SOURCE_DOCUMENTS/journal_017_2.txt

Volume 17, Number 2 Autumn 1994 
A BIRTHDAY TRIBUTE TO VIK TOR FRANKL 
What an honor it is to join with other members of our Board of Directors and with the world-wide network of logotherapists to congratulate Viktor 
E. Frankl, M.D., Ph.D., at the time of his ninetieth birthday anniversary. At the time of birthdays, it is customary to think of gifts; that is, gifts for the person who is celebrating a birthday. Instead, our celebration involves thanking Prof. Dr. Frankl for the gifts he has given to us--in fact, for the gifts he has given to the world. 
Ninety years ago there came into this world a child whose mind would develop to genius proportions and whose spirit would one day survive deprivation and degradation known to few others in the history of mankind. From that background, Prof. Frankl forever earned his place on the world stage by the example of his life and by the depth of his teachings. His theory, logotherapy, has given hope to countless millions around the world and has helped them achieve health in spite of otherwise insurmountable obstacles. Prof. Frankl has taught people in many nations and in every conceivable circumstance that everything can be taken from us--our loved ones, our worldly possessions--everything except our freedom to decide how we will respond to the circumstances of our life. It is our choice. We are the masters, not the victims of our fate. Prof. Frankl was liberated from the concentration camps 50 years ago this year. There is no way to calculate how many millions of people have been liberated from the "prisons" of their inner life because of the life, the work, the books, the teaching, and the theory developed by Prof. Frankl known as logotherapy. 
While the international scientific and educational communities have bestowed significant honors upon Prof. Frankl, it is in the grateful hearts of mankind that he has truly earned immortality. In our troubled world today, logotherapy is the only prominent theory of psychotherapy that uses the spiritual dimension of humankind in the healing process. It is believed throughout the world-wide network of psychotherapists that logotherapy is destined to become the dominant theory of psychotherapy in the new century. Because of that, we shall be honoring Prof. Frankl at the Tenth World Congress of Logotherapy, July 26-30, 1995, in Dallas, Texas, with the theme Viktor Frankl's Message: Search for Meaning in Our Troubled World. 
What gift do we bring to Prof. Frankl at the time of his ninetieth birthday anniversary? We bring the gift of heartfelt gratitude for the gifts that he has given to the world. We celebrate a life that will have forever helped others to find meaning in their lives. 
In congratulating Prof. Frankl at the time of his ninetieth birthday anniversary, and in thanking him for his gifts to us, we wish also to honor his beloved wife, Mrs. Dr. Eleanore Frankl, with our gratitude for her devotion over the years that has helped to make it possible for Prof. Frankl to share his work throughout the international community. 
Robert C. Barnes, Ph.D., President International Board of Directors Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy 
BIRTHDAV CONGRATULATIONS 
Dear Viktor: 
What can one wish to someone who is blessed with everything? You have worldwide recognition, the unbelievable support of your wife Elly, the love and professional backing of your family, the mental agility of a mature teenager, the physical fitness of a man who has just slipped beyond his rock-climbing age, the wisdom of the supramature, and the healthy attitude (your own prescription for the world) about your only failure--that of your eyesight. 
What can one wish to someone who serves as a role model for millions? One can only congratulate and thank you for your lifelong insights into a tragic optimism you have given to a human race suffering from the tragic triad. 
You have said on many occasions that you have laid the foundations on which others have to build. We, at The lnterna-tional Forum for Logotherapy have provided an outlet for those who wish to report their extensions of your work. This is our--and their-congratulations. 
Robert and Vicki Hutzell, co-editor and productionmanager, join me in this well-wishing to the last of the great European philosopherpsychiatrists of this century! 
Joseph Fabry, Co-editor 
The International Forum for Logotherapy 
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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 3-6. 
CORRECTING THE IMAGE 
Elisabeth Lukas 
During the past four decades many psychotherapeutic methods, techniques, and strategies have been developed, all aimed at restoring health in psychologically ill persons. Logotherapy is among these methods. However, it offers an addition that goes beyond the analytical, heuristic, and behavioral techniques, and will make it an essential method for patients in the 21st century. 
Logotherapy introduces a "correction of the image" --the selfimage of sick and healthy people, their image of the world, and indirectly even their image of God. By doing so, logotherapy not only draws attention to health, but also strengthens affirmative thinking, basic faith, and readiness for meaningful actions. This is accomplished through a philosophy and anthropology that views the human being in its existentiality: logotherapycures by letting people redefine themselves and others. 
What this means in practice can be understood easily. We guide our lives by certain concepts of how we are allowed to act, how we ought to act, or must act, according to the values we attach to persons and things. If we see people in a negative light, we treat them with disdain or contempt. The same is true if we belittle ourselves--our decisions turn against ourselves. Generally, if we consider people as troublesome and evil, we become misanthropes. 
In contrast, seeing people in their dignity and uniqueness helps us master even difficult human contacts. It also helps us accept ourselves and love others with their differences. This is essential in psychotherapy, but also in gerontology as well as in our relations with the sick and handicapped. If we see people merely in a mechanistic or materialistic way, we see them as an effectively functioning machine that in sickness 
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no longer functions properly and must be fixed. This concentrates our thinking on "repair techniques" but does not strengthen our ability to love, be patient, and accept others, when repair is not possible. If we think there is nothing, or almost nothing, that can be done about a person, if any effort is considered "not worthwhile" because the person won't be able to become well again physically or psychologically, we give up. Such resignation becomes dangerous when economic, political, or societal considerations make the care of the sick person "cost ineffective." 
Without a doubt, logotherapy is the least mechanical or materialisticminded among all psychotherapeutic schools. Its image of the human being therefore can be the model of a human-friendly anthropology. 
Let us focus on problems that, according to all forecasts, will be crucial in the 21st century: the tremendous field of problems with the aging. The increasing longevity of the population in technologically advanced countries poses a great challenge. A high percentage of the old are chronically ill, in need of care, depressed, confused, and a burden to their family. Someone has to attend to their needs. So both parties are unhappy--the care-givers and the cared for, the young and the old. 
Traditional psychotherapy has shown itself very tentative about the elderly. In contrast, logotherapy does not give up on them. Of course, it cannot compensate for losses, but that is not logotherapy's concern. Its concern is the individual's self-image and the image of the world which is to be seen as meaningful up to the last moment. Here logotherapy can reduce distress and help care-givers therapeutically as well as the elderly themselves. Frankl offers three specific "medicines." 
The Presumption of a What-For 
Any caring action presumes a Something for the sake of which the caring is done, or rather a Someone for whom it is done. Of course, it is done for the cared-for person. But it makes a big difference whether one sees this person as a sick body with reduced brain capacity, or one looks, with something like X-ray eyes, through the frail organism to the intact human being in its deepest humanness. While nursing the organism, the presentation is from the worst side; with dirt, vulnerability, fragility. This does not make it easy to remain near and touch, especially when aesthetically disgusting factors bring on avoidance tendencies. One would prefer to not meet certain old people. Nevertheless they strongly need our presence; a touching hand or a word of sympathy is more important than any medicine. Intuitively they feel from the reactions of others whether or not they are accepted still as part of humankind. 
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Care-giving, such as cleaning, feeding, and dressing, is made easier if it is done for the sake of the spiritual human being who exists beyond and above the sickness, who is infinitely more than a deteriorating organism, suffering from disability and weakness (withoutbeing identical to disability and weakness). Such care-givers know the what-for of the daily drudgery. They know for whom and for what they overcome their reluctance--a good feeling, in spite of many difficult hours! 
We Do Not Create Wellbeing 
Just as parents do not "create" their children, and physicians do not "create" the health of their patients, care-givers and family members do not "create" the wellbeing of those cared for. What care-givers can do is throw the switches toward desirable goals. This must be done in all modesty: they are allowed to pass something on into the hands of others-the hands of the cared-for, or the hands that are greater than all the hands of the world. 
A remnant of freedom remains in old age, in spite of the weaknesses of body and psyche, and despite the chaos of confused thoughts. The spiritual core of the human being can break through the walls of sickness and help shape the patients' lives. If they do not want to feel well, no care-giver can please them. If they have turned away from their family, none of their members has a chance to reach them. This giving up of any desire to change, too, has to be respected in the care-giver's efforts to bring about changes. Patients still retain a paper-thin area of decisionmaking, a remainder of being able to help shape their lives. If they are ready, even in their last phases, to listen and respond to the call of meaning, they will find fulfillment, even when in bed, wrapped in covers, in a wheel chair, or half blind and deaf. Life is not so lacking in meaning that it can offer it only to the rich, beautiful, and strong. 
It has been shown that care-givers and caring family members are less likely to suffer from burn-out caused by disappointment and frustration, if they do their service in the knowledge that the old and sick still have that last free area of decision-making. Whether or not they try, is up to them, but whether they succeed, remains beyond their efforts. Those who are satisfied to have genuinely tried, aware of the human values of their patients, calmly do their work with the elderly and reap the fruits of their work wherever those fruits evidence. 
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The Spirit in a Person Is Immortal 
We do not look only for a what-for but also for a why. We want to know that in the end our efforts were not in vain. But at the end of caregiving for the elderly is death. One provides baths, dressings, massages, and a week later the old person is carried out in a coffin. Why the baths, dressings, and massages? A discouraging thought. 
One may say, the patient during the last days still enjoyed a bit of the quality of life. Nowadays we talk a lot about the quality of life. Still, this argument smacks a bit of stale transitoriness. The feeling of wellbeing passes with breathtaking speed. Can it be that the entire goal of our strenuous effort of care-giving to the old is nothing but maintenance of a minimum quality of life? 
To pay attention to the spiritual dimension of people in their last phases of life is only a means, not an end. It is a means to allow the persons, in their spiritual dimension, to survey and order their lives, to bring a positive conclusion, and see what traces they have left in the world. If not distracted by pain, fears, and discomfort, the dying person can contemplate still the meaning of the moment, which may be a last-minute reconciliation, repentance, a love, a thanks rising in a heart preparing for departure. The dying are departing, preparing to return to their spiritual home and to take along what will be the eternal truth about themselves. Baths, dressings, massages, and other services only help them to "pack their luggage," to give them elbow room to forget their bedsores and wet diapers, to make peace and to find the one word or the one prayer that in the last analysis will have more weight than any lifelong failure. 
Those who know they have accompanied others at the departure destined for a happy arrival, feel the "holiness" of their work and the reasons for doing it. They get a glimpse, while in their prime of life, of the light beyond the big, terrifying door. 
ELISABETH LUKAS [Geschwister Scholl Platz 6, D-82256 Furstenfeldbruck, Germany] is Director of the South German Institute of Logotherapy and teaches Logotherapy at the University of Munich. 
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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 7-12. 
PRESCRIPTION FOR SURVIVAL 
Joseph Fabry 
Frankl' s therapeutic methods-Socratic dialogue, dereflection, attitudinal changes--may survive in the medicine chests of 21st century psychologists, perhaps under different names and without credit to Frankl. This trend is already noticeable. 
But more consequential would be a widespread acceptance of logophilosophy, with its positive view of human nature and potential. It may not be too pretentious to say that the survival of the human race depends on the adoption of such a philosophy. 
As our century ends, the world is in chaos. Religious conflicts, national struggles, trade wars, cutthroat competition, ecological disasters, crime waves, family breakups--what can put sapiens back into homo? 
Perhaps logophilosophy. Here are four contributions Frankl' s ideas could make to human survival and the quality of our lives. 
The Human Spirit 
According to Frankl, the human spirit is the dimension that makes humans unique. It distinguishes us from the other animal world. In our spirit we are free to make our decisions within the limitations of the two dimensions we share with other animals--body and psyche. We have the "power of the human spirit, "6• P-99 which enables us "not to have to take every nonsense from ourselves. "2• p.,s We have the capacity to take a stand against physical handicaps, psychological emotions, and social restrictions. We don't have to kill when our genes or drives tell us. We can say "no" to the animalistic forces that remain strong in us. We cannot help getting angry, being overcome by hate, sexual urges, and instinctual territorial imperatives, but we need not resort to terrorizing, murdering, raping, or going to war. We have, to a much greater extent than most psychologists would grant, a "freedom of will, "6· P-2 that enables us to change ourselves, even if only in attitudes. Our freedom of will is the countermeasure against 
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the widespread "I-couldn't-help-myself" attitude. It is the basis for the many changes that will be needed for survival into the third millennium. 
Responsibleness 
One of the changes needed for survival is a greater emphasis on selfresponsibility (which Frankl calls responsibleness). The proudest achievement of Western societies is personal freedom. The American Statue of Liberty symbolizes a goal for the still widely oppressed, world population. Yet, while most of the people on earth continue to struggle for personal freedom, many in the West who have achieved it find unlimited freedom a mixed blessing. Frankl diagnosed the dangers in the 1930's. Freedom without self-responsibility is license that opens the door to chaos. Responsibleness is self-chosen restriction of personal freedom, not dictated by outside authorities who give us "responsibilities," but found by the authority within--our own conscience. 1 · P· 120 
Our outside authorities give lip service to personal responsibleness, but they do not practice it. Members of Congress often use their freedom to vote not according to their conscience but out of party loyalty, for their chance of reelection, or in response to campaign contributions (sometimes from sources misusing their freedom to promote power and profits), from polluters, gun manufacturers, and cigarette makers. Industrial bosses feel free to hire and fire, ruin competitors, and use up or pollute irreplaceable resources. The freedom to make a profit takes precedence over the responsibleness to consider the needs of employees, customers, and competitors. Many of our mass media pervert their constitutional freedom to gossip and scare irresponsibly. Our three catastrophic evils--crime, addiction, and family breakdown--are the direct result of freedom run wild. People claim the right to get drunk, drive under the influence, use and sell dope in school, drop out of school, have sex when the urge comes to them, have children at an early teen-age, refuse to support them, avoid commitments, leave partners at will, neglect old parents or warehouse them in nursing homes. First Amendment rights, used irresponsibly as licenses, bring about abuses ranging from graffiti, pornography, obscenity, littering, and noise pollution, to character assassination, political lying, violent demonstrations, hate mongering, and religious fanaticism. Frankl suggests balancing the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast with a Statue of Responsibleness in the West. 1· P 127 
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Meaning--the Central Motivation 
Another ingredient for human survival in the logotherapeutic medicine chest is placing the search for meaning, and not for pleasure or power, at the center of our lives.4 • p.x Philosophers since Aristotle, and psychologists since Freud, have seen pleasure as the goal of human existence. The struggle for power goes back to our forebears living in caves, and even to our animal ancestors. Pleasure and power are rooted in the psychophysical level; the search for meaning becomes evident only when we rise into the dimension of the spirit, where a bird's eye view allows us to see life in broader perspective. What is meaningful is not always what gives us pleasure or power. It is what makes sense within the range of what we can perceive within the limits of our human capacities. To glimpse connections and consequences is what differentiates us from the pleasure-seeking and power-seeking rest of the animal world. Humans want not just to survive but to survive for a life worth living, an "examined," meaningful life. 
In a pleasure-and power-oriented society, children consider the pleasurable life as their birthright, beginning at an early age. This misguided expectation continues throughout their lives, leaving them disappointed, frustrated, in despair, even suicidal when their pursuit of happiness hits a roadblock as it inevitably does. Children expect rooms full of toys, students drop out if school is not "fun," grown-ups leave their partners when their hedonistic expectations, including multiple orgasms, are not fulfilled, voters elect officials who promise them a joyride through life without costs. When pleasure does not come naturally, it is artificially induced by gambling, dope, alcohol, and cigarettes. But, as logotherapy warns, "life does not owe us pleasure, it offers us meaning. "2· P-2 
Power (including prestige and material riches), placed as centerpiece of our lives, is even more devastating. Power-struggles destroy marriages, cause business catastrophes, and lead to conflicts ranging from personal frictions to civil and national wars. 
Self-actualization, a popular goal in affluent societies, is fulfilling only when it is oriented toward meaning, not pleasure, power, and riches. 6· p.s Logotherapy maintains that meaning comes from self-transcendence (to reach out beyond oneself and do things for the sake of others), not from self-actualization. 6• P-45 
The search for meaning has long been the goal of religion, but the responsibility for finding meaning came from authorities who prescribed, often dictated, meaning as they saw it. Since religious authorities had differing ideas, which they believed fanatically, conflicts and wars resulted. And since war now has the potential of total destruction, it wouldn't require 
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a Thirty-Year but perhaps a Thirty-Hour War to destroy life on earth, or at least a life worth living. Frankl lists fanaticism as one of the roadblocks in the search for meaning ("a psychological chain reaction even more dangerous than the physical one which takes place in the atom bomb").5 ' 
Thus, human survival requires non-fanatical religions that grant us the responsibleness to find our guidelines to meaning in our own conscience, poorly developed as it may be. 
Meaningful Sacrifices 
A fourth insight into the requirements of meaningful survival is logophilosophy's demand for short-term sacrifices in order to reach longterm goals.3• P-50 Religion was able to convince believers that sacrifices in a wretched life on earth were necessary to achieve eternal bliss. But in today's affluent societies life is not wretched, and an increasing number of people are not sure that eternal bliss is guaranteed. The consequence is what might be called "the credit-card syndrome"3• P 59--pleasure now, payment later. A long-range meaningful goal is jeopardized for the sake of imminent gratification. We have developed not only the me-generation, but also the now-generation. Students drop out if education requires hard work, ending up in meaningless jobs. Teen-agers give in to their physical urges and become parents long before they are ready. Drug addicts rob and steal to gratify their addiction and ruin their future. A short-term loss of jobs is unacceptable for the benefits of long-range tariff agreements or changeovers from war industries and ecologically harmful work. Politicians and voters consider tax increases unacceptable to pay for benefits they or their descendants will gain later, such as universal health care, welfare reforms, or the elimination of the national debt. Juvenile and divorce courts, addiction centers, unemployment offices, prisons, and mental hospitals are filled with people paying for their immediate gratification. And these payments cannot be made by credit cards. 
The credit-card syndrome impacts the lives not just of individuals but of society for generations to come. Loggers cut entire forests for quick profit. Rain forests are cut, without regard to ozone depletion and erosion that turns large areas into deserts and causes famines. To live in affluence we need energy now--foreign oil, never mind the political consequences; atomic power, never mind the radioactive waste. We risk the lives of our descendants for our comfort bought at their expense. We refuse to make the sacrifices necessary to eliminate the national debt that will burden our great-grandchildren if they are lucky enough to survive in a world that our lust for pleasure has left them. 
We live like the farmer who decides on a feast and eats up the seed crop instead of planting it. 
Education for Responsibleness 
Clearly, liberation from autocratic, vertical, imperialistic, patriarchic societies have brought us to the edge of self-destruction. These were societies where order was upheld by all-powerful authorities who thought little of our capacity to shape our own destiny, take responsibility for our lives, seek our own meanings, and form true democracies. Liberation from imperialism opened the way to tribal warfare and terrorism, freedom from absolute monarchies and dictatorships brought chaos. 
Perhaps we are not ready. Perhaps evolution develops creatures who, when they reach the stage of making decisions according to their own-weakly developed--conscience, use their freedom of will to destroy themselves. 
Here, too, logophilosophy offers a possible solution. It contradicts the image held by vertical societies that we have to be told from above how we should behave. Logophilosophy points the way to salvation through the assumption that every man and woman has the dimension of the human spirit that allows them to make their own responsible decisions. Throughout human history we were told we were too stupid to act without direction, and so--in self-fulfilling prophecy--we acted stupidly. As events everywhere show, we still act stupidly. An now comes this philosophy that tells us we have the capacity to make our own meaningful decisions! This shifts the 
self-fulfilling prophecy into a hopeful direction.  
Can  we  accomplish  this  Copernican  shift  in  time  to  prevent  the  
catastrophes  threatening  lifeboat  Earth?  Maybe  not.  But  again,  
logophilosophy suggests an answer.  

