India and back. One might have suspected South Arabians to have known about this already, but the evidence that they didn't may be that the seaports in the region only developed subsequently. The caravan routes continued, but a sea trade developed that continued into the modern era -- later the lifeblood of realms like Oman.Toward the end of this period, or right at the end, depending on the chronology, the Roman Emperor Augustus is supposed to have sent an expedition down to Arabia Felix under Gaius Aelius Gallus. According to Strabo, this was launched in 26 BC, but was treacherously guided by the Nabataean Syllaeus. The Romans suffered in the desert and did not arrive until the year 24. They were sick and wasted but nevertheless captured some cities and began besieging the city of Marsiaba. Lack of water prevented success, however, and Gallus had to retreat. No effort was made again to project Roman power or impose Roman sovereignty -- until Justinian found an ally nearby.Dhu-Raydan/HimyarHaris ar-Ra'ishc.120-c.90 BCZu-l-Karnainc.90-?Abrahah Zu-l-MamurAfricisZu-l-Adjarc.20 BC-10 ADSharah-bilBilkis Shammar ZarashAbu MalikYasir Yuhasdiqc.80-c.100Dhamar 'Ali Yuhabir Ic.100-c.120Tharan Ya'ubb Yuhan'imShammar Yuharish I?-c.160To Saba, c.160-c.195Laziz Yuhnaf Yuhasdiqc.195-c.200Yasir Yuhan'im IShammar Yuharish IIKariba'il Yuhan'imTharan Ya'ubb Yuhan'imc.230-c.250Dhamar 'Ali Watar Yuhabir IIAmdan Bayin YuhagbidYasir Yuhanim IIShamir Yuhar'ish IIIc.290Kingdom of Himyar & Saba'Nash'a-Karib Yamin Yuharhibc.1 ADWatar YuhaminEra of Himyar, year1 = 110 BC= -109 ADYasir YuhasdiqDhamar 'Ali Yuhabir ITharan Ya'ubb Yuhan'imDhamar 'Ali Yuhabir IIDhamar 'Ali BayinKarib-il WatarHalk-amarDhamar 'Ali DharihYada'-il Watarc.200-?Il-Adhdh Naufan Yuhasdiqc.245-?Yasir Yuhan'im IIShamir Yuhar'ish IIIc.290conquers Hadramawt; "King of Saba and Dhu Raydan and Hadramawt and Yamanat," 299 AD = 409 Era of HimyarYarim YarhabTo Abyssinia, c.310-c.378Ela Amida of Axumc.340-c.378Malik-Karib Yuhaminc.378-c.385Abi-Karib As'ad (Kamil ut-Tubba)c.385-c.420accepts JudaismWarau-amar Ayman (Hasan Yuhan'im)c.420-c.433Sharah-bil Ya'furc.433-?Ma'ad-Karib'Abd-KilalSharah-bil Yakuf464-?NaufLahi-'Athra YanufMarthad-ilan Yanuf496-?Ma'adi-Karib Ya'furc.500-c.517invasion by AbyssiniaMasruq Dhu-Nuwas (Yusuf Ash'ar)c.517-525convert to Judaism, occupation by Abyssinia, 525-c.533Sumu-Yafa' Ashwa' (Esimfey, Esimiphaeus)526-c.533Dhu Jadan of Himyar525-533Abrahah (al-Ashram) of Abyssiniac.533-570Era of Himyar 669, 559 AD, last dated South Arabian textYaksum570-577Masruq ibn Abraha (Ma'adi-Karib)577-587Sayf ibn Dhi-Yazan (Abu Murra)587-599installed by Persia;Persia rule, 599-629Khorre-Khusrau599-620Badanc.620-629To Islam, 629The kingdom of Saba' as the principal state of the area is followed by Himyar. However, according to Hoyland [p.47], Saba', in "strained circumstances", formed a "united monarchy" with the Himyarite Dhu Raydan. In the 2nd century AD, Saba' became the dominant state again, but then by the end of the 3rd had simply disappeared. This confused process is reflected in conflicting lists from Gordon, who says of Dhu-Raydan (Zu-Raidan) that it is, "An earlier core of Himyar. As with Saba above, this list is inconsistent with other sources for Himyar, and so I show both." His list for Dhu-Raydan ends with Shamir Yuhar'ish III, who can be found at a similar date (c.290 AD) in the list for Himyar. What we may have is one list of strictly Himyarite rulers, and another consisting of many from Saba', until with Shamir Yuhar'ish the Sabaean line is gone.Shamir Yuhar'ish, indeed, appears to be the first fully historical ruler in the region, and we even get absolute dating in a Himyarite Era, whose Year 1 Benchmark would have been 110 BC. This also happens to be the era in which Abyssinia, centered at Axum,