.
+The limbs and wing membrane are
+light brown or pale gray in color.
+Pallid bat
+Photo: Geoff Gallice
+
+170
+
+
+
+Pest status: Non-pest. May occasionally feed on fruit, or stray indoors in search of
+resting places. Cause some public health concern because they can harbor rabies
+viruses and parasites. None of the species encountered in the southwest feed on
+animals or blood.
+Damage/injury: Most bats feed on insects, some feed on fruit or pollen and
+nectar from flowers. They provide valuable pest-control services by feeding on a
+large number of insects. A single bat can eat hundreds of insects an hour, every
+night.
+If bats gain entry into homes and structures, they can create unsightly and
+unsanitary conditions with their droppings (guano), urine, rub-marks and musty
+odors. Bats can harbor various parasitic insects and mites that can be transmitted
+to humans by close contact. Notable among these are bat bugs (Cimex pilosellus)
+which are closely related to, and resemble bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and can easily
+be mistaken for them. Bat bugs can be encountered in homes and buildings that
+harbor roosting bats, and often bite humans when their primary hosts, bats, move
+away or are eliminated. However, they cannot sustain on humans. Bat roosting
+sites should not be disturbed during maternity season, which varies by region.
+More important is the role of bats as reservoirs of the rabies virus. The rabies
+virus attacks the nervous system and infection is almost always fatal. Bats are the
+principal vector by which humans
+can contract rabies. Symptoms in
+bats vary greatly, and often include
+the inability to fly or flying during
+daylight hours, lethargy, paralysis,
+and death. As a general rule, a bat
+found on the ground or in a
+weakened state is probably a sick
+bat, and therefore has a higher risk
+of being infected with rabies. The
+virus can be transmitted to humans
+and other mammals through bat
+saliva, feces or urine, or bites or
+A group of hibernating bats
+Photo: Krynak Tim, US-FWS
+scratches from their teeth or claws.
+It is very important to be aware
+about bats and their role in rabies transmission, and to teach children never to
+touch a bat, dead or alive. Handling of bats should be avoided as far as possible, as
+well as breathing in dust from bat droppings and urine. Exposure to a suspected
+rabid bat may require immediate medical assessment and care. Bat management
+often requires specialized training and permits.
+Life history: Bats give birth to live young called pups, and the young are fed with
+milk produced by the females. They are some of the slowest reproducing mammals,
+producing only 1-2 pups in a year. Mating can occur in the spring or fall, in which
+case fertilization is delayed until spring – a feature only found in bats among the
+mammals. Most species form large maternity colonies for birthing and raising the
+young; solitary species also exist. Maternity colonies are usually formed in remote,
+undisturbed locations such as deep caves, and may contain thousands of
+individuals. Bat pups reach maturity in 1-2 years and leave their maternal colony.
+171
+
+
+
+Most bat species also hibernate or migrate during
+cool weather. Hibernating bats are very
+vulnerable to disturbances, as these cause them to
+wake up and utilize their stored fat reserves,
+which are meant to sustain them till the end of
+their hibernation period. Without these reserves,
+bats succumb to starvation or cold and therefore
+it is very important not to disturb hibernating
+bats in caves, mines, rock crevices, hollow trees,
+and buildings. White-Nose Syndrome (WNS) is
+an emerging disease affecting hibernating bats
+and is sometimes characterized a white fungus
+that infects skin of the muzzle, ears, wings and
+Bat with white nose syndrome
+other body parts. WNS may cause bats to awaken
+Photo: Marvin Moriarty, US-FWS
+more often during hibernation or display
+abnormal behavior, such as movement toward the mouth of hibernating caves and
+daytime flights during winter. These bats usually freeze or starve to death.
+However, such abnormal behavior is reported mostly from the eastern parts of the
+U.S.; and western bats, even when affected with WNS may not display the same
+behavior.
+Sources, further information:
+Bats
+http://extension.arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1456.pdf
+Bats in and around homes
+https://ag.arizona.edu/yavapai/publications/yavcobulletins/Bats%20In%20North
+%20Central%20AZ.pdf
+Bats in the desert and the southwest http://www.desertusa.com/animals/bats.html
+Bat management
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74150.html
+Desert Animals http://www.desertusa.com/animals.html
+Sonoran desert bat fact sheets https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/bats/
+
+172
+
+
+
+RODENTS are mammals belonging to the order Rodentia, and almost all rodents
+are small, furry animals with short legs and a long tail. However their most
+characteristic features are their continuously growing front teeth, one pair on both
+upper and lower jaws. All rodents have to continuously wear down their teeth by
+use, or grinding them together, to prevent them from growing uncontrollably.
+Mice and rats are the most common rodents encountered in community
+environments and many species have evolved to live commensally with humans to
+such an extent that they may not survive in natural environments. Other rodents
+are gophers, squirrels, beavers, prairie dogs, hamsters and porcupines.
+NOTABLE SPECIES
+Mice
+Common name(s): Deer mouse
+Scientific name, classification: Peromyscus
+maniculatus, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Rodentia, Family: Cricetidae.
+Distribution: Throughout North America,
+except far southeast and north.
+Description and ID characters: Small,
+grayish yellow mouse with pointed snout,
+large hairless ears, long tail and large, black
+beady eyes, very similar to the house
+Deer mouse
+mouse. Adults measure about 5 to 7 inches
+Photo: Gregory ‘Slobirdr’ Smith
+including the tail, the body alone is 2 ½ to 4
+inches in length. Sizes can vary with the
+habitat.
+Best identifying feature(s): Small size, pointed snout, hairless ears, long and scaly
+hairless tail. Eyes and ears are larger than those of the house mouse. Fur is
+distinctly two-toned: the upper side of the body and tail varies from light grayish
+brown or tan to dark brown, and is clearly demarcated from the underside and feet
+which are white in color. The tail is covered with fine hairs, and is not completely
+hairless as in the house mouse. Deer mice are excellent runners and jumpers, much
+faster and higher than house mice.
+Pest status: Occasional chewing, biting and structural pest indoors, occasional pest
+of crops and other plants outdoors. Principal reservoirs of hantaviruses.
+Damage/injury: Deer mice are not usually encountered indoors, but can easily
+enter homes and structures due to their small size. Once indoors, they readily
+consume, damage and contaminate food, stored items and structures. Outdoors,
+they can be a pest of agricultural crops and garden plants. They feed voraciously
+on seed and also hoard them, which can lead to reduction in yields and
+regeneration of plants in the wild.
+Deer mice are most important because they are carriers of the deadly hantavirus
+called Sin Nombre Virus, which is responsible for the often fatal disease Hantavirus
+Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) in humans. Deer mice carry and spread the virus
+173
+
+
+
+through their saliva, urine and droppings. Humans can acquire the virus through
+inhalation or broken skin, when present in a contaminated area.
+Life history: Deer mice are nocturnal and primarily an outdoor species by nature,
+spending the daytime hidden in tree holes, or underground burrows. They build
+small untidy nests with various kinds of plant material, near a food source and most
+activity is concentrated around the nest. Breeding can occur year-round but is
+mostly dependent on food availability. A single female can produce 4-5 litters in a
+year and the average adult lifespan is about 1 year in the wild.
+Common name(s): House mouse
+Scientific name, classification: Mus
+musculus, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Rodentia, Family: Muridae.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Small, grayish brown mouse with
+pointed snout, hairless ears and tail
+and black beady eyes. Adults
+House mouse
+measure about 5 to 7 inches including
+Photo: J.N. Stuart
+the tail, the body alone is 2 ½ to less
+than 4 inches in length.
+Best identifying feature(s): Small size, pointed
+snout, large hairless ears, long and scaly hairless
+tail. Upper side of the body is covered with short,
+grayish brown or tan hair, underside is lighter
+colored (but not white). Feet are hairless and
+grayish pink in color. A distinct notch in visible on
+the front teeth, when viewed from the side.
+Movement is by walking or running on all four
+legs, but are also known to jump, stand on their
+hind feet using the tail for balance, they also climb
+Notch on front teeth in side view
+up rough vertical surfaces, to reach up to a food
+Photo: Magne Flåten
+source or nesting site. Young mice can squeeze
+through openings as small as ¼ inch in diameter, and prefer to maintain contact
+with vertical surfaces such as walls as they move.
+House mice are nocturnal by nature and tend to avoid light, but can occasionally
+venture out during the daytime in search of food. They are intelligent and cautious
+and easily escape notice. Signs of their presence, such as feet tracks, chew/gnaw
+marks, oily rub marks, droppings and urine, fallen hair, and chewed up paper, cloth
+or wood, are often found before the mice themselves.
+Several other small rodent species found in and around homes and structures, e.g.,
+deer mice and meadow voles, can be mistaken for house mice. House mice can also
+be mistaken for young black or brown rats. Fig.1 (under ‘Rats’) provides tips for
+quick differentiation between the species. Droppings can be helpful when
+identifying species, but are not conclusive, especially when viewed alone. Fig. 2
+provides useful tips for identification of rodent droppings. Mice and rats leave
+174
+
+
+
+numerous micro droplets of urine wherever they travel, which fluoresce under UV
+light and can help in detecting their activity.
+Pest status: Chewing, biting and structural pest.
+Can consume, damage and contaminate food,
+stored items and structures with their droppings
+and urine, produce allergens and carry and spread
+pathogens.
+Damage/injury: In human homes and
+structures, house mice are omnivorous and will
+feed on almost any human food material as well as
+many other household items including cardboard,
+soap, leather, etc. Before feeding, they test the
+material by nibbling and this can cause unsightly
+chew or gnaw marks. They thrive in food storage
+areas or pantries if undetected for a long time,
+Mouse nest in bird box
+where along with consuming and damaging food
+Photo: Bet Zimmerman, Sialis.org
+and food packaging materials, they contaminate
+everything with their urine and droppings, and this can also cause a musky odor.
+Outdoors, house mice can occasionally damage crops and garden plants. They are
+known for their preference for seeds
+and grains, which they will consume in
+the field as well as bring to their nests
+for storage.
+House mice can physically destroy a
+variety of materials found in homes and
+structures such as paper, cardboard,
+wood and cloth by shredding them to
+make nests. They can also cause
+structural damage to furniture,
+upholstery, woodwork, electrical and
+plumbing lines, computer systems and
+Mouse nest with young ones
+machinery by chewing or gnawing in an
+Photo: Kelly Madigan
+attempt to reach food or nesting sites.
+House mice are not considered important public health hazards, but they are
+known to carry and spread pathogens that cause murine typhus, bubonic plague,
+leptospirosis and food poisoning. They can spread parasites such as fleas, mites,
+tapeworms and ticks to humans and domestic animals.
+House mice have not been found to be carriers of the deadly hantavirus, but the
+similar species-deer mice are known to carry it.
+Life history: House mice are almost always found closely associated with humans.
+They may occupy secluded spots outdoor, in wooded areas, fields and gardens
+during warm weather but these are not usually very far away from human homes
+and structures such as barns and outbuildings. Although they can survive
+outdoors, feeding on plant material, small insects and other invertebrates, they will
+try to move indoors as the weather gets cooler. Outdoors, they live in concealed
+spots such as tree stumps or under stones, or may dig underground burrows. In
+human structures, they will nest in any suitable hidden and undisturbed spot with a
+175
+
+
+
+nearby food source. Nests are untidy
+piles of any material they can collect,
+such as paper, cardboard, wires, wood
+shavings, etc., but the insides are lined
+with softer and more finely shredded
+materials such as cloth. House mice
+have an extremely high reproductive
+potential and they breed year-round in
+favorable conditions. A single female
+can produce 5-10 litters, each with 5-8
+young ones or pups. The pups are
+Mouse nest under car bonnet
+Photo: John Hummel
+born blind and hairless, but become
+fully furred by 2 weeks, weaned by 3
+weeks and sexually mature by 5-7 weeks. Females can become pregnant again
+before the pups are weaned. The average lifespan is 1 ½ to 2 years in the wild, but
+mice can live for much longer in captivity (5 years). Social behaviors of house mice
+vary with their location and food availability. House mice tend to avoid black rats
+and Norway rats, which prey on them.
+Common name(s): Meadow vole, meadow mouse, field mouse
+Scientific name, classification: Microtus spp., Class: Mammalia, Order: Rodentia,
+Family: Cricetidae. The montane vole M.
+montanus and the California vole M.
+californicus are common southwestern
+species.
+Distribution: Western U.S., Canada
+Description and ID characters: Small,
+grayish brown heavy-bodied rodent, with
+similarities to house mice and gophers,
+about 5-5 inches in length including the
+tail. Sizes and appearance can vary with
+Montane vole/ meadow vole
+Photo: Roger W. Barbour, www.mnh.si.edu
+the habitat.
+Best identifying feature(s): Short, stout
+but compact body, short legs and small thin tail, covered with fine fur, small eyes,
+small and partially hidden ears. Fur is dark grayish brown on the upper side of the
+body and tail, and paler (not white) on the
+undersides and flanks; but the body is not
+distinctly two-toned as in deer mice.
+Voles spend most of the daytime in their
+burrows underground, but they have
+distinct runways above ground and these
+can be indicative of their activity. They
+try to cover runways with cut grass or
+other plant material, but sometimes green
+colored droppings can be found near
+Vole runways
+Photo: Stephen M. Vantassel, UNL Extension
+burrow entrances.
+176
+
+
+
+Pest status: Occasional pest of crops and other plants outdoors.
+Damage/injury: Voles can feed on and damage a wide variety of agricultural
+crops, garden plants and turf. The damage can be severe when their populations
+build up during certain times of the year. They can also disfigure landscapes with
+their extensive burrows.
+Voles are primarily outdoor species, and may be encountered in gardens, fields and
+other wooded areas near homes and structures, but rarely indoors.
+Life history: Meadow voles are mostly crepuscular (foraging during dawn and
+dusk) throughout the year, and feed on different plant materials, fungi and small
+insects or other invertebrates. They build underground nests in their burrows,
+lined with plant matter. Breeding usually occurs from late spring to early fall, with
+3-4 litters in a year. Average lifespan is less than a year.
+Rats
+Common name(s): Black rat, roof rat, house rat, ship rat
+Scientific name, classification:
+Rattus rattus, Class: Mammalia,
+Order: Rodentia, Family:
+Muridae.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Medium sized, slender dark-brown
+to black colored rat with a long
+scaly tail almost always longer than
+the body. Adults measure about
+12 inches from nose to tail, the
+Black rat/roof rat
+body alone is 5-7 inches in length.
+Photo: E.J. Taylor/CDC
+Best identifying feature(s):
+Medium sized, heavier body than
+house mice, mostly covered with untidy dark brown, dark grey or black fur with
+lighter underside, with no demarcation between the upper and lower sides; pointed
+muzzle; large black eyes, large and almost hairless ears that can be pulled over the
+eyes; and long, hairless, tail as long as or longer than body, with annulations (rings).
+Movement is by walking or running on all four legs, but they can also stand on
+their two hind feet. They can squeeze
+through openings as small as ½ inch in
+diameter, and prefer to maintain contact
+with vertical surfaces such as walls. They
+are agile runners and climbers, and can
+easily and swiftly climb up trees and other
+rough, vertical surfaces, and even run along
+overhead electric wires and utility lines
+using their tail for balance. As with house
+mice, black rats are seldom seen during the
+Roof rat in grain store
+daytime and tend to avoid light. However,
+Photo: H. Zell
+signs such as foot prints, chew/gnaw
+177
+
+
+
+marks, oily rub marks, droppings and urine, hair, and chewed up paper, cloth or
+wood, are indicative of their presence.
+Adult black rats can be confused with brown/Norway rats, and young ones with
+house mice. Fig.1 provides tips for quick differentiation between the species.
+Droppings can be helpful when identifying the species, but are not conclusive,
+especially when viewed alone. Fig. 2 provides useful tips for identification of rodent
+droppings.
+
+Fig.1. Field identification of domestic rodents
+Photo: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
+
+Fig.2. Field identification of rodent vs. cockroach droppings
+Photo: EPA, www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/Module05.pdf
+
+178
+
+
+
+Pest status: One of the most important rodent pests worldwide. Serious biting,
+chewing and structural pest, of public health concern as carriers of fleas vectoring
+bubonic plague and other human diseases.
+Damage/injury: Black rats are generalist omnivores, and will feed on almost any
+kind of food material. They will readily feed on human food as well as pet,
+livestock or poultry feed, and have a preference for fruits and nuts. Before feeding,
+they test the material by nibbling and this can cause unsightly chew or gnaw marks.
+They thrive in food storage areas, granaries or pantries if undetected for a long
+time, where along with consuming and damaging food and food packaging
+materials, they contaminate it with their urine and droppings, and this can also
+cause a foul odor.
+In addition to food damage, black rats physically destroy a variety of materials
+found in homes and structures such as paper, cardboard, wood and cloth by
+shredding them to make nests. They can also cause structural damage to furniture,
+upholstery, woodwork, electrical and plumbing lines, computer systems and
+machinery by chewing or gnawing in an attempt to reach food or nesting sites.
+Burrowing and nesting activities of black rats can weaken and damage building
+foundations, and can also result in water leaks and electrical fires.
+Black rats can be agricultural pests by
+damaging crops and a wide range of garden
+plants and trees. They can attack standing
+crops in the field for their fruit, damage roots
+and underground stems by burrowing, and
+even strip off the bark from trees and shrubs.
+They can be invasive threats to the natural
+ecosystem in certain areas by feeding
+voraciously on birds and insects.
+Roof rat damage to mattress
+Black rats, together with their parasites such
+Photo: Joan Kovatch
+as mites and fleas, carry and spread number of
+pathogens causing human diseases. Notable
+among them are bubonic plague, typhus,
+salmonellosis and leptospirosis. Rats are one of
+the preferred hosts of the Oriental rat flea,
+Xenopsylla cheopis which is the primary vector of
+bubonic plague. However, rats are not regarded
+as important vectors of plague today- the
+disease is more associated with squirrels, prairie
+dogs, chipmunks and other wild rodents. Rats
+also host other flea species, mites, nematodes
+and other worms.
+Life history: Black rats are primarily nocturnal,
+but can be active occasionally during the
+daytime. They usually spend the daytime hidden
+in their nests and tend to avoid light. Because
+of their climbing abilities, they are easily able to
+reach higher locations such as treetops, attics
+Extensive roof rat damage on a roof
+and higher floors of buildings for food and
+Photo: Bart Teeuwisse
+179
+
+
+
+nesting sites. They rarely burrow underground, and prefer to nest in these higher
+locations. Nests are built of various materials that are available in their habitat, and
+may include plant parts, wood, cardboard, or cloth. They are known to tear up
+insulating material in walls and machinery and use it for nesting. Breeding occurs
+year-round if favorable conditions exist. A single female can produce up to 5 litters
+in a year. The young are born blind and hairless, but become fully furred and
+weaned by 4 weeks, and sexually mature by 3 months. The average lifespan is 2
+years. Black rats may form small social, male-dominated groups especially during
+breeding season and may co-exist with other black rats in a location, but they are
+generally aggressive towards other rodents, especially Norway rats. Black rats and
+Norway rats can occur in the same location, but do not exist in harmony and
+always occupy different spots. For example in a building, black rats restrict
+themselves to attics, or higher floors, while Norway rats may stay in the basement
+or ground floors. Norway rats are dominant and will easily kill black rats in
+encounters.
+Common name(s): Brown rat,
+Norway rat, sewer rat
+Scientific name, classification:
+Rattus norwegicus, Class: Mammalia,
+Order: Rodentia, Family: Muridae.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Large sized, grayish brown rat with a
+short scaly tail almost always
+appearing shorter than the body.
+Brown rat/Norway rat
+Adults measure about 18-20 inches
+Photo: Sergey Yeliseev
+from nose to tail, the body alone is 810 inches in length. One of the
+largest domestic rodents in the U.S.
+Best identifying feature(s): Large size,
+heavy and stocky body much larger than
+black rats; coarse, thick brown or dark gray
+fur that is lighter on the underside but with
+no demarcation between upper and lower
+sides; blunt muzzle; small eyes; small,
+hairless ears that cannot reach over the
+eyes if pulled; thick tail, about the same
+length or shorter than the body and
+Closer view of brown rat featurescoarse, brown fur, blunt muzzle,
+covered with short hair. Movement is by
+small eyes and ears
+walking or running on all four legs, can
+Photo: Dawn Gouge
+stand on the two hind feet. They can
+squeeze through gaps as small as ½ inch in diameter, and prefer to maintain
+contact with vertical surfaces such as walls. Good runners and swimmers, but do
+not climb as well as black rats. As with house mice and black rats, Norway rats are
+secretive and averse to light, seldom being seen during the daytime. However, they
+leave several signs of their activity such as feet tracks, chew/gnaw marks, oily rub
+180
+
+
+
+marks, droppings and urine, hair, and chewed up paper, cloth or wood that can
+indicate their presence. Any of these signs near gaps or holes in building walls or
+foundations, burrows in the ground and tracks through ground cover near homes
+or structures may indicate a brown rat infestation.
+Adult Norway rats can be confused with black rats. Refer Fig. 1 above for tips to
+differentiate between them, and Fig. 2, to distinguish between their droppings.
+Pest status: One of the most important rodent pests worldwide. Serious biting,
+
+Brown rat burrow entrance
+
+Rat gnaw marks on electric cable
+
+Photo: Gary Alpert, Bugwood.org
+
+Photo: NY State IPM Program
+
+chewing and structural pest, of public health concern as vectors of bubonic plague
+and other human diseases.
+Damage/injury: Norway rats are very similar to black rats in their feeding habits.
+They are generalist omnivores, feeding on a wide range of food material, with a
+preference for cereal grains, which form a major part of their diet. Before feeding,
+they test the material by nibbling and this can cause unsightly chew or gnaw marks.
+
+Holes in the ground (left) and tracks through ground cover near buildings (right) are indicative
+of rat infestations. Photos: Dawn Gouge
+
+They thrive in food storage areas, granaries or pantries if undetected for a long
+time, where along with consuming and damaging food and food packaging
+materials, they contaminate it with their urine and droppings, and this can also
+cause a foul odor.
+In addition to food damage, Norway rats physically destroy a variety of materials
+found in homes and structures such as paper, cardboard, wood and cloth by
+shredding them to make nests. They can also cause serious structural damage to
+furniture, upholstery, woodwork, soft metals such as copper or aluminum, electrical
+and plumbing lines, computer systems and machinery by chewing or gnawing in an
+attempt to reach food or nesting sites. Their burrowing and nesting activities can
+181
+
+
+
+weaken and damage building foundations, and can also result in water leaks and
+electrical fires. They have been reported to harm and even kill humans, especially
+infants, small children and infirm adults. They can inflict painful bites if handled.
+Norway rats can be serious agricultural pests by damaging crops and a wide range
+
+Gaps or holes in walls or foundations
+provide entryways to rats..
+
+Poorly maintained trash areas are preferred
+habitats for rats and mice
+
+Photo: Dawn Gouge
+
+Photo: Gary Alpert, Bugwood.org
+
+of garden plants and trees. They can attack standing crops in the field for their
+fruit, damage roots and underground stems by burrowing, and even strip off the
+bark from trees and shrubs. They can be invasive threats to the natural ecosystem
+in certain areas by displacing native fauna and feeding voraciously on birds and
+insects. They are known to have displaced black rats from many parts of the world.
+Norway rats, together with their parasites such as mites and fleas, carry and spread
+number of pathogens causing human diseases. Notable among them are bubonic
+plague, typhus, salmonellosis and leptospirosis. Rats are one of the preferred hosts
+of the Oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis which is the primary vector of bubonic
+plague. However, rats are not regarded as important vectors of plague today- the
+disease is more associated with squirrels, prairie dogs, chipmunks and other wild
+rodents. They also host other flea species, mites, nematodes and other worms.
+Life history: Norway rats are nocturnal or
+crepuscular. They have established foraging
+routes and seldom stray from these. New
+foraging paths are explored with great caution
+and once established, they are retained in their
+memory. Nests are built underground in soil, or
+in sewers and cellars, and are often linked to an
+extensive system of burrows and tunnels. Nests
+are dug out in the soil, but lined with various
+soft, finely shredded materials. Breeding can
+occur year-round and up to 5 litters are
+produced in a year, each with 7-14 young ones.
+Average lifespan is about 1 year. Norway rats
+live in large hierarchical groups within the
+burrows, and exhibit different kinds of social
+Brown rat nest in a wall void
+Photo: Joseph LaForest, Bugwood.org
+behavior such as grooming and foraging
+together. However, they do not exist in
+harmony with other rodent species, especially the black rat.
+182
+
+
+
+Norway rats and black rats can occur in the same location, but always occupy
+different spots. For example in a building, black rats restrict themselves to attics,
+or higher floors, while Norway rats may stay in the basement or ground floors.
+Norway rats are dominant and can easily kill black rats in encounters.
+Common name(s): Cotton rat
+Scientific name, classification: Sigmodon spp., Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Rodentia, Family: Cricetidae. The hispid cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus is common in
+the southwest.
+Distribution: Throughout North and South America.
+Description and ID characters: Small to medium sized, grayish-brown rodents.
+Adults measure about 6-12 inches
+from nose to tail. Sizes and
+appearances vary with the habitat.
+Best identifying feature(s): Small,
+rounded body; fur color on the
+upper side of the body is often a
+coarse mixture of tan, brown and
+black; the lower sides being pale
+gray or white; short tail, often
+shorter than the length of
+head+body. An additional
+Cotton rat
+characteristic feature of Sigmodon
+Photo: Stephen Pollard
+hispidus is the ‘S’-shaped crown
+pattern on the second and third molars.
+Pest status: Occasional pest of agricultural crops and other plants. Can harbor and
+spread parasitic insects, mites, pathogenic bacteria, tapeworms and other worms.
+Damage/injury: Cotton rats do not generally cause direct damage to humans, but
+can feed on and damage several garden and landscape plants, as well as agricultural
+crops. They can occasionally cause damage to grasses, fleshy roots and tubers and
+fruits, resulting in reduced yields. Crop damage is related to their population
+densities, which fluctuate throughout the year.
+Cotton rats can also harbor various parasites on their bodies, which can be
+transferred to humans and domestic animals.
+They are also known to compete with some native fauna such as the bobwhite
+quail for food resources, and feed on quail eggs.
+Life history: Cotton rats are active throughout the day, but the main activity is
+from late afternoon to midnight. They construct nests using various plant materials
+under logs and rocks for protection, or abandoned dens of larger mammals such as
+skunks or squirrels. They also construct an elaborate system of runways and tunnels
+below the ground surface. Main runways are regularly maintained by trimming away
+grasses and weeds and piling them along the sides. Breeding can occur throughout
+the year. Females usually produce 1-2 litters per year. Average lifespan is about 6
+months.
+
+183
+
+
+
+Common name(s): Wood rat, pack rat, trade rat
+Scientific name, classification: Neotoma spp., Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Rodentia, Family: Cricetidae. The white-throated wood rat N. albigula, the desert
+wood rat N. lepida, the dusky-footed wood rat, Neotoma fuscipes, the Mexican wood
+rat N. mexicana and the bushy-tailed wood rat, N. cinerea are common southwestern
+species.
+Distribution: Southwest U.S.