Logotherapy defines itself as "education for responsibleness.'' 1' P· 104 It prescribes a lifelong education, starting from birth, through school and adulthood, until death. The "curriculum" emphasizes our spiritual dimension where we are free to take a stand against the limitations of body, psyche, and environment, by changing meaningless situations, or changing our attitudes where the situation has to be accepted. The curriculum calls for nurturing our capacity to make responsible choices. It proposes that meaning, and not pleasure or power, is our goal. It asserts that sometimes short-term sacrifices are needed to reach long-term ends. Education must make students familiar with scientific facts, not because they want to become scientists but because they want to become responsible citizens in a world in which science has a big part. 1' P· 709 
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Meanings change from person to person, and from moment to moment,4 ' P-108 but the outlines can be recognized. In strictly scientific-evolutionary terms, the meaning of life is survival. In human terms, the meaning of life is its sanctity in the sense of Schweitzer's reverence for life, its quality is seen in the sense of Socrates ("only the examined life is worth living") and Einstein ("only a life lived for others is worthwhile") and Jesus (the Golden Rule). But there needs to be an extension of the Golden Rule: an imperative to do what is good for our children (worldwide and into the far future). To achieve this end requires the teaching of value-awareness and morals by the example of parents and other role models, including teachers from kindergarten through college, and by life-long learning. Topics must include the most controversial questions such as population control, preservation of natural resources and their just distribution, and the non-violent settling and prevention of conflicts (personal and national). 
Logotherapy views education as something far more than pouring information into a young mind. Logotherapy emphasizes education to true democracy which Jefferson knew was a government by informed, responsible voters, and education--as Frankl insists--for a meaningful life. 
JOSEPH FABRY [315 Carmel Avenue, El Cerrito, CA 94530 USA] is the founder of the Viktor Frankl Institute in the United States and co-editor of 
The International Forum for Logotherapy. 
References 
1. 
Fabry, J. (1968). The pursuit of meaning (5th ed.}. Abilene, TX: Institute of Logotherapy Press. 

2. 
Fabry, J. (1977). Letter from the editor. Festival of Meaning. Berkeley, CA: Uniquest Foundation. 

3. 
Fabry, J. (1993). The credit card syndrome. In M. Davis-Finck, & T. Gilmore-Finck (Eds.) Viktor Frankl and logo therapy: Everything to gain (pp. 59-66). Saratoga, CA: Institute of Logotherapy Press. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1959). Man's search for meaning (rev. ed. 1962). NY: Simon & Schuster. 

5. 
Frankl, V. (1965). The doctor and the soul. NY: Random House. 

6. 
Frankl, V. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism. NY: Simon & Schuster. 

7. 
Frankl, V. (1987). Logotherapie und existenzanalyse. Munich: Piper. 


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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 13-18. 
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY FOR CHRONIC PAIN 
Manoochehr Khatami 
Chronic, benign pain is becoming one of America's leading health problems and is expected to spread more widely in the next century. Viktor Frankl's approaches to existential therapy are going to be an increasingly important part of the treatment. 
Chronic-pain patients complain of debilitating pain that persists for months or years. Organic pain sources that are not generally lifethreatening include disk syndromes, peripheral neuropathies, arthritis, headache, injuries from disabling accidents, and central pain states such as trigeminal neuralgia. Surgery and other procedures often fail to relieve the pain of these conditions. 
Differential diagnoses are important in planning treatment. Chronicpain patients may have depression or narcotic addiction. The pain may be related to financial reward or to family interaction. Physicians are becoming more aware of links between the pain and feelings of meaninglessness and self-doubt. 
Persons with chronic disabilities caused by industrial injuries often are under internal stress prior to the injury.9 This stress may be due partly to inability to express emotions, especially dependency needs. Such feelings (of needing others) are in conflict with a self-image as an independent, self-sufficient individual. These conflicts can lead to feelings of inadequacy and depression, thus limiting ability to function on the job and greatly increasing the likelihood of having an accident and becoming disabled. These persons consider the injury as something that happened to them and therefore is out of their control. This interpretation is compatible with their self-sufficient self-image because the cause is ascribed to outside forces. 

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Many "pain-prone patients" have excessive guilt feelings, either conscious or unconscious, and they use their experience of pain as selfpunishment to relieve the guilt feelings. 5 These patients often are reared by parents who pay attention to them only when they are sick or injured, or when punishing them. When these persons develop a painful injury, the family pampers them and helps them avoid painful exertion. The family excuses them from normal responsibilities. This reinforces the pain or disability, leading to chronic pain behavior. These patients lack purpose and meaning in life. 
Frequently, depression precedes or accompanies chronic pain. Some people experience physical pain in place of psychological depression. Their pain is alleviated when their underlying depression is treated successfully.3 The more depressed these patients become, the more pain is the center of their lives. Their lives become devoid of nonpain-related thoughts and activities. Their hyperreflection results in muscular tension and spasms. The decrease of activities and social gratification causes reduction of selfesteem and accentuates the underlying depression. Their lives become meaningless, and the vicious cycle continues. They then may turn to chemical relief. Drugs appropriate for acute situations may lead to addiction if taken on a chronic basis. The drug dependency itself causes escalation of pain in two ways. As the patients become increasingly habituated, any decrease in medication causes withdrawal symptoms, exacerbating the pain. Secondly, many physicians prescribe pain relievers to avoid other medications. This provides chemical rewards for the patients whenever the pain gets worse. 
If patients become qualified for a disability pension, they are penalized financially when they improve. This makes their condition even more resistant to change. 
Establishing a Pain History 
If prior medical evaluations have been negative, the psychological or social impact of the pain on the patients and their families must be observed. The clinical interview (in addition to a physical evaluation to observe guarding, disuse atrophy, and drug dependency) should include the following areas: 
1.) Complete description of the pain, including location, duration, quantity, quality, circumstances, onset, number of hospitalizations, and surgical treatments. 
2.) Names and frequency of medications, length of use, complications from use, and their effectiveness. 
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3.) Review of the patient's work history, impact of the pain on their work, compensations they receive, and their activities for 24 hours. 
4.) Effect of the pain on the family (including the family's attitude toward the patient's pain) and the patient's ability to function as a family member (both sexually and socially). [It is advisable to interview the family members also since they may see the patient in a different light than the patient thinks they do.] 
5.) History that includes educational level of the patient, accident proness, alcohol and drug use, psychiatric disorders, and chronic medical problems. 
6.) Evaluation of the areas of meanings and values. [Four instruments useful in evaluating the mental status are the Beck Depression Inventory,1 the Feighner Criteria,6 the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality lnventory,8 and the PIL test.4 ] 
Treatment 
Many patients act as if their chronic pain is an evil spell cast upon them and requiring all their energy to fight. They live as if someday the spell will be broken and they will be able to return to their former life-style. This delusion enables them to see themselves as self-reliant, productive, outgoing individuals, while at the same time being passive, bed bound, and collecting disability. They cast the physician in the role of the good wizard who magically will remove the spell. 
The initial goals of treatment are to help patients realize that (a) they will not change as long as they wait for someone else to remove the pain, 
(b) they can have meaning and purpose in life in spite of the pain, and (c) they can be helped to accomplish this. Treatment involves helping them modify their behavior, treating any psychiatric illness (such as depression), helping them relax without drugs, withdrawing them from habituating drugs, exploring areas of meaning in their lives, and referring them to pain clinics when necessary. 
Dereflection 
Chronic-pain patients develop a sense of helplessness, hopelessness, and meaninglessness about their pain. They apply this sense of psychological impotence and the consequent low self-image not only to themselves but also to the rest of the world. Thus, their daily lives are dominated by the experience of pain and the pursuit of relief, with drastically reduced interest in other aspects of living. 
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Dereflection reduces these helpless and hopeless attitudes by teaching patients to master their major problem--pain--and reduce anxiety, thereby distancing the patients from their pain.7• 71 Dereflection aims at: (a) inner growth through forgetting the self, (b) turning from something that subjectively is seen as a problem to something that objectively is meaningful, (c) discovering something new that reduces the significance of the old, (d) overcoming egocentricity by opening oneself to the world. 
Modification of Attitudes 
Personal beliefs dictate how internal and external stimuli are interpreted. These cognitions or attitudes can lead to anxiety, muscle tension, and other physiological responses. 
Since personal beliefs do interact with environmental events to produce cognitions and consequent physiological responses, then modification of these cognitions and beliefs changes how patients evaluate and respond to events perceived as stressful. For example, a patient with an extremely high achievement orientation will construe even minor daily events as important to the question of achievement. 
The modification of attitudes phase of treatment teaches patients to (a) identify irrational and distorted thinking, (b) identify underlying assumptions upon which this thinking is based (e.g., "I must do everything perfectly"), and (c) change both the distorted thinking and underlying assumptions, thus modifying their attitudes. 
Modification of attitudes aims at: (a) accomplishing inner growth through changing the self, (b) turning from something that is subjectively experienced negatively to something subjectively experienced positively, 
(c) gaining a perspective of something old so it is seen in a new light, (d) accepting fate by the new attitude, (e) searching for meaning within the existing situation, (f) educating for courage and dignity, (g) changing unavoidable suffering into human triumph.7· 70 
Social-System Intervention 
Social or interpersonal payoffs {secondary gain) for pain include attention from others plus avoidance of occupational, familial, or sexual responsibilities. Pain becomes the currency for interpersonal or family transactions. The structure of families of psychosomatic patients is characterized by enmeshment, overprotection, rigidity, and lack of conflict resolution. The enmeshed family is less able to adapt to stressful circumstances because each member's functioning is overly influenced by 
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the others', and autonomous explorations and mastery of problems are discouraged. 
The social-system intervention phase of treatment decreases the interpersonal payoff for pain. For example, spouses are directed to give positive reinforcement (attention, admiration, concern) for goal-directed activities (work, recreational activities, exercise, walking), or to withdraw reinforcement for pain-related behaviors (complaining, pill taking, withdrawing from activities). Thus, the "sick role" has fewer interpersonal rewards for patients while they develop a wider variety of interpersonal behaviors. 
The logochart was developed to help patients analyze their daily events according to their attitudes toward the events, meanings of the situations, and resultant behaviors. 10 It provides useful daily homework for patients to differentiate their automatic, painful self versus their authentic, active, meaningful, goal-oriented self. 
The anxiety that increases the patient's perception of pain is reduced through relaxation training or biofeedback. Both help the patient gain some control over their life, and biofeedback can be used in close conjunction with psychotherapy to help them learn which thoughts and feelings actually increase or decrease their tension. 
Helping patients withdraw from drugs is one of the most difficult aspects of dealing with chronic pain behavior, because using medication is the only method with which some patients have had success. Unless they believe that stopping medication will help them, they will go to other doctors who are willing to give them medication. If the patients realize that medication no longer helps them or that they must change it every few months to obtain relief, they may be willing to slowly discontinue their drugs after biofeedback and relaxation training. It is importantthat patients understand they will not be abandoned to suffer their pain without any method of combatting it, and they will be helped to find a better way. 
If no better way can be found or if other psychiatric disturbances appear to exacerbate the patients' condition, referral to a pain clinic should be considered. Pain clinics are being established in many medical centers and private clinics. They offer psychotherapy and medical forms of treatment, but it is becoming increasingly clear that methods of existential therapy, based on Viktor Frankl's ideas, are an important part in the treatment of chronic-pain patients. 
17 
MANOOCHEHR KHATAMI, M.D. 15939 Harry Hines, POB II, #823, Dallas, Texas 75235 USA) is Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, and a Dip/ornate of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology. He is Vice-President of the Institute of Logotherapy. 
References 
1. 
Beck, A. T. et al. (1972). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 57-63. 

