wanyu/IteraTeR_v2 huggingface dataset:
Original:  Livingstone suggested that  the area's benign climate and fertility would make it ideal for the promotion of Christianity and commerce , L. White, (1987).
Revised:  Livingstone suggested that the area's benign climate and fertility would make it ideal for the promotion of Christianity and commerce . L. White, (1987).
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Their aim was to set up a trade and transport concern that would work in close cooperation with the missions to combat the slave trade by introducing legitimate trade, to make a  profit, and to develop European influence in the area.
Revised:  Their aim was to set up a trade and transport concern that would work in close cooperation with the missions to combat the slave trade by introducing legitimate trade, to make a commercial profit, and to develop European influence in the area.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Malawi: A Political and Economic History, London, Pall Mall Press pp.77-9 Concessionaires holding prazo estates from the Portuguese crown were active in the lower valley of the Shire River from the 1830s and the Portuguese government claimed suzerainty over much of Central Africa, without maintaining effective occupation over much of it.
Revised:  Malawi: A Political and Economic History, London, Pall Mall Press pp.77-9 Concessionaires holding prazo estates from the Portuguese crown were active in the lower valley of the Shire River from the 1830s and the Portuguese government claimed suzerainty over much of Central Africa, without maintaining effective occupation over more than a small part of it.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Meanwhile, the African Lakes Company was attempting to obtain the status of a Chartered company from the British government but had not managed to do so by 1886.
Revised:  Meanwhile, the African Lakes Company was attempting to obtain the status of a Chartered company from the British government , but it had not managed to do so by 1886.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  As late as 1888, the British Foreign Office declined to accept responsibility to protect the rudimentary British settlements in the Shire Highlands, despite unsubstantiated claims by the African Lakes Company of Portuguese interference with their trading activities.
Revised:  As late as 1888, the British Foreign Office declined to accept responsibility for protecting the rudimentary British settlements in the Shire Highlands, despite unsubstantiated claims by the African Lakes Company of Portuguese interference with their trading activities.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  However, in October 1889 Serpa Pinto's soldiers attacked one of the Kololo chiefs, killing around 70 of the chief's followers and, with two armed river boats, pushed up the Shire River through the area over which Buchanan had established a protectorate.
Revised:  However, in October 1889 Serpa Pinto's soldiers attacked one of the Kololo chiefs, killing around 70 of his followers and, with two armed river boats, pushed up the Shire River through the area over which Buchanan had established a protectorate.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta,  deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory and the offer by the British South Africa Company to fund the administration of the protectorate convinced Salisbury to bow to popular pressure.
Revised:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta, which was deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory and the offer by the British South Africa Company to fund the administration of the protectorate convinced Salisbury to bow to popular pressure.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta,  deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory and the offer by the British South Africa Company to fund the administration of the protectorate convinced Salisbury to bow to popular pressure.
Revised:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta, deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory and the offer by the British South Africa Company to fund the administration of the protectorate , which convinced him to bow to popular pressure.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  After this, until 1898, they were used to assist the locally recruited police force to suppress the slave trade.
Revised:  After this, until 1898, troops were used to assist the locally recruited police force to suppress the slave trade.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Adventures in Nyasaland, London, Gilbert & Rivington pp. 12-13 Mlozi had defeated two attempts which the African Lakes Company Limited in the Karonga Wars  made between 1887 and 1889, with some unofficial British government support, to dislodge him and his followers and end the slave trade.
Revised:  Adventures in Nyasaland, London, Gilbert & Rivington pp. 12-13 Mlozi had defeated two attempts which the African Lakes Company Limited in the Karonga Wars had made between 1887 and 1889, with some unofficial British government support, to dislodge him and his followers and end the slave trade.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Without any prior warning, Johnston assaulted two  smaller stockades on 2 December and, on the same day, surrounded Mlozi's large, double-fenced fortified town, bombarding it for two days and finally assaulting it on 4 December, facing stiff resistance.
Revised:  Without any prior warning, Johnston assaulted two of Mlozi's smaller stockades on 2 December and, on the same day, surrounded Mlozi's large, double-fenced fortified town, bombarding it for two days and finally assaulting it on 4 December, facing stiff resistance.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Initially, Gomani, the victor in the civil war that ended in 1891, was on good terms with British officials and missionaries, but he became concerned at the number of his young men going to work on European-owned estates in the Shire Highlands and by Johnston's forcful reaction to Yao resistance.
Revised:  Initially, Gomani, the victor in the civil war that ended in 1891, was on good terms with British officials and missionaries, but he became concerned at the number of his young men going to work on European-owned estates in the Shire Highlands and by Johnston's forceful reaction to Yao resistance.
Edit intent: fluency
Original: J McCracken (2012), A History of Malawi, 1859-1966, p. 65 As the northern Ngoni kingdom did not threaten European trading interests and it was far from European-owned estates, and as the Scottish mission at Livingstonia was influential within the kingdom, Johnston did not use force against it.
Revised: J McCracken (2012), A History of Malawi, 1859-1966, p. 65 As the northern Ngoni kingdom did not threaten European trading interests , as it was far from European-owned estates, and as the Scottish mission at Livingstonia was influential within the kingdom, Johnston did not use force against it.