+Description and ID characters: Medium
+sized, rat-like rodents with large years, large
+eyes and long furry or hairy tail. Body sizes
+range from 12-14 inches including the tail, the
+body alone can be 6-7 inches in length.
+Best identifying feature(s): Medium size;
+much larger than house mice, and resemble
+roof rats in general size and shape but
+distinguished by the long tail covered with fur
+White-throated wood rat
+Photo: Brad Fiero, www.wc.pima.edu
+or long hairs, larger eyes and ears, and a
+generally clean, soft appearance. Fur is soft;
+colored cinnamon, brown, gray, yellowish
+gray or creamy buff on the upper side of the
+body; the lower side and feet are generally
+much lighter; tail fur may be slightly darker
+than the rest of the body, and is paler on the
+underside. External ears are large, rounded
+and hairy; eyes are large and dark and
+somewhat slanting and deeply set into the
+Desert wood rat
+face.
+Photo: Eric Gofreed
+Pest status: Occasional pests of various
+plants, harbor several parasites on their bodies
+and in their nests. They can be a nuisance by
+their noisy, nest-building activities.
+Damage/injury: Pack rats do not generally
+cause direct damage to humans, but can feed
+on and damage several garden and landscape
+plants. Packrat nests are known to harbor
+many parasitic mites, ticks, fleas and other
+Dusky-footed wood rat
+Photo: Peterson B. Moose, US FWS
+insects on their bodies and in their nests.
+Notable among these are the conenose bugs,
+which are an important bloodsucking pest of
+humans.
+Life history: Pack rats are primarily nocturnal
+and solitary animals, except when mating or
+rearing young. However they are known to
+build nests close together, forming a
+community. Their nests, called dens or
+‘middens’, are complex structures consisting of
+Bushy-tailed wood rat
+several chambers, with piles of stored food
+Photo: Steve Schubert, www.condorlookout.org
+184
+
+
+
+and debris. They can be built on the ground,
+among rocks or tree bases, or among tree
+branches, or in abandoned nests and burrows
+of other animals. In the desert, packrat dens are
+common in cholla cactus bases, using the cactus
+spines as a protection from predators. Ground
+dens measure 3 to 5 feet in height and diameter;
+tree nests are somewhat smaller. One animal
+Mexican wood rat
+may inhabit several nests, and in good feeding
+Photo: R.B. Forbes, Am. Soc.of Mammalogists
+areas, a den may be occupied for several years
+or a lifetime. Packrats are known to use aromatic plant leaves to line their nests to
+
+Pack rat nest under among cactuses
+
+Desert wood rat near midden
+
+Photo: Cliff Hutson
+
+Photo: Dick Hartshorne, SearchNet Media
+
+keep out parasites. They are also very attracted to small, bright, shiny objects such
+as coins, small pieces of jewelry, broken bits of mirrors, metal spoons, etc. and
+often pick these up, leaving sticks, nuts, cactus pieces or other materials in ‘trade’.
+Breeding usually occurs in early summer and females can produce up to 5 litters per
+year, each with 4-5 young. The young ones become sexually mature in 2 months.
+Average lifespan is about 1-2 years.
+Sources, further information:
+Mammal pests including rattlesnakes http://ucanr.org/sites/vpce/files/86153.pdf
+Mouse management
+http://ag.arizona.edu/urbanipm/buglist/mousemanagement.pdf
+Integrated pest management of the house mouse in schools
+http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/38106/em9062.pd
+f
+Roof rat control around homes and other structures
+http://extension.arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1280.pdf
+Vertebrate pests-mammals
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/menu.house.html#DESTROY
+
+185
+
+
+
+Common name(s): Pocket gopher,
+gopher
+Scientific name, classification:
+Thomomys spp., Class: Mammalia,
+Order: Rodentia, Family: Geomyidae.
+Valley/Botta’s pocket gopher Thomomys
+bottae is the most common southwestern
+species. The desert pocket gopher
+Geomys arenarius and the yellow-faced
+pocket gopher Pappogeomys castanops are
+other species that may be found in parts
+of New Mexico, Colorado and Texas.
+Pocket gopher with mound
+Photo: Royal Tyler
+Distribution: Throughout the U.S.
+Description and ID characters:
+Medium to large sized, stout-bodied rodent, measuring 7-10 inches in length, with
+short hairless tail of about 2 inches. The term ‘gopher’ may refer to any member of
+
+Botta’s pocket gopher-full view. They are seldom seen above ground in this manner.
+Photo: Dave Beaudette
+
+the family Geomyidae, which are the “true gophers” as well as other related rodents
+such as ground squirrels; or moles, which belong to a different family and are not
+technically rodents.
+Best identifying feature(s): Gophers are rarely seen above ground, and so it is
+difficult to observe them for identification. The best indicators of gopher activity
+are the mounds of soil that they create
+during their tunneling activities
+underground. Sometimes they emerge
+briefly from their tunnels, and during these
+short sightings, they can be quickly
+recognized by their stout, stocky bodies,
+well adapted for a life under the soil.
+Botta’s pocket gophers have fine dark gray,
+brown or black fur mostly matching the soil
+in the habitat; with paler undersides. The
+muzzle is blunt and rounded, with long pale
+Botta’s pocket gopher showing front teeth
+Photo: Eric Gofreed
+white whiskers on both sides. Four large,
+186
+
+
+
+smooth orange front teeth are visible in
+front of the face towards the lower side,
+with lips closing behind them so that the
+teeth are always exposed and the lips
+prevent soil and debris from entering their
+mouth while the teeth are used for digging.
+Eyes are small and beady, ears are small,
+hairy and almost sunken into the fur.
+Pocket gopher with cheek pouches full
+Cheeks have fur-lined pouches or pockets
+Photo: Dave Kirkeby
+that give them their common name, and are
+used to carry food or nesting materials. The
+pockets extend from the sides of the mouth back to the shoulders, and can be
+turned inside out for emptying and cleaning. Legs are short and powerful; front
+legs are equipped with long claws for digging. Whiskers and tail are used for
+navigation within tunnels.
+Desert pocket gophers are similar in size and appearance to Botta’s pocket gophers,
+but have 2 prominent grooves on each of their upper front teeth and longer claws
+on their front paws. Yellow-faced pocket gophers are usually smaller than the other
+two; have lighter fur, single grooves on their upper front teeth, and larger front feet
+and claws. Fig. 3 provides identification tips to distinguish between the three
+genera.
+
+Thomomys
+
+Geomys
+
+Pappogeomys
+
+Fig. 3. Diagrams showing the differences between the common pocket gopher genera
+Source: Turner et al. 1973. Colorado State Univ. Exp. Stn. Bulletin 554S
+
+Gophers create an intricate network of tunnels under the ground, which provide
+them shelter, protection and pathways to collect food. The mounds of loose soil
+that can be seen above the ground as indicators of their activity are actually covered
+up entrances to their tunnels. The mounds are crescent or fan shaped, and are
+created when the gophers throw out loose soil from the tunnel entrance. Often,
+they will open up some of these entrances to air the tunnels, dry them out after a
+heavy rain, or to forage for short distances. Round patches of missing vegetation in
+a new area may indicate gopher activity under the ground, because they are known
+to open up small holes in the ground from within their tunnels and pull whole
+plants down by their roots.
+Pest status: Important pest of turf and landscapes, because of their tunneling
+activities. Can inflict painful bites if threatened or cornered.
+187
+
+
+
+Gopher mounds in a school playing field (top); in open unoccupied ground (bottom left); and
+in adjacent property (bottom right)
+Photos: Shaku Nair
+Photo: Cynthia Cheney
+
+Damage/injury: Gophers are mostly herbivorous, and feed on a wide range of
+crop and garden plants, cutting up their roots, as well as above ground parts. More
+important is the damage caused to lawns, yards, playing fields, gardens and other
+landscaped areas by their
+extensive mounds and tunnels.
+The tunneling can also destroy
+water hoses, and drip and
+sprinkler irrigation systems, often
+diverting large amounts of
+irrigation water causing water loss
+and erosion. Gopher activity
+aerates the soil to some extent,
+but over long periods of time, it
+creates large areas devoid of
+vegetation and limits
+Typical crescent-shaped gopher mound with soil plug
+establishment of new seedlings.
+in the center. Photo: Cynthia Cheney
+188
+
+
+
+Life history: Gophers are mostly solitary animals, with each individual developing
+its own tunnels and territories. They need moist soil, and irrigated landscapes in
+the southwest serve as ideal habitats, where they have deep permanent tunnels for
+nesting and storing food, as well as shallow tunnels to forage. Nests are excavated
+inside their tunnels and are cushioned with grass or other softer plant material.
+They also have large food storage chambers with bare sides, where they hoard
+grains and other food material for the colder months. Gophers group together
+only for mating. A female can produce up to 2 litters per year, each with 2-6
+young, which become sexually mature in 3 months and leave the mother’s nest.
+Average lifespan is 2 years.
+Sources, further information:
+Controlling pocket gophers in New Mexico http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_l/L109.pdf
+Controlling pocket gophers
+http://www.okrangelandswest.okstate.edu/files/wildlife%20pdfs/NREM9001.pdf
+Mammal pests including rattlesnakes http://ucanr.org/sites/vpce/files/86153.pdf
+Pocket gophers http://icwdm.org/handbook/rodents/PocketGophers.asp
+Pocket gopher control techniques
+http://agr.mt.gov/agr/Programs/PestMgt/VertebratePest/Bulletins/pdf/Pocket
+Gopher.pdf
+Vertebrate pests-mammals
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/menu.house.html#DESTROY
+
+189
+
+
+
+Common name(s): Squirrel
+Scientific name, classification: Different species, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Rodentia, Family: Sciuridae. The rock squirrel Otospermophilus variegatus, California
+ground squirrel Otospermophilus beecheyi, round-tailed ground squirrel Xerospermophilus
+tereticaudus, and Harris’ antelope squirrel Ammospermophilus harrisii are common
+southwestern species.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters: Small to large sized, furry grayish brown rodents
+with long, bushy tails and large dark eyes. Sizes and appearances vary with the
+species.
+Best identifying feature(s):
+California ground squirrels are
+medium to large animals, measuring up
+to 20 inches in length. Their fur is
+brownish-gray, speckled with white on
+the back. The sides of the face and
+shoulders are lighter in color and the
+belly is light gray or tan.
+
+California ground squirrel
+Photo: Thomas O’Brien
+
+Harris’s antelope squirrels are much
+smaller than rock squirrels, measuring up to 15-18
+inches including the tail. They have distinctive grey
+fur with brown highlights on the sides and legs, and
+a white stripe along both sides of the trunk. The
+bushy tail is about 4 inches long and covered with
+long, dark gray or black hairs. Eyes are large, black
+and lined with white; ears are small and short.
+
+Harris’s antelope squirrel
+Photo: Eric Gofreed
+
+Round-tailed ground squirrels are the
+smallest of the southwestern species,
+measuring about 8-10 inches in length,
+including the tail. Their fur is uniform
+sandy brown in color with no markings,
+matching the soil of their habitat, and
+lighter on the underside. The tail is long
+and round and not bushy, but covered
+with short fur similar in color to the
+body. Eyes are large, black and lined
+with a light margin. Ears are small and
+placed back on the head.
+190
+
+Round-tailed ground squirrel
+Photo: Ryan Kaldari
+
+
+
+Rock squirrels are the largest of the southwestern ground squirrels, their bodies
+measuring about 12 inches and their long bushy tails adding another 10 or 12
+inches to their total length. The head is light brown or tan, fur on the back of the
+neck and shoulders is speckled gray, black and white, while the lower back is tinged
+with brown. The underside of the body is pale gray or white. The long bushy tail is
+edged with white. Eyes are large and black, surrounded by a light colored ring, and
+pointed ears projecting above their heads.
+
+Rock squirrel
+Photo: Marcia Bradley
+
+Various species of tree squirrels are also found throughout the southwest.
+Pest status: Pests of crops, landscape and garden plants, can cause structural
+damage to wooden structures. Can harbor and spread various pathogens causing
+human diseases, notably bubonic plague.
+Damage/injury: Squirrels mostly cause damage by feeding on fruit, nut and grain
+bearing plants in gardens and landscapes. They can also damage young seedlings,
+strip bark from trees causing girdling, and burrow around roots.
+Squirrels can also chew on plastic water hoses and irrigation tubes. Some species
+burrow into the ground and create unsightly mounds in landscaped areas and
+around buildings, resulting in weakening and structural damage.
+They carry many parasitic insects,
+mites and ticks and along with
+them, may spread pathogens to
+humans who come in contact with
+them, especially when squirrel
+populations are high. Notable
+among these is the plague bacterium
+Yersinia pestis. Squirrels are highly
+susceptible to plague and they are
+infested through fleas which
+parasitize them. Dead squirrels
+Rock squirrel near its nest in a rock crevice
+should never be handled, and large
+Photo: Siobhan Basile
+191
+
+
+
+numbers of dead squirrels in an area should be reported immediately to public
+health officials.
+Life history: Squirrels vary greatly in their habitat and nesting behavior. They
+mostly nest in burrows, in the ground or in trees or rocks. Most squirrels are
+daytime foragers and are active from midmorning to late afternoon. They feed on
+various plant materials as well as small insects and other invertebrates.
+Sources, further information:
+Controlling rock squirrel damage in New Mexico
+http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/CR574.pdf
+Desert Animals http://www.desertusa.com/animals.html
+Vertebrate pests-mammals
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/menu.house.html#DESTROY
+
+192
+
+
+
+OTHER LARGE MAMMALS
+Common name(s): Coyote
+Scientific name, classification: Canis
+latrans, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Carnivora, Family: Canidae.
+Distribution: Throughout North
+America and parts of Central and South
+America.
+Description and ID characters:
+Coyotes are medium-sized animals
+resembling dogs or wolves, and are
+closely related to them. Instances of
+Coyote
+mating between these related species are
+Photo: Jitze Couperus
+also known, producing hybrids known
+informally as ‘coywolves’ or ‘coydogs’.
+Most coyotes are 1 ½ to 2 feet in height at the shoulders. Coat colors are various
+shades of brown or gray, mostly darker on the back and lighter on the belly. Tails
+are usually bushy and darker towards the tip.
+Best identifying feature(s): Resemblance to dogs or wolves, but usually smaller
+and thinner, with longer, bushier tails; longer, narrower muzzles and large pointed
+ears. Coyote activity can also be identified by their tracks (more elongated than dog
+tracks), fallen hair, droppings, tooth marks, or remains of food or animals that they
+prey on. They also produce various typical sounds known as howls, yelps or barks.
+Pest status: Nuisance pests, can attack native and pet animals and birds, cause
+public health concern because they can harbor pathogens and parasites.
+Damage/injury: Coyotes readily feed on a variety of food material including
+human food, pet food, fruits, seeds, small animals, insects, as well as garbage. They
+can cause damage to household articles and structures, garden and irrigation
+structures, and objects stored in yards and outside homes, in their attempts to reach
+food materials. They also prey on native birds and small animals and rodents.
+Coyotes can react aggressively, and are known to stalk and attack children, adults
+and pet animals causing injuries. As with other wild mammals, coyotes can harbor
+the rabies virus, as well as many other parasitic insects, mites, ticks, worms, and
+disease-causing microorganisms. These can be transmitted to humans and domestic
+animals by close or regular contact.
+Life history: Coyotes are extremely adaptable, and this is one of the reasons for
+their success and ever-expanding range. They can live in diverse habitats, and are
+known to change their diet, breeding habits and social aspects to suit the
+environment they inhabit. By nature, coyotes are wary of humans and tend to avoid
+them, but many individuals are known to have lost their fear and thrive in and
+around human habitats. They are also known to recognize and avoid trapping or
+snaring devices, which enables them to freely inhabit human environments. It is
+important to recognize coyote activity and avoid practices that encourage them, to
+tackle the problems they might create around community environments. Providing
+food intentionally or unintentionally (such as by leaving pet food and garbage
+193
+
+
+
+open), can greatly attract and encourage coyotes to come closer to homes and
+buildings, and should be avoided.
+Coyotes form small social groups called packs, consisting of a dominant female and
+her mate, and several younger males and females. Breeding usually occurs once a
+year in late winter, and a pair will form a small nesting area called a ‘den’ in tree
+hollows, burrows, or under rock ledges. The young ones called ‘pups’ are born in
+March-April and a litter has 6 pups on average. They are cared for by the parents
+for 2-3 months till they are completely weaned and start hunting on their own.
+They mature by 8-10 months, after which some pups leave their pack and seek out
+new groups, while others stay with their parents till they are much older.
+Common name(s): Feral cat
+Scientific name, classification: Felis catus, Class: Mammalia, Order: Carnivora,
+Family: Felidae.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Feral cats are descendants of
+domestic or housecats or their
+young ones, which have turned wild.
+They belong to the same genus and
+species as domesticated cats and are
+physically indistinguishable from
+them, but behave differently due to
+lack of any kind of socialization or
+human contact. Feral cats are
+different from free-range cats and
+A group of feral cats
+stray cats, which have or have had
+Photo: Boris Dimitrov
+contact with humans in their lives.
+Feral cats are those that have never had human contact in their lives. Offspring of
+stray cats can be considered feral if they are
+born in the wild, and never found by their
+owners. Feral cats are also different from the
+‘true wildcats’ Felis sylvestris, from which present
+day domestic or housecats are believed to have
+descended. Wildcats occur only in truly wild
+areas and are rarely encountered in community
+environments, except those that are very close
+Wildcat
+to forested or mountainous regions. They bear
+Photo: Sylvia Rost
+many resemblances to domestic cats, but are
+generally larger, with longer legs, more robust body and larger, rounded heads with
+wider spaced ears. Their fur and tails are thicker and usually of uniform gray-brown
+or color with different spots, stripes or bands.
+The problem of feral cats is a growing one, aggravated by failure to neuter pet cats
+resulting in their uncontrolled breeding, and the following abandonment of their
+kittens.
+Best identifying feature(s): Aggressive, defensive or avoidance behaviors such as
+growling, hissing, hiding behind, under or above structures and reluctance to come
+194
+
+
+
+close to humans. Often have injuries on various parts of the body due to
+encounters with other feral cats or other animals.
+Pest status: Nuisance pests, can attack native
+and pet animals and birds, cause public health
+concern because they can harbor pathogens
+and parasites.
+Damage/injury: Feral cats are hunters by
+nature. They can pose serious threats to local
+native wildlife such as birds, amphibians,
+reptiles, rodents and other small mammals and
+insects. When they are unable to catch prey in
+Feral cat showing typical defensive features
+Photo: Eric Gofreed
+the open, feral cats often turn to domesticated
+animals and birds such as poultry and even
+domestic cats.
+Feral cats can harbor several parasitic insects, mites, ticks, worms and pathogens on
+their bodies because of their wild lifestyle. These can be easily transmitted to
+domestic animals, birds and humans by close or regular contact. Disease that can
+be transmitted by feral cats include salmonellosis, toxoplasmosis, ringworm, rabies
+
+Male feral cat with injured left ear (left): Photo: Philip Kahn;
+and a female with an injured or diseased right eye (right): Photo: Chriss Haight Pagani
+
+and plague.
+It is important to avoid feeding feral cats, even though it might be considered
+humane. Feeding provides them an easy source of food, but will not cause them to
+lose their feral nature which is established when
+they were born and raised in the wild. Some
+feral cats may appear more docile than others,
+but truly domesticating them is difficult.
+Life history: Feral cats are adapted to live and
+survive in a wide variety of situations. They
+inhabit a number of structures around
+community environments such as alleys,
+sewers, dumpster areas, barns and outbuildings,
+and surrounding wooded areas, and forage
+Feral cat with prey (rabbit)
+within a radius of about 2 miles from their
+Photo: Eddy Van3000
+resting spots. They will feed on any available
+195
+
+
+
+food of plant or animal origin, including small animals and birds, as well as garbage.
+Many feral cats are regularly provided food by humans.
+Even in their hostile environments, feral cats breed prolifically. Mating takes place
+in late spring through summer and females can produce up to 5 litters per year with
+2-10 kittens in each. The kittens are cared for by their mothers who will move
+them frequently to avoid detection by predators which include the male cats. The
+kittens mature by 7-10 months and disperse. Average life expectancy is 3-5 years,
+compared to 15 years in domestic cats.
+Common name(s): Javelina, collared
+peccary, musk hog
+Scientific name, classification: Pecari
+(Tayassu) tajacu, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Artiodactyla, Family: Tayassuidae.
+Distribution: Southwest U.S.; North and
+Central South America.
+Description and ID characters: Medium
+sized, pig or boar-like mammal, about 2 feet
+in height at the shoulders.
+Collared peccary/javelina
+Best identifying feature(s): Boar-like
+Photo: Wing-Chi Poon
+appearance; body covered with short, coarse
+dark brown and black colored hair. Some
+hairs have whitish bands, giving the coat a salt-and-pepper appearance. Hair around
+the neck or shoulders is lighter in color, giving the appearance of a collar. Hairs on
+the back of the neck (mane) are longest (up to 6 inches long) and can stand erect
+when the animal is excited. Face is pointed towards the front into a snout with a
+flat end, resembling a pig’s snout. Sharp canine teeth (tusks) protrude about 1 inch
+beyond the jaws. Legs are short and have hooves.
+Pest status: Occasional pests of turf, garden and landscape plants and other
+garden and irrigation structures. Can cause damage to mobile homes and other
+temporary structures when seeking shade under them. Can also cause physical
+injury to humans and other animals with their tusks.
+Damage/injury: Feed on and damage a number of cultivated crops, landscape
+and garden plants. They are more problematic
+in communities near desert washes, mountains
+or other wooded areas. Javelina usually ignore
+humans, but can charge to attack if threatened,
+and can injure humans and other animals with
+their tusks. They also release a strong musky
+odor when alarmed. Mothers are especially
+protective of their young.
+Life history: Javelina are mostly active after
+sunset, although they can be seen moving
+during the daytime. They usually rest in the
+shade of trees or rocky outcrops during the heat
+Group of javelina resting in shade
+of the day. In natural settings, they can occupy
+Photo: Anonymous, Opencage.net
+various habitats and opportunistically feed on
+196
+
+
+
+the available plants as well as other small reptiles, vertebrates and insects. Prickly
+pear cactuses are a preferred and important part of their diet. Javelina form small
+social groups of about 6-20 individuals, sometimes larger. Breeding can occur
+throughout the year and females produce up to 2 litters, each with 1-2 young in a
+year. The young ones are weaned at 6 weeks and become sexually mature in about
+10 months. It is important to never purposefully feed wandering javelina, because
+this will prompt them to become regular visitors to an area and lose their shyness
+of humans. This can give rise to further problems, including damage of crops and
+property and attracting larger predators of javelina such as coyotes or mountain
+lions.
+Common name(s): Skunk
+Scientific name, classification: Different species, Class: Mammalia, Order:
+Carnivora, Family: Mephitidae. The western spotted skunk Spilogale gracilis is a
+common southwestern species. The striped skunk Mephitis mephitis is also common
+and widely distributed throughout the U.S.
+Distribution: Southwest U.S.
+Description and ID characters: Medium sized, stout and elongated mammals
+about 1 ½ -2 feet in height at the shoulders and about the same in body length, and
+a long hairy tail about 10-12 inches in length. The head is conical with a pointed
+muzzle, and beady black eyes. Legs are short, hairy and muscular and equipped
+with long claws. They walk with a distinctive slow, waddling or shuffling gait and
+cannot move very fast, and therefore they have other defense methods: their fur
+has vivid warning coloration and they are well known for their ability to spray
+strongly-scented, pungent liquids from their
+rear ends that can temporarily disable most
+predators.
+Best identifying feature(s):
+Spotted skunks are the smaller of the two
+species. Their bodies are covered with thick,
+glossy black fur with distinct white broken
+stripes and spots; with a single white spot on
+the forehead or above the nose. They have a
+conspicuously large hairy tail, also colored black
+with a white tip and often held up like a
+Western spotted skunk
+feathery fan behind the animal.
+Photo: US National Park Service
+Striped skunks are slightly larger and heavier,
+and their bodies are almost fully covered with
+thick, glossy black fur except for two distinct
+broad white stripes on the back. The stripes
+join and extend to form a broad white area
+above the neck, and backwards over the large
+hairy tail. The forehead bears a single narrow
+white stripe.
+Pest status: Occasional pest of crop, garden
+and landscape plants. Their defensive sprays
+Striped skunk
+Photo: Dan & Lin Dzurisin
+can be extremely irritating to the eyes and skin
+197
+
+
+
+of humans and other animals. Cause some public health concern because they can
+harbor rabies viruses and parasites.
+Damage/injury: Skunks are opportunistic omnivores and will feed on any food
+material, including plants, insects and other smaller arthropods, reptiles, birds,
+carrion of all kinds and human food. They can damage garden and landscape
+plants, dig up holes in lawns and turf in search of grubs and worms, as well as
+destroy garden structures such as bird houses, bee hives and boxes, and irrigation
+structures. Bird eggs are one of their preferred foods, as are honey bees and honey.
+They are known to disturb bee hives and catch the emerging bees, their long thick
+hair offering protection against stings. Skunks also feed on garbage and will
+regularly visit porches, garages or basements that have an assured supply of pet
+food.
+If threatened or disturbed, skunks typically
+assume a warning stance by stamping their
+feet and raising and fluffing up their long
+tails. If the disturbance continues, they
+will turn around and by stand up on their
+forelegs with their rear end facing the
+intruder and raise their hind legs into the
+air. Finally, they will react in their
+characteristic manner, and spray the
+notorious pungent fluid. The fluid is
+produced from scent glands located on
+Western spotted skunk with raised tail
+either side of their anus and they can
+Photo: Ray Bruun
+shoot it as far as 10 feet. It is powerful
+smelling and potent, and can cause nausea, severe burning and temporary blindness
+on eye contact, and is difficult to remove from clothing. Skunks themselves often
+hesitate to use the fluid and will not spray if they are in a confined space and
+cannot get their tails out of the way. It takes them about 10 days to refill their
+supply after it is exhausted.
+Skunks are more frequently encountered in urban communities because of
+disturbances of their natural habitat, and are very often run over by passing
+vehicles, which also releases their characteristic smell. Some people try to trap,
+domesticate and keep skunks as pets, for their attractive fur. However, it is
+important to remember that skunks carry several parasitic insects, mites and ticks in
+their luxuriant fur that can be transmitted to humans and pet animals by close and
+regular interaction.
+More importantly, skunks are reservoirs of the rabies virus, which can cause the
+deadly disease, rabies, in humans and pet animals if transmitted by bites, scratches
+or other bodily fluids from infected skunks. Skunks are also known as carriers of
+other human and animal diseases such as leptospirosis, listeriosis, canine hepatitis,
+tularemia, etc.
+Life history: Skunks are nocturnal and solitary by nature. They build single dens,
+sometimes occupying abandoned dens of other animals or other suitable spots such
+as wood piles, hollow logs, or under crawl spaces and mobile homes and forage
+around their dens. Spotted skunks are good climbers and may occasionally forage
+in trees. Skunks mostly breed once a year in the spring and the young ones called
+198
+
+
+
+‘kits’ are born in the summer, around May. Spotted skunks breed in the fall, but
+they have delayed implantation of the embryo, because of which their young are
+also born in the summer. Litters have 4-8 kits, which stay with the mother for
+several months, mature at about 1 year and disperse. Mothers are very protective of
+their kits and will spray at the slightest sign of danger.