2. 
Benson, H. (1974). Your innate asset for combatting stress. Harvard Business Review, 52, 49-60. 

3. 
Bradley, J. J. (1959). Severe localized pain associated with the depression syndrome. International Journal of Psychiatry, 109, 741-745. 

4. 
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl's concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200-207. 

5. 
Engel, G. (1959). Psychogenic pain and the pain-prone patient. American Journal of Medicine, 6, 899-918. 

6. 
Feighner, J. P. et al. (1972). Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 57-63. 

7. 
Frankl, V. E. (1973). Thedoctorandthesoul. NY: Vintage Books. 

8. 
Hathaway, S. R., & McKinley, J. C. (1983). Manual for administrationandscoring ofthe Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Minneapolis: National Computer Systems. 

9. 
Hirschfeld, A. H. & Behan, R. C. (1963). The accident process. Journal of American Medical Association, 186, 193. 

10. 
Khatami, M. (1988). Clinical application of the logochart. International Forum for Logotherapy, 11, 67-88. 

11. 
Lukas, E. (1984). Meaningful living. Berkeley: Institute of Logotherapy Press. 


18 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 19-22. 
LOGOANAL YSIS FOR FUTURE SURVIVAL IN A VIOLENT SOCIETY 
Rosemary Henrion 
Violence in America is fast becoming overwhelming to the average citizen who is fearful of journeying to unfamiliar places or attending a cultural event after dark because of the high homicide rate. Almost all age groups are attacking each other if one individual happens to want an object that the other has, or even if there is verbal dissension between individuals. The crime law, which was passed recently, will impose stricter penalties on those individuals--they will be imprisoned for any violation. But this will not resolve the etiology of violent behavior. 
Viktor Frankl' s logotherapy is timely and needed for Americans who are becoming an informational society through a system of sophisticated high technology for the 21st century. Many people feel dehumanized as a result of this technological age. Ethical and moral values have eroded over the years since America proclaimed itself a superpower and an affluent nation. The present-day hedonistic motto is "if it feels good, do it." This pleasureoriented society continues in its downward spiral. Positive and effective approaches must be initiated to reverse this trend. 
Logoanalysis is a program that has been implemented successfully with thousands of men and women. It is a special technique in logotherapy that assists individuals to analyze their belief systems, develop self-confidence after experiencing loss, and think creatively toward future meaning potentials. They also can examine meaningful relationships at three levels and utilize dereflection by completing the Meaning in Life Evaluation (MILE) 
r• 253
scale to determine and prioritize their significant values.4· From these values come their personal meanings. Commitment to logotherapy is 
19 
essential for these individuals if they choose to continue to discover deeper meaning in their lives.2 
In my experience, clients completing the basic and advanced programs in logoanalysis have proven to be the most effective marketing representatives for this treatment because they are the ones experiencing therapeutic benefits. Clients frequently share with others how logoanalysis has helped them discover their significant values. By establishing goals, they begin to find their personal meaning. They become enthusiastic and renew their interest in looking forward to a fulfilling and productive life. Many clients have suggested that this program be offered to designated groups in the private sector where a large number of people are experiencing losses such as job insecurity and high divorce rate. With these losses people may become violent with rage because they feel shocked, helpless, and no longer claim a personal identity. The losses also represent eradication of their personal identity. Logoanalysis also has been effective with men and women who have experienced combat and imprisonment in war camps. Graduates of the logoanalysis program remark that being treated as human beings is the essence of this program. 
James Crumbaugh, co-author of the Purpose-in-Life (PIL) test, and this writer maintain that in 1994 twenty-five percent of the clients successfully completing the logoanalysis program are motivated to search for a meaning in their lives. This same percentage was reflected in the formal research with the PIL test in 1969.1 
In recent years, this writer has incorporated the grieving process with the second step of the logoanalysis program. Clinically, individuals who sustain loss or traumatic experiences, need to resolve feelings from shock through anger before they capable of searching for new meaning and purpose in their lives. After clients accept the loss, they experience a change in attitude (from victim to survivor) and become optimistic about their future. Discovering a meaning and purpose constitutes the last step.5 
Clients have shared some of the statements that created the most impact on them while they were in the logoanalysis program: 
•Each 
person is a unique and irreplaceable human being. When individuals are treated as less than human beings, they feel dehumanized. These feelings engender frustration, anger, and rage. Violent behavior then erupts as a result of uncontrollable negative urges. Logoanalysis teaches clients that they are unique human beings, who refuse to allow anyone to dehumanize them after completing the program. As a result, they gain more control over their lives by taking a stand to be consciously responsible for being an irreplaceable human being. 

•Each 
individual is placed on this earth with the potential to become the best he/she can be. Most clients are not consciously aware that they have a special mission/cause in life. By becoming cognizant of the tasks provided specifically to them, clients feel unique and irreplaceable (Ecce Homo).3 They also develop an awareness of the distinction between responsibility (following outer guidelines) and responsibleness (following inner guidelines) which is another step in achieving freedom and responsibility to take a stand for what they personally desire for their future. 

•Each 
human being has limitations and at times makes choices that are not meaningful. Young clients especially feel they are not permitted to experience failure. Competitiveness, for entering the most prestigious university and obtaining the best position in the work world following graduation, is sometimes overwhelming. It is predicted that by the year 2000 twenty percent of American workers will have full time employment while 80 percent will be part-time employees. This change in employment will create enormous stress in the academic and working worlds. Some young people will turn to drugs to produce the income they want for their lifestyle. Some particular lifestyles will lead eventually to violent behavior (physical/sexual abuse) and even death. Logoanalysis teaches clients to choose appropriate academic/vocational tracks for an eventual meaningful career. 

•There 
are meaning potentials every moment in life. Many clients are surprised by the number of possibilities for discovering meaning. These opportunities lift the burden for individuals (victims) to the point where they begin to see challenges for a productive future (survivors). 

•Each 
human being has a free will to make choices and to accept responsibility and consequences. This is difficult for some clients, but they learn that the more frequently they make choices, assume responsibility, and accept the consequences for their choices, the more positive they feel. They gain more control over their lives. They distinguish situations they can control from those situations that are beyond their control. 

•Each 
individual has a human spirit (noetic dimension) that never becomes ill or dies. As clients become consciously aware that they have a human spirit that will aid them in rising above their limitations (defiant power of the human spirit), they are relieved of the awesome feeling of being trapped. These clients become receptive to taking a stand, and they find taking a stand worthwhile, because they achieve goals they never dreamed possible. 

•Each 
individual is capable of developing a deeper and more meaningful relationship with others, having trust as the basic essential component. 


20 
Many clients find that developing a trusting and meaningful relationship is their true meaning and purpose in life. This kind of relationship is unusual in modern-day society because real commitment usually is not included in the relationship. Logoanalysis teaches the necessary ingredients for developing a meaningful relationship. 
In summary, the large number of clients who complete logoanalysis programs and provide positive responses believe this treatment will assist others in decreasing violence. This program will continue to be implemented in the private sector in the rest of this and the beginning of the next century for those who need to live a more meaningful existence. Business groups will profit greatly from such a program, and educators will welcome logoanalysis because they are primarily responsible for helping to mold character in their students. Many educators also will welcome the change in students' behavior compared to today's society where students at some schools must walk through metal detectors as they are scanned for weapons. 
Viktor Frankl, in his genius and creativity constructed an invaluable theory and clinical practice. Logotherapy has the potential to save America from the total greed, corruption, and final demise of this nation. 
ROSEMARY HENRION, M.S.N., M.Ed., R.N., Diplomate in Logotherapy, is a Clinical Nurse Specialist practicing logotherapy with the Department of Veteran's Affairs (312 Kenmore Road, Pensacola, Florida 32503 USA]. Ms. Henrion has been the primary therapist for the logotherapy program since 1980. She has authored publications on /ogotherapy and presently is coauthoring a text with Dr. Crumbaugh. 
References 
1. Crumbaugh, J., & Maholick, L. (1969). Manual of instruction for the Purpose-In-Life test. Indiana: Psychometric Affiliates. 
2. 
Crumbaugh, J., Wood, W. M., & Wood, W. C. (1980). Logotherapy: New help for problem drinkers. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers. 

3. 
Crumbaugh, J., & Henrion, R. (1994). The Ecce Homo technique: A special case of dereflection. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 


17, 1-7. 
4. 
Frankl, V. (1973). The doctor and the soul. NY: Vintage Books. 

5. 
Henrion, R. (1987). Making logotherapy a reality in treating alcoholics. 


The International Forum for Logo therapy, 10, 112-117. Author's personal views in no way represent the Department of Veterans Affairs or the U.S. Government. 
22 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 23-2 7. 
LOGOTHERAPY AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF INDUSTRY 
Frank E. Humberger 
The present author, whom Viktor Frankl calls an "industrial logotherapist," proposes logotherapy as the psychological discipline most practical to enable 21st-century executives to compete. Every decision by industrialists will involve a dimension of the human spirit. Globalization will require vision, risk, and resilience. Freud counsels reductionism, Adler counsels power, Behaviorism counsels operant 

conditioning. Freud offers only analysis of the past, Adler only more power, Behaviorism only behavior modification. Globalization requires a broadening of vision, extensive risk, and daily openness to change. As Daryl R. Conner put it: "It's a tough and competitive world out there for organizations today. Everywhere you look, major change is occurring. Continuous and overlapping change has become a way of life in the corporate environment. Change continues to shrink our global boundaries and push our business to new competitive limits. Leaders who want to get ahead in today's marketplace must learn to respond to the growing number of changes in how they structure companies, conduct business, implement technology, and relate to customers and employees. "2• p.3o 
Vision 
Where Freud stands and "analyzes," Frankl is off and running with destiny. Where Adler shakes his fist with "more power," Frankl opens his hands in hope. Where Behaviorism argues for details, Frankl proposes vision and decision. Tomorrow's leaders must move from managing in the now to imagining the future. Neither Freud, Adler, or Behaviorism can begin to fathom this approach to psychology. Frankl fits the globalization model, not the provinciality type. Companies must learn, in the nineties, 
23 
to operate as if the world were one large market, ignoring superficial regional and national differences.8 
One of the new buzzwords is "strategic intent," a process for "discovering destiny that is worthwhile. Any strategic intent [should] invoke lofty ideals...and contain pathos and passion...mission...creating meaning for employees...create employee excitement, not just satisfaction...lt is management's responsibility to imbue that work with a higher purpose than a paycheck. , P 129 Can't you see Frankl running with
"5 that high-conscience, high-density challenge? How we need you, Viktor, in the 21st century! 
Risk 
If vision is the overall thrust of competing in the next century, then risk is the methodology to make that vision come into reality. Hamel and Prahalad require that leaders rid themselves of "corporate genetics," the biases, assumptions, and presuppositions about the structure of the relevant industry, about the way one makes money in that industry, who the customers are and aren't, what they want and don't want, technologies that are viable and not viable. These beliefs must go... no more inappropriate reverence for precedent.5, P·54 The need for "genetic diversity" is easily illustrated in the following risks: 
• 
Clearing out top officers and mid-managementthat seem to be cloned. 

• 
Employing every new technology to change the rules of the game. 

• 
Changing profit recipes--experimenting with accounting procedures-and this may mean some "heads rolling" among the "bean counters." 

• 
Allowing no leaders to rest on past laurels--only on future creativity. 

• 
Questioning: are we blaming the regulators rather than searching from creative solutions? While Freud's reductionism is analyzing the past, Adler's individual 


psychology is proving the inferiority of leaders, and Behaviorism is conditioning for homeostasis, Frankl's fresh look at freedom as "commitment to"3, P 119 is indeed exhilarating and the psychology of risk. 
Freedom is unlimited when accompanied by responsibleness. 3' P· 122 Frankl's expression of freedom, the defiant power of the human spirit, is not determined by the past (Freud), does not succumb to Adler's inferiority complex, and will not be pushed into the behaviorism maze. It is free--with dignity! This freedom of choice comes from the freedom of the will, the will to meaning, and the meaning of life.4' P vii These three uniquely human thrusts are the assurances of the freedom to risk. Frankl's logotherapy gives the leader complete freedom, in responsibleness, to risk the ousting 
24 
of officers, changing the rules of the game, and experimenting with accounting. Of course, the economic truths will be the ultimate "responsibleness" in the short term, while destiny and conscience and life's meaning will be the "responsibleness" in the long term. 
Resilience 
Finally, the leaders of the 21st century must come to terms with resilience. Resilience, in one executive's terms, means "speed of change" by both individuals and corporations. When faced with unknown situations, they regain their balance quickly after the initial shock of unexpected disruption--proactive rather than running.2· P-32 
Another buzzword is "reengineering," which means to start over, to recreate the company. This means fundamental rethinking, radical design, with a "dramatic blast" improvement of all processes, Hammer and Champy say in their book.6 ·P·31 The promo on the cover says, "Forget what you know about how business should work--most of it is wrong. "5 If vision is the new thrust for the 21st century and risk is the modus operandi to meet that vision, then resilience is the new approach to change. Resilience tests the leader's capacity to start over, seeking new and dramatic "bounce-back" improvement over the past errors. 
While Freud is reacting and analyzing, Adler is seeking the power (inferiority/superiority) to catch up to the situation,1 · P 27 and Behaviorism is tackling the errors "by rote"--while these three are pondering, Frankl's free/responsible person of vision and risk takes off into the 21st century with:10 
• 
Immediately gaining distance from the error, thus getting control. 

