& Aragon,end of Islamic Spain, 1492The end of Islamic Spain turned out to be a very protracted business, 260 years to be exact. In the course of this, one of the architectural jewels of the world was created, the Alhambra (al-H.amra', "the Red"). When the real end came, it was by no means easy for the Christians. A long and tough campaign finally resulted in a negotiated surrender. Muh.ammad XII (Boabdil), left for North Africa, and freedom of religion was supposedly obtained for Granadan Moslems (1492). Frustration with this incomplete victory may have helped Ferdinand and Isabella with their resolve to expel the Jews from Spain. Toleration for Moslems, however, was revoked as soon as 1499. Actions against the Moriscos, Christian converts from Islam, led to a great revolt in 1568-1570. Dispersed through Spain, the remaining Moriscos nevertheless were enough of a worry that it was determined in 1609 to expel them from Spain altogether. By 1614, they were gone, and with them the last link with the 700 years of Islamic Spain.The Alhambra (a redundant expression, since "al" already means "the") survives out of its time as a living fossil of Islamic Spain -- with its name transported to a city in Southern California, where at least the climate is similar. Another echo of Islamic Spain lives in California, however, where the Mission San Gabriel Arcangel reflects, on a more humble scale, architectural elements of the Great Mosque of Cordova (which survived through its conversion into the church). The builder of the Mission, it seems, was from Cordova. The buttresses unique to California Missions, unfortunately, have not always preserved San Gabriel from earthquake damage. An image of San Gabriel has recently been proposed for the Seal of the County of Los Angeles, since the City of Los Angeles was originally founded in 1781 as an asistencia or outlier of the Mission.THE SULT.ANSOF MALACCA/MELAKAParameshvara1403-1414Chinese suzerainty, 1409Megat Iskandar Shah1414-1424Shri Maharaja Sult.an Muhammad Shah1424-1445last Chinese fleet visit, 1433Raja Ibrahim Shri Paramesvara Deva Shah1445-1446Raja Qasim Sult.an Maz.affar Shah1446-1459Raja 'Abdallah Sult.an Mans.ur Shah1459-1477Sult.an 'Ala' ad-Din Ri'ayat1477-1488Sult.an Mah.mud Shah1488-1510, 1510-1528Sult.an Ah.mad Shah1510Portuguese conquest, 1511; dynasty continues in Johor, 1528; Dutch, 1641; British, 1824Islam in Southeast Asia is the counterexample to the notion sometimes affirmed that the religion has never spread except by the sword. Instead, Islam arrived in Malaya and Indonesia by sea and by trade. It took hold gradually against Hinduism and Buddhism, which had previously arrived by sea and by trade. One result of this was gradual and incomplete Islamicization, i.e. the previous civilization was not simply superseded and the social rigors of Islamic law only adopted imperfectly. This can be seen in the very names of the Sult.ans of Malacca, which begin with Sanskrit, including titles like shri, raja, and maharaja, and shift over to Arabic and Persian, including titles like sult.an and shah. With the last three rulers before the Portuguese, the Sanskrit titles and names have disappeared entirely. The most remarkable name/title is undoubtedly deva, "god." This is familiar from an early date in India but would be absolutely anathema in Islam