+Sources, further information:
+Desert Animals http://www.desertusa.com/animals.html
+Feral cats and their management
+http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/live/ec1781/build/ec1781.pdf
+IPM tactics for managing feral cats
+http://www.ipminstitute.org/school_ipm_2015/Feral_cats_pest_press.pdf
+Managing a feral cat colony http://zimmer-foundation.org/art/pdf/08.pdf
+Managing skunk problems in Missouri http://extension.missouri.edu/p/g9454
+Striped skunks
+http://wildlifecontrol.info/pubs/Documents/Skunks/Striped%20Skunks.pdf
+The javelina in Texas
+https://tpwd.texas.gov/publications/pwdpubs/media/pwd_bk_w7000_1669.pdf
+Urban coyote ecology and management
+http://ohioline.osu.edu/b929/pdf/b929.pdf
+Vertebrate pests-mammals
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/menu.house.html#DESTROY
+
+199
+
+
+
+REPTILES
+Lizards are some of the most common reptiles in community environments. The
+term ‘lizard’ can technically refer to any of several similar scaly reptiles, including
+some that are legless such as the legless lizards. However, most lizards can be
+differentiated from snakes, which are also elongated, legless and scaly, by the
+presence of legs and external ears. The common reptiles that are referred to as
+‘lizards’ mostly belong to a group (suborder) of reptiles called Iguania. They are
+characterized by dry, scaly skin, four short legs with claws, external ear openings
+and eyelids. Sizes and appearances vary greatly with species and their habitats.
+They are mostly terrestrial (land-dwelling), many are arboreal (live in trees). Lizard
+tails are differently colored and textured, compared to the rest of their bodies.
+Many species shed their tails in defense, and regenerate them later. The detached
+tail continues to move by reflex action for some time, distracting the predator and
+allowing the lizard to escape. Most lizards are carnivorous and are important
+predators in their natural environments, feeding on many other smaller animals.
+Some species feed on plants, and some are omnivorous. Most species reproduce by
+laying eggs, some give birth to live young.
+Common name(s): Lizard (Iguanian lizard)
+Scientific name, classification: Different genera, Class: Reptilia, Order:
+Squamata, suborder Iguania, Family:
+Different families. The desert spiny
+lizard Sceloporus magister and the
+horned lizards Phrynosoma spp.
+(Family Phrynosomatidae) are
+common and important
+southwestern species.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Best identifying feature(s): The
+desert spiny lizard is robust,
+Desert spiny lizard
+Photo: Ryan Kaldari
+medium to large sized, measuring 5-6
+inches including the tail. The entire
+body is covered with small pointed scales with raised tips or keels, giving an overall
+spiny appearance. Scales on the belly
+do not have raised tips. Base body
+color is pale gray or tan scattered with
+dark gray, black, white, tan or blue
+scales. There is a ring of dark or black
+scales around or under the neck,
+forming a collar. Some individuals
+have vivid bluish green throats and
+bellies. Desert spiny lizards exhibit
+Desert spiny lizard showing ventral color
+metachromatism, by which they adjust
+Photo: Philip Kahn
+their internal temperature by changing
+color, and appear darker during cooler
+200
+
+
+
+times and lighter when it gets warm. Its
+body colors enable it to be camouflaged
+among its surroundings, and escape
+notice by predators. The belly/throat
+colors are used in communication with
+other lizards.
+Horned lizards exhibit excellent
+camouflage and often go undetected in
+the desert landscape. They have flat,
+toad-like bodies (and are sometimes
+referred to as ‘horny toads’), often in
+Horned lizard
+shades of light brown or gray and
+Photo: Kevin D. Hartnell
+covered with numerous warts and
+thorn-like projections, arranged in characteristic patterns specific to the species.
+Body lengths range from 3-5 inches. Most species have a row of larger thorns
+around the base of the head often encircling the head like a collar. Some species
+have rows of fringe-like spiny scales along the sides of the body. A defensive
+strategy adopted by some species is squirting blood from around their eyes. The
+blood produced by the rupturing of blood capillaries around the eyes in the excited
+state and can be shot out for a distance of up to 5 feet. It often serves to surprise
+predators, but can also be irritating to the skin on contact.
+Pest status: Non-pests.
+Damage/injury: Lizards are primarily outdoor reptiles, but can stray indoors
+occasionally in search or pursuit of prey. None of the common lizards are
+venomous, but can bite if disturbed or handled roughly. They have sharp teeth that
+can puncture the skin.
+Life history: Lizards are found in diverse habitats throughout the southwest. They
+are mostly diurnal (active during day) and carnivorous, feeding on insects or other
+smaller reptiles and invertebrates, rarely on some plants. Like other reptiles, lizards
+are cold-blooded, and their body temperatures are affected by the environment.
+They are adapted to the heat in the deserts, by having higher preferred body
+temperatures than other reptiles. When mid-day temperatures get too high, they
+will seek shade in underground burrows, which are much cooler than the surface
+soil, or under vegetation.
+Desert spiny lizards are territorial, and the males defend their territories by
+performing ‘push-ups’ revealing their brightly colored bellies and throats. A
+territory will have a dominant male and several females and sub-adults. However,
+the males are mostly seen alone or paired with a female during breeding. Females
+lay one clutch of about 5-20 eggs in the summer, which hatch in 2-3 months.
+Horned lizards are known as important predators of harvester ants, but they will
+also feed on other insects. Their body shape and size often reduce their mobility,
+but also serves to intimidate predators when they appear suddenly from their
+surroundings. They can also puff themselves up and appear larger than usual when
+confronted. The horned lizard’s flat bodies enable them to obtain the maximum
+warmth from their surroundings during cooler days, but on hotter days, they
+burrow into the soil. Most species lay eggs, in clutches of about 30, but some
+201
+
+
+
+produce live young. Nests are
+usually formed at the end of small
+burrows underground.
+Horned lizards have cultural
+significance in many regions of the
+southwest, and it is considered
+bad luck to kill them. Some
+Texas horned lizard
+Photo: Steve Hillebrand, US-FWS
+species of horned lizards are
+believed to be declining due to
+several reasons, including overuse of pesticides and invasive fire ants-both of which
+reduce native ants which are the lizards’ preferred food source. The Texas horned
+lizard P. cornutum is now a protected species.
+A different group of lizards that might be
+encountered in some desert communities,
+especially in rocky areas, are chuckwallas
+(Sauromalus spp.) belonging to the family
+Iguanidae. They are larger and bulkier lizards,
+sometimes measuring up to 16 inches in length,
+with long thick tails, short stocky limbs, and
+characteristic, loose folds of skin over the sides of
+their body and around the neck. The head ends in
+a large, blunt snout. Body colors are variable,
+often black, dark brown or dark gray, sometimes
+with reddish, orange, pink or yellow tinges. Males,
+females and young ones often vary in their
+coloration. The males are territorial and mark their
+territories using secretions produced from glands
+Common chuckwalla
+Photo: Adrian Pingstone
+on their inner thighs. Chuckwallas are primarily
+herbivorous and feed on different plants
+throughout their habitat. Although they may look threatening, these lizards are
+harmless and will always run away when disturbed. Their characteristic defense
+strategy is squeezing their body into tight concealed spaces and inflating themselves
+to stay tightly wedged, till the intruder passes.
+
+Ornate tree lizard (left) and side-blotched lizard (right)
+Photos: Ben Lowe
+
+202
+
+
+
+Other iguanian lizards that are frequently
+observed in community environments of
+the desert southwest are the Yarrow’s spiny
+lizard Scleroporus jarrovii, the side-blotched
+lizard Uta stansburiana, and the ornate tree
+lizard Urosaurus ornatus. Tree lizards are well
+adapted to urban environments and are
+often moved around by people enabling
+them establish outside their natural ranges.
+
+Yarrow’s spiny lizard
+Photo: Thomas Brennan, www.reptilesofaz.org
+
+The only venomous lizards in the U.S. are
+the Gila monsters Heloderma suspectum (Family Helodermatidae). They are rarely
+found in urban community environments, and are mostly restricted to wild
+habitats. However, they can be encountered on communities near their natural
+habitats, especially on well watered
+properties adjacent to forested or wooded
+areas. Being large (about 2 feet in length)
+and conspicuously patterned, they are
+easily noticed, but they do not pose a
+threat to humans because of their slow
+and sluggish nature. They occur in low
+densities, and spend most of the year
+underground.
+Gila monsters are protected throughout
+their range, and it is illegal to disturb
+Gila monster
+them. In situations where there is a need
+Photo: H. Zell
+to remove them, help must be sought
+from local forest or wildlife departments.
+
+Geckos are terrestrial lizards characterized by their colorful skin patterns and large
+bulging eyes. All geckos (except those belonging to the family Eublepharidae) lack
+eyelids and they lick their eyes periodically to keep them clean and moist. Sizes and
+appearances vary with species. Geckos can lose their tails in defense and
+regenerate them. The feet of most species are equipped with specialized toe-pads
+that enable them to climb smooth vertical and even some horizontal surfaces
+upside down. They produce distinct sounds or squeaks that are used to
+communicate about their territory, or for courtship.
+Common name(s): Gecko
+Scientific name, classification: Different species, Class: Reptilia, Order:
+Squamata, infraorder Gekkota, Family: Different families. The western banded
+gecko Coleonyx variegatus (Family Eublepharidae), the peninsular leaf-toed gecko
+Phyllodactylus nocticolus (Family Phyllodactylidae), and the Mediterranean house gecko
+Hemidactylus turcicus (Family Gekkonidae) are common southwestern species.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+
+203
+
+
+
+Description and ID characters: Small lizards, mostly 4-6 inches in length
+including the tail. Their bodies are covered with small, fine scales (as opposed to
+larger, raised scales in other lizards), giving them a shiny or smooth appearance.
+Best identifying feature(s):
+Western banded geckos range are about
+4-6 inches in length including the tail. The
+upper surface of the body is covered with
+fine scales, giving it a velvety texture. Base
+color is light brownish yellow with dark
+brown bands and sopts. The skin on the
+belly and limbs is thin and translucent pink
+and toes are long and thin.
+Peninsular leaf-toed geckos are smaller,
+about 3 inches long with tail. The body is
+Western banded gecko
+covered with minute raised scales giving
+Photo: David Scriven
+them a rough appearance. Base color is pale
+gray, grayish-pink or light yellow with a number of dark blotches or patches,
+sometimes forming a pattern. Belly skin is pale gray or cream colored. It has long,
+widely spaced toes with expanded tips, and walks with a splayed gait. They are
+restricted to rocky fields or canyons and are rarely found around human habitats.
+Mediterranean house geckos are one of
+the most widely distributed species in the
+world, and popular as pets. They measure
+2-3 inches in length. Upper surfaces of the
+body and legs are covered with small
+granular scales, some larger than others.
+Base color is pinkish brown, gray or tan,
+with numerous dark spots and often dark
+stripes on the tail. Skin on the belly and
+Peninsular leaf-toed gecko
+undersides of the feet is translucent creamy
+Photo: Ben Lowe
+white in color. Toes are short and stubby,
+hind toes have slightly expanded tips.
+Pest status: Non-pests.
+Damage/injury: Geckos are primarily outdoor lizards, but often wander indoors
+in following small prey. They are harmless and non-venomous, feeding on small
+insects, spiders and scorpions, providing
+some pest control in and around community
+environments.
+Life history: Geckos are secretive and
+nocturnal by nature, although they can be
+occasionally spotted during the daytime. They
+usually forage at night, and capture prey by
+quick motions and sharp teeth. They shed
+their skin at regular intervals, including their
+teeth. Geckos are oviparous, and lay up to 3
+clutches of 2 soft-shelled eggs (occasionally
+Mediterranean house gecko
+1) per year. The surface of the eggs of most
+Photo: Hexasoft
+204
+
+
+
+species are covered with an adhesive substance that hardens and attaches the eggs
+to any surface they are laid on. Some species can reproduce asexually by producing
+eggs that are clones of the mother and develop without fertilization.
+Snakes are reptiles with narrow, elongated bodies and can be distinguished from
+other similar elongated reptiles (such as lizards) by their lack of legs, eyelids and
+external ears. Sizes and appearances vary greatly with species and habitats. All
+snakes are carnivorous and feed on other animals including other snakes and are
+important predators in their natural habitats. They can even swallow animals that
+are much larger than the size of their mouths, because of their highly flexible jaws.
+Most of the non-venomous species swallow their prey alive, or coil around and
+suffocate it before swallowing. Venomous snakes primarily use their venom to
+paralyze their prey. Snakes, even the venomous ones, rarely bite in defense, and
+prefer to use vivid body colorations or behaviors such as raising or puffing up their
+heads, rattling their tails against the ground or surface, to ward off predators as far
+as possible. However, many species will bite as a last resort, and their bites and
+venom, in venomous species, can have painful effects. Most species of snakes lay
+eggs in some sort of nest, and most of them also attack , some retain their eggs till
+they are ready to hatch, and others give birth to live young.
+NOTABLE SPECIES
+Common name(s): Western diamondback rattlesnake
+Scientific name, classification: Crotalus atrox, Class: Reptilia, Order: Squamata,
+suborder Serpentes, Family: Viperidae.
+Distribution: Southwestern U.S.
+Description and ID characters: Large,
+grayish-brown snake measuring about 5-6
+feet in length. Body colors vary from dusty
+gray-brown and chalky white, with variations
+of reddish or yellowish brown, with black
+and white bands near the tip of the tail.
+Most individuals have diamond-shaped
+Western diamondback rattlesnake-cryptic
+patterns in various shades of brown, gray, or
+Photo: Ben Lowe
+black on their backs and blend in well with
+their surroundings; some are devoid of patterns and are uniformly grayish brown.
+The ‘rattle’ in rattlesnakes consists of a group of hollow, interlocking segments
+
+Western diamondback rattlesnake – full length view
+Photo: Roger Shaw
+
+205
+
+
+
+which are modified scales that cover the tip of the tail. The segments are attached
+to specialized muscles in the tail, which causes them to vibrate and knock against
+one another and the sound is amplified because the segments are hollow. Rattling
+is widely used by rattlesnakes as a warning to predators. Newborn young ones only
+have a ‘prebutton’ at the tips of their tails, and a new segment is added each time
+the snake molts. Rattlesnakes are protective of their rattles but often lose segments
+during their activities and therefore, the length of the rattle is not a definitive
+indicator of the snake’s age, contrary to popular belief.
+Many other rattlesnake species are found in the desert southwest; some of these
+include the sidewinder/horned rattler Crotalus cerastes, Mohave rattlesnake C.
+scutulatus, black-tailed rattlesnake C. molossus, tiger rattlesnake C. tigris, speckled
+rattlesnake C. mitchellii, Arizona black rattlesnake C. cerberus, etc. but the most
+common and iconic southwestern species is the western diamondback.
+Best identifying feature(s): Distinctive, triangular head; rattle on the tail, and
+diamond pattern on the back. Some non-poisonous snakes have coloration and
+patterns similar to rattlesnakes and many will also flatten and widen their heads
+when threatened, to look like a rattlesnake. In such cases the rattle is the most
+definitive identifying character. In young rattlesnakes, the ‘prebutton’ will not make
+rattling sounds, but the tail will still look different from the normal, tapering snake
+tails.
+Pest status: Non-pest. Most important
+venomous snake in the southwest.
+Important predator of many rodents and
+other mammals.
+Damage/injury: Can deliver extremely
+painful and venomous bites.
+It is very important to understand that
+rattlesnakes do not strike or bite at first
+sight. In fact, the snake’s first line of
+defense is to remain still and wait for the
+intruder to pass, or to try and get away
+Western diamondback rattlesnake
+-striking pose
+as quickly and quietly as possible. If
+Photo: Dick Hartshorne, SearchNet Media
+repeatedly disturbed or threatened, they
+will coil and rattle to try and ward off the intruders, but if the intrusion continues
+they will aggressively strike in defense. Rattlesnakes mostly use their venom only
+when capturing prey. They will avoid using it for defense as far as possible, relying
+more on rattling, because it takes them time to regenerate their supply of venom.
+Also, in most cases, a defensive strike ends in the snake’s death, or severe damage
+to its body as to its victim’s.
+Rattlesnake venom contains a mixture of toxic substances that cause hemorrhage,
+destroy cells and muscles, and cause failure of the cardiovascular system.
+Immediate effects following a bite include local pain, heavy internal bleeding,
+severe swelling and muscle damage, bruising, blistering and necrosis; these may be
+accompanied by headache, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea,
+dizziness and convulsions. Rattlesnakes have a highly advanced venom delivery
+system and they can control the amount of venom that flows out through their
+fangs during a strike. Most strikes are not lethal, but can involve significant trauma.
+206
+
+
+
+Even fangs of dead snakes can deliver venom for a short period by reflex action,
+and therefore it is important to leave rattlesnakes alone as far as possible, or handle
+them with extreme caution, including dead ones.
+Nearly all rattlesnake envenomations (venomous bites) are avoidable. Many people
+are bitten or shot in attempts to kill rattlesnakes, often in situations where
+killing/removing the snake are unnecessary. If required, help should be sought
+from local snake removal services.
+Life history: Rattlesnakes occupy different kinds of habitats in the low desert and
+feed on a variety of small rodents, reptiles and birds in their natural habitat. They
+can hunt during any time of the day, but are most active during the night or early
+morning. At other times, they hide under rocks, vegetation and other concealed
+spots.
+Rattlesnakes are solitary, and pair only for mating. Females are viviparous, and a
+single female can produce about 25 young ones at a time. The young rattlesnakes
+are about 12 inches in length and fully capable of striking venomously even at birth.
+The Sonoran gopher snake Pituophis
+catenifer, and the San Diego gopher snake
+P. catenifer annectens, are often mistaken for
+rattlesnakes because of their coloration
+and defensive nature. When disturbed,
+they rapidly vibrate their tails against a
+surface to generating a rattling sound, and
+will also flatten their heads to a triangular
+shape, but they are not venomous. Many
+other snakes use this method of rattling
+against a surface or the ground, to deter
+predators.
+
+San Diego gopher snake in defensive
+position-note the triangular head
+Photo: Ben Lowe
+
+The desert nightsnake Hypsiglena chlorophaea, is sometimes encountered in kitchens
+or bathrooms, entering through small cracks and crevices. They are small snakes,
+usually less than 1 foot in length and are mistaken for baby rattlesnakes. However,
+they are harmless and coil into a tight ball when confronted.
+
+Sonoran gopher snake
+
+Desert nightsnake
+
+Photo: Julia Larson
+
+Photo: Ben Lowe
+
+207
+
+
+
+The Arizona coral snake Micruroides euryxanthus is a small, slender snake with vivid
+red, black and yellow bands completely encircling the body, and its head is fully
+black up to the eyes. It is venomous, but due to its small size, it does not pose a
+serious danger as do rattlesnakes. However, it should not be handled as far as
+
+Arizona coral snake
+
+Sonoran mountain kingsnake
+
+Photo: Jeff Servoss, US FWS
+
+Photo: Natalie McNear
+
+possible. The Sonoran mountain kingsnake Lampropeltis pyromelana is another nonvenomous species occasionally found in higher elevations. It is often mistaken for
+the venomous coralsnake, but can be distinguished by its light-cream colored
+square nose.
+The lizard-eating long-nosed snake Rhinocheilus lecontei is another snake occasionally
+mistaken for the coral snake due to its red-and-black patterns, but is nonvenomous and rarely bites if captured. It can be identified by its narrow pointed
+snout as opposed to the blunt snout of coral snakes. True to its common name, it
+has a preference for lizards which form the major part of its diet. Yet another coralsnake look alike is the western shovel-nosed snake Chionactis palarostris, which has a
+dark brown or black and orange bands on a cream background. It has a pointed
+cream colored snout, and a black crescent shaped mask covering the eyes.
+Some other snakes that are frequently observed in community environments of the
+desert southwest are the coachwhip snake Masticophis (= Coluber) flagellum, and the
+California kingsnake Lampropeltis getula (= californiae). Both are harmless, and they
+are more likely to be seen by desert southwest property owners than coral snakes or
+mountain kingsnakes.
+
+Lizard-eating long-nosed snake
+
+Western shovel-nosed snake
+
+Photo: William Wells, www.reptilesofaz.org
+
+Photo: Thomas Brennan, www.reptilesofaz.org
+
+208
+
+
+
+A common problem in desert southwest properties adjoining forested or other
+natural areas is wildlife falling into pools. Leaving a styrofoam board in the pool
+will allow the animals to climb out and avoid drowning. Avoiding storing
+firewood, piles of brush or leaves, boards, children’s toys and other articles in the
+backyard will reduce the chances of wildlife seeking shelter in them.
+Sources, further information:
+California herps http://www.californiaherps.com/
+Desert Animals http://www.desertusa.com/animals.html
+Lizards of the American southwest http://southwesternherp.com/lizards/
+Reptiles and amphibians of Arizona http://www.reptilesofaz.org/
+Reptile and amphibian accounts
+http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_reptile.php
+Vertebrate pests-reptiles
+http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/menu.house.html#DESTROY
+
+209
+
+
+
+BIRDS
+NOTABLE SPECIES
+Common name(s): Pigeon, feral
+pigeon, city pigeon, street pigeon
+Scientific name, classification:
+Columba livia domestica, Class:
+Aves, Order: Columbiformes,
+Family: Columbidae.
+Distribution: Worldwide.
+Description and ID characters:
+Feral pigeons are descendants of
+domestic pigeons, which have
+turned wild. Domestic pigeons are
+believed to have descended from
+wild rock doves (C. livia), and
+some domestic pigeons may look
+
+A group of feral pigeons of different colors
+Photo: John Donges
+
+Wild rock doves
+
+Domestic pigeons with color variations
+
+Photo: Andrew Dunn
+
+Photo: Michael Baranovsky
+
+different due to selective breeding for various purposes and external traits.
+However, feral pigeons are generally similar in appearance throughout the world
+and resemble their original ancestors, the
+wild rock doves. They also retain the
+character of perching on narrow ledges of
+buildings and other structures, which is
+believed to be derived from the rock doves’
+habit of perching on narrow rock ledges on
+cliffs and mountains.
+Best identifying feature(s): Medium
+sized, stout birds with blue-gray feathers on
+their wings and body. Adults are 12-15
+inches in height, and the wingspan is 24-28
+inches. The wings have two broad black
+bands and are fully capable of flight. The
+feathers on the head and neck are darker
+Feral pigeon
+Photo: Von Grzanka
+and iridescent purple, indigo, green or dark
+210
+
+
+
+blue in color; the rump feathers are pale gray or white. Tail feathers are longer and
+darker and have a broad black band across the ends. They eyes are red, with a pale
+ring of skin around them. The beak is short and sharp with a conspicuous white
+patch above it. Feet are red or pink in color, and are not covered with feathers.
+Slight color variations of the overall plumage have been observed, with individual
+birds colored uniform white, brown or gray or mixtures of these colors.
+Although they have flight-capable wings, feral pigeons are generally sedentary or
+walk with short, waddling steps, but do not hop or jump like crows or sparrows.
+They are well adapted to human surroundings and feed on the ground in flocks.
+They are not disturbed by human presence, and will continue their activities around
+humans. If alarmed by sudden movements or sounds, they will fly short distances,
+rapidly flapping their wings with a clapping sound, but soon return to their local
+feeding and resting areas. However, they can fly long distances if necessary, and can
+also glide, holding their wings in a V shape.
+Pest status: Nuisance pests, can
+damage grain or fruit crops, damage
+and disfigure buildings and
+surroundings with their droppings,
+and cause public health concern
+because they can harbor pathogens
+and parasites.
+Damage/injury: Feral pigeons are
+generally docile, sedentary birds and
+will not cause direct injury to humans.
+However, in a suitable location with
+assured food supply, their populations
+Pigeon droppings on window ledge
+Photo: Sarah B. Boyle
+explode and they can cause significant
+damage by their activities. They have a
+
+Pigeon droppings damage machinery and work spaces
+Photo: Simon Laver, www.flickr.com/people/urban-spaceman/
+
+211
+
+
+
+preference to perch on high narrow ledges, door and window frames, above
+porches, and beams and rafters around and inside buildings, and this causes the
+most problems. The major form of damage is by their droppings, containing
+highly corrosive uric acid that can cause structural damage to buildings and
+structures if not removed regularly. They also cause unsightly accumulations of
+fallen feathers, nesting materials, food and other debris in the areas they frequent,
+which, along with attracting other pests such as cockroaches, flies and rodents, can
+also damage machinery and other equipment, block drains and rain gutters, and
+even cause structural damage to roof margins and other architectural structures and
+causing them to collapse from their weight.
+Pigeon-proofing, with the help of metal wire nets or spikes on ledges and other
+perching spaces, is effective but these also need monitoring and maintenance.
+
+Pigeon nesting above an external light (left), spikes help to prevent nesting (right)
+Photos: Dawn Gouge
+
+Pigeon-proofing structures are effective (left), but need to be monitored and maintained.
+Torn nets (right) will not keep pigeons out. Photos: Dawn Gouge
+
+Feral pigeons also harbor several parasitic insects, mites, ticks and pathogens which
+can easily be transmitted to humans and pet animals because of their close
+association with human surroundings. Pathogens associated with pigeons include
+212
+
+
+
+bacteria (Salmonella, Streptococcus and Pasteurella); fungi (Aspergillus and others),
+protozoans, tapeworms, parasitic nematodes and other worms.
+The problem of feral pigeons is aggravated by humans feeding them. It is
+important to avoid feeding them in and around homes, schools and other
+
+Feeding pigeons in public places aggravates the problems caused by them
+Photo: Laura Hadden
+
+community environments, as this increases chances of pollution from their
+droppings as well as transmission of bird-borne diseases.
+Life history: Feral pigeons pair for life, and have elaborate courtship rituals. Nests
+are untidy, loose collections of twigs, and other plant or any available material built
+on ledges or small sheltered spots on buildings or structures. They have a
+preference for abandoned or rarely used buildings, but when numbers increase,
+they will nest even in regularly used buildings. Females lay clutches of 2 eggs, up to
+6 times a year. Young ones, called squabs, hatch in about 3 weeks. Both parents
+take turns in incubating the eggs as well as feeding and caring for the squabs, which
+are ready to leave the nest in a month. In captivity, pigeons can live up to 10 or 12
+
+Courting feral pigeons
+
+Young pigeon (squab)
+Photo: Leena J.
+
+Photo: David Slater
+
+213
+
+
+
+years, but the average lifespan in the open is 3-4 years due to predation, diseases
+and other stresses.
