thegoodfellas/blogset-br huggingface dataset:
can speak in Christ. He suspects Brunner of inconsistency because, on the one hand, Brunner says that humans are blind, but, on the other hand, he says that people can somehow recognise God in Creation. Barth claims that Brunner undermines the concept of the Trinity, by thinking that he can reach the Father in the absence of the Son and the Holy Spirit.General graceBrunner (2002:27) claims that contemplation of the omnipotence of God, as well as of the sinfulness of human beings, leads one to deduce the merciful nature of the maintenance of Creation. In terms of such thinking, Creation must, as it were, be protected by means of the bestowal of general grace from the total perdition of sin. Such 'general grace' is different to redemptory grace. Barth (2002:85) asserts that such a view leads to the conceptualisation of the cooperation of God and humans, which brings primary and secondary causes into question. Instead of Brunner distinguishing between justificatory and sanctifying grace, his understanding of the concept leads to the conceptualisation of a double theory of grace, which affects the concept of the sola gratia.Ordinances in natureIn accordance with Luther's way of thinking, Brunner (2002:29) regards particular ordinances, such as marriage and the State, as being founded in Creation. Such ordinances can be seen as essentials which are vested in nature that must be interpreted by faith (Brunner 2002:31). Barth (2002:86) is clear that the revelation in Christ results directly from such ordinances. Regarding humans as instinctively being aware of the will of God, he asserts that neither reason nor instinct can tell us what the form of marriage should be.Point of contactHumankind's capacity to cope with words and responsibility makes it unique and enables it to receive the Word of God (Brunner 2002:31). As already been seen in terms of the imago Dei, such receptivity should be understood as formal, rather than as material. The brokenness of humankind allows it to understand the Divine message of mercy. The 'possibility of being addressed' includes not only the essential essence of humanum, but everything that is connected with the 'natural' knowledge of God. Barth sees, in such a concept, the crux of a natural theology, since such an understanding is based on the assumption of the formal aspect of humans as being the imago Dei, which was not lost in the Fall. He persists in understanding such a point of contact, as conceived by Brunner, as bearing the 'capacity of revelation' (Barth 2002:88). Such an understanding implies that human beings are not absolutely affected by sin, but that they retained some of their original righteousness and readiness for God. Barth claims that, by holding to such a belief, Brunner deviates from the sola Scriptura and the sola gratia principles of the Reformation.Reparation of the formal aspect of the imageBrunner (2002:21) states that Creation is not only recreated, but also repaired. Only the material, and not the formal, aspect of humankind dies off after conversion (Brunner 2002:35). The subjective life of human beings, which consists of their self-consciousness, is not uplifted on conversion.
the 'invisible hand' of natural selection (Altner 2003:24). The closing paragraph of Darwin's later work, On the origin of species, was indubitably inspired by Paley. Darwin only corrected, rather than rejected, Paley's account of biological life, to which Darwin referred as the notion of 'perfect adaptation' (McGrath 2006:78). The structure of Paley's Natural theology is like the two halves of a hinge, with the first half dealing with human anatomy and the second half with the Divine attribute. The axes of the hinge are formed by the classical four elements of nature and astronomy. For the first time, biology was envisaged within the realm of theology. The book begins with the well-known analogy that he draws between the world and a pocket watch, which was technologically very advanced for the times in which he lived. Paley stated that, If one were to encounter a stone on a heath, its presence there would not elicit any questions, whereas finding a clock, with its 'intricacy of its parts', in the same location would elicit surprise, since the presence of such an object definitely would indicate that an intelligent designer had been there (Paley 2006:78). The remainder of Natural theology demonstrates that the world, in fact, resembles a huge clock made by a wise and benevolent God. Nature invariably shows signs of 'contrivance', purposeful design and fabrication, to a far greater extent than does a clock. The composition of the eye is probably