wanyu/IteraTeR_v2 huggingface dataset:
Original: Thangata in Malawi Origins The term “thangata” has had several meanings in Malawi in the last 120 years, and its traditional or pre-colonial use was very different from its uses in colonial and modern times.
Revised: Meaning Origins The term “thangata” has had several meanings in Malawi in the last 120 years, and its traditional or pre-colonial use was very different from its uses in colonial and modern times.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Similar Systems Of all the countries in Southern and Central Africa, Nyasaland was the most notorious for the duration of thangata and its importance to the colonial economy.
Revised:  Similar systems Of all the countries in Southern and Central Africa, Nyasaland was the most notorious for the duration of thangata and its importance to the colonial economy.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  However, this use represented a further extension of the term thangata  .J McCraken, (2012).
Revised:  However, using the term thangata .J McCraken, (2012).
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In colonial times, between 1891 and 1962, it generally meant agricultural labour given without pay , by a tenant on an estate owned by a European , in lieu of a cash rent .
Revised:  In colonial times, between 1891 and 1962, it generally meant agricultural labour given without pay , by a tenant on an estate owned by a European .
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Thangata was  exploited, and tenants could be forced to work on the owners' crops for four to six months annually when they could have cultivated their own crops.
Revised:  Thangata was often exploited, and tenants could be forced to work on the owners' crops for four to six months annually when they could have cultivated their own crops.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  By custom, these leaders received in gifts in kind or labour from those in their community who had benefitted .
Revised:  By custom, these leaders received in gifts in kind or labour from those in their community who had benefited .
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  The 1870s and 1880s in Malawi were unsettled, and local chiefs sought to gain European protection from their enemies by granting  settlers what they probably considered was only a right to cultivate vacant land.
Revised:  The 1870s and 1880s in Malawi were unsettled, and local chiefs sought to gain European protection from their enemies by granting the settlers what they probably considered was only a right to cultivate vacant land.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Between 1910 and 1925, tobacco was also grown in plantations and, like cotton  it required a great deal of labour to grow successfully.
Revised:  Between 1910 and 1925, tobacco was also grown in plantations and, like cotton , it required a great deal of labour to grow successfully.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  As tenancies were based on verbal contracts, tenants had little or no chance to dispute the owners’ interpretations of them .
Revised:  As tenancies were based on verbal contracts, tenants had little or no chance to dispute the owners’ interpretations of their conditions .
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax , much of this in the growing season  leaving tenants with little time to grow  food.
Revised:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax . Much of this labour was demanded in the growing season leaving tenants with little time to grow food.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax , much of this in the growing season  leaving tenants with little time to grow  food.
Revised:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax , much of this in the growing season , leaving tenants with little time to grow food.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax , much of this in the growing season  leaving tenants with little time to grow  food.
Revised:  On several estates, the obligations of labour tenants were extended, sometimes to a total of four or five months a year for thangata and Hut tax , much of this in the growing season leaving tenants with little time to grow their own food.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  As the Crown lands near the estates were already crowded, and as most of estate tenants were migrants from Mozambique with no claim to communal land, they had little option but to stay .
Revised:  As the Crown lands near the estates were already crowded, and as most of estate tenants were migrants from Mozambique with no claim to communal land, they had little option but to remain .
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Legislation allowing other tenants to pay rent rather than thangata, and for cash payment if they performed more than the required thangata was enacted in 1908, but not implemented.
Revised:  Legislation allowing other tenants to pay rent rather than thangata, and to receive cash wages if they performed more than the required thangata was enacted in 1908, but not implemented.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Following this revolt, a new attempt to abolish thangata in favour of cash rent was made, but it failed because of the political influence of the estate owners  .
Revised:  Following this revolt, a new attempt to abolish thangata in favour of cash rent was made, but it failed because of the political influence of the estate owners that opposed the measure .
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  There was no place for crafts or skills in thangata:  reduced all tenants to unskilled manual labour, and was likened to a form of serfdom.
Revised:  There was no place for crafts or skills in thangata: ot reduced all tenants to unskilled manual labour, and was likened to a form of serfdom.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Even after Chilembwe’s revolt, the labour obligation on many estates was little modified, sometimes amounting to six months for thangata and rent.