+Sources, further information:
+Feral pigeons http://ovocontrol.com/pigeons/pigeons/
+Feral pigeon control
+http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1408/2/feral_pigeon_control.pdf
+Pigeon pest control and the law
+http://www.pigeoncontrolresourcecentre.org/html/pigeon-pest-control-and-thelaw.html
+Pigeons(Rock doves) http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/Pigeons.asp
+
+214
+
+

rag-system/data/converted/Bio1AL_Diveristy_Mammals.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,1008 @@
+Station 1A1. Mammals
+
+Classification of the Major Taxa of
+Mammalia
+! Phylum Chordata
+! Subphylum Vertebrata
+! Class Mammalia
+! Subclass Prototheria
+! Order Monotremata
+! Subclass Theria
+! Infraclass Metatheria
+! Order Marsupialia
+! Infraclass Eutheria
+! Order Edentata
+! Order Pholidota
+! Order Carnivora
+! Order Rodentia
+! Order Lagomorpha
+! Order Cetacea
+! Order Artiodactyla
+These four orders
+! Order Tubuldentata
+are more closely
+! Order Dermoptera
+related to each
+! Order Insectivora
+other than to other
+orders
+! Order Chiroptera
+! Order Primates
+! Order Perissodactyla
+! Order Hyracoidea
+! Order Proboscidea
+! Order Sirenia
+
+examples
+
+monotremes or egg-layers
+platypuses, echidna
+marsupials
+kangaroos, opossums
+placentals
+armadillos, sloths, anteaters
+pangolins
+seals, bears, wolfs, badgers
+rodents
+rabbits
+dolphins and whales
+even-toed ungulates: goats, hippos, giraffes
+aardvarks
+colugos
+moles and shrews
+bats
+primates
+odd-toed ungulates: horses, rhinos, tapirs
+hyraxes
+elephants
+manatees
+
+
+
+Station 1A2. Mammalian Characteristics
+
+ANATOMICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL
+FEATURES of MAMMALS
+Mammals have a few skeletal features that distinguish their class. They have three middle ear
+bones used in hearing - two of these bones derived from bones used for eating by their
+ancestors. The earliest therapsids (mammal-like reptiles) had a jaw joint composed of the
+cranium (brain case)
+articular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and
+orbit
+the quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw).
+(eye socket)
+Reptiles and birds also use this system. In contrast,
+mammals’ jaw joint is composed only of the dentary (the
+bony crest
+(occipital crest)
+lower jaw bone jaw bone that carries the teeth) and the
+incisors
+occipital condyle
+squamosal. In mammals the quadrate and articular bones canines
+auditory bullae
+have become the incus and malleus bones in the middle
+incisors
+lower jaw (mandible)
+ear.
+cheek-teeth
+Mammals have a neocortex region in the brain. Most
+mammals also possess specialized teeth and utilize a placenta in their ontogeny. Mammals also
+have a double occipital condyle: they have two knobs at the base of the skull which fit into the
+topmost neck vertebra, whereas other vertebrates have a single occipital condyle.
+Paleontologists use the jaw joint and middle ear as criteria for identifying fossil mammals.
+o
+j
+
+d
+
+Sphenacodon
+
+f
+sq
+
+(early therapsid
+from Upper
+Pennsylvanian)
+
+q
+
+o
+
+!
+
+ag
+
+Asioryctes
+
+f
+
+d
+
+sq
+rl
+
+mm
+ar
+
+d
+ty/ag
+
+(early placental
+mammal from
+Upper Cretaceous)
+
+cp
+
+!
+
+d
+
+Abbreviations: ag = angular; ar = articular; cp = coronoid process; d = dentary; f = lateral temporal fenestra; j = jugal; mm = attachment site for
+mammalian jaw muscles; o = eye socket; q = quadrate; rl = reflected lamina; sq = squamosal; ty = tympanic.
+
+
+
+Station 1A3. Mammalian Characteristics
+
+ANATOMICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL
+FEATURES of MAMMALS
+It would be correct to say that mammals are a group of warm-blooded animals with backbones
+and a four-chambered heart, whose bodies are insulated by hair, that have sweat glands
+including milk producing sweat glands that they use to nurse their infants, and that share a
+unique jaw articulation. This, however, fails to convey how these few shared characteristics
+underpin the evolution of a group with astonishingly intricate adaptations, thrilling behavior and
+highly complex societies. Mammals are also the group to which humans belong, and through
+them we can understand much about ourselves. Another answer to the question “What is a
+mammal?” would therefore be that the essence of mammals lies in their complex diversity of
+form and function, and above all their individual flexibility of behavior.
+
+Harem of Elephant seals
+resting on a beach
+
+Pack of wolves howling to define and
+defend territory, and to reinforce social
+hierarchy.
+
+Herd of African savannah elephants led by a
+matriarch
+
+
+
+Station 1A4. Mammalian Characteristics
+
+HOW ABUNDANT ARE MAMMALS?
+Although mammals are generally considered to be the dominant and probably most diversified class of living
+vertebrates, they are far from being the most numerous. If the total numbers of species for all the major
+animal groups are compared, mammals come out near the bottom. The sizes of the different creatures in this
+drawing illustrate this point. The very small frog represents the 1,500 living species of amphibians.
+Then come the other vertebrate classes in order of increasing number of species:
+mammals, reptiles, birds and fishes. The large snail next in line
+represents the invertebrates: all the one-celled animals, all the
+worms, clams, lobsters, spiders-everything else, in short,
+except the insects. Strictly speaking the insects should
+should be lumped with the other invertebrates, but there are
+so many of them-more different species than in all the other
+groups put together-that they have been represented
+separately here by the huge butterfly at the right.
+
+MAMMALS
+5,000
+AMPHIBIANS
+1,500
+
+REPTILES
+6,000
+
+BIRDS
+8,600
+
+FISHES
+20,000
+
+INVERTEBRAES (EXCEPT INSECTS)
+232,000
+
+INSECTS
+700,000
+
+
+
+Station 1A5. Mammalian Characteristics
+
+What Are the Most Common Mammals?
+With mammals placed in proper numerical perspective vis-à-vis other animals, what about the
+relative abundance of the different mammals themselves? Counting actual numbers of animals
+is far more difficult than numbers of species. The only way it can be done is to take a small
+sample area and laboriously count every nose in it. This has been done many times in different
+parts of the world. While results vary widely depending on the terrain and the time of year,
+nevertheless in most areas the rodents turn out to have by far the largest populations. The five
+mammals pictured here show what lives on 250 acres of sagebrush country in the western U.S.,
+based on a study of a 2.5-acre sample area. They illustrate two general principles: 1) carnivores
+(in this case, badgers) tend to be far less numerous than the animals they eat and 2) the
+smaller the animal, the larger its population in a given area.
+
+RODENTS
+(Rodentia)
+5,770
+
+RABBITS
+(Lagomorpha)
+60
+
+BADGERS
+(Carnivora)
+30
+
+PRONGHORNS
+(Artiodactyla)
+10
+
+BATS
+(Chiroptera)
+8
+
+
+
+Station 1B1. Lactation
+
+Lactation and the Rise of Mammals
+The decline of the huge, naked, ectothermic dinosaurs may have been triggered by the cooling
+climate of the Mesozoic era, with its daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature. But these would
+have affected smaller (or infant) dinosaurs more than the giants that predominated among dinosaurs,
+due to the smaller reptile’s relatively greater surface-area-to-volume ratio and hence more rapid heat
+loss. So why did the mammals finally prosper, and the dinosaurs decline?
+Early mammals may have avoided competition with dinosaurs by becoming nocturnal, and the key
+that unlocked this chilly niche to them may have been the evolution of endothermy (internal self
+-regulation of body temperature). In addition to allowing them to forage out of the sun’s warming rays,
+endothermy may have improved mammals’ competitive ability by allowing them to grow faster and
+therefore breed more prolifically than reptiles, whose bodies more or less “switch off” when they cool
+down.
+Another possibility is that the mammals usurped the dinosaurs’ supremacy on account of one critical
+difference: the development of lactation and parental care in mammals.
+An Olive baboon nursing her young (right), and an Orca nursing her calf while swimming (below).
+When a mammalian infant sucks at its mother’s nipple it may withdraw a little milk, but more
+importantly it stimulates “let-down,” whereby muscles squeeze much more milk out of a honeycomb
+of tubes and cavities in the mammae; this milk collects in ducts from which it can be sucked. Some
+30-60 seconds of preliminary sucking are required to
+stimulate let-down. Thus the process is not
+controlled simply by nerves (as they transmit
+messages almost instantaneously), but by a
+chemical envoy (a hormone) that travels within the
+mother’s bloodstream. In fact, sucking triggers a
+nerve impulse which races to the pituitary, and in
+response this organ releases two chemicals into the
+blood. When these chemical couriers reach the
+mammae, one (lactogenic hormone) stimulates the
+secretion of milk by the glands, the other (oxytocin)
+prompts the ejection of stored milk from the nipple.
+
+
+
+Station 1B2. Lactation
+
+Lactation and the Rise of Mammals
+Young dinosaurs, like modern crocodiles, hatched as minuscule replicas of their parents; their small size
+required that they ate quite different food from the adults of their species. They grew slowly at a rate
+dependent upon their foraging success, gradually approaching adulthood, as feeble inferiors until they
+finally attained full size. In contrast, the evolution of lactation enabled an infant mammal to grow rapidly
+towards adult competence under the protection of parental care. At independence the young mammal is
+almost fully grown and unlike the still infantile reptile of the same age, enters roughly the same niche as
+adult members of its species. For example, a Grizzly bear is born at roughly the same percentage of its
+mother’s weight (1-2 percent) as was a hatching dinosaur, but remains dependent on her for protection
+for up to 4 1/2 years. The dinosaur, on the other hand, had to fend for itself in a series of niches that
+changed as it grew. In the inconstant, unpredictable environment of the cooling Mesozoic, dinosaurs
+may have been at a disadvantage to mammals because they required a succession of different food
+supplies to become available exactly on cue as their young grew, and faced a protracted period when
+young were at a competitive disadvantage to adults. If this reconstruction is correct, then it was parental
+care (also evolved by birds), and particularly lactation, that assured the supremacy of mammals. The
+protracted parent-offspring bond established during nursing in turn set the scene for the subsequent
+evolution of intricate mammalian societies.
+
+A NURSING MONOTREME
+The most primitive mammals are the monotremes, whose
+mammary glands have not concentrated into milk
+-producing organs, as they have in the higher mammals.
+The milk of the platypus, for example, seeps from a
+number of porelike holes in her abdomen and is lapped
+up by the little ones.
+
+NURSING MARSUPIALS
+More advanced are the marsupials such as opossums and kangaroos shown
+here. They have true nipples, but these are located inside a pouch, or
+marsupium, to which their comparatively unformed babies crawl at birth. They
+live there for several months until they are much larger and more developed.!
+
+
+
+Station 1C1. Mammalian Hair
+
+HAIR TYPES
+Hair is composed of keratin and is modified epidermis. Mammalian hair is highly variable. It
+varies in form, shape, density and color location not only within an organism but also throughout
+the year. Most of this variability relates form and function. All hairs have a nerve plexus at their
+base. Hair is categorized as vibrissae (whiskers), fur, or guard. Vibrissae are specialized tactile
+organs that are long, thick and are typically straight or slightly bent. Vibrissae are usually few in
+number and are typically found on the head or feet. Fur hairs are numerous, short, thin and are
+typically found in a group. Guard hairs are longer, thick and are usually distributed within the fur.
+Examine a few pelts and try to identify the three types. You may even notice more than three
+types as some hairs in the fur are intermediate between guard and fur.
+
+A Musk Ox, northernmost of hoofed
+mammals. Their long, coarse guard hairs
+and fine underfur exclude the arctic cold.
+
+The vibrissae of this harbor seal are attached
+to a substantial nerve network. Tactile
+information is transmitted from the vibrissae
+to the brain.
+
+
+
+Station 1C2. Mammalian Hair
+
+HAIR FUNCTION
+Two fundamental traits of mammals lie not in their skeletons, but at the boundaries to their
+bodies - the skin. These two features are hair and skin glands, including the mammary glands
+that secrete milk, and the sweat and sebaceous glands. None may seem spectacular, and some
+or all may have evolved before the mammal-like reptiles crossed the official divide. But these
+traits are associated with endothermy, a condition that affects every aspect of mammalian life.
+Endothermic animals are those whose internal body temperature is maintained “from
+within” (endo-) by the oxidation (essentially, the burning) of food within the body. Some
+endotherms maintain a constant internal temperature (homoethermic), whereas that of others
+varies (heterothermic). The temperature is regulated by a “thermostat” in the brain, situated
+within the hypothalamus. In regulating their body temperature independent of the environment,
+mammals (and birds) are unshackled from the alternative, ectothermic, condition typical of all
+other animals and involving body temperatures rising and falling with the outside temperature.
+
+A cross-section of the skin and fur of
+a fur seal.
+
+
+
+Station 1C3. Mammalian Hair
+
+HAIR FUNCTION
+Endothermy is costly. Mammals must work, expending energy either to warm or cool
+themselves depending on the vagaries of their surroundings. There are many adaptations
+involved in minimizing these running costs and the most ubiquitous is mammalian hair. The coat
+may be adapted in many ways, but there is often an outer layer of longer, more bristle-like,
+water-repellent guard hairs that provide a tough covering for densely packed, soft underfur. The
+volume of air trapped amongst the hairs depend on whether or not they are erected by muscles
+in the skin. Hair may protect the skin from the sun’s rays or from freezing wind, slowing the
+escape of watery sweat in the desert or keeping aquatic mammals dry as they dive. Hairs are
+waterproofed by sebum, the oil secretions of sebaceous glands associated with their roots.
+
+Sea otter
+
+Fur seals
+
+The skin plays an important part in maintaining a constant body temperature. Horses sweat
+profusely over most of their bodies to cool themselves. The coyote sweats through its tongue by
+panting and depends on its fur to prevent heat loss in cold weather. Mammals must eat regularly
+to maintain their high temperatures.
+
+
+
+Station 1D1. The Role of Scent
+
+THE SCENT OF A MAMMAL
+Mammals are unique among animals with backbones in the potency and social importance of
+their smells. This quality also stems from their skin, wherein both sebaceous and sweat glands
+become adapted to produce complicated odors with which mammals communicate. The sites of
+scent glands vary between species: capybaras have them aloft their snout, mule deer have them
+on the lower leg, elephants have them behind the eyes and hyraxes have them in the middle of
+their back. It is very common for scent glands to be concentrated in the ano-genital region (urine
+and feces also serve as socially important odors); the perfume gland of civets lie in a pocket
+between the anus and genitals and for centuries their greasy secretions have been scooped out
+to make the base of expensive perfumes. Glands around the genitals of Musk deer are a
+similarly unwholesome starting point of other odors (musk) greatly prized by some people. Most
+carnivores have scent-secreting anal sacs, whose function is largely unknown, although in the
+case of the skunk it is quite clear enough. The evolution of scent glands has led to a multitude of
+scent-marking behaviors. Scent marks have the advantage of being a long lasting form of
+communication. Probably the messages being communicated include the sex, status, age and
+diet of the sender. Most people are familiar with animals demarking their territory by leaving
+traces of urine. Have you noticed a remarkable change in the smell of your urine after eating
+asparagus?
+skunk
+Musk deer
+Indian civet
+
+
+
+Station 1D2. The Role of Scent
+
+ODOR IN RODENT REPRODUCTION
+Reproduction - from initial sexual attraction and the advertisement of sexual status through
+courtship, mating, the maintenance of pregnancy and the successful rearing of young - is influenced,
+if not actually controlled, by odor signals.
+Male rats are attracted to the urine of females that are in the sexually receptive phase of the
+estrous cycle and sexually experienced males are more strongly attracted than naive males.
+Furthermore, if an experienced male is presented with the odor of a novel mature female alongside
+the odor of his mate he prefers the novel odor. Females, on the other hand, prefer the odor of their
+stud male to that of a stranger. The male’s reproductive fitness is most improved by his seeking out
+and impregnating as many females as possible. The female needs to produce many healthy young so
+her fitness is maximized by mating with the best quality male who has already proved himself. The
+otherwise solitary female Golden hamster must attract a male when she is sexually receptive. She
+does this by scent marking with strong-smelling vaginal secretions in the two days before her peak of
+receptivity. If no male arrives she ceases marking, to start again two days before the next peak.
+In gregarious species such as the House mouse, a dominant male can mate with 20 females in 6
+hours if their cycles are synchronized. The odor of urine of adult sexually mature male rodents (e.g.
+mice, voles, deer mice) accelerates not only the peak of female sexual receptivity but also the onset
+of sexual maturity in young females, and brings sexually quiescent females into breeding condition.
+This effect is particularly strong in dominant males, whereas urine from castrated males has no such
+effect. It would appear that the active ingredient - a pheromone - is made from, or dependent upon the
+presence of, the male sex hormone testosterone. Male urine has such a powerful effect that if a newly
+pregnant female mouse is exposed to the urine odor of a male who is a complete stranger to her she
+will resorb her litter and come rapidly into heat. If she then mates with the stranger she will become
+pregnant and carry the litter to term. The odor of the urine of females has either no effect upon timing
+of the onset of sexual maturity in young females, or slightly retards it. If female mice are housed
+together in groups of 30 or more and males are absent, the normal 4- or 5- day estrous cycles start to
+lengthen and the incidence of pseudopregnancy increases, indicating the power of the odor of female
+
+
+
+Station 1D3. The Role of Scent
+urine. However, the presence of the urine odor of an adult male will regularize all the lengthened cycles
+within 6-8 hours and the females will come into heat synchronously.
+Female mice also produce a pheromone in the urine which has the effect of stimulating pheromone
+production in the male, but the female pheromone is not under the control of the sex glands (ovaries).
+It is not known what controls its production. A sexually quiescent female could stimulate pheromone
+production in a male, which would then bring her into sexual readiness.
+It is thought that the reproductive success of the House mouse owes much to this system of
+pheromonal cuing. Although only the House mouse has been studied in such detail, parts of the model
+have been discovered in other species and it may be of widespread occurrence.
+About 8 days after giving birth, female rats start to produce a pheromone - an odor produced in the
+gut and broadcast via the feces - which inhibits Wanderlust in the young. It ceases to be produced
+when the young are 27 days old and almost weaned.
+Finally, some studies have involved a surgical removal of part of the brain which is involved with
+smell (the main accessory olfactory bulbs). Removal of the bulbs in the Golden hamster, irrespective of
+previous sexual experience, brings an immediate cessation of all sexual behavior. In sexually
+experienced rats ,the operation has little effect, but in sexually naive rats the effect is as severe as in
+hamsters. Thus it appears that rats can learn to do without their sense of smell once they have gained
+some sexual experience.
+
+a Golden hamster carrying a baby
+
+a house mouse
+
+
+
+Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations
+
+WHALES, DOLPHINS, and PORPOISES
+ORDER: CETATEANS
+The cetaceans, which total approximately 75 species, are exclusively aquatic, more completely so
+than any other mammals; at no stage of life do they leave the water. Cetaceans range in size from the
+gigantic Blue Whale, believed to be the largest animal that has ever existed, to medium-sized dolphins
+and porpoises, some of which are only about 3 feet long. Typically a cetacean’s head is joined to its
+body without a distinct neck. Except in a few species, the head cannot be turned independently.
+Characteristic of mammals, however, cetaceans do possess seven neck vertebrae, though much
+compressed. In some larger whales these are fused into a single disc only a few inches thick.
+A cetacean’s body is streamlined, and in some species the head is extended into a “beak.” Many
+have a definite dorsal fin consisting of a thick folded ridge of skin without a bony support, adding to
+their general fishlike appearance. A cetacean’s front legs are flippers, with no exposed claws or digits.
+A much reduced bony structure for a pelvic girdle is still in evidence internally, but external hind limbs
+are lacking. The tail, which provides the principal driving force for swimming, is extended into a broad
+horizontal appendage, separated into two flukes by a notch in the middle. The thin skin lacks hairs
+except for a few bristles around the mouth and on the belly in some species. Underneath the skin is a
+thick layer of blubber (mostly fat) that serves as a heat insulator as well as a
+food reserve. Blubber may be 2 feet thick in some of the larger whales and
+may account for more than 40 percent of the animal’s total weight.
+7 neck vertebrae
+a full thickness of
+blubber from an Orca
+
+dorsal fin
+blowhole
+flukes
+
+flipper
+
+Rudimentary pelvic girdle of a whale
+
+
+
+Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations
+
+BALEEN WHALES
+SUBORDER: MYSTICETI
+Whales of this suborder (about 15 species) do not have functional teeth. Instead they have baleen,
+or “whalebone,” frayed, flexible horny sheets of oral epithelium suspended from the hard palate. Made
+of keratin, baleen can be white, black, yellowish, or two-toned. In a large whale, more than 300 plates
+of baleen hang down like stiff curtains from the upper jaw on each side of the mouth. A plate may be as
+much as 12 feet long, and a foot or more in width. The outer edge (or tongue side) is extended into
+bristles that form a hair-like fringe of thin tubes. Baleen continues to grow throughout the whale’s life,
+replacing material worn away by the action of water and the tongue.
+When feeding, a whale swims into a swarm of small crustaceans
+with its mouth open. As it closes its mouth, water is forced out at the
+sides and through the sieve-like screen of baleen. Small crustaceans or
+even small fish become caught on the bristly fringes. The whale then
+uses its tongue to move them into its throat for swallowing. Even the
+largest whale has a throat passageway not much larger than an orange
+- not large enough to accommodate anything the size of the Bible’s
+Jonah.
+The tough, pliable baleen was one of the highly valued commercial
+products obtained from whales. It was used in corsets and in similar
+products in which stiffness with flexibility was important. Today, these
+products typically use plastics decreasing the need to harvest whales.
+Baleen whales can be distinguished from the toothed whales by
+having two blowholes instead of one. When they blow, the twin spouts
+are distinctive. In contrast to toothed whales, baleen whales do not
+echolocate. Instead they often vocalize, such as the unique and
+complex songs of Humpback whales. Baleen whales are gentle giants
+of the ocean.!
+
+
+
+Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations
+
+THE BLUE WHALE
+The Blue Whale, the largest animal that has ever lived on land or in the sea, can measure
+more than 100 feet long and weigh as much as 200 tons. Females are slightly larger than the
+males. A Blue Whale’s gigantic head is about a quarter of the animal’s total length.
+Because of its streamlined body, the Blue Whale appears to be a fast swimmer. Ordinarily its
+top speed is only about 15 miles per hour, and
+it can continue swimming at this speed for two
+hours or longer. Harpooned whales, however,
+have been known to go twice as fast, though
+they cannot maintain this faster speed for a
+long time.
+
+Only a few thousand Blue Whales still exist. Whaling has
+reduced their numbers from an estimated 250,000. They
+are now protected by international agreements, but not all
+countries abide by the regulations. Unfortunately, the
+regulations are not always based on the best biological
+data, and represent the interests of whalers as much as, or
+more than, the welfare of the whales.
+
+Flencing of a sperm whale (stripping
+the blubber from the body) in 1958.
+
+
+
+Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations
+
+WALRUSES, SEALS and SEA LIONS
+SUPERFAMILY: PINNIPEDIA
+Pinnipeds include walruses (Family Odobenidae), earless (true) seals (Family Phocidae), and
+eared seals (Family Otariida). On land, eared seals are much more agile than the other groups.
+When moving, the weight of the body is supported off the ground by the outwardly turned
+foreflippers, and the hindflippers are flexed forwards under the body. When the animal is moving
+slowly, the foreflippers are moved alternately and the hindflippers advanced on the opposite side.
+Only the heel of the foot is placed on the ground, the digits being held up. As its speed
+increases, first the hindflippers and then the foreflippers are moved together, the animal moving
+forward in a gallop. In this form of locomotion, the counterbalancing action of the neck is very
+important, the body being balanced over the foreflippers. It has been suggested that if the neck
+were only half its length, eared seals would be unable to move on land. Walruses move in a
+similar, though much more clumsy, manner.
+On land, true seals crawl along on their bellies, humping along by
+flexing their bodies, taking the weight alternately on the chest and
+pelvis. Some, such as the elephant seal or Grey seal, use the
+foreflippers to take the weight of the body. Grey seals may also use the
+terminal digits of the foreflippers to produce a powerful grip when
+moving on rocks. Other true seals, such as the Weddell seal, make no
+use of the foreflippers. Ribbon and Crabeater seals can make good
+Sea lion (eared seal) on land
+progress over ice or compacted snow by
+supporting weight with
+alternate backwards strokes of the foreflippers
+foreflippers and hindflippers
+turned out for walking.
+and vigorous flailing movements of the
+hindflippers and hind end of the body, almost as
+though they were swimming on the surface of
+Weddell seals (true seal) on
+land with full weight on torso.
+the ice.
+
+
+
+Station 2. Aquatic Adaptations
+
+Grooming, which is an important subsidiary function of the limbs, is generally carried out by
+the hindflippers in eared seals and by the foreflippers in true seals. How the Ross seal, which
+has practically no claws, grooms itself is a mystery.
+The anatomical differences of eared and true seals is also reflected in different swimming
+techniques. The main source of power in the eared seal comes from the front end of the body,
+and it is here that the main muscle mass is concentrated. True seals, on the other hand, have
+their main muscles in the lumbar region. The muscles of the hindlimb itself are mainly
+concerned with orientation of the limb and spreading and contracting the digits. They propel
+themselves forward by moving their hind flippers left and right.
+
+A Grey seal (earless/true seal) swimming, with most
+of propulsive force coming from its lumbar region and
+hind flippers.
+Sea lion (eared seal, note the ears in the photo)
+swimming, with most of propulsive force coming from its
+hindlimbs.
+
+
+
+Station 3. Primates
+
+SKELETAL ADAPTATIONS of PRIMATES
+BIPEDAL vs. ARBOREAL
+Skeletons: The quadrupedal lemurs and most monkeys, like the guenons, retain the basic
+shape of early primates - a long back, a short, narrow rib-cage, long narrow hip bones, and legs
+as long as or longer than the arms. Most live in trees and move about by running along or
+leaping between branches. Their long tail serves as a rudder or balancing aid while climbing
+and leaping. Ground-living monkeys, such as the baboons, generally have more rudimentary
+tails.
+Neither apes nor the slower-moving Prosimians have tails. In the orangutan and other apes,
+the back is shorter, the rib cage broader and the pelvis bones more robust - features related to a
+vertical posture. Arms are longer than legs, considerably so in species, such as the gibbons and
+orangutan, that move by arm-swinging (brachiation). Further dexterity of the hands has
+accompanied the development of the vertical posture in apes, some of which (and more rarely
+some monkeys) may at times move about bipedally like man.
+
+Skeleton of a guenon
+
+Skeleton of an orangutan
+
+
+
+Station 3. Primates
+
+BODY PLAN of PRIMATES
+Teeth: Insectivorous precursors of primates had numerous
+teeth with sharp cusps. In Prosimians (lower primates) such
+as Lemur, the first lower premolar is almost canine-like in
+form, while the crowns of the lower incisors and canines lie
+flat to form a tooth-comb, as in bush babies, which is used in
+feeding and grooming. In leaf-eating monkeys of the Old
+World, such as Presbytis, the squared-off molars bear four
+cusps joined by transverse ridges on the large grinding
+surface that helps break up the fibrous diet. In apes such as
+the gorilla, the lower molars have five cusps and a more
+complicated pattern of ridges.
+
+Lemur
+
+Presbytis
+
+24
+
+Capuchin monkey
+
+Talapoin monkey
+
+Chimpanzee
+
+Baboon
+
+Gorilla
+
+Ring-tailed lemur
+
+Relative brain size: The degree of flexibility in the behavior of a
+species is related to both absolute and relative brain size. It is no
+surprise that in terms of actual brain weight, the great apes are
+closest to man. But when comparison is based on brain size
+relative to body size it is the versatile Capuchin monkey that turns
+out to be closest to man.