the best example of such planning and conception (Paley 2006:16). Based on an empirical analysis, Paley (2006:237) deduces that the design of the contrivance is beneficial, with the Deity having superadded pleasure to the feelings of animal sensation. Such ideas regarding the beauty and symmetry of nature were well received, and made the development of a natural theology acceptable to many.Living in the times that Paley did, he made at least two assumptions. On the one hand, it seemed that the knowing subject could dispose of nature from a distance, and could therefore be an objective observer. On the other hand, it seemed that God could be seen as an entity of nature and that, through accurate inductive investigation, not only could God's attributes be determined, but also his existence. Such assumptions link up with Isaac Newton's (16421727) formulation of the regularity of nature, specifically in terms of constants, such as the relationship between gravity and the orbits in which the planets move. Such a formulation led to reality being conceived in accordance with strict scientific laws, meaning that it could be rationally and universally revealed by the investigative mind. In this way, reliable knowledge could also be obtained about God. McGrath (2008:141) alludes to such a means of obtaining knowledge about God in the title of one of his most recent books, which is titled The open secret, in which he states: 'There is no 'secret' or 'hidden' meaning of nature, in that the human mind is capable of uncovering its true, public meaning.' Such a statement makes clear that the cognitive approach to reality is one which regards nature as
'act upon' and 'act', I can also concur with Berger (Berger & Luckmann [1966] 1991:122) when he states: 'Symbolic universes, which proclaim that all reality is humanly meaningful and call upon the entire cosmos to signify the validity of human existence, constitute the furthest reaches of this projection.'Following on Ricoeur (1980:86), I wish to interpret the expressions ethos (the sphere of human action) and cosmos (the sphere of the world), which two spheres meet and interpret each other, as meaning the coram Deo. Such an interpretation avoids the pretentious use of 'from above' or 'from within', while, at the same time, offering the possibility of a modest, yet honest, search for the presence and will of God in, and resulting from, our bio-cultural network. Ricoeur (1980:102) understands revelation as the resonance with one or the other of the aspects of the biblical message. Accordingly, God's transcendence as internal reference lies within the ambit of the discourse surrounding faith. The world to which the text refers is not the world behind the text, but a projected world in front of the text in terms of the witness of the subject, which consists of the witness of the text.As a biblical scientist, Richard Burridge (2007:90391) wishes to develop a particular hermeneutic key from the Bible. In the language of orthodoxy, the Bible is, after all, the norma normans. In his seminal work on New Testament ethics, he uses apartheid theology as a case study. His conviction that 'imitating Jesus' is the distilled heuristic point of departure for interpreting the Scriptures and for acting in the world is also an inclusive paradigm, which not only assumes such an imitation, but which also is its result. Such a perspective can be seen in the following: Crucially, one cannot respond alone; rather, it is to be lived out within an open and inclusive community of others who are also seeking to follow and imitate him. Now therefore we must bring this approach to bear upon our South Africa test-case to see how these twin aspects of imitating Jesus in the context of an inclusive community might be applied to the way in which scripture was read under apartheid. (Burridge 2007:389)Burridge states (2007:409), however, that South African churches failed to notice the inclusive nature of the gospels. The prophetic voice of the 'interpretative community' and the sigh of nature were long ignored, or even gagged.Closely resembling George Newlands' hermeneutical point of departure, being love as a material characteristic of God, (which is, once again, distilled from the Scriptures) present in all understanding (cf. Augustine), the hidden presence of God is appropriated in the response of faith: The understanding of God as love, of God's purpose for the created order as leading to fulfilment in love, has sweeping implications for individual and social ethics, and for the life of the Christian community, the Church. Love is to be the informing principle, not just in special cases but in all human social life. Here is the perennial relevance of an impossible ideal. (Newlands 1994:41)In terms of such thinking, what God