Revised:  Even after Chilembwe’s revolt, the labour obligation on many estates was only slightly modified, sometimes amounting to six months for thangata and rent.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  The British Central Africa Company Ltd had formerly relied on labour tenants for most of its workforce, but in 1946 its local Manager complained that it was unable to enforce unpopular thangata agreements or Sunday working although it  threatened many tenants with eviction.
Revised:  The British Central Africa Company Ltd had formerly relied on labour tenants for most of its workforce, but in 1946 its local Manager complained that the company was unable to enforce unpopular thangata agreements or Sunday working although it threatened many tenants with eviction.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  The British Central Africa Company Ltd had formerly relied on labour tenants for most of its workforce, but in 1946 its local Manager complained that it was unable to enforce unpopular thangata agreements or Sunday working although it  threatened many tenants with eviction.
Revised:  The British Central Africa Company Ltd had formerly relied on labour tenants for most of its workforce, but in 1946 its local Manager complained that it was unable to enforce unpopular thangata agreements or Sunday working although it had threatened many tenants with eviction.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  A number of tenants resisted the increase, and the company issued eviction notices  .
Revised:  A number of tenants resisted the increase, and the company issued eviction notices to them .
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Riots broke out in Cholo in August 1953, leading to eleven dead and seventy-two injured.
Revised:  Riots broke out in Cholo in August 1953, and attempts to quell rioting led to eleven dead and seventy-two injured.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In 1962, the 1928 Ordinance was replaced by a 1962 Africans on Private Estates Ordinance that granted tenants security of tenure and abolished all forms of thangata requiring labour or the production of  designated crops, replacing them with cash rents.
Revised:  In 1962, the 1928 Ordinance was replaced by a 1962 Africans on Private Estates Ordinance that granted tenants security of tenure and abolished all forms of thangata requiring labour or the production of amounts if designated crops, replacing them with cash rents.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Although tenants  produced tobacco on many estates  , by 1935, 70\% of the national tobacco crop was grown in the Central Region, at first by Africans on Crown land, later by sharecroppers under contract to the holders of leased land for one crop at a time, the “visiting tenant” system.
Revised:  Although tenants had produced tobacco on many estates , by 1935, 70\% of the national tobacco crop was grown in the Central Region, at first by Africans on Crown land, later by sharecroppers under contract to the holders of leased land for one crop at a time, the “visiting tenant” system.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although tenants  produced tobacco on many estates  , by 1935, 70\% of the national tobacco crop was grown in the Central Region, at first by Africans on Crown land, later by sharecroppers under contract to the holders of leased land for one crop at a time, the “visiting tenant” system.
Revised:  Although tenants produced tobacco on many estates , by 1935, 70\% of the national tobacco crop was grown in the Central Region, at first by Africans on Crown land, later by sharecroppers under contract to grow one annual tobacco crop at a time, the “visiting tenant” system.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  The “visiting tenant” system had some similarities to estate tenancies in the Shire Highlands (called thangata, whether the rent was satisfied in labour or produce), but it was distinct as visiting tenants had permanent homes away from the places where they grew their crop.
Revised:  The “visiting tenant” system had some similarities to estate tenancies in the Shire Highlands (called thangata, whether the rent was satisfied in labour or produce), but it was distinct , as the visiting tenants had permanent homes away from the places where they grew their crop.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although it was originally distinct from thangata, in 1963 shortly before independence, Hastings Banda, as Minister of Agriculture  fiercely attacked the visiting tenant system and equated it to the hated thangata.
Revised:  Although it was originally distinct from thangata, in 1963 shortly before independence, Hastings Banda, who was Minister of Agriculture fiercely attacked the visiting tenant system and equated it to the hated thangata.
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  Although it was originally distinct from thangata, in 1963 shortly before independence, Hastings Banda, as Minister of Agriculture  fiercely attacked the visiting tenant system and equated it to the hated thangata.
Revised:  Although it was originally distinct from thangata, in 1963 shortly before independence, Hastings Banda, as Minister of Agriculture , fiercely attacked the visiting tenant system and equated it to the hated thangata.
Edit intent: fluency
Original: J McCraken , (2012).
Revised: J McCracken , (2012).
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Further elite-run estates were later created on previously communal lands.