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  This was resisted, particularly by its Scottish missionaries and, in February 1891, Salisbury agreed to a compromise under which what later became Northern Rhodesia would be under company administration and what later became Nyasaland would be administered by the Foreign Office.
Revised:  This was resisted, particularly by the Scottish missionaries and, in February 1891, Salisbury agreed to a compromise under which what later became Northern Rhodesia would be under company administration and what later became Nyasaland would be administered by the Foreign Office.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In 1896, Johnston set up a small government Secretariat in Zomba which, with  a few technical advisors appointed soon after, formed the nucleus of his central administration.
Revised:  In 1896, Johnston set up a small government Secretariat in Zomba which, with the addition of a few technical advisors appointed soon after, formed the nucleus of his central administration.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In 1896, Johnston set up a small government Secretariat in Zomba which, with  a few technical advisors appointed soon after, formed the nucleus of his central administration.
Revised:  In 1896, Johnston set up a small government Secretariat in Zomba which, with a few technical advisers appointed soon after, formed the nucleus of his central administration.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  In 1892, Johnston received powers to set up courts and divide the protectorate into districts and, until 1904 when the Colonial Office assumed  responsibility, he selected district officials with the title of Collectors of Revenue, Their official title later became Residents, and they were the predecessors of District Commissioners.
Revised:  In 1892, Johnston received powers to set up courts and divide the protectorate into districts and, until 1904 when the Colonial Office assumed this responsibility, he selected district officials with the title of Collectors of Revenue, Their official title later became Residents, and they were the predecessors of District Commissioners.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  The power of existing chiefs were minimised in favour of direct rule by the Residents, as Johnstone did not consider the chiefs should play any part in the administration of the protectorate.
Revised:  The power of existing chiefs were minimised in favour of direct rule by the Residents, as Johnston did not consider the chiefs should play any part in the administration of the protectorate.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In practice, however, the relatively few district officers required the cooperation of local chiefs and allowed them to continue in their traditional roles.
Revised:  In practice, however, the relatively few district officers required the cooperation of local chiefs it administer their districts and allowed chiefs to continue in their traditional roles.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Although Johnston had a duty  look into the validity of these land deals, and although he accepted that the land belonged to its tribes and  their chiefs had no right to alienate it, he put forward the legal fiction that each chief's people had tacitly accepted he could assume such a right.
Revised:  Although Johnston had a duty to look into the validity of these land deals, and although he accepted that the land belonged to its tribes and their chiefs had no right to alienate it, he put forward the legal fiction that each chief's people had tacitly accepted he could assume such a right.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although Johnston had a duty  look into the validity of these land deals, and although he accepted that the land belonged to its tribes and  their chiefs had no right to alienate it, he put forward the legal fiction that each chief's people had tacitly accepted he could assume such a right.
Revised:  Although Johnston had a duty look into the validity of these land deals, and although he accepted that the land belonged to its tribes and that their chiefs had no right to alienate it, he put forward the legal fiction that each chief's people had tacitly accepted he could assume such a right.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  As a result, Johnston accepted the validity of those claims where the signatory was the chief of the tribe occupying the land if the terms of the contract were not inconsistent with British sovereignty.
Revised:  As a result, Johnston accepted the validity of those claims where the signatory was the chief of the tribe occupying the land , provided that the terms of the contract were not inconsistent with British sovereignty.
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  Except for this large grant in the Northern Region, much of the remaining land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates  included much of the best arable land in the Shire Highlands,  the most densely populated part of the country.
Revised:  Except for this large grant in the Northern Region, much of the remaining land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates , included much of the best arable land in the Shire Highlands, the most densely populated part of the country.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Except for this large grant in the Northern Region, much of the remaining land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates  included much of the best arable land in the Shire Highlands,  the most densely populated part of the country.
Revised:  Except for this large grant in the Northern Region, much of the remaining land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates included much of the best arable land in the Shire Highlands, which was the most densely populated part of the country.
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners started to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation , although some owners demanded more .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Revised:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners began to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation , although some owners demanded more .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners started to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation , although some owners demanded more .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Revised:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners started to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation ; however, some owners demanded more .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners started to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation , although some owners demanded more .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Revised:  From the late 1890s, when the estates started to produce coffee, the owners started to charge these tenants a rent, usually satisfied by two months’ labour a year, of which one month was to meet the worker's tax obligation , although some owners demanded longer periods of labour .R I Rotberg, (1965).
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  It was nominally three shillings a year, but could be satisfied by one month's labour a year  on a settler estate or working for the government.
Revised:  It was nominally three shillings a year, but could be satisfied by one month's labour a year spent on a settler estate or working for the government.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  There may well have been large areas in the Shire Highlands that were virtually depopulated.
Revised:  There may well have been large areas in the Shire Highlands that had been virtually depopulated.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  In this period, relatively few Africans were leaving the protectorate as migrant workers, but this became more common later.R.
Revised:  In this period, relatively few Africans left the protectorate as migrant workers, but this became more common later.R.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  In this period, relatively few Africans were leaving the protectorate as migrant workers, but this became more common later.R.