• 
Modifying attitudes through a Socratic discourse to discover the authentic self of the moment, freeing oneself from old patterns. 

• 
Immediately changing what can be changed (to meet the new reengineering challenge) and discarding post-haste what can not be changed. 

• 
Orienting the entire self and corporation toward meaning (the "higher purpose"5). Frankl offers resilience through such choice and decision dynamics. This 


author cannot envision how Freud's analytical "stuckness" in the past, Adler's obsession with individual power, or "by rote" Behaviorism can ever meet the globalization challenges of the 21st century. Corporations and industry and business will be conducted in a highly competitive, reengineering, fast-changing milieu. We need to integrate values of ambiguity. No more do we have a simple segmentalist milieu.7 
25 
Will, Conscience, and Human Spirit 
What this paper proposes is that logotherapy is a discipline that, of course, may treat noogenic neuroses, but that it is also the discipline for the 21st-century industrialist who is not necessarily a patient in the psychotherapist's office, but a person in the world of competition. Logotherapy does not instruct the leaders on managerial methods, nor does it pretend to inform them about intra-corporate intricacies. Rather, through appealing to the will, conscience, and human spirit, logotherapy raises leaders of integrity. In a recent study made by this author, 54 toplevel executives said, almost to a person, that "the value I prize most highly in my decision-making is integrity." Integrity is defined by these 39 male and 15 female executives as honesty, straightness, telling it like it is, which translates in the "ology" disciplines as the "kubernetes," the rudder that steers the socio-politico-economicship. 
Will, conscience, and the human spirit--these are uniquely employed by Frankl. Each individual is unique, both in essence and existence.4· P-54 Each has a free will that "reaches out to the world ... with meanings to fulfill. "4· P-37 In fulfilling these meanings, the future leader steers the ship competitively, yes, reengineered, yes, and with vision, risk, and resilience, but at all costs with integrity--wise honesty. An act of will envisions alternatives, risks alternatives, and chooses with resilience the course of action.9• P-335 
Integrity, defined as wise honesty, describes the new leader of the 21st century. Honesty is one of the conscience. And conscience, according to Frankl, is uniquely individual, intuitive--butalso creative.4· P 63 Thus, the will envisions, risks, and is resilient--but in the leader of integrity this wisdom is coupled with conscience that guides the will. If future leaders live by logotherapy they will steer the ship with wise honesty. 
Thus far we have posited the place of will and conscience in the new leader's steering of the ship--namely with both the will (wisdom that employs vision, risk, and resilience) and conscience (intuitive and creative capacity to keep the search for meaning honest). One more vital character unique to logotherapy is the human spirit. Logos means spirit, the humanness of the human being, plus the meaning of being human.4· P 18 Whereas Freud's reductionism and Adler's inferiority complex look inward or backward, Frankl's defiant power of the human spirit looks outward and upward in self-transcendence, serving the world. 
26 
In sum, we have discovered the necessary factors in the 21st-century globalization milieu if the new corporate executive is to compete: vision, risk, and resilience. We have also discovered that the new executive must be one of integrity, in order to steer the ship with wisdom and honesty. The three contributions by Frankl's logotherapy are will, conscience, and the human spirit. The executives of the 21st century will be grateful to Viktor Frankl, as the heroic existentialist of the 20th century. Frankl answered my question I asked him in the 80'son his Rax mountain retreat: "Viktor, why are people calling you the heroic existentialist of the 20th century?" His answer: "Because I have forsworn pleasure after pleasure, day in and weekend out, to continue my writings so that of those 20 million who have read my works, perhaps 2,000 will find meaning--no, perhaps only 20? Or 1? That would satisfy me and give them life." 
FRANK E. HUMBERGER, Th.D. f1801 Eagle Harbor Lane NE, Bainbridge Island, Washington 98110-1836 USA] studied with Dr. Frankl in Vienna, is a Diplomate of Logotherapy, and coauthor of Outplacement and lnplacement Counseling. During his long career he has been Directorofthe counseling center Logos West, Counselor of "downsized" executives, 0 wner/Managerofprocessingplants, andPastor ofa Presbyterian Church. 
References 
1. 
Adler, A. (1969). The science of living. NY: Doubleday. 

2. 
Conner, D. {1994). Openness to change. Sky Magazine IX. 

3. 
Fabry, J. (1987). The pursuit of meaning. Dallas: Institute of Logotherapy Press. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1969). The will to meaning. NY: New American Library. 

5. 
Hamel, G., & Prahalad, C. (1994). Competing for the future. Harvard Business School Press. 

6. 
Hammer, M., & Champy, J. {1993). Reengineeringthe corporation. Harper Business School Press. 

7. 
Kantor, R. (1983). The change makers. Harvard Business School Press Review, May/June. 

8. 
Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, May/June. 

9. 
Lukas, E. (1984). Unpublished training manual. 

10. 
Runes, D. {1942). Dictionary of philosophy. NY: Philosophical Library. 


27 

The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 28-31. 
LOGOTHERAPY AND RELIGION 
Robert C. Leslie 
Almost from the beginning, logotherapy has received a pos1t1ve appraisal from the religious world. It is not by happenstance that the earliest logotherapy books in English were written by writers in the religious realm. 
Aaron J. Ungersma (Presbyterian), Professor of Pastoral Psychology at San Francisco Theological Seminary at San Anselmo, California, studied for a year ( 1958-1959) in Vienna with Frankl. He wrote the first book on logotherapy in the United States.10 In / the same year a second book by a religious writer appeared, by Donald F. Tweedie (Evangelical), who studied with Frankl (1959-1960).11 The next year, I (United Methodist) followed the same pattern of studying with Frankl (1 960-1 961) and writing a book.9 The next to publish in the religious world was Rabbi Reuven P. Bulka.2 The fifth writer is a layman in the Unitarian Church but a faithful churchman, Joseph 
8. Fabry.3 Like Frankl, Fabry was born in Vienna and spent his early life there before moving to escape Hitler. Fabry is the foremost advocate of Logotherapy in the United States, a founder of the Institute of Logotherapy in Berkeley, and the founding editor of The International Forum for Logotherapy. Fabry's book is the best single book in English for interpreting Frankl. 
I first came across Frankl' s work when I saw The Doctor and the Souf' on the desk of a student at Pacific School of Religion. He told me that he thought I would like Frankl because much of what I said in class fit into Frankl's frame of reference. I read the book and agreed with the student, and from then on I made Frankl an irreplaceable part of my ministry. When I wrote Jesus and Logotherapy I said in the Preface: "Tested in the rigors of concentration camp living, logotherapy offers a philosophy of life and a 
28 
method of counseling which is more consistent with a basically Christian vision of life than any other existing system within the current therapeutic world. "9 , p.s 
Why the Religious World Embraces Logotherapy 
There are at least four reasons why the religious world embraces logotherapy. First, logotherapy gives a central place to religious values. Frankl cites a dramatic quotation from a woman whose religious interests were so central that no therapy that ignored them could help her: "Whenever I exposed my longing for God, I was almost afraid they would bring in the strait-jacket. Until now every type of psychotherapy has missed 
the mark. "7, p.4s 
This is the principle of transcendence. The human being's focus needs to be, not on his or her own particular problem, but on the place for God in 
personal life. The centrality of God was expressed vividly in the Biblical record when Jesus was asked what the greatest commandment is. His answer: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your 
soul, and with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment" (Matthew 22:37). 
A second reason logotherapy appeals to the religious community is the active role the counselor takes in mobilizing the ego resources of the counselee. In this emphasis logotherapy parallels one of the most recent emphases in the counseling world. This is the holistic approach to health in which patients are seen as persons who can participate actively in enhancing their own health. Psychiatric Social Worker, Jim Lantz, in his recent book, advocates an "active, innovative, candid, provocative, directing, instigating, supportive, encouraging, explicit, intrusive, engaging, observant, clarifying, optimistic, experiential, and confrontative" ap
proach.a, p.38 A third reason is the positive role logotherapy assigns to suffering. Most therapeutic systems have little to say to persons who are caught up in undeserved suffering. Logotherapy, however, has a special contribution to make here. In his concept of attitudinal values, Frankl offers the best hint available for helping people deal with undeserved suffering. Meaning in life can be found in the very attitude one takes toward the hardships life has brought. Frankl puts it clearly: "In the realization of attitudinal values, one is free--free 'from' all conditions and circumstances, and free 'to' the inner mastery of one's destiny, 'to' proper upright suffering. This freedom knows no conditions, it is a freedom 'under all circumstances and until the last breath.' "5, P·66 
29 
A fourth reason is the commitment the counselor makes to assist in the search for meaning in the counselee's life. The personal nature of the meaning is stressed. Your meaning is different from my meaning because we have different life histories. 
Logotherapy Differs from Other Therapeutic Systems 
The Judaic-Christian faith has insisted always on the uniqueness of every person. Logotherapy respects this uniqueness and sees it expressed in the particular meaning that is waiting to be discovered in each person's life. The role of one's past is an area where logotherapy departs from most other therapeutic systems. Logotherapy insists that the past is of interest in an historic sense, but that the past does not determine the future. Gordon Allport, who wrote the Preface to Man's Search for Meaning, criticizes the backward looking orientation of most of the psychological world: "The individual loses his right to be believed. And while he is busy leading his life in the present with a forward thrust into the future, most psychologists have become busy tracing it backward into the past. • P-27
"1 I heard a woman who had talked relatively briefly with Frankl say to him some time later: "Dr. Frankl, after talking with you in Berkeley, I took the first constructive steps on my own behalf that I had taken in several years." Obviously, Frankl had mobilized her resources to exercise the defiant power of the human spirit. As we move into the next century, we are reminded that others in the psychological world have sought to bring religious values into their rightful place. Gordon Allport believed that history will record the psychoanalytic era in Europe and America as the time in which psychology lost its soul, and that Viktor Frankl was instrumental in helping psychology to find its soul again, just after World War II. Karen Horney was vocal in her objections to the determinism and reductionism of Sigmund Freud. Carl Jung had long advocated an acceptance of the religious dimension as a proper subject for psychology to study. With Frankl, once again the human qualities of the person are brought back into the foreground: searching for meaning, affirming the need to be responsible, and striving for values. The title of one of Frankl's books sums up his optimism about the future: Say Yes to Life in Spite of Everything!4 
30 
ROBERT C. LESLIE, Ph.D. [646 Santa Rosa Ave., Berkeley, California 94707 USA] is Professor Emeritus of Pastoral Psychology and Counseling at the Pacific School of Religion, Berkeley, and Curator of the Viktor Frankl Library and Memorabilia, at the Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley. 
References 
1. 
Allport, G. (1950). The trend in motivational theory. In C. Moustakis (Ed.), The self: Explorations in personal growth. NY: Harpers. 

2. 
Bulka, R. (1979). The quest for ultimate meaning: Principles and application of logotherapy. NY: Philosophical Library. 

3. 
Fabry, J. (1968). The pursuit of meaning. Boston: Beacon Press. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1946). Trotzdem Ja zum leban sagen. Vienna: Franz Deuticke. 

5. 
Frankl, V. (1950). Homo patiens. Vienna: Franz Deuticke. 

6. 
Frankl, V. (1955). The doctor and the soul. NY: Alfred A. Knopf. 

7. 
Frankl, V. (1975). The unconscious God. NY: Simon & Schuster. 

8. 
Lantz, J. (1993). Existential family therapy: Using the concepts of Viktor Frankl. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. 

9. 
Leslie, R. (1965). Jesus and logotherapy. Nashville: Abingdon Press. 


10. Ungersma, A. (1961). The search for meaning: A new approach to psychotherapy and pastoral psychology. Philadelphia: Westminster. 
11. Tweedie, D. (1961). Logotherapy and the Christian faith: An evaluation of Frankl's existential approach. Grand Rapids, Ml: Baker Book House. 
31 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 32-36. 
THE APPLICATION OF LOGOTHERAPY IN EDUCATION 
Bianca Z. Hirsch 
The focus of Logotherapy is on meaning. If the meaning of a behavior can be isolated and identified, chances are that new behavior can be learned and applied in the future if such behavior and the decisions preceding it are understood. Thus, identifying the meaning of behavior and questioning the value of such behavior will help children relate cause and effect in a clear and precise manner and, after various options have been explored, help them make appropriate choices 