+
+Average for all mammals
+
+Brain weight relative to body size
+
+465
+165
+420
+39
+80
+Actual brain weight (grams)
+
+man
+
+Gorilla
+
+1330
+
+
+
+Station 3. Primates
+
+BODY PLAN of PRIMATES
+Hands and feet: The structure of primate hands and feet varies
+according to the ways of life of each species.
+PLEISTO
+-CENE
+
+2 MYA
+
+PLIOCENE
+
+7 MYA
+
+Baboon: long
+slender foot of
+ground-living
+monkey.
+
+Gibbon: short
+opposable thumb
+well distant from
+arm-swinging
+(brachiating) grip
+of fingers.
+
+Siamang and orangutan; broad
+foot with long grasping big toe
+for climbing.
+
+PROSIMIANS
+
+MIOCENE
+
+ANTHROPOIDS
+
+26 MYA
+Earliest
+apes
+OLIGOCENE
+
+Macaque: short
+opposable thumb in
+hand adapted for
+walking with palm
+flat on ground.
+
+Gorilla: thumb
+opposable to
+other digits, allows
+precision grip.
+
+Hand of a spider
+monkey, showing 38 MYA
+the much reduced
+thumb of an arm
+-swinging species.
+
+EOCENE
+
+Earliest true primates
+54 MYA
+Insectivores
+
+Tamarin: long foot of branch-running
+species with claws on all digits except big
+toes for anchoring (all other monkeys and
+apes have flat nails on all digits)
+
+PALEOCENE
+
+65 MYA
+
+Insectivore-like primates
+CRETACEOUS
+
+
+
+Station 4. Feeding
+
+UNGULATES
+
+Ungulates ("hoofed animal") are mammals that use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed, to sustain their
+bodyweight while moving. They comprise the majority of large land mammals. In addition to hooves, most
+ungulates have reduced canine teeth, bunodont molars (molars with low, rounded cusps), and an astragalus
+(one of the ankle bones at the end of the lower leg) with a short, robust head. Another characteristic of most
+ungulates is the fusion of the radius and ulna along the length of the forelimb. This fusion prevents an
+ungulate from rotating its forelimb.
+Absorption of
+fermentation products
+Even-toed ungulates’ (Artiodactyla) weight is borne roughly equally by
+the third and fourth toes. The appearance and spread of coarse, hard-to
+reticulum omasum abomasum colon
+-digest grasses favored the development of their complex digestive
+systems. Pigs and hippos have short legs, four toes of fairly equal size,
+simpler molars, and canine teeth that are often enlarged to form tusks.
+Camels and ruminates tend to be longer-legged, walk on the central two
+toes, and have more complex teeth suited to grinding up tough grasses.
+They have a multi-chambered stomach called a rumin, which allows them
+rumen
+small
+cecum
+intestine
+to digest cellulose with the aid of fermenting microorganisms. Ruminates
+Food is chewed several times. It takes
+(cattle, goats, deer) “chew the cud”, which means they regurgitate and
+approximately 80 hours for digestion, and
+rechew partly-digested food.
+about 60% of the cellulose is used.
+Absorption of
+fermentation products
+small
+intestine
+
+cecum
+
+The progress of food through the four stomach chambers of a cow is indicated in black. The vegetation is swallowed after
+being only partially chewed. It goes into two connecting chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, where it is broken down
+into pulp by bacteria and then regurgitated as cud. After rechewing, it is passed to the other two chambers, the omasum
+and the abomasum where it is worked on by gastric juices before entering the intestine.
+
+Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) are hindgut fermenters; that is,
+they digest plant cellulose in their intestines rather than their stomach. They
+include fast runners with long legs and only one toe like the horse, zebra, and
+donkey, as well as heavier, slower animals with several functional toes like
+tapirs and rhinoceroses.
+
+stomach
+
+colon
+
+Food is chewed once. It takes about
+48 hours for digestion, and about 45%
+of the cellulose is used.
+
+
+
+Station 4. Feeding
+
+MAMMAL TEETH
+
+incisors
+canines
+
+Diet greatly influences teeth form and function. Carnivores have large,
+sharp canine teeth used for stabbing and tearing meat. Their
+premolars and molars have been adapted for shearing rather than
+Wolf
+grinding.
+(carnivore)
+Ruminates have teeth adaptations for grinding grasses. Primitive
+herbivorous mammals have molars with separate cusps (bunodont),
+designed to pulp and crush relatively soft food. Fibrous vegetation is
+tough and ungulates have developed modifications of the bunodont
+pattern. In addition to their bunodont molars, these grazers have
+replaced their canines and incisors in the upper jaw with a horny pad.
+They use this together with the lower front teeth for cropping
+vegetation.
+Bunodont
+molar seen in
+pigs.
+In perissodactyls, such as the rhinoceros,
+shearing edges (lophs) have formed by a
+coalescing of the cusps to form two
+crosswise lophs and one lengthwise
+(lophodont).
+
+incisors
+canines
+
+premolars and molars
+
+premolars and molars
+
+Deer
+(ruminate)
+In horses the lophs are very
+complex and folded
+(hypsodont).
+
+In ruminant artiodactyls, such as
+the ox, the cusps take on a
+crescent shape (selenodont)
+
+Rodents have no canines at all. The gap left by their absence is called
+the diastema. Rodent’s most prominent teeth are long, self
+incisors
+diastemas
+-sharpening incisors used for gnawing. Mouse-like rodents lack
+premolars, but squirrel- and cavy-like rodents have one or two on
+Porcupine
+each side.
+(rodent)
+
+premolars and molars
+
+
+
+Station 4. Feeding - Bats
+
+CHIROPTERA
+There are two suborders of bats: megabats and microbats. The major distinctions are that:
+* Microbats use echolocation, whereas megabats do not (except for Rousettus and relatives).
+* Microbats lack the claw at the second toe of the forelimb.
+* The ears of microbats do not form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the
+ear.
+* Microbats lack underfur; they have only guard hairs or are naked.
+* Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen while microbats eat insects, small amounts of blood, small mammals, and fish.
+
+Major variations in the tail shape of bats:
+
+knee
+wrist
+tail
+uropatagium
+calcar
+
+elbow
+propatagium
+ear
+tragus
+
+Foot with five toes
+plagiopatagium
+
+humerus
+radius
+
+Sheath-tailed bat
+
+Fifth finger
+
+Free-tailed bat
+
+Mouse-tailed bat
+
+thumb
+
+Second finger
+dactylopatagium
+Third finger
+Fourth finger
+
+Mouse-eared bat
+
+Tube-nosed fruit bat
+
+Flying fox
+
+
+
+Station 4. Feeding - Bats
+
+FEEDING TYPES:
+Bloodsuckers and Nectar Drinkers
+In evolution, the “success” of a species or group of species is measured by its ability to survive.
+Survival is made more likely by a process known as adaptive radiation - the branching out of a group
+of animals into a variety of niches not previously occupied. Bats started out as insect eaters, and
+although the majority are still insectivorous, there are now bats that live on fruit, fish, nectar, blood,
+rodents, frogs and even other bats. With this great variability in their way of life, bats have become
+the second largest mammalian order and are now spread over most of the globe.
+
+An Epauletted fruit bat feeding
+on wild figs.
+
+A fringe-lipped bat eating a
+túngara frog. These bats learn
+socially the call of new prey
+frogs through acoustic cues.
+
+A nectar eating bat’s tongue can be as much as 150% as
+long as its body - the longest of any mammal. Nectar
+droplets cling to the tip of the tongue when it is withdrawn
+from a flower.
+
+Vampire bats gently scrapes the skin
+of sleeping mammals and birds, and
+laps up the oozing blood.
+
+
+
+Station 4. Feeding - Bats
+
+INSECTIVORY AND ECHOLOCATION
+Sonograms show the search, approach and terminal phases of the hunt in two species of bat.
+(a) The North American big brown bat produces frequency modulated (FM) calls steeply
+sweeping from 70-30 kHz. While foraging the bat emits 5-6 pulses per second, each of about 10
+milliseconds (msec) duration until an insect is located. Immediately the pulse rate increases, duration
+shortens, with the frequency sweep starting at a lower frequency. As an insect is caught (or just missed) the
+repetition rate peaks at 200 per second, with each pulse lasting about 1 msec.
+(b) Hunting horseshoe bats produce their long (average 50 msec) constant frequency (CF) calls
+at a rate of 10 per second. They often feed among dense foliage. A problem facing a bat is how to
+distinguish fluttering insect wings from leaves and twigs oscillating in the wind. While foliage produces a
+random background scatter of echoes, the insect with a relatively constant rapid wing beat frequency will
+appear like a flashing light to a bat using a CF component. As the bat closes on the insect, the CF
+component of each pulse is suppressed in amplitude and reduced to under 10 msec while the amplified
+terminal FM sweep is used for critical
+location and capture of the prey.
+
+A Greater horseshoe swoops on a butterfly. Such a battle is not necessarily one-sided.
+Some moths and butterflies have evolved listening membranes that detect the bat’s
+sonar pulses giving the moth opportunity to escape. To counter this some tropical bats
+only send out signals at wavelengths that cannot be detected by the moths.
+
+

rag-system/data/converted/bless_animal_guide.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2831 @@
+Animal Guide
+to Lois Hole Centennial Provincial Park,
+Alberta
+
+Big Lake Environment Support Society
+
+
+
+Credits
+Technical information
+Alberta Environment data on species in Alberta, and some text
+from Wikipedia, some of which was modified for the Big Lake
+region of Alberta.
+Photographs
+Local photographers were approached for good quality
+images, and where good photographs were not available then
+freely available images from Wikipedia were used (see page
+136 for individual photo credits).
+Funding
+City of St. Albert, Environmental Initiatives Grant 2021
+Creation and Review
+Linda Brain, Lyn Druett, Miles Constable
+Big Lake Environment Support Society
+Produced by
+Big Lake Environment Support Society
+P.O. Box 65053
+St. Albert, Ab T8N 5Y3
+www.bless.ab.ca
+For information contact info@bless.ab.ca
+
+3
+
+
+
+Animal Guide
+to Lois Hole Centennial Provincial
+Park, Alberta
+
+2022
+4
+
+
+
+Location of Lois Hole Centennial
+Provincial Park, Alberta
+
+Map courtesy of Google, Inc.
+There are a great many animals to be seen in Lois Hole Centennial
+Provincial Park. This Guide features the most commonly seen animals;
+however, it is not a complete guide to all animals that could be seen at
+Big Lake. If you are, or become, passionate about wildlife, we
+recommend a comprehensive guide to the mammals, amphibians and
+reptiles in Alberta. Nature is continually changing and there may be
+animals who are expanding their range into this area for a variety of
+reasons.
+
+5
+
+
+
+Contents
+CREDITS ........................................................................... 3
+CANIDAE (WOLVES, COYOTES AND FOXES) ...... 10
+COYOTE CANIS LATRANS ................................................. 11
+GRAY WOLF CANIS LUPUS ............................................. 13
+RED FOX VULPES VULPES............................................... 15
+URSIDAE (BEARS) ........................................................ 17
+BLACK BEAR URSUS AMERICANUS.................................. 18
+FELIDAE (CATS) ........................................................... 20
+CANADA LYNX LYNX CANADENSIS.................................. 21
+MUSTELIDAE (WEASELS) ......................................... 23
+WOLVERINE GULO GULO ............................................... 24
+BADGER TAXIDEA TAXUS ................................................ 26
+MARTEN MARTES AMERICANA ........................................ 28
+MINK NEOVISON VISON .................................................. 30
+FISHER MARTES PENNANTI.............................................. 32
+LEAST WEASEL MUSTELA NIVALIS .................................. 34
+LONG-TAILED WEASEL NEOGALE FRENATA.................... 36
+SHORT-TAILED WEASEL MUSTELA ERMINEA .................. 38
+MEPHITIDAE (SKUNKS)............................................. 40
+STRIPED SKUNK MEPHITIS MEPHITIS HUDSONICA ........... 41
+RACOON PROCYON LOTOR.............................................. 44
+
+6
+
+
+
+CERVIDAE (DEER) ...................................................... 46
+MOOSE ALCES ALCES ..................................................... 47
+WHITE-TAILED DEER ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS ........... 49
+MULE DEER ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS ........................... 51
+ERETHIZONTIDAE (PORCUPINES) ........................ 53
+NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE ERETHIZON DORSATUM . 54
+CASTORIDAE (BEAVERS) ......................................... 56
+BEAVER CASTOR CANADENSIS ........................................ 57
+SCIURIDAE (SQUIRRELS) ......................................... 59
+RED SQUIRREL TAMIASCHIURUS HUDSONICUS ................ 60
+NORTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL GLAUCOMYS SABRINUS ... 62
+WOODCHUCK MARMOTA MONAX .................................... 64
+RICHARDSON’S GROUND SQUIRREL UROCITELLUS
+RICHARDSONII ................................................................ 66
+THIRTEEN-LINED GROUND SQUIRREL ICTIDOMYS
+TRIDECEMLINEATUS ........................................................ 68
+LEAST CHIPMUNK NEOTAMIAS MINIMUS......................... 70
+CRICETIDAE (MUSKRATS, MICE, VOLES AND
+LEMMINGS) .................................................................. 72
+MUSKRAT ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS ................................... 73
+WESTERN DEER MOUSE PEROMYSCUS SONORIENSUS ..... 75
+MEADOW JUMPING MOUSE ZAPUS HUDSONIUS .............. 77
+WESTERN JUMPING MOUSE ZAPUS PRINCEPS ................ 79
+WESTERN MEADOW VOLE MICROTUS DRUMMONDII ..... 81
+
+7
+
+
+
+SOUTHERN RED-BACKED VOLE MYODES GAPPERI ......... 83
+NORTHERN BOG LEMMING SYNAPTOMYS BOREALIS ........ 85
+GEOMYIDAE (POCKET GOPHERS) ........................ 87
+NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER THOMOMYS TALPOIDES ..... 88
+SORICIDAE (SHREWS) ............................................... 90
+ARCTIC SHREW SOREX ARCTICUS ................................... 91
+MASKED SHREW SOREX CINEREUS ................................. 93
+PYGMY SHREW SOREX HOYI ........................................... 95
+LEPORIDAE (HARES) .................................................. 97
+SNOWSHOE HARE LEPUS AMERICANUS ........................... 98
+WHITE-TAILED JACKRABBIT LEPUS TOWNSENDII ......... 100
+VESPERTILIONIDAE (EVENING BATS) ............... 102
+LITTLE BROWN BAT MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS ..................... 103
+BIG BROWN BAT EPTESICUS FUSCUS ........................... 105
+HOARY BAT AEORESTES CINEREUS............................... 107
+NORTHERN LONG-EARED BAT MYOTIS SEPTENTRIONALIS
+.................................................................................... 109
+SILVER-HAIRED BAT LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS ..... 111
+COLUBRIDAE (REAR-FANGED SNAKES) ............ 113
+RED-SIDED GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS SIRTALIS
+PARIETALIS ................................................................... 114
+WESTERN TERRESTRIAL GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS
+ELEGANS VAGRANS ........................................................ 116
+PLAINS GARTER SNAKE THAMNOPHIS RADIX................ 118
+
+8
+
+
+
+AMBYSTOMATIDAE (MOLE SALAMANDERS) .. 120
+WESTERN TIGER SALAMANDER AMBYSTOMA MAVORTIUM
+.................................................................................... 121
+BUFONIDAE (TOADS) ............................................... 123
+WESTERN TOAD ANAXYRUS BOREAS ............................. 124
+CANADIAN TOAD ANAXYRUS HEMIOPHRYS ................... 126
+HYLIDAE (TREE FROGS) ......................................... 128
+BOREAL CHORUS FROG PSEUDACRIS MACULATA.......... 129
+RANIDAE (TRUE FROGS) ........................................ 131
+WOOD FROG LITHOBATES SYLVATICA ........................... 132
+NORTHERN LEOPARD FROG LITHOBATES PIPIENS ........ 134
+PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS ...................................... 136
+
+9
+
+
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+Canidae (Wolves, Coyotes and
+Foxes)
+Coyote
+Gray Wolf
+Red Fox
+
+10
+
+
+
+Coyote Canis latrans
+
+Size: The Coyote is smaller and slimmer than the
+Gray Wolf, but larger than the Red Fox. Adult
+weight ranges from 10-23 kg (22-50 lb) and body
+length ranges from 1-1.3 m (3-4 ft) including the
+tail which measures 30-40 cm (12-16 in). Coyotes
+stand 58-66 cm (23-26 in) high at the shoulder.
+Description: The characteristic features of a
+Coyote include a gray to red-gray fur coat with
+black markings on the back and tail and lighter fur
+underneath, long ears, a slender pointed muzzle and
+a bushy tail that is usually carried low and close to
+the hind legs.
+Habitat: The Coyote is highly adaptable and can
+be found in all regions of Alberta, including towns
+and cities.
+11
+
+
+
+Behaviour: Hares and mice are the most important
+prey species for coyotes, but dead livestock, deer
+and moose are often the most important winter
+food. Blueberries and other fruits are heavily used
+in season. Lately, urban Coyotes have been taking
+small dogs and cats. They seldom hunt in packs
+unless hunting large prey. Occasionally they hunt
+with Badgers chasing down rodents escaping from
+a digging Badger. For a natal den, the female
+enlarges a rodent burrow. A litter of 5-7 pups is
+born in April or May. Predators are wolves,
+cougars, black bears and lynx.
+Conservation Status: Least Concern in AB
+
+12
+
+
+
+Gray Wolf Canis lupus
+
+Size: The Gray Wolf measures on average 1-2 m
+(3-6 ft) in total body length, with the tail
+comprising a little less than one third of the total.
+The male weighs about 66 kg (145 lb), while the
+female weighs about 45 kg (100 lb).
+Description: This slender but powerfully built
+carnivore has long legs enabling speed while
+hunting and the ability to overcome deep snow. Its
+fur colour is typically a mix of gray and brown with
+buff facial markings and underside, which can vary
+from solid white to brown or black. The Gray Wolf
+looks like a large German shepherd dog with a long
+13
+
+
+
+bushy tail which is held straight back when
+running.
+Habitat: In Alberta, the Gray Wolf inhabits Boreal,
+Foothills and Mountain regions. It lives in a pack of
+5-9 members, which requires a territory ranging
+from 250-750 sq km (97-282 sq miles). A recent
+siting near Big Lake is unusual and may have been
+a single wolf looking for a pack of its own.
+Behaviour: There is a pack hierarchy with the
+alpha male dominant over the entire pack. The pack
+will usually hunt in a group, but a single wolf or
+mated pair are also successful. Deer, elk, moose
+and sheep are the usual prey but beaver, waterfowl,
+rabbits and mice are also hunted. The ability of the
+Gray Wolf to run up to 64 km/hr (40 mph) and to
+travel 48 km (30 m) per day, enables its success
+when hunting. Barking is usually a warning and
+howling is used for long distance communication.
+Wolves rarely attack humans. In spring to early
+summer, 4-6 pups are born and grow up in a natural
+shelter. Predators are few but include cougar, bears
+and humans.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+14
+
+
+
+Red Fox Vulpes vulpes
+
+Size: The Red Fox is the size of a small dog. Its
+total body length measures 45-90 cm (18-35”). The
+height at the shoulder is 35-50 cm (14-20 in) and its
+weight is 2-14 kg (5-31 lb).
+Description: It has a narrow muzzle, an elongated
+body, relatively short limbs and a tail longer than
+half the body length. The long, dense and fluffy fur
+is a reddish-rusty colour on the body, while the
+chin, throat, chest and tail tip are white. The paws
+and backs of the ears are black. Other red fox
+colours include silver/black or brown. The red fox
+15
+
+
+
+is lightly built enabling it to have a running speed
+of 50 km/h.
+Habitat: The Red Fox inhabits the entire province
+of Alberta, living on the edges of wooded areas,
+prairies and farmlands as well as towns and cities.
+Behaviour: These shy, curious animals favour
+living in the open, usually in densely vegetated
+areas, though they may enter burrows to escape bad
+weather. They are great hunters, due to their acute
+eyesight, hearing and sense of smell. They eat small
+rodents, birds, insects, porcupines, raccoons,
+reptiles, fruit, grasses, sedges and tubers. Small
+dogs and cats are also taken in urban areas. They
+are largely nocturnal so much of their hunting is
+done at night but they can often be seen during the
+day. The vixen gives birth to 4-6 kits in the spring
+and raises them in a den. Predators include wolves
+and coyotes, as well as eagles, and large owls will
+take the kits.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+16
+
+
+
+Ursidae (Bears)
+Black Bear
+
+17
+
+
+
+Black Bear Ursus americanus
+
+Size: The adult Black Bear averages 45-200 kg
+(100-440 lb) in weight and typically measures from
+150-180 cm (59-71 in) in head and body length.
+Description: This medium sized bear has a broad
+skull, a narrow muzzle and large jaw hinges. The
+snout and face form a straight line. The ears are
+prominent and are set well back on the head. The
+paws are relatively large 23 cm (5-9 in) and the
+claws are short, curved and black. Despite being
+18
+
+
+
+called a Black Bear the coat colour varies from
+black to blond.
+Habitat: The Black Bear prefers areas with thick
+vegetation and large quantities of edible material.
+Although found in the largest numbers in the wild,
+the Black Bear can adapt to surviving in semi-urban
+regions and undisturbed rural areas as long as they
+have accessible food and some vegetative cover.
+Behaviour: The Black Bear is highly dexterous
+with its paws, has great physical strength and is
+sure-footed and able to run at speeds up to 48 km/hr
+(25-30 mph). It has an extremely good sense of
+smell and has a constant need to eat as it hibernates
+through the winter. It is also a strong swimmer,
+regularly climbs trees to feed and escape enemies
+and may be active day or night. The black bear is
+an omnivore eating plants, berries, insects, fawns,
+calves and carrion. Sows birth 2-3 cubs in Jan.-Feb.
+every second year. Predators of cubs include
+cougars, coyotes, and wolves.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+19
+
+
+
+Felidae (Cats)
+Canada Lynx
+
+20
+
+
+
+Canada Lynx Lynx canadensis
+
+Size: This medium-sized wildcat has a height at the
+shoulder of 48-56 cm (19-22 in), a body length of
+80-105 cm (31-41 in) and a weight of 8-14 kg (1831 lb).
+Description: The Lynx has a short tail, distinctive
+tufts of black hair on the tips of the ears, large furcovered paws for walking on snow and long
+whiskers on the face. Body colour varies from
+brown to gold to beige-white and is marked with
+dark brown spots. It has white fur on its chest, belly
+and on the inside of its legs. The name Lynx
+meaning light and brightness refers to the
+luminescence of its reflective eyes.
+21
+
+
+
+Habitat: It inhabits most of Alberta except the
+south-east corner of the province. It prefers boreal
+forest with dense cover of shrubs, reeds and tall
+grass and with a cold, snowy winter.
+Behaviour: Lynx make sounds like a very loud
+house cat. Due to its elusive nature, it is rare to see
+one. Although this cat hunts on the ground, it can
+climb trees and swim swiftly. The Lynx feeds
+almost exclusively on snowshoe hares, however, it
+will hunt squirrels, rodents, fawns, fish and birds if
+necessary. It constructs rough shelters under
+deadfall trees or rocky cavities. The female gives
+birth to 1-4 kittens. Predators include cougars,
+wolves and coyotes.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB
+
+22
+
+
+
+Mustelidae (Weasels)
+Wolverine
+Badger
+Marten
+Mink
+Fisher
+Least Weasel
+Long-tailed Weasel
+Short-tailed Weasel
+
+23
+
+
+
+Wolverine Gulo gulo
+
+Size: An adult Wolverine is about the size of a
+medium dog with a length from 65-107 cm (2642”), a tail of 17-26 cm (7-10”) and a weight of 625 kg (12-55 lb).
+Description: The Wolverine is stocky and
+muscular with short legs, a broad, rounded head,
+small eyes and short rounded ears. Its large fivetoed paws have crampon-like claws enabling it to
+easily climb up trees and steep rocky cliffs. Its thick
+fur ranges in colour from dark brown to a burnt
+24
+
+
+
+orange with its facial mask, legs, back and tail
+darker than the midsection. There is usually a stripe
+of blond fur running from the shoulders to the
+large, bushy tail.
+Habitat: Historically found across Alberta,
+Wolverines now live in the northern boreal half of
+the province and along the mountains and foothills.
+They are found in evergreen or mixed forests often
+interspersed with lakes, streams and bogs. They
+require a very large home range; the range of a
+male can be more than 620 km sq. (240 mi sq).
+There have been two sightings around Big Lake in
+the last 10 years.
+Behaviour: This largest member of the weasel
+family has a reputation for ferocity and strength out
+of proportion to its size, with the documented
+ability to kill prey many times larger than itself. Its
+feeding style appears voracious (the basis of the
+scientific name meaning glutton). Carrion is a large
+part of its diet as well as small to medium mammals
+and geese, bird eggs, roots, seeds and berries.
+Female Wolverines burrow into snow in February
+to provide a den for 2-3 young kits. Predators
+include wolves and less frequently, bears.
+Conservation Status May be at risk in AB
+
+25
+
+
+
+Badger Taxidea taxus
+
+Size: The Badger measures 60-75 cm (24-30”) in
+total length, with a tail 10-16 cm (4-6 in) and a
+weight of 6-7 kg (14-16 lb).
+Description: It has a stocky, low-slung body with
+short, powerful legs and huge foreclaws. The fur
+colour is brown, black and white giving a browntan appearance. The triangular face shows a black
+and white pattern with a white stripe extending
+from the nose to the base of the head and extending
+the full length of the body to the tail.
+
+26
+
+
+
+Habitat: In Alberta, the Badger is present from the
+North Saskatchewan River area to the south of the
+province. Typical habitat is open grasslands such as
+prairie with sandy loam soil where prey can easily
+be dug.
+Behaviour: The Badger is generally nocturnal,
+however females may forage during daylight from
+late March to mid-May. They do not hibernate and
+will emerge from the burrow with above freezing
+temperatures. Young are born March-April with
+litters of 1-5 young. It preys on Northern pocket
+gophers, Richardson’s ground squirrels, moles,
+mice and snakes. Insects and plants are also eaten.
+Coyotes have been known to hunt in tandem with
+badgers, catching prey that try to flee the Badger’s
+underground digging. Predators include golden
+eagles, coyotes, cougars, bears and wolves.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB
+
+27
+
+
+
+Marten Martes Americana
+
+Size: The Marten, often called a pine marten, has a
+total body length of 55-65 cm (22-26 in), a tail
+length of 14-16 cm (5-6 in) and an average weight
+of .5-1.4 kg (1-3 lb).
+Description: It can be compared to the size of a
+small house cat, except the Marten has a more
+slender body, shorter legs, a bushy tail and a
+foxlike pointed face. Its body fur colour is yellowbrown with a buff-coloured bib under its chin. The
+tail and legs are dark brown. (It is lighter in colour
+and smaller than the fisher). Each foot has 5 toes
+with sharp curved claws. Descent of trees headfirst
+is possible by rotating its hind limbs. The fur
+28
+
+
+
+industry refers to its high value fur as Canadian
+sable.