Revised:  Further elite-run estates were later created on what had previously been communal lands.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  By 1990, there were 675,000 registered estate tenants with little security, and another 580,000 “squatters” lived on surplus land with no security, forming a pool of casual labour.
Revised:  By 1990, there were 675,000 registered estate tenants with little security, and another 580,000 “squatters” lived on surplus land with no security, who formed a pool of casual labour.
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  Larger estates may pay the minimum  wage;
Revised:  Larger estates may pay the minimum cash wage;
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  As Rwanda had a mobile population, chiefs could allocate land to clients outside the community that had a traditional claim to use the land, in  clear parallel to the Mozambican migrants on Nyasaland estates.
Revised:  As Rwanda had a mobile population, chiefs could allocate land to clients outside the community that had a traditional claim to use the land, in a clear parallel to the Mozambican migrants on Nyasaland estates.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  These incomers were prepared to agree to  a heavy burden of labour for access to land.
Revised:  These incomers were prepared to agree to accept a heavy burden of labour for access to land.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  African tenant farmers on European-owned estates in Matabeleland in the early colonial period could either pay rent or provide labour in lieu of rent, but after 1910, it was more usual  to employ Africans for wages.
Revised:  African tenant farmers on European-owned estates in Matabeleland in the early colonial period could either pay rent or provide labour in lieu of rent, but after 1910, it was more usual for these estates to employ Africans for wages.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  The system that is probably closest to thangata is the institution in Rwanda called ubureetwa .
Revised:  The system that is probably closest to thangata is the institution that was called ubureetwa in Rwanda .
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  After the Europeans occupation, they were able to manipulate  freely-given labour into an unpaid agricultural labour obligation.
Revised:  After the Europeans occupation, they were able to manipulate what had previously been freely-given labour into an unpaid agricultural labour obligation.
Edit intent: clarity
Original: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917  a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice was introduced for the peasant population, using their own land  .
Revised: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917 the government a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice was introduced for the peasant population, using their own land .
Edit intent: clarity
Original: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917  a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice was introduced for the peasant population, using their own land  .
Revised: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917 a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice began to be imposed on the peasant population, using their own land .
Edit intent: clarity
Original: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917  a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice was introduced for the peasant population, using their own land  .
Revised: S Miers (2003)Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern, Walnut Creek (CA) Altamira Press pp. 40, 53. Although forced labour in the Belgian Congo was abolished in theory in 1908, from 1917 a system of forced cultivation of cotton, coffee and rice was introduced for the peasant population, who were required to use their own land .
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  Although some abuses were curtailed, others such as equating a month of thangata to 30 days (or five weeks of six days’ work), and requiring the wives of absent migrant workers, widows and single women to work in breach of custom, persisted.
Revised:  When the Ormsby-Gore East African Commission visited Nyasaland in 1924, it was highly critical of the treatment of all Africans resident on private estates tenants supplying their labour, contrary to the exemption from thangata offered to those who were occupants when the original certificates of title certificates were granted. The commision suggested that, even though recent immigrants were not entitled to the same protection, they should be treated in the same way as the original residents and excused from thangata.C Ng'ong'ola, (1990). The State, Settlers, and Indigenes in the Evolution of Land Law and Policy in Colonial Malawi, p. 39. However, local administrators were subject ti settler pressure and, although some abuses were curtailed, others such as equating a month of thangata to 30 days (or five weeks of six days’ work), and requiring the wives of absent migrant workers, widows and single women to work in breach of custom, persisted.
Edit intent: coherence
Original: "Thangata " is a word deriving from the Chewa language of Malawi which has changed its meaning several times, although all meanings relate to agriculture.
Revised: Thangata is a word deriving from the Chewa language of Malawi which has changed its meaning several times, although all meanings relate to agriculture.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Thangata in Malawi Origins and meaning The term “thangata” has had several meanings in Malawi in the last 120 years, and its traditional or pre-colonial use was very different from its uses in colonial and modern times.
Revised:  Thangata in Malawi Origins and meaning The term "thangata" has had several meanings in Malawi in the last 120 years, and its traditional or pre-colonial use was very different from its uses in colonial and modern times.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  The word exists in the Chewa and the related Mang'anja languages, and its first pre-colonial meaning was “help” or “to assist” , in the sense of freely-given reciprocal help such as neighbours might give each other building huts or clearing fields.