in the future. 
Logotherapy, as a therapeutic tool, is useful in helping children and adults change behavior and attitudes and thus gain control of their lives. Within the educational system, logotherapy is not only prudent but also practical. Prudent, because of ongoing budget problems, schools need to find ways of dealing with personal issues that overwhelm children and interfere with learning. Practical, because logotherapy is action-oriented, allowing participants to assume responsibility for their own behavior. Due to the financial crunch, school personnel cannot always depend on parents to seek outside help. Health Care Organizations and Insurance companies restrict the number of visits for mental health services. Additionally, with current threats of job lay-offs, parents are reluctant to absent themselves from work--consequently, it is difficult for parents to take time off from work to take children for therapy. Therefore, when mental health services can be provided at school, there is a greater likelihood that parents will give permission for such services, allowing children to participate in therapy and/or counseling sessions on a regular, consistent basis. 
32 
Even though there is awareness of on-going problems children face at home and in school, school districts face budget cuts that result in the elimination of programs and reduction of staff. However, the emotional and social needs of students and school personnel remain. As a matter of fact, budget cuts add another level of problems because classes are bigger, teachers have less time for students, and students feel overwhelmed by the large number of classmates and school mates. Middle schools and high schools have become so large, that it is extremely difficult for adults and students to establish positive interpersonal relationships. This deprives students of one more caring adult in their lives. Often there is no father, or if there is, he may only be a part-time father, living outside the home and having other interests. In many situations, the mother is both the sole care-taker, and as a working mother, is often exhausted when she comes home from work, and frequently has little time when children need nurturing or an opportunity to express feelings and fears. Teachers and counselors, at the same time, have such large case loads that consideration for the individual student is held to a minimum. School Psychologists are assigned to school for the purpose of testing, and they focus primarily on getting children into or out of special education programs. Consequently, they have little time for in-depth counseling and therapy. Yet what better place is there for a youngster to work through maladaptive behavior, or problems with peers and/or authority figures, than on the spot? The immediacy of focussing on a problem before it escalates, allows change. By contrast, when a situation festers until the problem has been exacerbated, a severe crisis may develop. 
A variety of ways have been initiated to provide help for students who are in need. Brief therapy (as described by such authors as Amatea or Fisch, Weakland, and Segal)1•2 offers short term, problem-oriented counseling which enables children and their families to effect change and utilize personal strengths to resolve difficulties. 
Logotherapy, as developed by Viktor Frankl, focuses on the here and now as well as what can be done in the future, rather than on blaming past events. The orientation is for clients to look at where they are, where they want to be, and what is necessary for the individual to reach that goal. The individual is encouraged to assume responsibility for personal actions and attitudes. Logotherapy is not a "head trip" nor an intellectual exercise--logotherapypoints out repeatedly that the individual is more than an intellectual being. The individual is a spiritual being, in search of meaning. Instincts, desires, and feelings are strong within each individual; 
33 
the will to meaning is equally strong. Reasoning, planning, and assuming responsibility are of great importance in deciding what individuals do with their lives now and what kind of person they wish to become. Lukas points to situations of the chronically ill patient that can be found also in the chronically maladjusted student (i.e., "There is often a great discrepancy between what we intend to do and what we have done. This discrepancy reveals characteristic things about us. "7 ). We have to help students identify goals and seek their unique paths to reach their goals in personally meaningful ways. If children can be helped to see their uniqueness, working toward the goal can have meaning as well. Thus a student who wants to become an athlete can be helped to see that the many hours of academic study and athletic practice are parts of achieving the long-range goal and participation in these activities can be joyful and fulfilling in themselves. There is a meaningful path for each person, which only that person can fulfill in his or her own unique way. Lukas stresses there is something intended for each of us in this world; each of us has a task waiting. 
Within the school setting, adults and children can be helped to look at options, make choices, define attitudes, and assume responsibility for decisions in the classroom and in the schoolyard. With training, teachers and counselors can apply the tenets of logotherapy by using Socratic dialogue, dereflection, and teaching children to make choices and assume responsibility for their actions and their attitudes. Logotherapy, in its broadest sense, is not a technique that is reserved only for therapists. Rather, when understood, logotherapy can be applied by each and everyone in daily situations. Although a therapist or teacher can be the catalyst to help an individual find meaning, neither the therapist nor teacher can give meaning to an individual or to a specific situation. Each person must discover meaning. Tools that can be helpful include the use of a logochart.4 ·6 The logochart helps to focus on specific activities, provides freedom to prioritize and choose, and identifies behaviors that can be incorporated (or eliminated) in order to enhance the individual's growth and development. 
What is ahead for logotherapy in education? Logotherapy, as mentioned, is future-oriented. Schools provide less and less resources to help youngsters learn to cope with the issues that will confront them as they grow up in tomorrow's society. Logotherapyprovides a form of shortterm therapy that can be incorporated in the counseling program and/or provided by the School Psychologist or mental health worker assigned to the school. We are obligated to provide an environment that will not 
34 
encumber a child's learning because of problems in the home. Fincham touches on a single aspect (marital conflict) of such an environmental impact.3 Marital conflict may have a lasting influence on child adjustment, depending on how children internalize and externalize problems. Longitudinal studies are proposed to study cause and effect of such conflict.3 While the child is in the midst of family upheaval, therapy for the child may be necessary. What better place, than in the safe surroundings of the school? In many instances, the school may be the only site of stability during family disruption. Trained logotherapists can help the child acknowledge that the domestic problems were not the child's fault. Using techniques of logotherapy, the child can be helped to identify short-term resolutions that will enable the child to realize what can and cannot be done (identify choices) and foster an awareness of what stand to take and what attitude to assume toward the family crisis. 
Training School Psychologists and Counselors to use logotherapy within the schools has many positive outcomes. Inasmuch as logotherapy is a form of brief therapy (established long before the current brief therapy and brief strategic interventions), it is a direct approach that can be used with children and adults. Logotherapy does not delve into the past, nor does it seek someone else to blame (my mother did not treat me right...) but the focus is on the individual at the current moment in time. What areas are within the individual's control? For what is the individual responsible? What are the student's responsibilities? What can the student do to change a situation, or what change of attitude is needed toward the specific situation? 
Teachers can use Socratic dialogue to help students identify feelings, problems, concerns. Wilson describes the use of Socratic dialogue in a classroom and suggests the following: "Make participants aware of the resources of the human spirit: self-discovery, choice, uniqueness, responsibility, and self-transcendence... Help participants become aware that it is in their power to use these resources to find meaning directions... "8 This is exactly what is needed to bring to the awareness of students that they are not helpless victims but they can be responsible; and once they have discovered where they want to go and what they want to do, the road becomes meaningful as well. Logocharts and other tools can be utilized to chart the course and provide direction. The Life Purpose Questionnaire can be used with the adolescent population in order to measure the degree of life-meaning in adolescents. 5 
35 
BIANCA Z. HIRSCH, Ph.D. [115 San Anselmo Ave., San Francisco, California 94127 USA) is Past-President of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy, a School Psychologist in the San Francisco Unified School District, and on the clinical faculty of the University of California Medical School, Division of Behavioral and Developmental Pediatrics. 
References 
1. 
Am ate a, E. (1989). Brief strategic interventions for school behavior problems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

2. 
Fisch, R., Weakland, J., & Segal, L. (1986). The tactics of change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

3. 
Fincham, F. (1994). Understanding the association between marital conflict and child adjustment: Overview. Journal of Family Psychology, 8. 

4. 
Hirsch, B. (1990). A modified logochart for youth. International Forum for Logotherapy, 13, 61-63. 

5. 
Hutzell, R., & Finck, W. (1994). Adapting the Life Purpose Questionnaire for use with adolescent populations. International Forum for Logotherapy, 17, 42-46. 

6. 
Khatami, M. (1988). Clinical application of the logochart. International Forum for Logotherapy, 11, 67-75. 

7. 
Lukas, E. (1992). Meaning and goals in the chronically ill. International Forum for Logotherapy, 15, 90-98. 

8. 
Wilson, R. (1994). Logotherapy in the classroom. International Forum for Logotherapy, 17, 32-41. 


36 

The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 37-44. 
VIKTOR FRANKL SPEAKS OF HIS LIFE 
Stephen S. Kalmar 
Viktor Frankl likes to underline his statements in books and lectures with stories from his own life. A comprehensive collection of those could almost serve as a substitute for an autobiography--as long as we are without an authentic one. This article cannot offer a complete collection, but it can throw some light on Frankl' s personality and life. It concentrates on untranslated German and Spanish sources, and on interviews. 
In 1982, I wrote: "The history of a new school is, in its first phase, largely the history of its founder ... Viktor E. Frankl' s writings are to a large extent autobiographical. We can see how his thoughts from the earliest beginnings have developed both chronologically and systematically. "17· p.xv This statement seems to be confirmed by Frankl himself in the course of an interview which also shows his sense of humor. Frankl: "In a letter to Princess Bonaparte, Freud once said: 'The moment a man raises the question of meaning of his life, he is sick.' He might be right. ..It might have been a valid statement in Freud's day, but no longer." Interviewer: "Then, because you are interested in this problem, the orthodox view would be to say that you are a neurotic." Frankl: "Exactly. But let me be a neurotic. It has been said that each person offers his own case history when working out a new psychotherapeutic system. Take it for granted: if I can show how I, personally, have overcome this neurosis--if that is what the feeling of meaningless is--then perhaps my case history becomes a new approach to psychotherapy and other people will be able to overcome the same predicament." 16·P 61 Frankl's overcoming his "neurosis" became the new Viennese School of Logotherapy. 
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No Early Recognition 
Recognition in his native Austria did not come easily. Thus, it followed the fate that Freud and Adler experienced. Frankl's first and important publications after his liberation from the concentration camps and return to Vienna went largely unnoticed. Ein Psycho/age erlebt das Konzentrationslager3 (the German title of Man's Search for Meaning11 ) sold only a few thousand copies, and his Arztliche Seelsorge7 (in English The Doctor and the Sou/12) did little better. Recognition of Frankl's importance started in Austria and Europe only some 20 years later, after his lectures in the United States, and especially after the sensational success of his Man's Search for Meaning. As late as 1968 Frankl told his American interviewer, "We Europeans have become addicted to whatever comes from your country. We are not modern enough to develop our own approaches but are imitating the Americans. There is a great gulf in Europe because we do not progress. We are not developing humanistic psychology but reimporting the old mechanistic concept. And it will take some time until Allport and Maslow, and perhaps even Viktor Frankl will reach them in Europe." Interviewer: "Isn't it strange that Vienna, where it all started, regards you as a maverick?" Frankl: "Up to three times a year I am invited to give lecture tours in this country. By now I have lectured at 85 American universities, seminaries, and colleges, while in Vienna, except for my weekly one-hour lecture as a member of the University's medical faculty, I have one lecture every two years. "16· r.Bo At the time of the 1968 interview, Frankl stated with some pride that Man's Search for Meaning had sold 300,000 copies. In 1989 he told me in a letter: "By now there exist 616 published works of mine, of which 317 are scientific. The English translation of Man's Search for Meaning has reached 78 editions." Now the book approaches 5 million copies sold! Frankl' s fame started in the United States but at his 90th birthday it is also established in his native Austria-and all over the world. 
Family Background 
In many books, Frankl speaks of his family background, and he does so with great fondness. He had an older brother, Walter, and he has a younger sister, Estella. He dedicated his book Trotzdem Ja zum Leben sagen to his father, Gabriel Frankl, and named his daughter after him, Gabriela. He dedicated his book Ein Psycho/age erlebt das Konzentrationslager to his mother, Elsa, and his Zeit und Verantwortung to his brother. Frankl recalled that "In my childhood my feeling of security came naturally...from my environment. I remember--! must have been five, and I take this childhood memory to be paradigmatic--when on a sunny morning at the summer resort 
38 
of Hainfeld, I woke up and, still with the eyes closed, was flooded with his blissful feeling of being watched over, protected, safe. When I opened my eyes I saw my father bent over me and smiling." 13·P· 145 
Frankl's parents came from the Czech part of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy. Prague, an age-long cultural and scientific center of Europe, was the birthplace of many world-renowned scientists, writers, philosophers, and religious leaders. "The parents, Gabriel and Elsa, were born in the southern part of Moravia and in Prague, respectively. His mother's family leads in direct line, 12 generations back, to the famous Rabbi Loew of the Alt-Neu Synagogue of Prague, the oldest one in Europe. "18· P-4 Rabbi Loew, venerated even today, tried to create the Golem in the 16th century. 
[According to Jewish folklore the Go/em is an artificial man created by blowing life into a clay figure.] In an interview, Frankl stated that his parents were liberal Jews and that "no one ordered me to go to the synagogue," but that he developed a feeling for the spiritual which he distinguished from the religious. 1• P-58 
Frankl' s father "studied medicine but, as a poor young man, could not afford to complete his studies. For 10 years he was a stenographer in the parliament of the Austrian monarchy, then he became an administrative director in the Ministry of Social Affairs." 16· P-51 As a 3-year-old, Viktor Frankl already thought of becoming a doctor. "The ideals at that time were to become either a cabin boy on a boat or a military man. I combined the two ideals with my wish to become a doctor by sometimes saying I will be a doctor on a boat, sometimes a doctor in the army. "13· P-144 He became interested in medical research. "I still see myself at the age of 3 saying to my mother: I know a way to invent medicines. Take people who either want to kill themselves or suffer from an incurable sickness and give them shoe polish or petroleum to eat. If they die--that's what they wanted. If they survive--then you know the medicine that cured them. "13· P-144 
Early Interests 
At the age of 12, Frankl read the philosophers Wilhelm Oswald and Gustav Theodor Fechner, and one day "I filled a few pages of my notebook and gave it the pretentious title: 'We and the World Progress.' I was convinced that, in the macrocosm and also in the microcosm, there existed a universal balance, in my A.rztliche Seelsorge I again picked up the thread of such views." 13,P-145 
Soon after Frankl became interested in experimental psychology and attended adult education classes. At 14, he excitedly read Freud. "More and more, my writings and talks at school became treatises about psychoanalysis, and I told my classmates about it. Soon, I started to 
39 
correspond with Freud. I sent him notes from my vast and interdisciplinary readings which I believed would interest him. Each letter was promptly answered. Unfortunately, all letters and postcards from him--continuing through my graduation from high school--were, decades later, together with case histories written by Freud, confiscated by the Gestapo when I arrived at the concentration camp." 13·P· 147 
Frankl also went to evening courses in philosophy, including a workshop "given by Edgar Zilser, and at the age of 16 I gave a lecture about--no less than--the meaning of life. Then I already had developed two of my basic thoughts: that we really are not permitted to ask what the meaning of life is because we are the ones to whom the question is directed--we are the ones to answer."13 · P 15°Frankl' s graduation paper from high school had the title: "Zur Psychologie des Philosophischen Den kens" (About the Psychology of Philosophical Thinking). It was wholy psychoanalytically oriented. 
Politics was another important part of young Frankl' s activities. "As a high-school student I was for several years an official of the Socialist Labor Youth Organization, and in 1924 for a time the acting president of the Socialist High-School Student Organization of all Austria. My friends and I roamed until late at night through the Prater [a large park close to where Frankl lived] and discussed Marx and Lenin as well as Freud and 
Adler. .. 13, p.150 
Next to psychiatry, Frankl' s second great love has been mountain climbing, which also started in his youth. In his lecture on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the Austrian Alpine Society in the main ceremonial hall of the Vienna Imperial Castle in 1987, Frankl stated, "I joined the Austrian Alpine Society in 1953 and have been a member for only 33 years. But I became addicted to mountain climbing by 1924 and stopped only after 60 years when I was almost 80 and after having passed the test for the third-degree of difficulty in climbing. I first belonged to the Friends of Nature until it was outlawed in 1934 [for being Socialist], then to the Alpine society of the Danube Region, which refused to accept the law excluding Jews and was outlawed in 1938. By then I had advanced to be a guide, and I was so proud of it that I took the badge with me to the camps. Only in Auschwitz I had to part with it. "15 · P· 12 Another proof of his great love for rockclimbing is found in Frankl's answer to an interviewer's question, "How did you survive [the camps]?" Frankl responded: "I was lucky. And survived better as a person because I had a richer background, an inner life on which to draw. I had a mission: to counsel other inmates. And do you know what I fantasized about?--! wanted to live to go rockclimbing 
again. n16, p.63 
40 
At high school, Frankl developed two lesser-known talents: hypnosis and drawing caricatures. He connects these two with his interest in psychiatry and how the human mind works. "As a caricaturist, like as a psychiatrist, I became aware of a person's weaknesses," and as to hypnosis, "I maintain that for a still-immature person the lure of psychiatry lies in the promise to gain power over others, to control them, manipulate them. It is said 'knowledge is power,' and the knowledge we have of how others function-by mechanisms unknown to themselves--provides us power over them. We can see this in the case of hypnosis. I have to confess that, in my youth, I too was interested in hypnosis, and at 1 5 I could already properly hypnotize."13· p. 149 
Here are two later anecdotes of Frankl about his achievements as hypnotist. As a young doctor he was asked to use hypnosis to help a patient fall asleep at night. He sat at the patient's bed and used the appropriate suggestions for more than half an hour. "When I wanted to sneak away I was disappointed to see that all my efforts had failed. How surprised was I the next morning when I entered the room and was enthusiastically greeted with: 'I slept wonderfully last night. A few minutes after you had started talking I was soundly asleep.' These were the words 
10 55
by the neighbor of the patient I should have hypnotized. " • P-At another occasion Frankl, still a young doctor, was asked to hypnotize an elderly woman who was too weak to withstand the normal anaesthesia for a surgery. "I tried to make the poor woman free of pain through hypnosis, and luckily I succeeded ...But then, added to the praise of the doctors and the thanks of the patient were bitter reproaches by the attending nurse who accused me that all the time during the operation, and only with great effort, had she been able to overcome her desire to sleep, which my monotone suggestions had caused. "70· P·55 
Work with Freud and Adler 
Freud published a manuscript by Frankl in 1924,2 but this was not Frankl's first published article. "My first publication came out in 1923, in the youth section of a daily newspaper. It is a thought to be relished that this product from the pen of a budding psychiatrist started with the statement that he hates nothing more than common sense--by which I meant, of course, the blind acceptance of traditional thinking." 13· r 148 A year later, as a young medical student, Frankl became impressed by Alfred Adler's individual psychology. "I was introduced to Alfred Adler--where else but in the Coffeehouse Siller [the customary meeting place of Adlerian psychiatrists; the Freudians met regularly in the Coffeehouse Arkaden]--and he without hesitation accepted the manuscript of my article "Psychotherapie and Weltanschauung" (Psychotherapy and Worldview) which surprisingly quickly was published in his Internationale Zeitschrift fur lndividualpsychologie (InternationalJournalfor IndividualPsychology). "3•p. 119 Two years later, Frankl began to develop severe objections to some of Adler's basic tenets, and in 1927 Adler expelled him from his organization. Nevertheless, in 1970, on Adler's 100th birthday, Frankl commented about his old teacher: "Anyone who knew him must have loved him as a human being, and anyone who worked with him must have admired him as a scientist, because individual psychology represents a Copernican turn. More than that, Adler is a forerunner of existential psychology...I have never denied the umbilical cord which forever connects me with individual psychology." 14· P-249 
Just as Frankl has kept his admiration for Adler as the forerunner of existential psychology, he has maintained his admiration for Freud, the other giant of Viennese psychiatry. Frankl often repeats in lectures and books a statement he made in 1941 , when clarifying his position on Freud and Adler. He compares himself to "a dwarf standing upon the shoulders of a 
10
giant [who] can see a little farther than the giant himself,"7• P-a simile Frankl credits to Wilhelm Stekel. 
Before his expulsion from the Association of Individual Psychology, Frankl (together with Fritz Wittels and Maximilian Silbermann) formed the Academic Association for Medical Psychology. Frankl became its vicepresident. Board members included Sigmund Freud, Fritz Redlich, and almost all the people who had made a name for themselves in the Viennese circle of psychiatrists. In a seminar of that association Frankl stated, "I gave a lecture in 1926 where for the first time I spoke to an academic audience on logotherapy. The alternative term 'Existenzanalyse' I started to use in 1933, also in lectures. In printed scientific publications the terms 'logotherapy' and 'existential analysis' can only be found since 
1938."13,p.155 
After his expulsion from the Adlerian organization, Frankl worked mainly in the youth counseling offices he had organized in Austria and other European countries, and he finished his medical studies. He graduated in 1930. We find little writing during those years, but he gave many lectures in adult education centers where, as a student, he had first heard about Freud and Adler. 
Beginning in 1930, Frankl started in the neurological department of the Vienna University Clinic and "finally I worked for four years in the psychiatric hospital Steinhof, where I was director of the so-called Female Suicide Pavilion...During that time no less than 3,000 patients were under 
42 
my care every year. It helped me to develop my diagnostic touch. In 1937, I opened my private practice as specialist in neurology and psychi
atry. n13, p.158 
In 1935, Frankl published a study, "A Common Phenomenon in Schizophreny"4 and in 1938 a paper on "The Spiritual Problematic of Psychotherapy. "5 The same year Hitler marched into Austria, where he was enthusiastically received by huge crowds of Austrians. Frankl was still able to publish his paper "Philosophy and Psychotherapy. "6 He worked on a manuscript consolidating his views about the need for psychiatrists not to concentrate on only the biological problems of their patients, but rather to care for their body and psyche, and to recognize and respect the human longing for meaning in their lives and actions. He fittingly called it "Arztliche Seelsorge" (Medical Ministry). It was meant to be the foundation of his new existential school of psychiatry, logotherapy. Before the book was published, Hitler started the Second World War, and Frankl, like 100,000 other Austrian Jews, were shipped to concentration camps. Most of them perished, but Frankl miraculously survived and returned to Vienna. With feverish speed he began to reconstruct the lost manuscript of "Arztliche Seelsorge" (which later brought him a professorship at the University of Vienna) and he also put to paper his experiences in Hitler's death camps. To produce these manuscripts "was the only thing that still interested me. I hurled myself into this work. Three shorthand-typists continually alternated to take down my dictations. The dam was broken...Still in 1945 I dictated the concentration camp book [which became Man's Search for Meaning]. I was determined that it be published anonymously so I could speak out without inhibitions--the cover of the first edition does not show my name. Only when the book was at the printer, my friends urged me to back up its contents with my own name. "13• P 164 Frankl continues: "ln 1945, when I handed in the manuscripts of these two books, I could not dream what success they would achieve in the world. And yet, it belongs to the most wonderful experiences granted to me, to walk with the final draft of "Arztliche Seelsorge" under my arm to my first publisher, Franz Deuticke, who was also Freud's publisher...And the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy, as W. Sousek called logotherapy, was born. "13 · P· 166 
STEPHEN S. KALMAR, Ph.D. [1524 Campus Drive, Berkeley, California 94708 USA] is historian of the Institute of Logotherapy and its past VicePresident. He is the author of Goodbye, Vienna! The translations of the German and Spanish quotations in this article are his. 
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References 
1. 
Cohen, D. (1977). The Frankl meaning. Human Behavior, 6, 9. 