+Habitat: The Marten is found across the northern
+half of Alberta. It prefers mature coniferous forest
+with downed logs and cavities in trees, but is also
+found in young mixed woods forest.
+Behaviour: Ferocious describes this nocturnal little
+predator, but it can be seen in the daytime as well.
+During the spring and summer, the male is active
+for about 16 hrs. a day and the female 6-8 hrs.,
+mostly travelling on the ground. During the winter,
+the marten may only hunt for a few hours in the
+warmest part of the day and usually under the
+snow. Its diet consists of voles, the preferred prey,
+squirrels, small rodents, snowshoe hares, bird eggs,
+berries and fish. In summer its den is a leaf-lined
+nest in a tree cavity, fallen logs or root masses of
+fallen trees, while in winter only the ground level
+sites are used. The litter size averages 1-5 young.
+Predators include fisher, coyote, lynx and great
+horned owl.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+29
+
+
+
+Mink Neovison vison
+
+Size: The adult weight is about 1 kg (2.2 lb) and
+total body length ranges from 65-75 cm (25-30in).
+Description: The Mink has a long, slender body
+with short sturdy legs, a long neck and pointed
+face, small ears and a bushy tail. Distinguishing
+traits include a dark, brown to black coat,
+sometimes with white spots on the chin and chest.
+Habitat: In Alberta, it can be found in the Boreal,
+Foothill and Rocky Mountain natural regions. This
+semi-aquatic weasel is seldom seen far from
+watercourses.
+Behaviour: The scent from the musk gland is used
+to mark the Mink’s territory; although the musk
+smells worse than that of a skunk, it cannot be
+sprayed for defence. This nocturnal hunter has a
+diet of ducks, fish, muskrat and small birds and
+30
+
+
+
+rodents. It runs with a bounding gait, climbs trees
+and swims well. In May, 5-6 kits are born, usually
+in an abandoned muskrat den. Predators include
+great horned owls, red foxes, wolves and black
+bears.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+31
+
+
+
+Fisher Martes pennanti
+
+Size: The Fisher has a body length of 50-70 cm
+(20-28 in) and a tail 30-42 cm (12-17 in). It weighs
+from 1.5 -6 kg (3-13 lb).
+Description: It is a house cat sized member of the
+weasel family with a long slender body, short legs,
+a bushy tail and rounded ears set close to its head.
+Its large feet with hairy soles have 5 toes and sharp
+partially retractable claws enabling it to move
+easily in trees. Its hind ankle joints, which can
+rotate almost 180 degrees, enable it to descend a
+tree headfirst. Its fur colour is medium to dark
+brown, sometimes with a cream chest patch. While
+32
+
+
+
+the Fisher is a close relative of the marten, it is
+almost twice as large and 4 times as heavy.
+Habitat: In Alberta, it lives in mature forests of
+the Boreal and Rocky Mountain regions and
+sometimes in the Parkland region. It spends most of
+its time on the forest floor where there is
+continuous overhead cover.
+Behaviour: The Fisher is a carnivore and a skilled
+hunter being one of the few animals to regularly
+kill porcupine. It also preys on birds, rodents,
+squirrels and hares, but does not eat fish. Primarily
+nocturnal, it usually spends the day sleeping in
+hollow trees or logs but also may be spotted during
+the day. In winter, it uses a snow den or burrow
+under the snow for shelter. It does not hibernate.
+The female gives birth to 1-4 kits. Predators include
+bears, coyotes, lynx and wolverine.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB
+
+33
+
+
+
+Least Weasel Mustela nivalis
+
+Size: The Least Weasel is a small carnivore, with a
+body length, including the tail of 20 cm (8”) and a
+weight of 70 g (3 oz).
+Description: It has a small head with short oval
+ears, black beady eyes and a pointed nose. Its body
+is long and slender turning brown in summer with
+white on the belly and white in winter, with a few
+black hairs on the tip of its tail.
+Habitat: The Least Weasel is found in all natural
+regions of Alberta, particularly in fields, meadows,
+riverbanks and parkland.
+34
+
+
+
+Behaviour: The least weasel does not dig its own
+den, but nests in an abandoned burrow. The nest
+chamber is lined with straw and skins from its prey.
+Its diet includes mice, shrews and pocket gophers
+captured in their burrows and snow tunnels. It also
+eats insects. This fierce hunter is capable of killing
+a rabbit 5-10 times its own weight. There are 3-6
+kits in a litter. Predators include red foxes, and
+owls. This weasel is very agile and not often seen.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+35
+
+
+
+Long-tailed Weasel Neogale frenata
+
+Size: The Long-tailed Weasel has a total body
+length averaging 45 cm (16”), a tail length 15 cm (6
+in) and a weight of 340 g (12 oz).
+Description: It has a small head with short oval
+ears, black beady eyes and a pointed nose. Its body
+is long and slender turning brown in summer with
+white on the belly and white in winter, with a few
+black hairs on the tip of its tail.
+Habitat: Preferring open country, the Long-tailed
+Weasel inhabits the Parkland and Grassland natural
+regions of Alberta.
+Behaviour: The Long-tailed Weasel dens in
+ground burrows, under stumps or beneath rock
+36
+
+
+
+piles. The nest chamber is lined with straw and the
+fur of prey. It is a fearless and aggressive hunter.
+When stalking, it waves its head from side to side
+to pick up the scent. This carnivore eats mice, rats,
+squirrels, chipmunks, shrews, moles, rabbits, small
+birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and insects. In late
+April, 4-8 kits are born. Predators include large
+owls, coyotes, foxes and snakes. Its population has
+experienced dramatic declines as a result of habitat
+loss and fragmentation.
+Predators include large owls, coyotes, foxes and
+snakes This weasel is very agile and not often seen.
+Conservation Status: May Be at Risk in AB
+
+37
+
+
+
+Short-tailed Weasel Mustela erminea
+
+Size: The body length of the Short-tailed Weasel or
+Stoat is on average 33 cm (13”), its tail length is 9
+cm (3 in) and its weight is 170 g (6 oz).
+Description: It has a long body, short legs and a
+long neck. Its head is bluntly pointed and its ears
+are small and rounded. In summer, its fur is brown
+with white underparts, white feet and a black tip on
+the tail. They molt to white in winter with a blacktipped tail. Its smaller size and white feet
+distinguish this species from the long-tailed weasel.
+The fur was considered a luxury fur in Europe,
+where it was called ermine and stoat.
+Habitat: Alberta’s most common weasel is found
+in all natural regions, except the Grassland. Brushy
+38
+
+
+
+or wooded areas, usually not far from water, are
+preferred.
+Behaviour: Even though this weasel is small, it is a
+fierce predator and skilled hunter. With great speed
+and agility, it preys on mice, voles, shrews, rabbits,
+chipmunks, and nesting birds. It sometimes uses the
+burrows and nest chambers of the rodents it kills or
+it builds a nest under rocks, logs, tree roots or
+haystacks. It is primarily nocturnal; however, it can
+be seen during the daytime. In April-May, 4-8
+young are born. Predators include foxes, raptors
+and badgers.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+39
+
+
+
+Mephitidae (Skunks)
+Striped Skunk
+
+40
+
+
+
+Striped Skunk Mephitis mephitis hudsonica
+
+Size: The Striped Skunk measures 52-77 cm (2130”) in total body length and usually weighs 2-6 kg
+(4-10 lb). It is similar to the size of a large
+domestic cat. The western Canadian subspecies is
+larger than the eastern subspecies, with a heavily
+furred, medium-sized tail.
+Description: It is stout, short limbed and has a
+small, conical head and a long heavily furred tail.
+The fur colour generally consists of a black base
+with a white stripe from the head along each side of
+the back to the rump and tail. The sharp claws on
+its front feet aid in digging for insects and worms.
+It possesses 2 scent glands on each side of the anus.
+41
+
+
+
+Habitat: The Skunk is most common in the central
+and southern parts of Alberta. It inhabits mixed
+woodlands, brushy corners and open fields
+interspersed with wooded ravines and rocky
+outcrops. It is also quite at home in urban areas
+with some brush or ravines.
+Behaviour: The Skunk is nocturnal with slow and
+deliberate behaviour enabled by its ability to spray
+its foul-smelling fluid 4-5 m, 6 times in succession.
+While primarily an insectivore (grasshoppers,
+beetles, crickets and caterpillars), it will also eat
+mice, voles, eggs, bird chicks, berries and corn. It
+lives in abandoned dens, stumps, rock piles or
+under buildings and decks in urban areas. It does
+not truly hibernate, but generally remains inactive
+during winter surviving on its fat stores. In winter,
+the striped skunk will forage for short periods.
+Litters consist of 2-12 kits born in mid-May to
+June. The Skunk has few natural enemies (except
+for Great Horned Owls) but if starving, cougars,
+coyotes, bobcats, badgers, foxes, and eagles will
+attack them. These skunks can carry rabies, but
+there are very few rabid skunks in Alberta.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+42
+
+
+
+Procyonidae (Racoons)
+Racoon
+
+43
+
+
+
+Racoon Procyon lotor
+
+Size: Raccoons have a body length of 40-70 cm
+(16-28 in) not including the tail, which on average
+measures 25 cm (10 in). They weigh 5-12 kg (1030 lb).
+Description: This stout, short legged animal has a
+distinctive mask formed by black fur around the
+eyes contrasting with its white face. As well, its
+bushy tail has 5-6 alternating light and dark rings.
+The body fur is grizzly gray coloured with some
+brown. The front paws have 5 digits with claws and
+no webbing and are very agile, almost like fingers.
+
+44
+
+
+
+Habitat: Traditionally it has resided largely in
+Alberta’s southeast area, however, in recent years
+its territory has expanded to include the central part
+of the province. The original habitat was deciduous,
+mixed forests and wetlands, but they are also now
+found in mountainous and urban areas.
+Behaviour: The Raccoon is nocturnal, but is
+sometimes seen in daylight. It walks slowly but can
+climb a tree quickly and has the ability to descend
+headfirst by rotating its hind feet. In the wild, they
+are omnivorous feeding on crayfish, fish, birds eggs
+and hatchlings, fruits, nuts, insects and berries.
+They are known for washing their food but really, it
+is dabbling in the water looking for food, then it
+uses its front paws to rub the item and remove
+unwanted parts. Tree hollows, rock crevices or
+burrows dug by other mammals, are used for a den.
+A litter size is 2-5 kits. Predators are few because
+the raccoon is fierce in defence, but include black
+bears, wolves, lynx and bald eagles.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+45
+
+
+
+Cervidae (Deer)
+Moose
+White-tailed Deer
+Mule Deer
+
+46
+
+
+
+Moose Alces alces
+
+Size: Moose are the largest members of the deer
+family. Bulls can weigh on average 550 kg (1200
+lb) and stand 2 m (6-7 ft) at the shoulder. Cows
+average 350 kg (770 lb). Body length varies from
+2-3 m (7-10 ft).
+Description: Moose have dark colouration which
+varies from dark brown to black. Other features of
+both sexes are: broad muzzle, shoulder hump, and
+a loose fold of skin under the chin called a “bell”.
+Bulls have broad, palm-like antlers that can
+measure 2 m (6 ft) from tip to tip and can weigh up
+to 40 kg (88 lb).
+Habitat: In Alberta, Moose are common in most
+eco-regions except for the prairie and parkland.
+They prefer muskegs, brushy meadows and small
+47
+
+
+
+groves of aspen or coniferous trees particularly
+near lakes, ponds or streams.
+Behaviour: They are most active in the day,
+feeding on aquatic plants and the tender shoots of
+willow, birch and poplar as well as aspen bark and
+minerals from natural salt licks. All deer are
+ruminants meaning they ferment plant material
+before digesting it. They often bed down in the
+afternoon to digest their food. They will move and
+feed at night as well. Moose have acute senses of
+smelling and hearing, however, their sight is poor.
+When alarmed, Moose will often trot away with
+long smooth strides. In spite of their large size,
+moose can move through underbrush very quietly.
+One or two calves are born in the spring. Predators
+include wolves, black bears and grizzly bears.
+Conservation Status: Least concern in AB
+
+48
+
+
+
+White-tailed Deer Odocoileus virginianus
+
+Size: White-tailed Deer have a shoulder height of
+53-120 cm (21-47 in). The average weight for
+bucks is 113-125 kg (250-275 lb.), while does
+weigh about 73-82 kg (160-180 lb.).
+Description: This deer changes from red-brown
+in summer to gray-brown in winter. The brown tail
+is broad, fringed with white and white underneath.
+When running the tail is held erect, hence the name
+“white-tail”. Antlers on bucks have unbranched
+tines extending up from single beams.
+Habitat: They are Alberta’s most abundant deer
+found in the prairie, parkland and southern boreal
+zones. Their range is expanding westward into the
+foothills and mountains and northward into the
+boreal zone. Typical habitat includes aspen groves,
+49
+
+
+
+wooded river flats and coulees. Brushy patches
+provide food and good cover, in which even the
+largest white-tail is difficult to see.
+Behaviour: The diet of White-tailed Deer
+includes grasses, forbs, chokecherry, saskatoon and
+other shrubs. All deer are ruminants meaning they
+ferment plant material before digesting it. They
+often bed down in the afternoon to digest their
+food. One or two fawns are born to each doe in the
+spring. Fawns are left for long periods of time
+alone, however, their camouflage and lack of smell
+help to protect them. White-tailed Deer are very
+wary, and when alarmed they move rapidly
+bounding away in smooth, graceful leaps. Predators
+include wolves and cougars. Bobcats, lynx, bears,
+wolverines and packs of coyotes, usually prey
+mainly on fawns.
+Conservation Status: Least Concern in AB
+
+50
+
+
+
+Mule Deer Odocoileus hemionus
+
+Size: Mule Deer have a height of 80-106 cm (3142”) at the shoulder and a nose to tail length of 1-2
+m (4-7’). Adult bucks weigh 92 kg (203 lb) on
+average. Does are smaller and typically weigh 68
+kg (150 lb).
+Description: Their ears are large like those of the
+mule. The coat ranges from dark brown gray, dark
+and light gray to brown and even reddish. They
+51
+
+
+
+look similar to white-tailed deer except their tails
+are black tipped and their antlers divide evenly as
+they grow.
+Habitat: Mule Deer are found throughout Alberta
+primarily in shrub-forest areas of open coniferous
+forests, aspen parkland, river valleys and steep
+broken terrain.
+Behaviour: Although capable of running, they are
+often seen “stotting” leaping with all 4 feet coming
+down together. They eat shrubs and trees, forbes,
+grasses, nuts, berries and mushrooms. All deer are
+ruminants meaning they ferment plant material
+before digesting it. They often bed down in the
+afternoon to digest their food. Does usually give
+birth to 2 fawns but their first time usually one. In
+Alberta, this takes place during June and July.
+Three main predators are coyotes, wolves and
+cougars. Bobcats, lynxes, wolverines and black
+bears attack the fawns.
+Conservation Status: Least Concern in AB
+
+52
+
+
+
+Erethizontidae (Porcupines)
+North American Porcupine
+
+53
+
+
+
+North American Porcupine Erethizon
+dorsatum
+
+Size: The North American Porcupine is a large,
+robust rodent, the second largest in Canada next to
+the beaver. Adult males weigh on average 10 kg
+(22 lb).
+Description: It has a thick, short tail, short
+powerful legs and long curved claws. The coat is
+composed of a dense, brown undercoat of fur with
+yellow-tipped guard hairs, alternating with rows of
+quills. The estimated 30,000 quills have small barbs
+on the tip and are hollow, providing buoyancy
+when the animal swims. There are no quills on the
+muzzle, legs or underparts. It is the only N.
+American mammal with antibiotics in its skin,
+54
+
+
+
+which prevents infection when the porcupine falls
+out of a tree and is stuck with its own quills. When
+tempted to eat succulent buds at the ends of
+branches, it often falls out of trees. It is able to use
+its teeth and front paws to pull the quills out.
+Habitat: It is found throughout Alberta, usually
+near stands of woody vegetation, its main source of
+food.
+Behaviour: This quiet, gentle animal is not always
+easy to see, but noisy chewing, cut twigs and
+missing bark may advertise its presence. In
+summer, it is nocturnal and feeds on greens, forbs,
+shrubs and trees; in winter, the inner bark, twigs
+and buds of trees are eaten. When in danger, it
+chatters its teeth, turns its rear to a predator and
+swings its tail. When a quill comes in contact, it
+becomes embedded in the attacker’s skin. It does
+not throw the quills; they have to contact the
+attacker. The Porcupine leads a solitary life but in
+winter it groups together with others for denning or
+food. It does not hibernate. One young is born from
+May to July. Predators include coyotes, bears,
+cougars and owls.
+Conservation Status: Least Concern in AB
+
+55
+
+
+
+Castoridae (Beavers)
+Beaver
+
+56
+
+
+
+Beaver Castor canadensis
+
+Size: The Beaver is the largest N. American rodent
+weighing from 20-35 kg (44-77 lb). The body
+length varies from 74-90 cm (29-35 in) and the tail
+measures 20-35 cm (8-14 in).
+Description: The fur is a red-brown colour. The
+flat scaly tail is used as a rudder, as a prop when
+standing, as a lever when dragging logs and as a
+warning when slapped on the water. The digits and
+claws of the forepaws are long and delicate to aid in
+handling wood and the digits of the hind feet are
+broad with webbing to propel the animal through
+the water.
+
+57
+
+
+
+Habitat: The Beaver lives in all natural regions of
+Alberta except the alpine subregion. The primary
+habitat is the riparian zone inclusive of stream bed.
+They are quite at home in urban areas with rivers
+and streams.
+Behaviour: It is largely nocturnal, although it can
+be active in day. It constructs dams on streams to
+create ponds, which flood the surrounding area for
+protection and easy access to fell trees. A lodge is
+constructed of sticks and mud that provides
+excellent protection at night and over winter. Some
+beavers live along rivers and burrow into the bank.
+The Beaver is active all winter, feeding from the
+underwater store of twigs and leaves in the Beaver
+pond. From April to June, often four kits are born.
+It eats pond weeds, waterlilies, cattails, and the
+bark of poplar, willow, cottonwood, shrubs and
+other trees. When the food supply is exhausted, it
+moves to another area. Predators include coyotes,
+wolves and bears.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+58
+
+
+
+Sciuridae (Squirrels)
+Red Squirrel
+Northern Flying Squirrel
+Woodchuck (Groundhog)
+Richardson’s Ground Squirrel
+Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel
+Least Chipmunk
+
+59
+
+
+
+Red Squirrel Tamiaschiurus hudsonicus
+
+Size: The body length of the Red Squirrel is 28-35
+cm (11-14”) including the tail, which is half the
+length of the body. Its weight is 200-250 g (7-9 oz).
+Description: It is a small squirrel but somewhat
+larger than the chipmunk. Its fur can range in
+colour from rusty red to grey-brown on their backs
+to stark white on their throats, bellies and rings
+around their eyes. It has sharp, curved claws which
+enable it to easily climb and descend trees. The big,
+bushy tail is used for balance when jumping from
+60
+
+
+
+tree to tree and for intimidating a rival with a lot of
+flicking, as well as chattering and foot stomping.
+Habitat: In Alberta, it is abundant where conifers
+are common, including urban areas.
+Behaviour: The Red Squirrel is a feisty and
+territorial rodent that defends a year-round territory.
+Its nest is constructed of grass in the branches of
+trees or in cavities in the trunks of trees. It is an
+omnivore, consuming conifer seeds (over 50% of
+its diet), buds, needles, mushrooms, willow leaves,
+flowers, berries, mice, eggs and small birds. Cone
+seeds are stored in a cache for winter since it does
+not hibernate. Females produce one litter per year
+with 1-5 young. Predators include the lynx, bobcat,
+coyote, great horned owl, northern goshawk, redtailed hawk, crow, red fox, wolf and weasel.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+61
+
+
+
+Northern Flying Squirrel Glaucomys
+
+sabrinus
+
+Size: The adult Northern Flying Squirrel measures
+from 25-37 cm (10-15 in) long and weighs on
+average 110-230 g (4-8 oz).
+Description: It has thick light brown or cinnamon
+coloured fur on its upper body, gray fur on the
+flanks and whitish fur on the underparts. It has
+large eyes, long whiskers and a flat tail.
+Habitat: The Northern Flying Squirrel is found in
+most of Alberta except for the south-east part of the
+62
+
+
+
+province. It prefers older coniferous and mixed
+forests. Good tree cover is important for protection
+when gliding between trees.
+Behaviour: This nocturnal squirrel is a proficient
+glider but a clumsy walker on the ground. After
+launching from atop trees, it uses a fold of skin
+between the front and back legs, to stretch into a
+square-like shape which enables it to glide. Just
+before reaching a tree, it raises its tail, points all of
+its limbs forward and creates a parachute effect to
+reduce the shock of landing. To avoid predators, it
+immediately runs to the top or to the other side of
+the tree. Holes in trees are used for nests. In winter,
+nests are shared forming aggregations of 4-10
+individuals to maintain body temperature. It does
+not hibernate. It is not often seen by the public as it
+is active mostly at night.
+A major food source is fungi, although it also eats
+lichens, mushrooms, tree sap, insects, carrion, bird
+eggs and nestlings, buds and flowers. Predators
+include owls, hawks, lynx, marten and red fox.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+63
+
+
+
+Woodchuck Marmota monax
+
+Size: The Woodchuck, also known as the
+groundhog, may measure 42-69 cm (17-27 in) in
+length, including the tail which is 10-19 cm (4-7 in)
+long. It typically weighs 2-6 kg (4-14 lb).
+Description: It is stout and has a flat head, small
+ears and short, powerful limbs with curved, thick
+claws. The fur colour ranges from gray to
+cinnamon to dark brown. Its four incisor teeth grow
+1.5 mm (1/16 in) per week; however, constant
+usage wears them down.
+Habitat: The range of the Woodchuck extends
+across the central and northern parts of Alberta. It
+prefers open country and the edges of woodland
+64
+
+
+
+and is rarely far from a burrow entrance, which can
+be identified by a large mound of excavated earth.
+Behaviour: This rodent is an excellent burrower
+constructing a tunnel up to 14 m (46 ft) in length
+and buried 1.5 m (5’), with a large chamber and 2-5
+entrances. Although the Woodchuck can swim and
+climb trees, it prefers to retreat to its burrow to
+avoid predators. It often stands erect on its hind
+legs watching for danger and uses a high-pitched
+whistle for warning. It eats wild grasses, other
+vegetation and occasionally grubs, insects and
+small animals. Instead of storing food, it puts on a
+lot of fat before hibernation to survive the winter. A
+litter includes 2-6 young. Predators are coyotes,
+badger, red foxes, mink, eagles, hawks and large
+owls.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+65
+
+
+
+Richardson’s Ground Squirrel Urocitellus
+richardsonii
+
+Size: The Richardson’s Ground Squirrel, or gopher
+in western Canada, is about 30 cm (12”) long and
+has an average weight of 750 g (2 lb).
+Description: It is dark brown on the upper side and
+tan underneath. The tail is shorter and less bushy
+than other ground squirrels and is constantly
+trembling. It is also called a prairie dog or gopher,
+although it is neither. The ears are so short as to
+look more like holes in the animal’s head.
+66
+
+
+
+Habitat: Native to short grass prairies, the
+Richardson’s Ground Squirrel is found in central
+and southern Alberta. The range of this squirrel
+expanded as forests were cleared to create
+farmland. It is quite at home in urban areas with
+berms or vacant properties for burrows.
+Behaviour: Richardson’s Ground Squirrels live
+communally. Individuals give audible alarm calls
+when predators approach their colony (a whistle for
+a terrestrial predator and a chirp for an aerial
+predator). They can hibernate for up to 8 months
+from July to March. Each adult female owns a
+burrow system with 5-7 exits and 2-5 sleeping
+chambers. These animals are omnivores, eating
+seeds, nuts, grains, grasses and insects. Their litter
+averages 6 young per year. Predators include
+hawks, owls, snakes, weasels, badgers and coyotes.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+67
+
+
+
+Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel Ictidomys
+tridecemlineatus
+
+Size: Its body length is 17-30 cm (7-12”), its tail is
+6-13 cm (3-5”) and its weight is 110-270 g (4-10
+oz).
+Description: The Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel
+is brown in colour, with thirteen alternating brown
+and white lines (sometimes partially broken into
+spots) on its back and sides. It is also known as the
+striped gopher or the leopard ground squirrel.
+Habitat: It is widely distributed over grasslands
+and prairies of Alberta.
+68
+
+
+
+Behaviour: This burrowing rodent digs a burrow
+5-6 m (15-20 ft) long. It is well known for standing
+upright to survey its domain, for diving down into
+its burrow when it senses danger, then for poking
+out its nose and giving a bird-like trill. It is also
+very quick with a maximum running speed of 13
+km/hr (8 mph). Being an omnivore, its diet
+consists of grass and weed seeds, caterpillars,
+grasshoppers, mice and shrews. In October, it
+enters its hibernation nest in a deeper section of the
+burrow where food has been stored. During
+hibernation, respiration is decreased from 100-200
+breaths/minute to 1 breath every 5 minutes! It
+emerges in early spring. A litter of 3-14 pups is
+born once a year. Predators include weasels,
+raptors, hawks and snakes.
+Conservation Status: Undetermined in AB (IUCN
+Status: Least Concern)
+
+69
+
+
+
+Least Chipmunk Neotamias minimus
+
+Size: The Least Chipmunk measures 16-25 cm (610 in) in total length, with a tail 10-11 cm (3.9-4.3
+in) and a weight of 25-66 g (1-2 oz). It is about the
+size of a small bird.
+Description: This smallest species of chipmunk is
+gray to reddish-brown on the sides of the body and
+greyish-white on the underparts. The back is
+marked with 5 dark brown to black stripes
+separated by 4 white or cream coloured stripes
+running from the neck to the tail. Two light and 2
+dark stripes mark the face, running from the nose to
+70
+
+
+
+the ears. The bushy tail is orange-brown in colour
+and almost the same length as the body.
+Habitat: In Alberta, it lives in all of the province
+except the south-western region. It is commonly
+found in sagebrush, coniferous woodland, along
+rivers, in alpine meadows and on the edges of the
+northern tundra.
+Behaviour: It can often be seen perched on its hind
+legs holding food in its front paws while it eats. It
+may also be seen with its stretchy cheek pouches
+filled with food it collects and stores in its burrow
+or in small holes it has dug in the ground. It eats
+seeds, berries, nuts, fruits and insects. In summer,
+this chipmunk has a nest in a tree, but in winter it
+uses a burrow with 2-4 entrances. These burrows
+are very hard to find because they never leave dirt
+piles at the entrances. The least chipmunk
+hibernates but wakes to eat food cached in the
+burrow. Females have a litter of 3-7 young each
+year. Predators include hawks, owls and weasels.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+71
+
+
+
+Cricetidae (Muskrats, Mice, Voles
+and Lemmings)
+Muskrat
+Deer Mouse
+Meadow Jumping Mouse
+Western Jumping Mouse
+Meadow Vole
+Southern Red-backed Vole
+Northern Bog Lemming
+
+72
+
+
+
+Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus
+
+Size: Muskrat adults weigh about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb)
+and have a body length about 40-70 cm (16-28 in),
+with half of that being tail.