In this context the DRC became a volkskerk (church of the people) and handmaiden to Afrikaner political aspirations.'8. McGrath (2002:200201), in his awareness of criticism by such anti-realists as Derrida, Foucault, Rorty, Cupitt, Murphy, and others, wants to assume in this approach the following three requirements, on the basis of Roy Bashkar's critical realism: a) there can be no a priori foundation for theology; b) critical realism plays an ancillary, rather than a fundamental, role; and c) critical realism is an a posteriori activity, whose central ideas come to the fore on the basis of a spiralling path of appropriate dialogue or conversation that is conducted between the knower and the known.9. The eco-hermeneutics of Habel and Trudinger (2008) comes strongly into play in this respect. They want to read the Bible a) with suspicion, so as to expose all unfair anthropocentrism; b) in solidarity, in the sense that human beings are an integral part of the fabric of nature; and c) by retrieval of the Earth, which allows giving voice to Her neglected role in the biblical narratives. .John Polkinghorne (2004:79) asserts, in terms of his 'top down' approach, that, in contrast, 'epistemology models ontology', although he calls himself a realist.10. John Polkinghorne (2004:79) asserts, in terms of his 'top down' approach, that, in contrast, 'epistemology models ontology', although he calls himself a realist.11. Barth's Church dogmatics contains nineteen references to Hitler's name.All the contents of this journal, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License Reformed Theological CollegeFaculty of TheologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoria, 0002South Africa+27 (0)12 420 2669+27 (0)12 420 4016editor@hts.org.za
known for, or associated with, explicit theological texts. Instead, he is known in the tradition as an archetype of love and a poet of songs and wisdom sayings. Yet, the reference to Solomon in the heading joins Song of Songs with Qoheleth and Proverbs. This might also have supported the inclusion of Song of Songs in the canon (Pope 1977:40-54). Furthermore, in all three books wisdom is associated with creation theology. Accordingly, one may therefore expect in Song of Songs utterances linked to creational theology.Further, a text is deemed as theological in nature by the internal relation of the text to its context. In this respect Song of Songs is clearly part of the existing canon. The discourse of Song of Songs with other texts of the canon shapes the understanding of this book. Since texts develop their theological value through the interpretation within a canon, the canon in turn stabilizes the value of the text (Bekkenkamp 2000:58-61) and creates an intertextual network of interpretation.Interpretation is established by an interpreter or an interpreting community, who unfold not only the text by its inherent criteria but apply also their opinion and methodological tradition to the text. Song of Songs has been scrutinized under such theological circumstances by the interpreting community. Ordinary people and theologians alike have therefore been looking for a theological hub or a hermeneutical key to resolve or understand the message of Song of Songs. The answers have been widespread, often shedding more light on the psyche of the interpreters and the Zeitgeist than on the text itself. My suggestion of paradisiacal love at the heart of the book may therefore also possibly be reflective of this. But it will be the responsibility of future generations of exegetes to decide this. Nevertheless, in order to truly reflect the entire spectrum of possibility, some preliminary alternatives to my own exposition of findings have first to be considered. 2. SEEKING FOR THE THEOLOGICAL HUB2.1 Allegorical and typological readingAt the synod of Jamnia a discussion on the inclusion of Song of Songs in the canon took place. Rabbi Aqiva rebuked a profane, non-canonical usage of Song of Songs and cautioned that those who sing Song of Songs in a pub make it a secular song. These people will have no part in the world to come (Tosefta Sanhedrin 12:10). In a similar manner, bT Sanhedrin 101a states that whosoever sings a verse from Song of Songs in a pub brings about bad fortune. Instead, in early Judaism an allegorical interpretation was propagated (Salomonsen 1976:198), claiming that Song of Song deals with the loving relationship of God and his people.This concept is applied to the people of Israel, thus transforming Song of Songs into a theological book expressing a spiritual relationship. This made it acceptable for the canon and, also, Rabbi Aqiva strongly emphasized that Song of Songs is the Holy of Holies of all writings: it defiles the hands if touched (bT Yadayim 3:5). The Targum Canticles read Song of Songs as a cryptic history or an eschatological allegory starting with the time of