2. 
Frankl, V. (1924). Zur mimischen Bejahung und Verneinung. Intern. Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse, 10:437, 124. 

3. 
Frankl, V. (1925). Psychotherapie und Weltanschauung. Intern. Zeitschrift fur lndividualpsychologie, 3, 250. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1935). A common phenomenon in schizophreny. Zeitschrift fur Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 152, 1 61-1 62. 

5. 
Frankl, V. (1938). Zur geistigen Problematik de Psychotherapie. Zentralblatt der Psychotherapie, 10, 33. 

6. 
Frankl, V. ( 1 939). Philosophie und Psychotherapie. Schweizerische medizinische Wochenschrift, 69, 707. 

7. 
Frankl, V. (1946). )frztliche See/sarge. Vienna: Franz Deutike. 

8. 
Frankl, V. (1947). Ein Psycho/age erlebt das Konzentrationslager. Vienna: Franz Deutike. 

9. 
Frankl, V. (1947). Trotzdem ja zum Leben sagen. Vienna: Franz Deutike. 

10. 
Frankl, V. (1955). Pathologie des Zeitgeistes. Vienna: Franz Deutike. 

11. 
Frankl, V. (1959). Man's search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press. 

12. 
Frankl, V. (1973). The doctor and the soul. NY: Alfred Knopf. 

13. 
Frankl, V. (1981 ). Die Sinnfrage in der Psychotherapie. Munich: R. Piper. 

14. 
Frankl, V. (1982). Die Begegnung der lndividualpsychologie mit der Logotherapie. In Logotherapie und Existenzanalyse. Munich: R. Piper. 

1
5. Frankl, V. ( 1 987). Der Alp in ism us und die Pathologie des Zeitgeistes. Osterreichischer Alpenverein Mitteilungen, 42, 112. 

16. 
Hall, M. (1968). A conversation with Viktor Frankl in Vienna. 


Psychology Today, 1. 
17. 
Kalmar, S. (1982). A brief history of logotherapy. In S. A. Wawrytko (Ed.), Analecta Frankliana. San Francisco: Strawberry Hill Press. 

18. 
Pareja Herrera, G. (1982). El analysis existential y logoterapia def Dr. Viktor Frankl. Mexico D.F.: Universidad lberoamericana. 


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The International Forum for Logotherapy, 18, 1995, 45-48. 
ISRAEL STUDENTS LIVE LOGOTHERAPY 
Mignon Eisenberg 
"I have been living logotheory all along, even before knowing Viktor Frankl; Yet the best years of my life are those I have not lived as yet." This future-orientedness is typical of many of my Israel graduate students. 
When giving a logotherapy seminar at the Regional Council of the Golan Heights the Director warned me against the cynicism of some of the psychologists and counselors participating. One question they asked: "How can you bring us such an esoteric doctrine while our whole world is crumbling?" My answer: "It is in times of cruelty and despair that we must lift our heads skyward, rather than keep our eyes in the mud." The questioner smiled, and in the midst of the session the Director whispered, "They are getting the message." 
In his book Das Leiden am Sinnlosen Leben (Suffering in a Meaningless Life), Frankl says that "Perhaps logotherapy will have more to say to the U.S. in the 21st century than it already has given to the U.S. in the 20th century." Israel graduate students attest to Frankl's hope. 
These students constantly refine their conscience, seeing the greatest value in altruism and recognizing the demand quality of each situation. In Frankl's words, they are attuned to "the 10,000 commandments inherent in the 10,000situations with which life confronts them." The students manifest Rabbi Hillel's famous dictum (70 B.C.): "If I am not for myself, who is? If not now, When? And If I am only for myself, what am I?" Additionally, they seem to embrace the four cardinal virtues of the Greeks, also stressed by Rabbi Hillel: wisdom (to know a situation as it is), courage (of one's convictions), justice (don't do unto others, what you don't want others to do to you), and moderation (disciplining one's destructive impulses). They are true disciples of humanistic philosophy: positive, active, purposeful, optimistic, and full of hope. Love is the baton that directs their professional and personal lives. And 

45 
this in spite of living in chaotic and brutal times in a war-torn country. It is a satisfying sensation that an army of pacemakers is emerging. 
They like to quote the old chinese story: A beggar finds two coins on the street. With one he buys a plate with rice, with the other a flower for himself. His friends ask: "Why does a beggar waste his money on flowers? Wouldn't it be better to buy another plate of rice?" The beggar's answer: "I bought the rice in order to live. I bought the flower in order to have something to live for.... " 
Below, I present some excerpts from life reviews (existential analyses) by my students as well as from their essays "Logotherapy and I." 
" .. I shall sum up in a few sentences, which 85-year-old "Muli" 
expressed her life philosophy to be, her beliefs, and advice to me: My will to meaning and my will are stronger than my body. One can feel happy even in a shack on barren soil. No one ever drank of the half empty glass. Mine is half full. One has to have a goal in life, something worthwhile. What counts is who you are as a human being, not the diamonds. Have a sense of justice. Do justice to others. Life is not pink. Don't expect to receive. Ask what you can do. Be useful. There is beauty in it. Respect the privacy of others. Be true to yourself. Be tolerant. To be different also gives strength. Be proud of your uniqueness. Do all you can to work on what really matters to you. Difficulties and obstacles are good. Don't ruminate in the past. It is unhealthy to look for what is not. Who can say what is illness and what is health? What counts is what you think and do with your life." 
Student quotation from an 80-year-old interviewee: "What is the line that directs my life? First, to be happy and content with what I have, and this I can do only if I free myself of materialism. To be happy, one must have spiritual success, of one's soul. There are people who see happiness in intellectual experiences, and there are those who see it in the ability to help others. And if we sense thirst in this direction, how wonderful. There is no greater feeling than being 
46 
needed. If our ears are open to those who call for help and we reach out, we are approaching God's soul and come closer to His image... " 
The following are quotations from two student essays: 
"The course in logotherapy accompanied me during the therapy sessions I underwent, dealing with the abuse my brother and I suffered from our parents. We felt victimized and angry...Encountering the logotherapeutic approach with its anthropological philosophy, directed to the positive, the future, and the emphasis on action, provided a liberating dereflection for me, guiding me to what I can do so that my life will be filled with meaning and values in the future. I also received a response to my painful self-recriminations: how can I survive and remain human, able to love, create, and develop? Logotherapy's attitude to the spiritual dimension and Frankl's words about the meaning of suffering helped me view my pain differently and understand that, thanks to this pain, I can now treat and understand others. The metaphor of the human dimension as a treasure chest has helped me, and through me others, whom I help discover this resource. By living logotherapy, I can be a model and support to others... " 
" ... As for my God, I understood that He exists inside me, and although in early youth I used to be angry at Him and accuse Him of the death of father and of my pain, I now understand that due to the fact that I converse with God, He is. I discovered this in unique situations when universal values ceased to be useful to me. As Fabry said, new values develop through personal discoveries of unique meanings. The experience that gave me meaning was my self-examination after father's death when everything was in flux. Later, my accepting his death lent maturity to everything. My personal awareness closely became connected to my God. Frankl says that man searches, but we shall never know whether he is in search for God who he invented or God whom he discovered. I want to call him my God, because he enabled me to master my life by rocking it severely. At a very early age I assumed responsibility for myself, and today I like to say that my God gave me a slap but also a smile. I reach Fabry's conclusion: Life has no meaning when we reject or make light of our belief in supra-meaning. I talked to God and, while maturing, 
embarked upon a life of search and transcendence, receiving so much by giving of myself to others. My God was accepted by me. When the going is rough and fate is cruel, I remind myself of the words of Simone Weil: 'God, I shall help you to persist inside me. One thing becomes clear to me: You cannot help me. I must help you, and thus also help myself. This is the only thing I can rescue, and this is the only real important thing: Your presence inside me. I don't think you can change anything under the circumstances.' And I am not asking you to. On the contrary. You have the right to ask me for an explanation. But believe me, God, I shall continue to work for your sake and shall be faithful to you and shall not exile you from myself. I shall not only bring you my tears and fears, but a fragrant jasmine branch and all the flowers on my way, so your presence in me will be more pleasant... " 
In the scriptures is a saying describing the righteous: They suffer pain inside, yet radiate rejoicement. This was my first reaction to meeting Viktor Frankl 19 years ago and it has been reinforced since. At the same time, his brilliance and aliveness stream out to his pupils spontaneously, strongly, and purely when he has no thought of affecting them. 
Frankl's humanism, philosophy, and theory of personality are timeless, classic, prophetic beacons for the future. They will be vital tools for youth and adults of the 21st century. In times of super-automation and mechanization of communication, the ensuing estrangement must be countered by a rehumanization of culture. As Fabry says, "If we make them aware of the resources of their human spirit, we shall help them lift themselves into true humanness." 
Most of my graduate university students are models of conscience-raising in action, concerned about the future of their clients and their own children. They cultivate an enhanced awareness of the human being as a spiritual creature, yearning for and promoting self-transcendence in order to survive in a chaotic world. 
MIGNON EISENBERG, Ph.D. is Director of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Israel [P.O.Box 3741 Ramat Hadar, Hod Hasharon, 45220 Isreal] and teaches logotherapy at several Israeli universities. She is a Dip/ornate of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in the USA. 
ministry humane gives new dimensions to the aims and practices of the medical ministry. 
Boundaries and meaning represent two essential principles of existence. A boundary is a defining principle. "It is a dimension of form, and form makes everything what it is. "8 · P-757 While many boundaries of life are set, unavoidable, and irreplaceable, they are not--as meaning is--the final word. Meaning is a supportive, liberating principle. An awareness of meaning enables a person to realize that the border situation is not identical with his or her personal existence. This awareness allows the self to stand above life's conditions and to think and to act with freedom and responsibility. 
Ultimate meaning brings the penultimates of life to the boundary situation so that one can experience both the limitations and the possibilities of being human. Ultimate meaning also gives the self a sense of fulfillment or accomplishment while one is in the boundary situation. Life is not a fearful and blind striving. It is a mission or adventure that includes a summing up, a telos. Thus, persons are not captives to a blind fate; rather, they share a destiny as free and responsible agents. We live in a time when the crossings and recrossings of boundaries are more possible than in any previous time in history. Further, we often face several frontiers, or boundaries, in our lives--some simultaneously. Modern science and philosophy have helped to make human boundaries both permeable and interrelated. Frankl's perception of meaning, becoming conscious of what should be done in a given situation, helps us to better understand the existential possibilities of each boundary we face. This is especially evident in Frankl's discussion of "tragic optimism": "That one is, and remains, optimistic in spite of the 'tragic triad' ... a triad that consists of those aspects of human existence which may be circumscribed by: (1) pain; (2) guilt; and (3) death." 2• P-161 
While each feature of the "tragic triad" calls for an awareness of meaning, the boundary of death requires particular understanding. The fear of death, and the process of dying is possibly the most pervasive fear of our society. The existence of such fear in persons of all ages, from teenagers to the elderly, is underscored by Frankl when he points out that what threatens us in the past is guilt and what threatens us in the future is death. If people are to cross the boundary of death free from foreboding and dread, they must change their attitudes toward the nature of finitude, human transitoriness, and time. 
Finitude, which is perceived as a symbol of fallibility and mortality, needs to be seen as contributing to life's meaning rather than detracting from it. Frankl writes: 
If a man were immortal, he would be justified in delaying everything; 
there would be no need to do anything right now. Only under the urge 
and pressure of life's transitoriness does it make sense to use the 
50 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 49-52. 
BOUNDARIES AND MEANING 
William Blair Gould 
Viktor E. Frankl's witness to meaning as a prisoner in four Nazi concentration camps during World War 11 validated the tenets and practices of his medical ministry. Frankl's ministry of healing through meaning (logotherapy), which he described as a borderland between medicine and philosophy, has attracted persons from every continent representing a wide spectrum of philosophical, psychological, cultural, and religious backgrounds. A major reason for this universal appeal is that his writings reflect the movement and creative 