+Description: These medium sized, semi-aquatic
+rodents have dense, waterproof, chestnut to dark
+brown fur. Their tail is narrow and flattened
+laterally to be used as a rudder and for propulsion
+by vibrating it side-to-side. When they walk on
+land, their tail drags which makes tracks easy to
+recognize. Their legs are short with small forefeet
+used for grasping objects, while the large hind feet
+are partially webbed.
+
+73
+
+
+
+Habitat: Muskrats are found in all natural regions
+of Alberta, except the alpine subregion. They live
+in a wide range of wetlands in or near rivers, lakes
+or ponds.
+Behaviour: Muskrats spend much of their life in
+water but do not build dams, although occasionally
+live in active Beaver lodges. They are most active
+at night or near dawn or dusk. Muskrats live in a
+family group and each group has a house, a feeding
+area and canals through cattails and vegetation. In
+streams, ponds or lakes, they burrow into the bank
+and use an underwater entrance. In marshes, pushups are constructed in late fall from mud, pond
+weeds and cattails. In winter, push-ups cover a hole
+in the ice, which is kept open by continually
+chewing away the ice and pulling up underwater
+vegetation to build the insulated dome. Muskrats
+are prolific breeders; females can have 2-3 litters a
+year of 6-8 young. Their diet consists of 95% plants
+such as cattails and pond weeds. They also eat
+freshwater mussels, frogs, salamanders and small
+fish. Predators are mink, foxes, coyotes, lynx,
+wolves, bears, eagles, owls and hawks. Large
+predatory fish, such as northern pike, are known to
+take young kits.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+74
+
+
+
+Western Deer Mouse Peromyscus
+sonoriensus
+
+Size: The Western Deer Mouse body is 8-10 cm (34 in) long not including the tail, which averages 513 cm (2-5 in). It weighs 18-35 g (0.6- 1 oz).
+Description: Large beady black eyes and large
+ears give the Deer Mouse good sight and hearing.
+The colour of the fur varies from gray to red brown,
+but all deer mice have a white underside and white
+feet. The tail is long and multicoloured. They are
+very similar to the Eastern Deer Mouse.
+Habitat: The Western Deer Mouse is found
+throughout Alberta in forests, prairies and deserts,
+
+75
+
+
+
+but it is not found where the ground is continually
+wet.
+Behaviour: This nocturnal mouse spends the day
+in its nest in its underground burrow or in brush
+piles, rocks, stumps or hollow trees. During the
+winter season, it can be found active on top of snow
+or beneath logs. Typically, females have 3-5 young
+in a litter 3-4 times a year. The Deer Mouse is
+omnivorous and eats seeds, fruits, spiders,
+caterpillars, leaves, fungi, and insects. Predators
+include snakes, owls, mink, marten, weasels,
+skunks, bobcat, coyote and foxes. Deer mice can be
+carriers of infectious diseases like hantavirus and
+lyme disease.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+76
+
+
+
+Meadow Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonius
+
+Size: The Meadow Jumping Mouse has a body
+length of 18-24 cm (7-9 in), including the tail
+measuring 11-17 cm (4-7 in) and has hind feet 3-4
+cm (1-1.4 in) long. The average adult weight is 18 g
+(0.6 oz).
+Description: This small, slender mouse has fur that
+is dense and coarse. A broad dark brown stripe is
+always present on its back, the sides are paler
+yellow and the underbody and feet are white. Its
+nose is short and pointy and its eyes are relatively
+big. The enlarged hind feet and short forefeet are
+distinctive characteristics.
+Habitat: In Alberta it is found in central and
+northern regions of the province. It prefers moist
+grasslands with thick vegetated areas usually near
+77
+
+
+
+streams, ponds and marshes. It avoids heavily
+wooded areas.
+Behaviour: The Meadow Jumping Mouse can
+jump 2-3 feet, which is a long distance for its size.
+It is a decent swimmer and will jump into water
+when in danger. When constructing its burrow, it is
+an excellent digger. On average 2-9 young are born
+in a litter, 2-3 times a year. It eats seeds primarily,
+but also berries, fruit and insects. Hibernation lasts
+from fall until spring. Predators include owls,
+foxes, hawks and weasels.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+78
+
+
+
+Western Jumping Mouse Zapus princeps
+
+Size: The Western Jumping Mouse is 22-25 cm (910 in) in total length, the tail is 13-15 cm (5-6 in)
+long and the hind feet are 3-4 cm (1-2 in) long. It
+weighs 17-40 g (0.6-1.4 oz).
+Description: It has long hind-feet, short forelimbs
+and a long tail. The fur is coarse dark-gray brown
+over the the upper body, with a broad yellow to red
+band along the flanks and pale yellow-white
+underparts. Some have white spots on the upper
+body or on the tip of the tail.
+Habitat: This species of mouse is found in the
+central and south regions of Alberta. Mountainous
+terrain is inhabited as well as meadows and forests
+
+79
+
+
+
+dominated by alder, aspen or willow, where there is
+dense vegetation close to fresh water.
+Behaviour: The Western Jumping Mouse is
+nocturnal but the feeding ground can be identified
+by small piles of grass stems stripped of their seeds
+and by the presence of clear runways strewn with
+grass clippings. It is an omnivore and eats seeds,
+herbs, fruits, fungi and insects. It hibernates 8-10
+months of the year subsisting on its fat reserves.
+Although it normally moves by making short hops
+and leaps, the leaps may reach 72 cm (28 in) along
+the ground and 30 cm (12 in) into the air. A litter of
+4-8 pups is born once a year. Predators include
+bobcats, coyotes, weasels, skunks, raccoons, snakes
+and birds of prey.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+80
+
+
+
+Western Meadow Vole Microtus Drummondii
+
+Size: The Western Meadow Vole has an average
+length of 16 cm (7 in) and weight of 37 g (1 oz).
+Description: It is compact and stocky with short
+legs and tail and a rounded muzzle and head. The
+fur is dark brown and velvety with a gray-coloured
+belly. It turns white in winter. Its broad feet have
+strong claws for digging in soil. These voles have
+short ears that barely protrude from the fur
+surrounding them.
+Habitat: It is present in all of Alberta but prefers
+moist, dense grasslands near streams, lakes, ponds
+and swamps. Overhead grass cover is essential.
+Behaviour: The Western Meadow Vole is active
+year-round, day or night because it has to eat
+81
+
+
+
+frequently. It is active the first few hours after dawn
+and during the 2-4 hour period before sunset. It digs
+burrows where it stores food for the winter and
+where females give birth to their young. A litter
+size is 4-6 pups with up to 4 litters per year. The
+diet consists of grasses, sedges, forbs, seeds, insects
+and snails. In winter, it eats green basal portions of
+grass plants, often hidden under snow. This vole is
+an important prey, especially in winter, for red
+foxes, coyotes, hawks, owls, snakes and weasels.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+82
+
+
+
+Southern Red-backed Vole Myodes gapperi
+
+Size: This small, slender vole is 12-17 cm (5-7 in)
+long, with a tail measuring 4 cm (2 in). It weighs on
+average 21 g (1 oz).
+Description: The Southern Red-backed Vole has a
+short body with a reddish band along the back and a
+short, slim tail. The sides of the body and head are
+gray and the underparts are paler. It has a blunt
+nose and prominent rounded ears.
+Habitat: It is found throughout most of Alberta,
+excepting the southern region. Its habitat includes
+coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests, often near
+83
+
+
+
+wetlands. Forests, including mossy, rotten logs and
+stumps are preferred. It can also be found in aspen
+bluffs and shrubby vegetation.
+Behaviour: The Southern Red-backed Vole is
+active year-round, mostly at night. It uses runways
+through the surface growth in warm weather and
+uses tunnels through the snow in winter.
+Underground burrows made by other small animals
+are used. Being omnivorous, its diet includes green
+plants, fungi, seeds, nuts, roots, insects, snails and
+berries. Roots, bulbs and nuts are stored for later
+use. This little vole plays a positive role in the
+coniferous ecosystem since they disperse the native
+fungi that is necessary for the establishment and
+successful growth of conifers. Females have 2-4
+litters of 2-8 young in a year. Predators include
+coyotes, red fox, hawks, owls and mustelids, and
+are an important food source in winter.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+84
+
+
+
+Northern Bog Lemming Synaptomys borealis
+
+Size: The Northern Bog Lemming averages 13 cm
+(5 in) in length and weighs about 30 g (1 oz). The
+short tail is only 2 cm (0.8 in) long.
+Description: It has a cylindrical shaped body
+covered with brown grizzled fur with pale gray
+underparts. A patch of rust coloured hair is seen at
+the base of the ears. It has small eyes and a blunt
+snout.
+Habitat: The Northern Bog Lemming is found
+throughout most of Alberta, except in the southeast
+corner of the province. Wet northern forests, bogs,
+tundra and meadows are typical of its habitat.
+
+85
+
+
+
+Behaviour: This small rodent is active year-round
+day and night. It makes runways through the
+surface vegetation and also digs underground
+burrows. In winter, it burrows under the snow. The
+diet for this lemming consists of grasses, sedges,
+other green vegetation, mosses as well as snails and
+slugs. Females can have 2-3 litters of 4-6 young in
+only a 4 month breeding season. Predators include
+coyotes, red fox, owls, hawks, weasels and snakes.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+86
+
+
+
+Geomyidae (Pocket Gophers)
+Northern Pocket Gopher
+
+87
+
+
+
+Northern Pocket Gopher Thomomys
+talpoides
+
+Size: The Northern Pocket Gopher on average
+weighs 110 g (4 oz) and has a body length of 20 cm
+(8 in).
+Description: It has a thick body and neck, short fur
+and small eyes and ears. The fur colour is often rich
+brown or yellow brown, but also can be gray with
+white markings under the chin. It is named for its
+large, external, fur lined cheek pouches used to
+carry food and nesting materials. Long curved
+claws on 3 digits of its forepaws are used for
+digging.
+Habitat: It is the most commonly found true
+gopher in Alberta, using fields, prairie and alpine
+88
+
+
+
+meadows with good soil. The animal usually called
+a gopher in Alberta is Richardson’s Ground
+Squirrel, but it isn’t a true gopher.
+Behaviour: This nocturnal, burrowing, nonhibernating rodent rarely appears above ground;
+when it does, it rarely ventures far from a burrow
+entrance. Underground however, it has tunnels that
+extend hundreds of feet where it lives, stores food
+and mates. Food consists of underground plant
+parts and leaves of forbs. A litter has 5-6 young.
+Predators include badgers, coyotes, weasels,
+snakes, skunks and owls. To find where a northern
+pocket gopher lives, look for the crescent shaped
+mound of dirt in front of a burrow.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+89
+
+
+
+Soricidae (Shrews)
+Arctic Shrew
+Masked Shrew
+Pygmy Shrew
+
+90
+
+
+
+Arctic Shrew Sorex arcticus
+
+Size: The body length of the Arctic Shrew ranges
+from 10-12 cm (4-5 in) including a 4 cm (2 in) long
+tail. It weighs 5-13 g (0.2-0.5 oz).
+Description: The Arctic Shrew is most distinctive
+in its tri-coloured fur. It is dark brown or black on
+its back, lighter brown on its flanks and lighter still
+gray-brown on its underside. The fur is grayer in
+winter. The head is long with a pointed nose and
+the eyes and ears are very small.
+Habitat: The Arctic Shrew is present in the central
+and northern regions of Alberta. This shrew is
+found in greatest quantity and density near bodies
+of water such as lakes, streams, marshes and
+91
+
+
+
+wetlands, in dense grasses, alder thickets and in the
+undergrowth of forest clearings.
+Behaviour: The Arctic Shrew is solitary, territorial
+and active day and night. It has a voracious appetite
+due to its quick metabolism and eats insects, worms
+and small invertebrates. The female gives birth to
+1-2 litters each year ranging in size from 4-10
+offspring. The only known predators are owls.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+92
+
+
+
+Masked Shrew Sorex cinereus
+
+Size: The Masked Shrew, also called the common
+shrew, is about 9 cm (4 in) in length, including a 4
+cm (2 in) long tail. It weighs about 5 g (0.2 oz). It is
+one of the smallest mammals on earth.
+Description: The fur of the Masked Shrew is graybrown in colour with a light gray underside. It has a
+pointed elongated snout, small eyes and a long tail.
+Habitat: It can be found in all of Alberta and is
+common in poplar forests and meadows. Moisture
+determines the abundance of this shrew so it mostly
+lives in humid areas with high levels of vegetation
+to hide in.
+93
+
+
+
+Behaviour: This small shrew is active day and
+night, year-round. It digs tunnels but also uses
+existing tunnels where dry grass is used to make a
+nest. One litter of 6-7 young is born during the
+breeding season. The diet consists of insects,
+worms, snails, small rodents, salamanders and
+seeds. These shrews have to eat almost constantly
+because of a very high metabolism. They can only
+survive a couple of hours without food. Predators
+include larger shrews, hawks, owls, shrikes, snakes,
+herons, foxes, leopard frog, bluebird, brown trout
+and weasels.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+94
+
+
+
+Pygmy Shrew Sorex hoyi
+
+Size: The Pygmy Shrew is tiny. It is the smallest
+mammal native to N. America with a body about 5
+cm (2 in) long including a 2 cm (0.8 in) tail. It
+weighs about 2-5 g (0.7-0.17 oz).
+Description: Its fur is a reddish or grayish brown
+during the summer and a white-gray colour during
+the winter. The underside is a lighter gray. It has a
+narrow head, pointed nose and small eyes that are
+well hidden.
+95
+
+
+
+Habitat: The pygmy shrew is found throughout the
+boreal areas of Alberta except for the south-east
+corner of the province. It lives in moist or dry
+conditions in the grassy opening within the forest,
+as well as the shrubby borders of bogs and wet
+meadows.
+Behaviour: Due to its fast metabolism, it has an
+extremely large appetite and is active all year round
+even burrowing through snow. To stay alive, it has
+to eat 3 times its body weight daily which means
+capturing prey every 15-30 min., day and night.
+With a good sense of smell and hearing, it digs
+through soil and leaf litter to search for food,
+mostly insects and insect larvae. A litter of 3-8
+young are born once a year. This shrew swims
+making it a prey for trout. Other predators include
+hawks, owls and snakes.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+96
+
+
+
+Leporidae (Hares)
+Snowshoe Hare
+White-tailed Jackrabbit
+
+97
+
+
+
+Snowshoe Hare Lepus americanus
+
+Size: The adult Snowshoe Hare measures 41-52 cm
+(16-20 in) in total body length with a tail 4-5 cm
+(1.5-2 in) long. It weighs about 1.5 kg (2-4 lb).
+Description: The Snowshoe Hare has very broad
+hind feet which prevent the animal from sinking
+into the snow. The feet also have fur on the soles to
+protect them from freezing temperatures. In
+summer, the fur colour is grizzled reddish or gray
+brown, while in winter, its coat turns completely
+white except for black tips on the ears.
+Habitat: It is widely distributed across almost all
+of Alberta except for the southernmost region. It
+inhabits boreal forests preferably with a dense
+shrub layer, as well as treed coulees and river
+98
+
+
+
+bottoms of the prairies. It is also found in towns
+and cities.
+Behaviour: This hare is primarily nocturnal and
+spends most of the day in a form, a shallow
+depression in the ground. In summer, the snowshoe
+hare eats grasses and forbs, while in winter, it eats
+the buds, bark and branches of shrubs and small
+trees. A litter of about 4 young are born to each doe
+from April into summer. Does may have as many
+as 4 litters in a year. Predators include lynx,
+martens, long-tailed weasels, minks, foxes, coyotes,
+owls, hawks, eagles, crows, ravens and black bears.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+99
+
+
+
+White-tailed Jackrabbit Lepus Townsendii
+
+Size: White-tailed Jackrabbits measure 56-65 cm
+(22-26 in) in length, including the tail 7-10 cm (3-4
+in). They weigh between 3-4 kg (6-10 lb).
+Description: The fur colour of the White-tailed
+Jackrabbit is dark brown or gray-brown with pale
+gray underparts. The large ears are distinctive with
+black tips. The tail is white with a dark central
+stripe above. They moult in autumn and become
+white all over except for the ears. They have long,
+powerful hind legs and are excellent at running.
+
+100
+
+
+
+Habitat: This is Alberta’s largest hare and is found
+throughout the province, including in towns and
+cities. They live on plains, prairie and in alpine
+meadows with scattered coniferous trees. The urban
+environment provides more places to hide and more
+food with a good variety of plants.
+Behaviour: It is nocturnal and lies up during the
+day in a form, a shallow depression in the ground
+hidden under vegetation. It feeds on grasses, green
+plants and cultivated crops. In winter, it feeds on
+dry grass, twigs and bark on low shrubs. It has good
+eyesight, excellent hearing and can run up to 55
+km/h (34 mph) and leap up to 5 m (16 ft). A litter
+of 4-5 leverets is born in spring-summer. Predators
+include foxes, badgers, coyotes, bobcats, snakes,
+eagles, hawks and owls.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+101
+
+
+
+Vespertilionidae (Evening bats)
+Little Brown Bat
+Big Brown Bat
+Hoary Bat
+Northern Long-eared Bat
+Silver-haired Bat
+
+102
+
+
+
+Little Brown Bat Myotis lucifugus
+
+Size: The Little Brown Bat is a small species with
+weight at 6-13 g (0.2-0.4 oz), body length at 8-10
+cm (3-4”) and wingspan at 22-27 cm (9-11”).
+Description: The fur colour of this bat ranges from
+pale tan to red or dark brown and is glossy in
+appearance. The belly fur is a lighter colour. It has
+a short snout, small eyes and long ears.
+Habitat: Alberta’s most common bat, the Little
+Brown Bat is found across the province, including
+farms, towns and cities.
+Behaviour: This bat is nocturnal, foraging for its
+insect prey at night and roosting in tree hollows,
+rocky outcrops, caves and human structures during
+103
+
+
+
+the day. It navigates using echolocation along the
+edges of vegetated habitat, bodies of water or
+streams and eats mosquitos, spiders, beetles, moths
+and various flies. It can consume 600-1000
+mosquitoes or other flying bugs per hour and will
+eat more than half its own body weight each night.
+Some of these bats hibernate in caves or old mines
+locally, however, others migrate to the northern US.
+The litter size is one pup per year. Predators
+include hawks, owls and snakes. The little brown
+bat is susceptible to rabies and white nose
+syndrome (an introduced fungus), which has caused
+a heavy decline in the population of many bat
+species.
+Conservation Status: May be at Risk in AB
+
+104
+
+
+
+Big Brown Bat Eptesicus fuscus
+
+Size: The big brown bat weighs 15-25 g (0.5-0.8
+oz), has a body length of 11-13 cm (4-5 in) and a
+wingspan measuring 30 cm (12 in).
+Description: The fur of this bat is red brown with
+the upper side being darker than the underside. The
+rounded snout is flattened looking and the ears are
+short with rounded black tips. The flight
+membranes are black and hairless.
+Habitat: The big brown bat is probably the most
+common bat in southern Alberta while the number
+105
+
+
+
+of individuals declines in the northern regions.
+These bats roost in colonies within a small local
+area and usually forage within 3-4 km of their day
+roost.
+Behaviour: The big brown bat is nocturnal,
+roosting in sheltered places during the day. Roosts
+include tree cavities, wood piles, rock crevices,
+caves and buildings. Although little is known about
+their hibernation in Alberta, the number of big
+brown bats found in Edmonton is greater in winter
+than in summer. It is thought that the bats move
+into the city to use old warehouses, where
+temperatures remain just above freezing. Their diet
+consists of a diverse array of night flying insects,
+especially beetles. This bat is a significant predator
+of agricultural pests. One pup per female is born
+from May to June. Known predators include
+common grackles, American kestrels, owls and
+long-tailed weasels. These bats are relatively
+resistant to white nose syndrome.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+106
+
+
+
+Hoary Bat Aeorestes cinereus
+
+Size: The largest bat in Canada averages 13-15 cm
+(5-6 in) long, with a 40 cm (16 in) wingspan and a
+weight of 26 g (0.9 oz).
+Description: The coat of the Hoary Bat is dense
+and gray-brown with white tips to the hairs like
+“hoar-frost”. The body is covered in fur except for
+the undersides of the wings.
+Habitat: The Hoary Bat is found all over Alberta.
+It prefers woodland, mainly coniferous forests, but
+107
+
+
+
+hunts over open areas or lakes. It migrates long
+distances and spends the winter in the southwestern
+US and Central America, although some stay and
+hibernate.
+Behaviour: The hoary bat normally roosts alone on
+trees, hidden in the foliage, but on occasion has
+been seen in caves with other bats. It hunts alone
+for its main food source, moths. It also eats wasps,
+beetles and dragonflies. It can cover an impressive
+39 km (24 mi) each night while foraging. The
+female usually bears one or two pups in June.
+While not listed as threatened or endangered, hoary
+bats suffer significant mortality from wind turbines,
+mostly during migration.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB
+
+108
+
+
+
+Northern Long-eared Bat Myotis
+septentrionalis
+
+Size: The Northern Long-eared Bat is a small bat
+that measures an average of 9 cm (3-4 in) in total
+length, including a tail 4 cm (2 in) long. It weighs
+between 5-8 g (0.2-0.3 oz) and has a wingspan of
+25 cm (10 in).
+Description: The fur and wing membranes of this
+small bat are light brown. It has long, pointed ears
+and when folded forwards, the ears extend well past
+the nose. It also has a long tail and a larger wing
+109
+
+
+
+area than most comparably sized bats, giving it
+increased maneuverability during slow flight.
+Habitat: The Northern Long-eared Bat is found
+mostly in eastern North America in mature forests.
+It is relatively rare in the Alberta.
+Behaviour: This bat roosts in cracks, hollows or
+under the bark of deciduous trees in summer and
+migrates to caves in winter. It uses echolocation to
+navigate through cluttered forests. Most foraging
+occurs in the first hours of dawn and dusk, when it
+eats insects, with moths being its favourite. Most
+unusually, it can perch and pluck insects from a
+surface. Females give birth to a single pup in May.
+Climate change, forestry practices and the potential
+of white-nose syndrome coming into the province
+may put this species at risk.
+Conservation Status: May be at Risk in AB
+
+110
+
+
+
+Silver-haired Bat Lasionycteris noctivagans
+
+Size: The length of body of the Silver-haired Bat is
+10 cm (4”), the weight is 8-12 g (0.3-0.4 oz) and
+notably, its wingspan is up to 30 cm (12”).
+Description: This medium sized bat is nearly black
+with white tipped hairs on its back. Its flight pattern
+is slow and leisurely, often close to the ground.
+Habitat: It is found primarily in forested areas in
+central and southern Alberta, although it appears to
+be present in southern Alberta only during the
+spring and fall migrations.
+Behaviour: The Silver-haired Bat uses tree roosts
+in summer. It may be found alone or in small
+groups under bark, in abandoned bird’s nests, in
+hollow trees, or hanging upside down among the
+leaves throughout the forests in central Alberta. The
+111
+
+
+
+litter size is 2 young per female. Owing to its
+solitary nature and avoidance of humans, little is
+known about Silver-haired Bats in Alberta. It is
+known to be a strong flier during migration,
+however, this species experiences mortality at wind
+energy projects. It is relatively resistant to white
+nose syndrome.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB
+
+112
+
+
+
+REPTILIA
+
+Colubridae (Rear-fanged snakes)
+Red-sided Garter Snake
+Western Terrestrial Garter Snake
+Plains Garter Snake
+
+113
+
+
+
+Red-sided Garter Snake Thamnophis sirtalis
+parietalis
+
+Size: Common or Red-sided Garter Snakes are thin
+and about 1.2 m (4 ft.) long.
+Description: Most have longitudinal stripes of red,
+green, blue, yellow, gold, orange, brown or black
+on an olive background. Red markings are present
+between the stripes.
+Habitat: They are found in marshes, bogs,
+wetlands, ponds and forests. Mating occurs just
+before hibernation. Some males mimic a female
+role to lure away other males when they outnumber
+females. Females may delay fertilization by storing
+the sperm internally until spring. They give birth to
+12-40 live young between July and October.
+
+114
+
+
+
+Behaviour: In summer they are most active in the
+morning and afternoon. They hibernate in common
+dens, emerging to bask in the sun. The saliva
+contains mild venom that is toxic to amphibians.
+For humans it might cause itching and swelling. If
+disturbed, they might secrete a foul-smelling fluid.
+Garter snakes feed on amphibians, earthworms,
+fish, small birds and rodents. They are prey for
+larger fish, bullfrogs, snapping turtles, hawks,
+racoons and foxes.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB.
+
+115
+
+
+
+Western Terrestrial Garter Snake
+Thamnophis elegans vagrans
+
+Size: These medium sized snakes are usually 46104 cm (18-41 in.) long.
+Description: The body is brown, grey or greenish
+with a yellow, light orange or white dorsal stripe
+and 2 side stripes of the same colour. It is an
+immensely variable species, and even the most
+experienced herpetologists have trouble when it
+comes to identification.
+Habitat: Terrestrial Garter Snakes are found in
+grasslands and woodlands and prefer wetland
+habitats to hunt and hide. They mate in spring
+producing live young in litters of 1-24, from July to
+116
+
+
+
+September. Newborns are 17-23cm (7-9.5in) long.
+No parental care is given.
+Behaviour: This species has a mild venomous
+saliva that immobilises prey but is harmless to
+humans. They constrict prey but rather
+inefficiently. If harassed, they may emit a repulsive
+secretion from their rear end. They eat soft bodied
+invertebrates, frogs, mice and fish.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB.
+
+117
+
+
+
+Plains Garter Snake Thamnophis radix
+
+Size: Plains garter snakes average 0.91 m (3 ft.) in
+length.
+Description: This slender snake is greenish to grey
+olive or brown with an orange or yellow stripe
+down its back and black bars on its lip. Lateral
+stripes are greenish yellow. The belly is grey-green
+with small dark spots along the edges and the head
+has distinctive light yellow spots on top.
+Habitat: These garter snakes are commonly found
+near streams and ponds and in urban areas. Mating
+occurs in April and May near the communal
+hibernation site, 5-40 young are born alive from
+July on and are about 18cm (7in) long.
+118
+
+
+
+Behaviour: Their diet consists of earthworms,
+slugs and amphibian larvae and small mammals
+and birds. They are most active from April to late
+October and then hibernate in communal sites –
+sink holes, burrows or rocks. They are cold tolerant
+snakes that emerge to bask on sunny winter days.
+When harassed they rarely bite, but writhe to
+escape and emit a foul smelling secretion.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB.
+
+119
+
+
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+Ambystomatidae (Mole
+Salamanders)
+Western (Barred) Tiger
+Salamander
+
+120
+
+
+
+Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma
+mavortium
+
+Size: The Western or Barred Tiger Salamander is
+the largest terrestrial salamander in North America,
+from 15 to 22cm (6-9in) - even up to 30cm (12”)
+long.
+Description: It has a broad head and a sturdy body.
+The back is grey, dark brown or black with muddy
+yellow markings giving a tiger-like appearance.
+The belly is light to dark. Salamanders are an
+extremely variable, and hence, complex group of
+species with a lot of variability amongst and
+between species. They are found from southwestern
+Canada in British Columbia, Alberta,
+Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, south through the
+121
+
+
+
+western United States to Texas and northern
+Mexico.