is used as an argument for a comparison with the love of the torah (bT Sanhedrin 22a, 66-69). In Orthodox Judaism the phrase, "your voice is sweet" (2:14) is utilized in the argument that a man is not allowed to listen to the voice of his spouse during her menstruation. Her voice is understood as a form of nakedness and it is thus forbidden to look at her (Rockmann 1998:72).In an allegorical or typological interpretation the literal meaning is secondary, and a theological meaning would be far-fetched. Therefore, this would not answer the purpose of establishing the theological hub. The wheel would not turn smoothly.2.3 Non theological readingThe profane usage of Song of Songs, which had been rejected by Rabbi Aqiva, has made it into 20th and 21st century biblical scholarship. Song of Songs is understood as an anthology. It is considered a mere collection of single poems or fragments thereof. They do not serve a theological purpose but merely praise the love between two lovers. The exchange of a declaration of love and faithfulness is thus considered the purpose of Song of Songs (Audet 1955:213). This reading assumes that there is no comprehensive cohesion and consequently also no coherence to be found in Song of Songs. This interpretation furthermore denies an overall structure as a frame of reference for the interpretation. Its focus is on love between two people and has no further or greater intention. It has merely a profane message. 3. THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE3.1 Structure and meaning3.1.1 CohesionWhen looking for the theological hub, content and structure have to be considered because both are transmitters of essential interpretive information. I propose an overall structure and rely on works of various scholars since Angenieux (1965). Different structures have been proposed and revised, most extensively by Elliot (1989). Structure is evident not only in the cohesion of textual elements, but also in the coherence of meaning - I have dealt with the question of structure extensively in a monograph on Song of Songs (Fischer 2010:39-87).Cohesion explicitly expresses the linkage of sentences to a text. It deals with the manner in which a text is presented. It has long been noted that Song of Songs is constructed with a certain cohesion expressed by refrains and the repetition of keywords and phrases. The most obvious refrain is the conjuration: "Daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles and by the does of the field I charge you: Do not stir up or awaken love until it so desires" (2:7; 3:5; cf. 5:8; 8:4). Also the question: "Who is this coming up from the desert?" (3:6; 8:5; cf. 6:1) seems to resume an earlier event.Phrases are represented by the call to get up (2:10.13), the praise of beauty (1.15, 4.1), the lovesickness of the woman (2:5; 5:8), her being in love (1:7; 3.1-4), the intimacy of tenderness (2:6; 8:3), browsing among the lilies (2:16.17; 4:5.6; 6:2.3) belonging (2:16; 6:3; 7:11) and privacy (2:7; 3:5), the praise of her uniqueness (4:7; 5.16; 6:9), and the call for (2:14; 8:13) or the sound of the voice of the
beloved one (2:8; 5:2). Further metaphors are repeated (4:5 and 7:14; 4:3 and 6:7).3.1.2 CoherenceCohesion does not necessarily lead to coherence. Coherence demands more than the recurrence of keywords and phrases. It calls for continuity and causality. The different elements of a text are linked, for example, when a pronominal refers back to a figure of the text introduced earlier. Aspects of time, mode, voices and focalisation have also to be taken into account.19th century dramatic interpretations already observed cohesion. Even if there has never been an agreement on the number of lovers wooing for the lady, some kind of a story was elaborated by focussing on some key texts.If a story is to be extracted from Song of Songs, the prosaic and poetic parts must be evaluated. A prosaic text is more coherent than a poetic one. The syntagmatic dependency of the words is also greater in a prosaic text and it has fewer options for associations (De Sausurre 2001:152-153). Hence the prosaic parts are more important for the development of a story, but they are also less open to multiple interpretations. They have a stronger cohesion and are likely to be more coherent.3.2 Structure as means of identifying a hubSince meaning is expressed by cohesion