Khan1161-1171Muh.ammad Tabghach Khan1171-1178Ibrahim Arslan Khan1178-1204'Uthman Ulugh Sult.an1204-1212Khwarazm Conquest, 1212Apart from the iconoclasm, however, Mah.mud does not seem to have displayed any hostility or persecution of Hindus themselves, whom he actually recruited for his army. This began a long history of ambiguity, or worse, in the relations of Hindus and Moslems in India. Islam always did best in India when tolerant, as under the Moghul Akbar, but could forfeit its strength suddenly with persecution. Note that the Arabic "w" in Ghaznawid is usually pronounced as a "v," as it would be in Persian or Turkish.The "Black" (Turkish qara) Khans displace the Samanids in Transoxania and begin the process whereby the region, now Turkestan, becomes predominately Turkish. Vassals of the Seljuks and then of the Buddhist Qara-Khitai, the khans survive until absorbed in the brief empire of the Khwarazm Shahs.SELJUK GREAT SULT.ANST.ughrul I Beg1037-10631055 frees Caliphsfrom Shi'ite Buwayids;granted title of Sult.anAlp Arslan1063-1073Destroys Roman army, capturesEmperor Romanus IV,Battle of Manzikert, 1071Malik Shah I1073-1092Sult.ans of Rum independent, 1092Mah.mud I1092-1094Berk Yaruq(Barkiyaruq)1094-1105Malik Shah II1105Muh.ammad I Tapar1105-1118Ah.mad Sanjarin Khurasan1097-11571118-1157Defeat by Qara-Khitai,driven out of Transoxania, 1141Mah.mud IIin Iraq1118-1131Dawudin Iraq1131-1132T.ughril IIin Iraq1132-1134Mas'udin Iraq1134-1152Malik Shah IIIin Iraq1152-1153Muh.ammad IIin Iraq1153-1160Great Sultanatebreaks up, 1157Sulayman Shahin Iraq1160-1161Arslan Shahin Iraq1161-1176T.ughril IIIin Iraq1176-1194Conquest by Khwarazm Shahs, 1194The Sejuks created a great empire in Central Asia and profoundly transformed the politics and even the ethnology (with the spread of Turkic peoples) of the Middle East. After being freed from the Buwayids by the Orthodox Seljuks, the Caliph bestows a new title on T.ughrul Beg: Sult.an -- "Power, Dominion, Authority." This looked like it might divide the ultimate authority in Islam into secular and divine halves, between the Sult.an and the Caliph. It might have, had the Seljuk domain maintained its unity and its power, which it didn't. The title of Sult.an, rather than signifying unique and universal authority, henceforth becomes the title of choice for successor states. The greatest long term consequence, however, of the Seljuk state was the destruction of Roman power in Anatolia. There was no way of knowing it at the time, but the battle of Manzikert in 1071 was the end of Mediaeval Romania and the beginning of modern Turkey.Under Alp Arslan and Malik Shah there was considerable intellectual and cultural achievement, in part encouraged by their great Vizir, Niz.am al-Mulk. This included the greatest of Islamic philosophers, al-Ghazali (1058-1111), and the mathematician, astronomer, and poet 'Umar Khayyam (d.1122). Khayyam's fatalism, although with its Islamic overtones, may owe more to an Iranian sensibility, as would what seems to be his worldiness and even cynicism ("Of all that one should care to fathom, I was never deep in anything but Wine," as FitzGerald translated it). Harsher times and considerably less intellectual daring were ahead.The map below shows Islam at the death of Malik Shah I (1092). The Seljuk Great Sultanate, so vast (at least in Asia) and formidable, will now fragment, weaken, and disappear. When the First Crusade arrives in 1098, neither Seljuks nor Fatimids are in any shape to resist it. There is some irony in this, since the Crusades were initiated in response