+Habitat: They inhabit forests, fields, meadows or
+grasslands. Adults spend most of their time
+underground.
+Breeding throughout the year they gather by ponds
+for spawning. Females lay eggs in water. The
+larvae hatch in 19-50 days and have external gills.
+Some retain their gills into adulthood. Western
+Tiger Salamanders can live up to 15 years.
+Behaviour: Mostly active at night, these
+Salamanders are opportunistic feeders, and will
+often eat anything they can catch, including various
+insects, slugs, and earthworms. They are primarily
+terrestrial as adults, but their juvenile larval stage is
+entirely aquatic, having external gills. Predators
+include fish, dragonfly nymphs, predacious diving
+beetles, many birds and most carnivores.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB. There has
+been some decline in numbers due to deforestation
+and habitat loss and the introduction of non-native
+predatory fish. However, the population in most of
+the prairie provinces is secure.
+
+122
+
+
+
+Bufonidae (Toads)
+
+123
+
+
+
+Western Toad Anaxyrus boreas
+
+Size: A large species, the Western Toad is 5.6 cm –
+13 cm (2.2– 5 in.) long.
+Description: They have a white and cream back
+stripe on dusky grey and greenish skin and a pale
+belly with dark mottling. The salivary glands are
+on the sides of the head and oval in shape, the
+pupils are horizontal and they lack cranial crests.
+Habitat: Western toads are terrestrial, controlling
+their body temperature by basking in sun and
+evaporative cooling. They spend daylight hours
+124
+
+
+
+beneath the forest floor or in the water and are
+mostly active at night. Unlike most toads, they walk
+rather than jump. Their diet consists of bees,
+beetles, ants and spiders, slugs and worms.
+Behaviour: These toads are found near ponds and
+streams and are active from April to September.
+Breeding occurs in shallow ponds with sandy
+bottoms. The male call is a soft peeping sound.
+Females lay eggs in gelatinous masses of up to
+16,500 per clutch, beneath submerged vegetation
+for protection. The eggs hatch as tadpoles in 3 – 12
+days and are fully formed as adults within 3
+months. Juvenile toads become mature in 2 – 3
+years. Predators include fish, dragonfly nymphs,
+predacious diving beetles, many birds and most
+carnivores.
+Conservation Status: Sensitive in AB.
+
+125
+
+
+
+Canadian Toad Anaxyrus hemiophrys
+
+Size: Canadian Toads are usually 5-7 cm (2-3 in.)
+in length, with females being the longer.
+Description: These toads are brown with a
+yellowish line down the centre of their back and
+rows of brown spots on each side with reddish
+warts. The belly is whitish spotted with grey. The
+salivary glands (that secrete toxins) are large oval
+and meet the skull crests that form between the
+eyes. Projections on the hind feet are used for
+burrowing.
+Habitat: Found near ponds and lakes in prairies,
+aspen and boreal forests, Canadian toads are
+126
+
+
+
+terrestrial, taking to water to avoid capture. They
+hibernate in the fall by burrowing into the earth,
+emerging when the soil thaws. Adults feed on
+worms, beetles and ants and can live up to 7-12
+years.
+Behaviour: Males call to initiate breeding with a
+brief trill. This occurs in ponds from May to July.
+Females lay up to 6000 eggs in long strings, which
+hatch into tiny black tadpoles in 3-12 days. Feeding
+on aquatic vegetation, over 7-11 weeks they
+transform into juveniles. Males reach maturity after
+1 year and females after 2 years. Predators include
+fish, dragonfly nymphs, predacious diving beetles,
+many birds and most carnivores.
+Conservation Status: May be at risk. Once
+common in boreal and parkland habitats, dramatic
+declines in populations and distributions are
+occurring, but population monitoring is ongoing.
+Habitats are threatened by drought, conversion to
+farm land, agricultural chemicals, and oil and gas
+activities.
+
+127
+
+
+
+Hylidae (Tree Frogs)
+Boreal Chorus Frog
+
+128
+
+
+
+Boreal Chorus Frog Pseudacris maculata
+
+Size: Alberta’s smallest amphibian, the Boreal
+Chorus Frog, is only 2-4 cm (0.8-1.6 in.) long.
+Description: Also called the Striped Chorus Frog it
+is brown or green with 3 broken back stripes
+(distinct or faint). There is a stripe through the eye
+and along the side. Slightly enlarged toe pads aid in
+climbing small grasses but they are not good
+climbers. The legs are shorter than those of the
+western chorus frog.
+129
+
+
+
+Habitat: They feed on a variety of invertebrates
+including snails and insects.
+Behaviour: This species is found around
+permanent water bodies in cleared land and forests;
+also in sloughs and open meadows with sufficient
+cover and moisture. Breeding occurs annually from
+February to April. After mating a single female can
+lay 500-1500 eggs, in masses of jelly attached to
+vegetation in shallow water. The eggs hatch in 1014 days and tadpoles become juvenile frogs in 2
+months. They reach maturity the next summer.
+Predators include fish, dragonfly nymphs, many
+birds and most carnivores.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB.
+
+130
+
+
+
+Ranidae (True Frogs)
+Wood Frog
+Northern Leopard Frog
+
+131
+
+
+
+Wood Frog Lithobates sylvatica
+
+Size: The smallest true frog in Alberta, the wood
+frog is 5-7 cm (2-2.8 in.) long.
+Description: They are brown, tan or rust with a
+light back stripe and dark eye mask. The belly is
+yellow or green and the hind legs are striped. The
+smooth skin may have prominent ridges and warts
+high on the sides.
+Habitat: Wood frogs eat a variety of invertebrates,
+including worms and insects, with tadpoles grazing
+on algae and plant detritus. Movement of prey
+triggers the frog to lunge, open its mouth and make
+
+132
+
+
+
+contact with the tip of the tongue only. They leap to
+escape predators.
+Behaviour: Wood frogs are found in moist
+woodlands, forested swamps, ravines and bogs.
+They overwinter in upland areas beneath the soil
+and leaf litter. They can tolerate the freezing of
+their blood and tissues utilising urea and glucose as
+antifreeze. Breeding occurs from late April to June.
+Males have a duck-like call. Females deposit eggs
+on submerged vegetation next to other egg masses
+for protection in shallow clear temporary ponds.
+The eggs hatch after 3 weeks and become juvenile
+frogs in 6-12 weeks. Most wood frogs only breed
+once in their lifetime. Predators include fish,
+dragonfly nymphs, predacious diving beetles, many
+birds and most carnivores.
+Conservation Status: Secure in AB.
+
+133
+
+
+
+Northern Leopard Frog Lithobates pipiens
+
+Size: This large frog species can be 11 cms (4.3 in.)
+long.
+Description: It is green or brown with circular dark
+spots bordered by light rings on its back, sides and
+legs. A pair of light folds run from behind the eyes
+and down the back, with a pale stripe under each
+eye across to the shoulders. The belly is pale. The
+iris is golden with a black horizontal pupil. The toes
+are webbed.
+
+134
+
+
+
+Habitat: Found in ponds, swamps, marches and
+streams with abundant vegetation. In summer they
+move to grassy areas.
+Behaviour: These frogs eat anything that will fit
+into their mouths, including crickets, worms and
+flies. They are preyed on by herons, snakes, turtles
+and fish, and are used in medical research. Leopard
+frogs breed in spring. Males make a short snorelike call to attract females. Up to 6,500 eggs are
+laid in water. These hatch after 9 days and
+metamorphosis is complete in 70-110 days. The
+juveniles are 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2 in.) long and resemble
+adults. They may live for up to 4 years.
+Conservation Status: At risk in AB. This species
+has severely declined since the late 1970s.
+Previously common and widespread, it has
+disappeared from most of its Alberta range. It may
+still occur around Big Lake, but most of the
+breeding population in the southeast of the
+province. The protection of remnant breeding areas
+is essential.
+
+135
+
+
+
+Photography Credits
+Photograph
+
+Page
+
+Photographer
+
+Male moose
+
+Cover
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Park Sign
+
+4
+
+Miles Constable
+
+Park Map
+
+5
+
+Google Inc.
+
+Coyote
+
+11
+
+Tim Osborne
+
+Gray Wolf
+
+13
+
+Calgary Zoo
+
+Red Fox
+
+15
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Black Bear
+
+18
+
+Dave Conlin
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+Lynx
+
+21
+
+Wolverine
+
+24
+
+Badger
+
+26
+
+Nick Parayko
+
+Marten
+
+28
+
+Tim Gage via Creative
+Commons
+
+Mink
+
+30
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Fisher
+
+32
+
+Least Weasel
+
+34
+
+Long-tailed Weasel
+
+36
+
+Short-tailed Weasel
+
+38
+
+Striped Skunk
+
+41
+
+Racoon
+
+44
+
+136
+
+Government of the
+Northwest Territories
+Mathias Kabel via Creative
+Commons
+
+Larry Master
+(masterimages.org)
+Kevin Law via Creative
+Commons
+U.S. National Park Service
+via Creative Commons
+U.S. Fish and Wildlife
+Service via Creative
+Commons
+Tom Friedel via Creative
+Commons
+Dave Conlin
+
+
+
+Female moose
+
+47
+
+Tim Osborne
+
+White-tailed Deer
+
+49
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Mule Deer
+
+51
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+North American Porcupine
+
+54
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Beaver
+
+57
+
+Tim Osborne
+
+Red Squirrel
+
+60
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Northern Flying Squirrel
+
+62
+
+Woodchuck
+
+64
+
+Richardson’s Ground Squirrel
+
+66
+
+Dr. Robert Lane
+
+Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel
+
+68
+
+Nick Parayko
+
+Least Chipmunk
+
+70
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Muskrat
+
+73
+
+Tim Osborne
+
+Western Deer Mouse
+
+75
+
+Meadow Jumping Mouse
+
+77
+
+Western Jumping Mouse
+
+79
+
+Western Meadow Vole
+
+81
+
+Southern Red-backed Vole
+
+83
+
+Northern Bog Lemming
+
+85
+
+Northern Pocket Gopher
+
+88
+
+Arctic Shrew
+
+91
+
+Masked Shrew
+
+93
+
+137
+
+Scott Heron via Creative
+Commons ShareAlike
+Simon Barrette “Cephas”
+via Creative Commons
+
+Missouri Dept of
+Conservation
+U.S. Fish and Wildlife
+Service via Creative
+Commons
+U.S. Forest Service via
+Creative Commons
+“Japanese Tea” via Creative
+Commons
+Dr. Gordon Robertson via
+Creative Commons
+Marco Valentini
+U.S. National Park Service
+via Creative Commons
+Andrew Polandeze via
+Creative Commons
+Jennifer Edalgo, Illinois
+Department of Natural
+Resources
+
+
+
+Pygmy Shrew
+
+95
+
+Phil Myers via Creative
+Commons
+
+Snowshoe Hare
+
+98
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+White-tailed Jackrabbit
+
+100
+
+Dept. Wildlife, State of
+Utah
+
+Little Brown Bat
+
+103
+
+Nick Parayko
+
+Big Brown Bat
+
+105
+
+Hoary Bat
+
+107
+
+Northern Long-eared Bat
+
+109
+
+Silver Haired Bat
+
+111
+
+Red-sided Garter Snake
+
+114
+
+Western Terrestrial Garter
+Snake
+
+116
+
+Creative Commons
+
+Plains Garter Snake
+
+118
+
+Nick Parayko
+
+Western Tiger Salamander
+
+121
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Western Toad
+
+124
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Canadian Toad
+
+126
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Boreal Chorus Frog
+
+129
+
+Dave Conlin
+
+Wood Frog
+
+132
+
+Tim Osborne
+
+Northern Leopard Frog
+
+134
+
+Balcer via Creative
+Commons
+
+138
+
+Larry Master
+(masterimages.org)
+Paul Cryan, U.S. Geological
+Survey via Creative
+Commons
+Jomegat via Creative
+Commons
+Fish and Wildlife Service,
+State of Kentucky
+Larry Master
+(masterimages.org)
+
+
+
+139
+
+
+
+Produced by:
+Big Lake Environment Support
+Society
+P.O. Box 65053
+St. Albert, Ab T8N 5Y3
+www.bless.ab.ca
+
+$10, all
+proceeds go to
+BLESS
+programs.
+
+For information contact
+info@bless.ab.ca
+
+Printed by
+College Copy Shop
+10221 – 109 St.
+Edmonton, Alberta T5J 1N2
+
+140
+
+

rag-system/src/preprocessing/__main__.py

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+from file_converter import convert_pdfs_to_txt
+from chunker import chunk_files_in_directory
+
+def preprocess():
+    raw_dir = "data/raw"
+    converted_dir = "data/converted"
+    chunked_dir = "data/chunked"
+
+    print("[INFO] Preprocessing PDF files...")
+    convert_pdfs_to_txt(raw_dir, converted_dir)
+    chunk_files_in_directory(converted_dir, chunked_dir)
+
+    print(f"[INFO] Preprocessing complete. Converted files saved in [{converted_dir}], chunked files saved in [{chunked_dir}].")
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    preprocess()

rag-system/src/preprocessing/chunker.py

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+from langchain_text_splitters import RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter
+import os
+import json
+
+
+def chunk_text(
+    text: str, 
+    chunk_size: int, 
+    chunk_overlap: int, 
+    respect_delimiters: bool = True
+) -> list[str]:
+    """
+    Splits text into manageable chunks using RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter.
+
+    Args:
+        text (str): The input text as a string.
+        chunk_size (int): Maximum size of each chunk in characters.
+        chunk_overlap (int): Number of overlapping characters between consecutive chunks.
+        respect_delimiters (bool): Whether to respect logical delimiters to avoid splitting in the middle of words or sentences.
+
+    Returns:
+        list[str]: A list of text chunks.
+    """
+    # Define a set of hierarchical delimiters for logical splitting
+    if respect_delimiters:
+        delimiters = ["\n\n", "\n", ". "]
+    else:
+        delimiters = None  # No special treatment for delimiters
+
+    # Initialize RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter
+    splitter = RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter(
+        chunk_size=chunk_size, 
+        chunk_overlap=chunk_overlap, 
+        separators=delimiters,
+    )
+
+    # Split the text
+    chunks = list(filter(
+        lambda x: len(x) > 80,
+        set(splitter.split_text(text))
+    ))
+    return chunks
+
+
+def chunk_file(
+    file_path: str, 
+    chunk_size: int, 
+    chunk_overlap: int, 
+    respect_delimiters: bool = True
+) -> list[str]:
+    """
+    Splits the contents of a file into manageable chunks using RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter.
+
+    Args:
+        file_path (str): Path to the input file.
+        chunk_size (int): Maximum size of each chunk in characters.
+        chunk_overlap (int): Number of overlapping characters between consecutive chunks.
+        respect_delimiters (bool): Whether to respect logical delimiters to avoid splitting in the middle of words or sentences.
+
+    Returns:
+        list[str]: A list of text chunks.
+    """
+    with open(file_path, "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:
+        text = file.read()
+
+    chunks = chunk_text(text, chunk_size, chunk_overlap, respect_delimiters)
+    return chunks
+
+
+def chunk_files_in_directory(
+    input_dir: str = "data/converted",
+    output_dir: str = "data/chunked",
+    chunk_size: int = 1000,
+    chunk_overlap: int = 100,
+    respect_delimiters: bool = True,
+):
+    """
+    Splits the contents of all files in a directory into manageable chunks using RecursiveCharacterTextSplitter.
+
+    Args:
+        input_dir (str): Directory containing input files.
+        output_dir (str): Directory to save the chunked files.
+        chunk_size (int): Maximum size of each chunk in characters.
+        chunk_overlap (int): Number of overlapping characters between consecutive chunks.
+        respect_delimiters (bool): Whether to respect logical delimiters to avoid splitting in the middle of words or sentences.
+    """
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+
+    for filename in os.listdir(input_dir):
+        if filename.endswith(".txt"):
+            input_path = os.path.join(input_dir, filename)
+            output_path = os.path.join(
+                output_dir, f"{os.path.splitext(filename)[0]}.json"
+            )
+
+            chunks = chunk_file(
+                input_path, chunk_size, chunk_overlap, respect_delimiters
+            )
+
+            with open(output_path, "w", encoding="utf-8") as file:
+                json.dump(chunks, file, indent=4)
+

rag-system/src/preprocessing/file_converter.py

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+import os
+import pdftotext
+
+
+def pdf_to_txt(pdf_path: str, txt_path: str):
+    """
+    Converts a PDF file to a plain text file using pdftotext.
+
+    Args:
+        pdf_path (str): Path to the input PDF file.
+        txt_path (str): Path to save the output TXT file.
+    """
+    with open(pdf_path, "rb") as pdf_file:
+        pdf = pdftotext.PDF(pdf_file)
+
+    text = "\n\n".join(pdf)
+
+    with open(txt_path, "w", encoding="utf-8") as txt_file:
+        txt_file.write(text)
+
+    print(f"Converted PDF to TXT: [{txt_path}].")
+
+
+def convert_pdfs_to_txt(
+    raw_dir: str = "data/raw", 
+    converted_dir: str = "data/converted",
+):
+    """
+    Converts all PDF files in the raw directory to TXT format in the converted directory.
+
+    Args:
+        raw_dir (str): Directory containing raw PDF files.
+        converted_dir (str): Directory to save converted TXT files.
+    """
+    os.makedirs(converted_dir, exist_ok=True)
+
+    for filename in os.listdir(raw_dir):
+        if filename.endswith(".pdf"):
+            pdf_path = os.path.join(raw_dir, filename)
+            txt_path = os.path.join(converted_dir, filename.replace(".pdf", ".txt"))
+            pdf_to_txt(pdf_path, txt_path)

rag-system/src/rag/question_answerer.py

@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+from litellm import completion
+from .retriever import Retriever
+
+
+class QuestionAnsweringBot:
+    PROMPT = """
+        You are a helpful assistant that can answer questions.
+
+        Rules:
+        - Reply with a concise and informative answer.
+        - Say 'I don't know' if you do not know the answer.
+        - Use only the provided context to answer the question.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self, 
+        retriever: Retriever, 
+        model: str = None, 
+        api_key: str = None
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Initializes the QuestionAnsweringBot with a retriever and an LLM model.
+
+        Args:
+            retriever (Retriever): The Retriever object for retrieving context chunks.
+            model (str): The LLM model name.
+            api_key (str): The API key for LiteLLM.
+        """
+        self.retriever = retriever
+        self.model = model
+        self.api_key = api_key
+
+    def answer_question(
+        self,
+        question: str,
+        bm25_weight: float,
+        initial_top_n: int,
+        final_top_n: int,
+    ) -> tuple[str, list[str]]:
+        """
+        Answers a question using retrieved context and the LLM.
+
+        Args:
+            question (str): The question to answer.
+            bm25_weight (float): The weight for BM25 scores in the final score calculation.
+            initial_top_n (int): The number of top chunks to retrieve initially.
+            final_top_n (int): The number of top chunks to retrieve after reranking.
+
+        Returns:
+            tuple[str, list[str]]: The answer and the list of context chunks used.
+        """
+        # Retrieve the best context chunks
+        context_chunks = self.retriever.get_best_chunks(
+            question,
+            bm25_weight=bm25_weight,
+            initial_top_n=initial_top_n,
+            final_top_n=final_top_n,
+        )
+
+        # Combine the context chunks and name each chunk
+        context = "\n\n".join(
+            [f"Context {i}:\n{chunk}" for i, chunk in enumerate(context_chunks, 1)]
+        )
+
+        # Construct messages for LLM
+        messages = [
+            {"role": "system", "content": self.PROMPT},
+            {"role": "user", "content": f"Context:\n{context}\nQuestion: {question}"},
+        ]
+
+        # Get completion from LiteLLM
+        response = completion(
+            model=self.model,
+            messages=messages,
+            api_key=self.api_key,
+        )
+
+        return response["choices"][0]["message"]["content"], context_chunks
+
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    # Initialize retriever with pre-chunked data
+    retriever = Retriever()
+
+    # Initialize the QuestionAnsweringBot
+    qa_bot = QuestionAnsweringBot(
+        retriever=retriever,
+        model="groq/llama3-8b-8192",
+        api_key="",
+    )
+
+    # Ask a question
+    questions = [
+        "Who are mammals?",
+        "Which animals are instinct?",
+        "Which survival instincts prey have?",
+        "Are there any endangered birds?",
+        "What is the most ancient animal that still lives?",
+        "What is the most ancient animal?",
+    ]
+    for question in questions:
+        print("\n---------------------------------")
+        print(f"Question: {question}")
+        answer, context_chunks = qa_bot.answer_question(
+            question, initial_top_n=50, final_top_n=3
+        )
+        print(f"Answer: {answer}")
+        # print("\nContext Chunks:")
+        # for i, chunk in enumerate(context_chunks, 1):
+        #     print('---------------------------------')
+        #     print(f"Context {i}:\n{chunk}\n")

rag-system/src/rag/retriever.py

@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+import os
+import json
+import numpy as np
+from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer, CrossEncoder
+from rank_bm25 import BM25Okapi
+
+
+class Retriever:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        chunked_dir: str = "data/chunked",
+        semantic_model: str = "all-MiniLM-L6-v2",
+        reranker_model: str = "cross-encoder/ms-marco-MiniLM-L-12-v2",
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Initializes the Retriever with pre-chunked data and precomputed embeddings.
+
+        Args:
+            chunked_dir (str): Path to the directory containing chunked JSON files.
+            semantic_model (str): SentenceTransformer model for semantic similarity.
+            reranker_model (str): Cross-encoder model for reranking retrieved chunks.
+        """
+        # Load chunks from JSON files
+        self.text_chunks = self._load_chunks_from_directory(chunked_dir)
+
+        # Initialize BM25 model with computed tokenized chunks
+        self.bm25 = BM25Okapi([
+            self._tokenize_text(chunk) 
+            for chunk in self.text_chunks
+        ])
+
+        # Load SentenceTransformer model for semantic similarity
+        self.semantic_model = SentenceTransformer(semantic_model)
+        self.semantic_chunk_embeddings = self.semantic_model.encode(
+            self.text_chunks, convert_to_tensor=False
+        )
+
+        # Load CrossEncoder model for reranking
+        self.reranker = CrossEncoder(reranker_model)
+        
+
+    def _load_chunks_from_directory(self, chunked_dir: str) -> list[str]:
+        """
+        Loads all text chunks from JSON files in the specified directory.
+
+        Args:
+            chunked_dir (str): Path to the directory containing chunked JSON files.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[str]: List of all text chunks loaded from the files.
+        """
+        chunks = []
+        for filename in os.listdir(chunked_dir):
+            if filename.endswith(".json"):
+                file_path = os.path.join(chunked_dir, filename)
+                with open(file_path, "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:
+                    chunks.extend(json.load(file))
+        return chunks
+
+    def _tokenize_text(self, text: str) -> list[str]:
+        """
+        Tokenizes the input text into words.
+
+        Args:
+            text (str): Input text string.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[str]: List of words in the input text.
+        """
+        return text.lower().split()
+
+    def _compute_bm25_scores(self, tokenized_query: list[str]) -> np.ndarray:
+        """
+        Computes BM25 scores for a given query against the text chunks.
+
+        Args:
+            tokenized_query (list[str]): List of query tokens.
+
+        Returns:
+            np.ndarray: Array of BM25 scores for each chunk.
+        """
+        return np.array(self.bm25.get_scores(tokenized_query))
+
+    def _compute_semantic_scores(self, query: str) -> np.ndarray:
+        """
+        Computes semantic similarity scores for a query against the text chunks.
+
+        Args:
+            query (str): Input query string.
+
+        Returns:
+            np.ndarray: Array of semantic similarity scores for each chunk.
+        """
+        # Convert query embedding to NumPy array
+        query_embedding = self.semantic_model.encode(query, convert_to_tensor=False)
+
+        # Compute cosine similarity and return as NumPy array
+        cosine_similarities = np.dot(
+            self.semantic_chunk_embeddings, query_embedding
+        ) / (
+            np.linalg.norm(self.semantic_chunk_embeddings, axis=1)
+            * np.linalg.norm(query_embedding)
+        )
+        return cosine_similarities
+
+    def retrieve_chunks(
+        self, query: str, top_n: int = 50, bm25_weight: float = 0.3
+    ) -> list[tuple[int, str]]:
+        """
+        Retrieves the top-N most relevant text chunks for a query.
+
+        Args:
+            query (str): Input query string.
+            top_n (int): Number of top chunks to retrieve.
+            bm25_weight (float): Weight for BM25 scores in the final score calculation.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[tuple[int, str]]: List of top-N most relevant text chunks and their indices.
+        """
+        tokenized_query = self._tokenize_text(query)
+        bm25_scores = self._compute_bm25_scores(tokenized_query)
+        semantic_scores = self._compute_semantic_scores(query)
+
+        # Combine BM25 and semantic scores
+        combined_scores = (
+            bm25_weight * bm25_scores + (1 - bm25_weight) * semantic_scores
+        )
+
+        # Get indices of top-N scores
+        top_indices = np.argsort(combined_scores)[-top_n:][::-1]
+
+        # Retrieve and return the top-N chunks
+        return [(i, self.text_chunks[i]) for i in top_indices]
+
+    def rerank_chunks(
+        self, query: str, retrieved_chunks: list[tuple[int, str]], top_n: int = 3
+    ) -> list[str]:
+        """
+        Reranks the retrieved chunks using a cross-encoder model.
+
+        Args:
+            query (str): Input query string.
+            retrieved_chunks (list[tuple[int, str]]): List of retrieved chunks and their indices.
+            top_n (int): Number of top chunks to retrieve after reranking.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[str]: List of top-N most relevant text chunks after reranking.
+        """
+        pairs = [(query, chunk[1]) for chunk in retrieved_chunks]
+        scores = self.reranker.predict(pairs)
+
+        # Sort chunks by reranker scores
+        sorted_indices = np.argsort(scores)[-top_n:][::-1]
+        return [retrieved_chunks[i][1] for i in sorted_indices]
+
+    def get_best_chunks(
+        self,
+        query: str,
+        bm25_weight: float = 0.3,
+        initial_top_n: int = 50,
+        final_top_n: int = 3,
+    ):
+        """
+        Retrieves the top-N most relevant text chunks for a query and reranks them.
+
+        Args:
+            query (str): Input query string.
+            initial_top_n (int): Number of top chunks to retrieve initially.
+            final_top_n (int): Number of top chunks to retrieve after reranking.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[str]: List of top-N most relevant text chunks after reranking.
+        """
+        initial_retrieved_chunks = self.retrieve_chunks(
+            query, top_n=initial_top_n, bm25_weight=bm25_weight
+        )
+        final_retrieved_chunks = self.rerank_chunks(
+            query, initial_retrieved_chunks, top_n=final_top_n
+        )
+        return final_retrieved_chunks
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    retriever = Retriever()
+
+    query = "How much land surface is covered by mountains?"
+    top_chunks = retriever.get_best_chunks(
+        query, bm25_weight=0.4, initial_top_n=50, final_top_n=3
+    )
+    for i, chunk in enumerate(top_chunks):
+        print(f"Chunk {i + 1}: {chunk}")