Revised:  The word exists in the Chewa and the related Mang'anja languages, and its first pre-colonial meaning was "help" or "to assist" , in the sense of freely-given reciprocal help such as neighbours might give each other building huts or clearing fields.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  New workers, who were often migrants from Mozambique, were encouraged to move onto estates and grow their own crops, but were required to pay rent and Hut tax, usually satisfied by two months ’ labour a year at this time.
Revised:  New workers, who were often migrants from Mozambique, were encouraged to move onto estates and grow their own crops, but were required to pay rent and Hut tax, usually satisfied by two months ' labour a year at this time.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  As tenancies were based on verbal contracts, tenants had little or no chance to dispute the owners ’ interpretations of their conditions.
Revised:  As tenancies were based on verbal contracts, tenants had little or no chance to dispute the owners ' interpretations of their conditions.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  This service was equated with thangata, ' as those conscripted were forced to work on something that did not benefit them.
Revised:  This service was equated with thangata, as those conscripted were forced to work on something that did not benefit them.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Even after Chilembwe ’ s revolt, the labour obligation on many estates was only slightly modified, sometimes amounting to six months for thangata and rent.
Revised:  Even after Chilembwe ' s revolt, the labour obligation on many estates was only slightly modified, sometimes amounting to six months for thangata and rent.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  The commision suggested that, even though recent immigrants were not entitled to the same protection, they should be treated in the same way as the original residents and excused from thangata.
Revised:  The commission suggested that, even though recent immigrants were not entitled to the same protection, they should be treated in the same way as the original residents and excused from thangata.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  However, local administrators were subject ti settler pressure and, although some abuses were curtailed, others such as equating a month of thangata to 30 days (or five weeks of six days ’ work), and requiring the wives of absent migrant workers, widows and single women to work in breach of custom, persisted.
Revised:  However, local administrators were subject ti settler pressure and, although some abuses were curtailed, others such as equating a month of thangata to 30 days (or five weeks of six days ' work), and requiring the wives of absent migrant workers, widows and single women to work in breach of custom, persisted.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although the estates now largely acted as brokers for their tenants ’ produce, and the name thangata, sometimes “tobacco thangata” after its commonest form was applied to rent in kind, the older form of labour thangata persisted on tea estates, and elsewhere if the owner wished to grow crops through direct labour.
Revised:  Although the estates now largely acted as brokers for their tenants ' produce, and the name thangata, sometimes “tobacco thangata” after its commonest form was applied to rent in kind, the older form of labour thangata persisted on tea estates, and elsewhere if the owner wished to grow crops through direct labour.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although the estates now largely acted as brokers for their tenants ’ produce, and the name thangata, sometimes “tobacco thangata” after its commonest form was applied to rent in kind, the older form of labour thangata persisted on tea estates, and elsewhere if the owner wished to grow crops through direct labour.
Revised:  Although the estates now largely acted as brokers for their tenants ’ produce, and the name thangata, sometimes "tobacco thangata" after its commonest form was applied to rent in kind, the older form of labour thangata persisted on tea estates, and elsewhere if the owner wished to grow crops through direct labour.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  It was estimated that about 9\% of Malawi ’ s Africans lived on estates in 1911: in 1945, it was about 10\%.
Revised:  It was estimated that about 9\% of Malawi ' s Africans lived on estates in 1911: in 1945, it was about 10\%.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  In the 1940s and early 1950s, there were tensions between estate owners and tenants over evictions and the tenants ’ wish to sell produce of their choice in local markets, not through the owner.
Revised:  In the 1940s and early 1950s, there were tensions between estate owners and tenants over evictions and the tenants ' wish to sell produce of their choice in local markets, not through the owner.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Working Conditions and Worker Responses on the Nyasaland Tea Estates, 1930-1953, pp. 119, 121-2, 126 There was a further crisis in 1952-3 when the British Central Africa Company tried to increase tenants ’ rents substantially, against the advice of the Nyasaland government.
Revised:  Working Conditions and Worker Responses on the Nyasaland Tea Estates, 1930-1953, pp. 119, 121-2, 126 There was a further crisis in 1952–1953 when the British Central Africa Company tried to increase tenants ’ rents substantially, against the advice of the Nyasaland government.
Edit intent: clarity