markets. After 1604, when English pirates taught them Atlantic navigation, Barbary ships ranged as far as Newfoundland and even captured ships in Plymouth harbor. Between 1609 and 1616, they captured 446 English ships and sold more than 7000 English captives as slaves. Some such captives might be ransomed, but many others were lost the rest of their lives. Christian states were scandalized by this, but punitive expeditions were usually no more successful than they had been since St. Louis. An English expedition against Algeria in 1620 was a failure, but one in 1637 was more successful, seizing the city of Salee, with 300 captives freed. Nevertheless, it was easier to pay for "protection" and buy off the pirates (who also sometimes could be used as allies against other European powers). This was never more than partially effective, since, as the saying goes, once you pay the Danegeld, you can't get rid of the Dane (very similar kinds of pirates and slavers, as pagans, in their day).The situation became especially infuriating to the new but distant United States of America. After paying $2,000,000 in extortion money, Thomas Jefferson had had enough and in 1801 sent the U.S. Navy and Marines against the city of Tripoli (actually just east of Tunisia, in modern Libya). This brought at least a temporary respite, and contributed a phrase ("the shores of Tripoli") to the Marine Hymn. The piracy and slaving did not really and fully end, however, until the French landed in Algeria, intent upon conquest, in 1830. They had a hard fight against the local charismatic leader, Abd al-Kader, from 1832 to 1847, but they accomplished the task. Fighting there would often be in French Algeria, for which the legendary Foreign Legion would be created, but local pirates would no longer plague the seas or harvest Christian merchants and travellers for slaves. Islamic IndexThe Keita Kings of MaliMari Sun Dayata (Mari Jat.a) I1230-1255Mansa Uli/Ule1255-1270Mansa Wati1270-1274Mansa Khalifa1274-1275Mansa Abu Bakr I,Bata-Mande-Bori1275-1285Sabakura/Sakurafreedman,1285-1300Mansa Gaw/Qu1300-1305Mansa Mamadu/Muh.ammad1305-1310,d.1312Mansa Abu Bakr II1310-1312Mansa Musa I1312-1337Mansa Maghan/Magha I1337-1341Mansa Sulayman1341-1360Mansa Kamba/Qanba/Qasa1360-1361Mansa Mari Dyata/Mari Jat.a II1361-1374Mansa Musa II1374-1382Mansa Maghan II1382-1388/89Sandigi/S.andikiusurper,1288/89-1390Mansa Maghan III, Mah.mud1390succession strife, ascendancy of SonghayMali was the first literate sub-Saharan African kingdom since Abyssinia, and the first Islamic one. The city of Timbuktu on the Niger River, although not the capital of Mali, was nevertheless probably the most famous city of the area (and now of the region), at the end of the caravan routes from North Africa. Pilgrimages of the Kings of Mali to Mecca, passing through Cairo, drew considerable attention, especially that of Mansa Musa I, whose attendants, walking by camels, all carried staffs covered in gold. His reign also saw a visit to the Kingdom from the great traveller Ibn Bat.t.ut.a, who observed, among other things, that the sexual mores of the people were somewhat less rigorous than required by Islam. Indeed, some accommodation with pre-Islamic practices long persisted.The Islam that the Kings of Mali did want rigorously enforced was the prohibition of taking Muslims as slaves. Slavers from North Africa usually regarded all black people, Muslims or not, as fair game, and