and coherence, the clarification of the structure is functional for the understanding of a text and is a prerequisite to the theological message. In Song of Songs more than one structure can be identified. The complex and overlaying structures have often not been recovered so that Song of Songs was taken for an anthology, loosely joint by keywords or subjects.There are nevertheless arguments for a linear, a concentric and a cyclic structure (Fischer 2010:56-82). While a linear structure expresses progress, a concentric and a cyclic structure are both repetitious. A linear structure is typical for narratives which demand progress for the unfolding of the story. When structuring Song of Songs in consideration of the textual elements contributing to cohesion and the coherence of the content, the outline is as follows: There is a linear order in the first half of the book. It ends in 5:1. The final function of 5:1 is supported by 4QCant which ends here. Most likely, this is not the accidental end of the fragment, but intended (Flint 2005:102). At the very least it reflects the possibility that the narration can be brought to a close.5:2-8 recalls the scene of the woman seeking her lover in the dark of the night and meeting the watchmen (3:1-5), modifying it and developing a different story of seeking for the lover until the woman and the man are unified and the strength of the love is praised (8:5-7). An epilogue (8:8-14) closes the linear story of hide and seek.In a concentric order, it may be observed that the second half of the book arranges the textual elements of the first half in a different order, repeating elements E and F more than once:A B C D E F - G - C' E' F' E" F" E"' B' C" D' A'All parts of the
first sequence are taken up again in the second half. The larger blocks of the sequential order of the first half (B C D E F) are repeated in two blocks with internal repetitions (CEF - BCD) surrounded by a frame (A A'). The sequences become shorter, and have a summarizing and resultative effect. Only the centre, G (4:16-5:1), has no counterpart. It is the climax of the garden scene, F (4:8-15). The garden is the place where the lovers meet or try to meet each other (F' 6:1-3; F" 6:11-12).Steinberg (2006:347-363) proposes the cyclical structure with five cycles of desire creating a repetitious movement: 1. She longs for him. 2. She sees him coming and praises his merits. 3. He praises her beauty and longs for her. 4. She invites him.The third cycle closes with the paradise of love - he longs for her and she gives herself to him (4:16-5:1).Each of the three structural devices point to 4.16-5:1 as the thematic and structural hub of Song of Songs. But what theological impact does this central passage possess? In order to solve this, the different voices in the text have to be identified.3.3 Identification of different voicesIn 4:16-5:1 three voices speak as follows: Female voice: 16 Awake, north wind, and come, south wind! Blow on my garden, its fragrances shall flow. He shall come, my beloved to his garden, and eat its choice fruits. Male voice: I am coming to my garden, my sister, my bride, I am gathering my myrrh with my spice, I am eating my honeycomb with my honey, I am drinking my wine with my milk. Third voice: Eat, friends, drink, and be drunk, beloved!I have translated the affix-conjugation of the male voice not as a present perfect but as a present progressive tense because this act of speech is not a report but a dramatic conversation between three voices. The female voice invites the man. He answers the invitation and expresses his desire for her. When speaking, the sexual unification of the two is either just about to take place or their speech accompanies it (Wagner 1997:125). The uninterrupted intimacy of the male and the female figures is at the centre of Song of Songs and this is accompanied by a third voice. The switch-over is indicated by the change from first person affix conjugation to the imperative masculine plural. The identification of the third voice is a crux interpretum. The identification of the addressee might contribute to its solution.The voice is not addressing the man's companions, who remain obscure and appear only in the framework (1:7; 8:13) as but never as Instead, this voice addresses the lovers and calls them "friends" and "beloved". In Song of Songs, and only there, the feminine form of the term appears nine times. If the man and the woman are addressed together, it is common that the masculine plural form is used. Concerning the second term , the LXX and the Old Latin Version are misleading, translating as , respectively fraters mei. points to the lovers as well. Instead,