tension of someone on the boundaries of life, someone who has discovered that meaning in life (Sinn im Leben) will not be found in immobility (stasis) but in the crossing and recrossing of these boundaries. And as we face the boundary between this century and the next, Frankl's medical ministry will continue to invite us to explore the boundaries of our existence and enable us to respond with meaning. 
The boundaries of life define the parameters of human existence. A boundary can be an ultimate threat or a promise, depending on whether it is seen as a stark and unbreachable wall or as a window that encloses a space but also lets in the infinite, described by Frankl as ultimate meaning. Wilhelm Pauck notes that Grenzen, the German word for boundary, can also mean "frontier", "border", or "limit".7• P-326 
Each one of these definitions is applicable to the human situation. In some instances (such as physical impairment), we need to deal with boundaries that symbolize unchangeable fate. In others (such as ideas), we can treat boundaries as frontiers to be crossed. The several meanings and uses of Grenzen help us to understand the tensions that occur when we are in a boundary situation between the known and the unknown, between the enclosed and the open. Frankl's rehumanization of the medical ministry uses boundaries in the sense of Pauck's definition of Grenzen. Further, Frankl's 
49 
ministry humane gives new dimensions to the aims and practices of the medical ministry. 
Boundaries and meaning represent two essential principles of existence. A boundary is a defining principle. "It is a dimension of form, and form makes everything what it is. "8 · P· 167 While many boundaries of life are set, unavoidable, and irreplaceable, they are not--as meaning is--the final word. Meaning is a supportive, liberating principle. An awareness of meaning enables a person to realize that the border situation is not identical with his or her personal existence. This awareness allows the self to stand above life's conditions and to think and to act with freedom and responsibility. 
Ultimate meaning brings the penultimates of life to the boundary situation so that one can experience both the limitations and the possibilities of being human. Ultimate meaning also gives the self a sense of fulfillment or accomplishment while one is in the boundary situation. Life is not a fearful and blind striving. It is a mission or adventure that includes a summing up, a telos. Thus, persons are not captives to a blind fate; rather, they share a destiny as free and responsible agents. We live in a time when the crossings and recrossings of boundaries are more possible than in any previous time in history. Further, we often face several frontiers, or boundaries, in our lives--some simultaneously. Modern science and philosophy have helped to make human boundaries both permeable and interrelated. Frankl's perception of meaning, becoming conscious of what should be done in a given situation, helps us to better understand the existential possibilities of each boundary we face. This is especially evident in Frankl's discussion of "tragic optimism": "That one is, and remains, optimistic in spite of the 'tragic triad' ... a triad that consists of those aspects of human existence which may be circumscribed by: (1) pain; (2) guilt; and (3) death."2• P· 161 
While each feature of the "tragic triad" calls for an awareness of meaning, the boundary of death requires particular understanding. The fear of death, and the process of dying is possibly the most pervasive fear of our society. The existence of such fear in persons of all ages, from teenagers to the elderly, is underscored by Frankl when he points out that what threatens us in the past is guilt and what threatens us in the future is death. If people are to cross the boundary of death free from foreboding and dread, they must change their attitudes toward the nature of finitude, human transitoriness, and time. 
Finitude, which is perceived as a symbol of fallibility and mortality, needs to be seen as contributing to life's meaning rather than detracting from it. Frankl writes: 
If a man were immortal, he would be justified in delaying everything; 
there would be no need to do anything right now. Only under the urge 
and pressure of life's transitoriness does it make sense to use the 
50 
passing time. Actually, the only transitory aspects of life are the 
potentialities; as soon as we have succeeded in actualizing a 
potentiality, we have transmuted it into the past. Once an actuality, it 
is one forever. 1 , P-30 
"It is the very transitoriness of human existence which constitutes man's responsibleness--the essence of existence,'' 1, P-3°Frankl insists. Thus to deny our transitoriness results in our failure to use the time allotted to us creatively and responsibly. If we welcome and utilize our time, as fleeting as it may be, we will, as Betty Friedan says, "make the changes we need to make in our lives to give them meaning to the very end. This is the best insurance for our vital aging, and for dying with life."6 , P-548 
The affirmation of life up to the very moment of death is an essential insight of Frankl's logotherapy. If finiteness gives meaning to existence, then death gives existence its imperative. We need to keep in mind, as Frankl writes, that "responsibility grows...with the uniqueness of the person and the singularity of the situation.5 , P-53 The limits of time do not rob us of our freedom and responsibility; rather, they focus us on where to exercise our freedom and on how to be responsible. The transitoriness of time and the anticipation of death, as our last boundary, sharpens our sense of accountability to and for a life with meaning. 
Time and a sense of destiny are interrelated and give clues as to how we should approach the boundaries of life, especially the boundary of death. We have become so accustomed to thinking of time in purely linear terms that we ignore its other dimensions of height and breadth. As a result we spend a large portion of our lives observing time rather than living it. For "life transcends itself--not in 'length'--in the sense of reproduction of itself--but in 'height'--by fulfilling values--or in 'breadth' in the community."5' P-59 Further, we need to recapture a sense of historical time. When persons repudiate any sense of direction that takes in the past or looks toward the future, they deform the reality of their existence; for authentic existence is historical existence. We are placed in historical space. Heidegger speaks of being "thrown into the world." Our challenge is to discover meaning wherever our lives are "thrown," to evaluate the boundaries that cannot be crossed and those that can. 
For Frankl, passing time is not only a thief, but a trustee of the content of a person's life.5' P-33 Frankl is convinced that each of us knows somehow that the content of our life is somewhere preserved and saved. Thus the passage of time, the transitoriness of the years, cannot affect its meaning and value. This perspective redefines human destiny so that it is understood as the results of: (1) a person's natural disposition; (2) a person's situation, or external environment; and (3) a person's position, a combination of disposition and situation, whereby the self takes an attitude toward its destiny,5 p.so 
51 
In his discussion of his concentration camp experiences, Frankl remarks that "those most apt to survive the camps were those oriented toward the future--toward a task, or a person, waiting for them in the future, toward a meaning to be fulfilled by them in the future."2 • P-37 Our use of the future while incorporating good memories from the past gives hope and meaning to the present as we cross new boundaries/frontiers. 
In his opening address to the First World Congress, in 1980, Frankl said that he is "not a prophet to foresee the future of Logotherapy, even less a guru to decree what it's future should be." 3· r-2 He does not direct us but beckons us, as we prepare to enter the 21st Century, to cross new boundaries in our continuing search for meaning. 
WILLIAM BLAIR GOULD, Ph.D., [Box 310 Fearrington Post, Fearrington Village, North Carolina 27312 USA] author of Viktor E. Frankl: Life With Meaning (Brooks/Cole, 1993), currently teaches a course on the philosophical psychology of Frankl at Duke University, North Carolina. This article is based on an address given by the author to the Fall Annual Conference of the MidAmerica Institute of Logotherapy in Kansas City, Missoun~ October 28, 1994. 
References 
1. 
Frankl, V. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism. NY: Simon & Schuster, Touchstone. 

2. 
Frankl, V. (1978). The unheard cry for meaning. NY: Washington Square Press. 

3. 
Frankl, V. (1982). Analecta Frankliana. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Logotherapy Press. 

4. 
Frankl, V. (1984). Man's search for meaning. NY: Washington Square Press. 

5. 
Frankl, V. (1986). The doctor and the soul. NY: Random House, Vintage Books. 

6. 
Friedan, B. (1993). The fountain of age. NY: Simon & Schuster. 

7. 
Pauck, W., & Pauck, M. (1974). Paul Tillich. NY: Harper & Row. 

8. 
Tillich, P. (1990). Theology of peace. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox. 


52 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 53-59. 
LOGOTHERAPY AS LOVE THERAPY 
James C. Crumbaugh 
I have been asked to write on my 
perception of how logophilosophy can serve the needs of Twenty-first Century people, and on the growing awareness of the need to be Somebody special and thus to fulfill the need to be needed; in other words, to find a meaning and purpose in life. In order to do so, I would like first to paint a picture, extrapolating from presently known data, of what the Twenty-first Century may be like. Then we will look at how logophilosophy may best serve the 

needs that will likely be dominant at that time. My predictions will be made with the knowledge that, being now 82, I won't be around to receive ridicule if they are wrong, or praise if the are right. 
First, let's look at the material or mechanistic world--the world of science, business, commerce, industry, medicine, politics, and the like. Then we'll examine the psychosocial world of economics, socioeconomics, education, religion, health-help, ethics, and values--all of the areas of philosophy involving human relationships. The clashes between the material and the nonmaterial worlds, between these mechanistic areas and the humanistic or spiritual (what the logotherapist calls the noetic) dimensions, which will determine the nature and locus of the need for logophilosophy as well as how it may be applied to fulfill the need to be Somebody special and useful--to find that special meaning that will yield this result. 
We will examine these factors in the two dimensions (material and spiritual) in detail in order to form a perception of what the human condition in this future world is likely to be: 
53 
Material World of the Twenty-first Century 
Bearing in mind that 90% of all of the scientists who have ever lived are alive today, and the exponential mushrooming of science since World War II, we can see that a fantastic new world comparable (in novelty, importance, and opportunity) to that of Columbus's discovery of America is probable. We will look at some of the basic features and extrapolate from them the probable picture of the coming material world: 
• 
First and foremost will probably be the apparatus that has made possible a large part of the Twentieth Century advances: The computer and its silicone microchips will continue to mushroom in development; all school children will have not only a complete set of computer hardware on their school desks and in their home bedrooms, but also wrist-watch sized portable sets for travel and mobile activities. And of course the software makers will continue to devise fantastic displays of seemingly impossible feats. Indeed, there will be "more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in our philosophy." 

• 
There also will be peaceful advances in the use and development of atomic energy; but more, far more than this, the secrets of atomic fusion will be mastered to bring forth a clean, abundant, and economical source of energy that will revolutionize transportation, industry, and both commercial and residential heating, cooling, and lighting. But before this 

• 
A new type of fuel that will not burn or explode except in special carburetors will make fiery crashes a thing of the past. 

• 
Paper books, magazines, and newspapers will become almost a thing of the past. Library work, already done mostly by computers, will continue this trend to virtual completion. And most people will get news, instructions, research, and educational data from their computers. 

• 
Medicine will continue to advance exponentially as it has since World War II. Doctors may even become able to cure the common cold. The medicine of a hundred years ago, being in the pre-Pasteur era, was more like that of Hippocrates than that of today. In similar fashion the medicine of today will be more like that of Hippocrates than that of a hundred years hence. Genetic engineering may make possible the cloning of a new body as the old one dies out, to the point of "virtual" immortality. The new computer-generated body clone will be "virtually" real, and then will become biologically real. For starters new arms and legs will be grown to replace defective ones. From there on the sky will be the limit. 

• 
Space travel will expand. A human female will set foot on Mars and return to tell the story. Space stations will be in place to relay supplies. The cosmology of Stephen Hawking, Michio Kaku, Kip Thorne, and Carl Sagan will be old hat to grade schoolers. But whether "black holes," "white holes," "worm holes," "shadow matter," and the like will be concretely demonstrated is presently unpredictable. 