Revised:  In this period, relatively few Africans were leaving the protectorate as migrant workers, but outward labour migration became more common later.R.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century  over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated  although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Revised:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo chiefs (who had first entered the area in the 19th century over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century  over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated  although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Revised:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century ) over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century  over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated  although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Revised:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated , although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century  over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated  although the Swahili slave traders were killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Revised:  No attempt was made to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni or Makololo whose chiefs had first entered the area in the 19th century over the original inhabitants they had displaced, subjugated or assimilated although the Swahili slave traders had been killed in the warfare of the 1890s or had left.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Although slavetrading had been eliminated, and Johnston issued instructions that domestic slaves were to be emancipated, this particular form of slavery endured, particularly in the Central Region, well into the first quarter of the 20th centuryJ McCracken, (2012).
Revised:  Although slave-trading had been eliminated, and Johnston issued instructions that domestic slaves were to be emancipated, this particular form of slavery endured, particularly in the Central Region, well into the first quarter of the 20th centuryJ McCracken, (2012).
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  The first estate crop was coffee, grown commercially in quantity from around 1895, but competition from Brazil  which had flooded the world markets with coffee by 1905  and droughts led to its decline in favour of tobacco and cotton.
Revised:  The first estate crop was coffee, grown commercially in quantity from around 1895, but competition from Brazil , which had flooded the world markets with coffee by 1905 and droughts led to its decline in favour of tobacco and cotton.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  The first estate crop was coffee, grown commercially in quantity from around 1895, but competition from Brazil  which had flooded the world markets with coffee by 1905  and droughts led to its decline in favour of tobacco and cotton.
Revised:  The first estate crop was coffee, grown commercially in quantity from around 1895, but competition from Brazil which had flooded the world markets with coffee by 1905 , and droughts led to its decline in favour of tobacco and cotton.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Malawi: A Political and Economic History, pp. 173, 176-8, 183. Before the railway  , water was the most efficient means of transport.
Revised:  Malawi: A Political and Economic History, pp. 173, 176-8, 183. Before the railway opened , water was the most efficient means of transport.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Low water levels in Lake Nyasa reduced the Shire River's flow from 1896 to 1934, so the main river port was first Chiromo, further from the main settlements below a steep escarpment and from 1908 it became Port Herald (now Nsanje).
Revised:  Low water levels in Lake Nyasa reduced the Shire River's flow from 1896 to 1934, so the main river port was moved, first to Chiromo, further from the main settlements below a steep escarpment and from 1908 it became Port Herald (now Nsanje).
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Low water levels in Lake Nyasa reduced the Shire River's flow from 1896 to 1934, so the main river port was first Chiromo, further from the main settlements below a steep escarpment and from 1908 it became Port Herald (now Nsanje).
Revised:  Low water levels in Lake Nyasa reduced the Shire River's flow from 1896 to 1934, so the main river port was first Chiromo, further from the main settlements below a steep escarpment and from 1908 to Port Herald (now Nsanje).
Edit intent: coherence
Original:  Transport on the River Shire, Nyasaland, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 86, No. 5, p.451 As early as 1895, Johnston suggested a line from its main commercial town, Blantyre, to Quelimane in Mozambique.
Revised:  Transport on the River Shire, Nyasaland, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 86, No. 5, p.451 As early as 1895, Johnston suggested a line from the protectorate's main commercial town, Blantyre, to Quelimane in Mozambique.
Edit intent: clarity
Original:  Also in 1895, Eugene Sharrer proposed building a railway from Blantyre to Chiromo, and he formed , the Shire Highlands Railway Company Limited , in December 1895 to achieve this.
Revised:  Also in 1895, Eugene Sharrer proposed building a railway from Blantyre to Chiromo, and he formed the Shire Highlands Railway Company Limited , in December 1895 to achieve this.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Also in 1895, Eugene Sharrer proposed building a railway from Blantyre to Chiromo, and he formed , the Shire Highlands Railway Company Limited , in December 1895 to achieve this.
Revised:  Also in 1895, Eugene Sharrer proposed building a railway from Blantyre to Chiromo, and he formed , the Shire Highlands Railway Company Limited in December 1895 to achieve this.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  Because of delays over raising the funds needed for construction, and disputes over its route, it was not until early 1903 that construction beganThe line was opened from Blantyre to Chiromo in 1907.
Revised:  Because of delays over raising the funds needed for construction, and disputes over its route, it was not until early 1903 that construction began. The line was opened from Blantyre to Chiromo in 1907.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta, which was deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory, whereas previously suchshops had to use the port of Quelimane.
Revised:  This was because the discovery of the Chinde channel in the Zambezi delta, which was deep enough to allow sea-going ships to enter the Zambezi, which was an international waterway, without having to enter Portuguese territory, whereas previously such ships had to use the port of Quelimane.
Edit intent: fluency
Original:  While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to Heaven was in a material body, a very small minority believes it was spiritual.
Revised:  While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to Heaven was in a material body, some believe it was spiritual.
Edit intent: clarity
Original: Resurrection or anastasis is the concept of coming back to life after death.
Edit intent: coherence