Their population size is very small; there are fewer than 1,500 Ket in Russia.2002[5] The Selkup have a slightly larger population size than the Ket, with approximately 4,250 individuals.[31]Starting the Paleo-Indians period, a migration to the Americas across the Bering Strait (Beringia) by a small population carrying the Q-M242 mutation took place.[32] A member of this initial population underwent a mutation, which defines its descendant population, known by the Q-M3 (SNP) mutation.[33] These descendants migrated all over the Americas.[28]Haplogroup Q-M3 (Y-DNA) is defined by the presence of the rs3894 (M3) (SNP).[3][5][34] The Q-M3 mutation is roughly 15,000 years old as that is when the initial migration of Paleo-Indians into the Americas occurred.[7][35] Q-M3 is the predominant haplotype in the Americas, at a rate of 83% in South American populations,[36] 50% in the Na-Dene populations, and in North American Eskimo-Aleut populations at about 46%.[30] With minimal back-migration of Q-M3 in Eurasia, the mutation likely evolved in east-Beringia, or more specifically the Seward Peninsula or western Alaskan interior. The Beringia land mass began submerging, cutting off land routes.[6][30][37]Since the discovery of Q-M3, several subclades of M3-bearing populations have been discovered. An example is in South America, where some populations have a high prevalence of (SNP) M19 which defines subclade Q-M19.[36] M19 has been detected in (59%) of Amazonian Ticuna men and in (10%) of Wayuu men.[36] Subclade M19 appears to be unique to South American Indigenous peoples, arising 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.[36] This suggests that population isolation and perhaps even the establishment of tribal groups began soon after migration into the South American areas.[5][38] Other American subclades include Q-L54, Q-Z780, Q-MEH2, Q-SA01, and Q-M346 lineages. In Canada, two other lineages have been found. These are Q-P89.1 and Q-NWT01.Haplogroup R1[edit]For more details on this topic, see Haplogroup R1 (Y-DNA).Spread of Haplogroup R in Indigenous populations.Haplogroup R1 (Y-DNA) (specially R1b) is the second most predominant Y haplotype found among indigenous Amerindians after Q (Y-DNA).[39] The distribution of R1 is believed to be associated with the re-settlement of Eurasia following the last glacial maximum. One theory put forth is that it entered the Americas with the initial founding population.[40] A second theory is that it was introduced during European colonization.[39] R1 is very common throughout all of Eurasia except East Asia and Southeast Asia. R1 (M173) is found predominantly in North American groups like the Ojibwe (79%), Chipewyan (62%), Seminole (50%), Cherokee (47%), Dogrib (40%) andPapago (38%).[39]Haplogroup C-P39[edit]For more details on this topic, see Haplogroup C-M217 (Y-DNA).Spread of Haplogroup C-M217 in Indigenous populations.Haplogroup C-M217 is mainly found in indigenous Siberians, Mongolians and Oceanic populations. Haplogroup C-M217 is the most widespread and frequently occurring branch of the greater (Y-DNA) haplogroup C-M130. Haplogroup C-M217 descendant C-P39 is commonly found in today's Na-Dene speakers, with the highest frequency found among the Athabaskans at 42%.[32] This distinct and isolated branch C-P39 includes almost all the Haplogroup C-M217 Y-chromosomes found among all indigenous peoples of the Americas.[41] The Na-Dene groups are also unusual among indigenous peoples of the Americas in having a relatively high frequency of Q-M242 (25%).[30]Some researcher feel that