• 
The crowning material achievement of the Twenty-first Century will be in the field of robotics. Marvin Minsky of M.I. T. said that in five to eight years we would have robots equal to the human mind, and in a few more years robots far beyond human comprehension. 2• P-54 But he said this twenty-five years ago and our present robots have not even begun to approach human capacity. HOWEVER, remember that we are living in a world not of linear but of exponential scientific advances. A more cautious voice is that of physicist Maureen Caudill. 1 She points 


54 
to the great obstacles as well as to the great progress up to the present time, and leaves us with the assurance that eventually such an entity can and will be built. She tempers expectation of this with philosophical concerns; she raises the question of whether we will be ready for this responsibility. 
There will be two approaches to the ultimate in robotics: (a) the biological approach (cloning, genetic engineering, and so forth), and (b) the mechanical approach (electronics, mechanics, computerized modular units, and so forth). Caudill thinks the mechanical most likely to be developed first. But in either case with increasing success will come more mind-like central control systems with the possibility--even probability--of conscious awareness and the question of whether such creations are "persons" with human rights. A major reason for creating them will be to obtain cheap labor without human personnel problems and resistance. But as they become independent and human-like in experience and behavior a profound ethical question will arise: Have we created a new slave class of second-rate citizens with attendant responsibility for such a hideous creation? Will these Androids (as they will be called because of sub-human characteristics) really reach and then excel human status, and thus become entitled to full recognition as human beings? Will they even raise themselves so far above human capacities as to be considered a Higher Power? Science-fiction writer Frederick Brown (quoted in Epilogue of Caudill, 1992) deals with such a creation thus: The super-Android is asked the ultimate question, "Is there a God?" The response is a resounding "Yes! There is now!" 
55 
Well, all of this is a glimpse of what I would predict to be the brave new world of the Twenty-first Century (or maybe it won't be so brave). I've made no dire predictions of atomic warfare, although the means for this are obviously available. Warfare is the wild card. If it occurs, all bets are off. But in spite of the open hostilities in nearly every corner of the globe, it would appear that the cultures presently capable of producing such dire consequences are maintaining reasonable stability, mostly from fear of retaliation. While no one knows what trivial incident may set off a falling domino effect, I would go with the prediction of a status quo for military relations between the major powers. Minor although very deadly hostilities between the multitude of lesser lights will, however, continue to create a fog of tension and a blanket of desperation over the entire globe. 
Psychological World of Tomorrow 
In spite of fantastic and colossal developments in the material or mechanical sphere, these advances my be all but neutralized by the stagnation characteristic of work in the areas of psychosocial problems. The truth is that we have made very little progress in human relationships since Socrates taught in the marketplace. Interpersonal alienation, greed, values of self-interest to the exclusion of societal interest, and generally decadent interpersonal behavior have become the order of the day. The potential Garden of Eden has been eroded into a mudslide by prevailing attitudes of hate over love, of discord over harmony, of crime in the streets over peace and caring. I see evidence that this condition will carry over into the Twenty-first Century. 
In such a century, what psychotherapeutic modality can hope to make even a real dent, much less modify the basic attitudes involved? It will have to be a therapy that first senses the underlying existential questions and then directs the client into these channels in his/her search for meaningful answers. 
A Love Therapy 
That's where logotherapy comes in. Yes, I see a big role for it in the mixed-up world which is likely to exist in the Twenty-first Century. But in order to serve this kind of era it needs to re-tool and take a fresh approach to methods of presentation. I suggest that the following would help: 
Step one. Start with the one word that in the last analysis carries the therapeutic essence of all psychotherapy, the word that everyone talks about but few do anything about, the word that gives all real meaning to life: the word, love. In Greek logos is translated by logotherapy's founder, Viktor E. Frankl, as meaning. The advertising people say a product needs a 
56 
logo or identifying emblem or symbol that marks it as of unique meaning and special value. People are the same way: Logotherapy helps them find their personal logos. But without special care we will overlook the fact that all positive meaning signifies in some way love or attraction to this meaning, while all negative indicates some degree of hate or avoidance. The trick of all psychotherapy is to modify behavior through new attitudes of attraction to positive goals and/or avoidance of negative goals. This is really development of love and separation from hate. 
Those who are religious and of Christian persuasion can observe that John 1: 1 says: "In the beginning was the Word (translated from logos) and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." and 1 John 4: 16 says, "God is love." So, logos= God= love, and logotherapy is really love-therapy. Those who are not religious can arrive at the same conclusion by simple analysis of the effective element in all psychotherapy: It is really the interpersonal relationship, and that is the essence of this concept of love. 
To clarify the concept we need to look further at the Greek language, which abounds in rich, subtle differences in meaning of related words. There are six words for love in Greek, and three of them define different steps or levels or qualities of love that are essential to our becoming aware of its deepest and most relevant meaning. 
1. 
The most primitive stage is eras or sexual love, or the "will to pleasure" which Freud made the foundation of all human motivation (although the "libido" or sexual energy was for him not merely copulatory, but also that of building a bridge or creating a symphony). Frankl distinguishes two levels here: (a) purely physical sex based on individual self-satisfaction without concern for the partner; and (b) eroticism or sexual desire oriented toward a particular partner (what is commonly called "infatuation")_5 ,P 151 The latter represents the beginning of a relationship and thus of love in the logotherapeutic sense; but it is not sufficiently deep or lasting to carry true meaning. 

2. 
The second level of love is philia or "brotherly" or filial or obligational love. Alfred Adler took us to this level with his emphasis on the "will to power" as the primary human motive. Power is gained only in relation to other people and requires fulfillment of family or societal responsibilities in order to gain the social reaction that represents power. Here we rise from Freud's basement to Adler's main floor; but the obligations to family and friends (who inhabit the street level of the house) still are not the highest function of love because they are obligations that the recipient expects and are not given freely and apart from responsibility for them. 

3. 
The third and highest level of love is agape or altruistic love. Only at this level do we enter the noetic or spiritual dimension. It remained for Frankl to add this third level and to lift us to the roof and sky above by specifying this dimension as the "will to meaning" and the highest form of meaning as spiritual. It is this dimension that gives the deepest sense of true meaning to a relationship. Only by attaining this highest stage do we find full satisfaction in a love relationship. Of course many mechanists deny the existence of a spiritual dimension 


and ridicule attempts to reach it, arguing that all behavior is motivated ultimately by selfishness. But even if we accept their premise here, we can see that Mother Teresa gets "selfish" satisfaction from different behavior than did Adolf Hitler. There is a true difference in the quality of love manifested on the one hand by "selfish" acts that benefit some and hurt none, while offering the actor no material reward (and perhaps even causing suffering through deprivation and expenditure of time and energy), and on the other hand by selfish acts that destroy or harm others while offering nothing good except the personal pleasure of the actor. The former is true altruism. It does exist, although it is all too infrequently observed in the behavior of most of us. And it can take the form of logotherapy in guiding the client toward the goals of human relationship that will truly fulfill the need to find meaning in life. 
Step two. Creating this focus on altruism is the second step in our approach: Understanding and presenting the goal as a search for activities that will reach the third level of love and thus bring fulfillment of meaning through a personal identity as Someone important and needed. It will require dereflection from the failures and inadequacies used as mechanisms of escape and defense. After this process is focused upon as necessary to finding the highest form of meaning, the third and final step will be: 
Step three. Exercises in understanding and attaining this level of love in dealing with meaningful things and interpersonal relationships. ("Things"-such as the fine arts or professions--which become objects of intrinsic meaning also qualify as "relationships" because they are either personified or become symbols of interpersonal relationships. Of course lower animal pets also qualify here.) While exercises like these are the essence of the success of this form of logotherapy, there is nothing magical about them. They are presented only as examples of ways to get the user to think creatively in terms of how to establish meaningful relationships. Each logotherapist can, and probably will, add his/her own exercises after their theme is fully grasped. 
58 
Presentation of the exercises is beyond the commission for the present paper. Persons desiring to evaluate them will find them partly in Crumbaugh, 1973,2 1980,3 and in Crumbaugh and Henrion, in preparation. 
While logophilosophy offers the same values to the Twenty-first Century as to the Twentieth, its application as love-therapy will be especially needed in the Twenty-first to deal with the increasing clouds of hate that seem to be gathering more and more ominously like a smog over each new mechanical advance. 
JAMES C. CRUMBAUGH, Ph.D. [140 Balmoral Avenue, Biloxi, Mississippi 39531 USA] is a Clinical Psychologist retired from the VA Medical Center in Gulfport, Mississippi. Senior author of the Purpose-in-Life Test and of two books on logotherapy, he studied under Frankl at Harvard and S. M. U. As Southern Regional Director of the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy (of which he is a Diplomate and Fellow) he continues to write on and promote logotherapy as a major need of the world in approaching the Twenty-first Century. 
References 
1. 
Caudill, M. (1992). In our image: Building an artificial person. NY: Oxford University Press. 

2. 
Crumbaugh, J. (1973). Everything to gain. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. 

3. 
Crumbaugh, J., Wood, W. M., & Wood, W. C. (1980). Logotherapy: New help for problem drinkers. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. 

4. 
Crumbaugh, J., & Henrion, R. (In preparation). Love your way to new purpose in life through logotherapy. 

5. 
Frankl, V. (1995). The doctor and the soul. NY: Knopf. 


59 
The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1995, 18, 60-62. 
THE QUEST FOR MEANING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 
Jerry Long 
As the year 2000 approaches, humanity is finding it more and more difficult to find genuine meaning in life. We live in a culture and time which is fast-paced, hectic, and materialistic. Echoes of attitudes such as quicker, hurry, own a Mercedes, rich, etc., reach into both the workplace and the home. This type of societal mental framework is antithetical to deriving true purpose or meaning in life. However, that is not to say that living a genuinely meaningful life is impossible. Rather, it is becoming increasingly more difficult to do so. 
Nietzsche's familiar quote "He who has a why to live can bear almost any how" has become the benchmark for deriving purpose in life. The why's of today's world may be a meaningful relationship, a truly rewarding vocation, a family, a hobby, etc. It is important to remember that meaning(s) in life are unique to every individual. We may derive meaning creatively (for example, painting), experientially (for example, a loving marriage), or attitudinally (for example, keeping a positive attitude toward an unalterable disease). Although frequently underutilized, purpose in life is available to everyone regardless of gender, ethnicity, religiosity, socioeconomic status, etc. Everyone has, at least, what Frankl calls "the last of the human freedoms"--the freedom to choose one's attitude. Even under the harshest of circumstances, no one can take this freedom away. Indeed, one may relinquish the freedom to choose one's attitude, but, by remaining intangible, freedom of attitude remains intangibly solid. 
We (both individually and culturally) are beset with challenges given by the twenty-first century. We are besieged with a society that is prone to have more and more people experience what Frankl calls the existential vacuum. Such feelings of hopelessness and despair are impacting an increasingly large percentage of the population. This is evidenced by a rising suicide rate, 
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greater numbers of people requesting psychotherapy, expressions of helplessness, and so forth. 
These are exactly the types of issues that set logotherapy apart as the leader to face such problems of the next century. That is, insofar as the existential vacuum continues to rise, the search for meaning in life becomes increasingly cogent as the theory/therapy of choice. More specifically, in the decade of the 90's the realm and clinical implications of uniquely human spirituality (the noetic dimension) have moved beyond self-actualization into self-transcendence. The noetic dimension urges the human spirit to reach beyond one's self toward helping others and be dedicated to what Frankl terms "unique missions of life." Once provided with a reason or meaning for suffering, most people find an avenue of intrinsic contentedness through deriving purpose in life by transcending their suffering and modifying their attitude. This transcendence of suffering affords one the opportunity to see that self-transcendence implies a connectedness of humanity's spirituality. In the words of Chief Seattle (1852): "This we know, the earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the earth. All things are connected like the blood which unites us all. Whatever man does to the web of life, he does to himself. No man--be he red man or white man--can be apart. We are brothers after all." 
Such intervention/therapy/healing process which focuses on selftranscendence stands as the essence of logotherapy. By finding meaning in unavoidable suffering one is empowered to overcome barriers which would have been otherwise insurmountable. As Frankl states, meaning in life cannot be created instantaneously from inner vacuity but, rather, slowly discovered from hidden purposes derived from meaningful endeavors, significant encounters with others, or the positive modulation of one's attitude toward an unalterably negative fate. 
To elaborate on the aforementioned issues, I submit that with increased medical knowledge and technology, people who sustain spinal cord injuries, brain injuries, and other physical and/or mental challenges ultimately must utilize the defiant power of the human spirit. If we in the helping professions treat only the soma and the psyche, then we have mistreated the patients by not incorporating their noetic dimension as an integral part of their rehabilitation process. Therefore, as the famous quote states, "If we do not treat the uniquely human spiritual dimension, then the only thing which separates us from veterinarians is the clientele." 
Allow me to illustrate these points by prophesizing into the twenty-first century. More and more people live longer. The crucial factor is to utilize the noetic dimension to increase not only the chronological quantity of their life but the quality of their life as well. This will empower the patients to become discoverers of meaning in their lives after physical tragedies. 
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This discovery of meaning often serves as a catalyst for deriving even more purpose in life. Instead of regarding one's self as a plaything of the winds, people are strengthened by knowing that they are pilots of their life. Such an internal locus of control correlates well with high purpose in life, whereas an external locus of control is associated with low purpose in life. These correlations have been researched with cross-cultural validation. 
Allow me to demonstrate the aforementioned issues by the submission of a case history. I know of a young man who, at the age of 1 7, was a baseball player on the brink of a professional career as a pitcher. However, on a hot summer day in the middle of July, 1977, this young man went swimming with some friends in an irrigation canal used by local farmers to water their fields. As he dove in the water, his head impacted a concrete-hard ridge of sand. The result was a broken neck that rendered him totally paralyzed. The injury was not only emotionally devastating, but life threatening. After several months of painful rehabilitation, he was discharged from the hospital. Instantaneously, his life had been transformed from one of athletic prowess into virtual complete physical dependence on others. However, instead of giving up on life, this man was determined to become a success by intuitively utilizing what Frankl calls the defiant power of the human spirit. 
He continued his education from a motorized wheelchair and graduated high school on schedule in May of 1978. He began college in the Fall of 1978 and went on to earn a doctorate in Clinical Psychology in May of 1990. The critical factor in his recovery and achievement was that, although paved with obstacles, he never gave up. His credo for life became, "I broke my neck, it didn't break me." 
I am happy to report that this young man has done countless hours of , 
psychotherapy with hundreds of patients and has taught university level courses for the past eight years. He loves to teach and was awarded a national teaching excellence award in 1993. He is happily married; he and his wife plan a family in the near future. 
The point I am trying to make is that meaning and purpose in life may be derived even under drastic circumstances. Regardless of plight, meaning in life may be found if one doesn't give up. The reason I know this to be true is because the young man about whom I write is me. 
JERRY L. LONG, Jr., Ph.D., is currently in Clinical Practice in the Dallas Metroplex area in Texas, USA. 
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ISSN 0190-3379 IFODL 18(1)1-64(1995) 
The International Forum for 
LOGOTHERAPY 
Journal of Search for Meaning