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Samson and His Mighty Challenge

Samson and His Mighty Challenge is a 1964 Italian sword-and-sandal film, released in 1965 at the very tail end of the peplum craze. Its original title was Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus gli invincibili (Hercules, Samson, Maciste, and Ursus: the Invincibles). It is also known as Samson and the Mighty Challenge, Combate dei Gigantes (Battle of the Giants), Triumph of the Giants or Le Grand Defi (The Great Battle).

Samson and His Mighty Challenge is a 1964 Italian sword-and-sandal film, released in 1965 at the very tail end of the peplum craze. Its original title was Ercole, Sansone, Maciste e Ursus gli invincibili (Hercules, Samson, Maciste, and Ursus: the Invincibles). It is also known as Samson and the Mighty Challenge, Combate dei Gigantes (Battle of the Giants), Triumph of the Giants or Le Grand Defi (The Great Battle). Synopsis Hercules argues with his father Zeus who thinks that his son should follow the road of virtue. Instead, Hercules follows the road of pleasure which leads him to the city of Lydia. There he falls in love with the princess Omphale and he asks from her mother Nemea permission to marry her. Although Nemea is thrilled with the idea of having a demigod as a husband for her daughter, Omphale doesn't even want to hear about it because she is in love with Inor the barbarian prince. So the couple crafts a cunning plan. They hide their dwarf friend under the statue of Zeus and he tells Hercules that in order to marry Omphale he must battle with the most powerful man in the world: Samson. Hercules agrees and the queen sends a messenger to tell Samson about the fight. Samson agrees, although his wife Delilah thinks that it is not a good idea because her husband has a taste for beautiful women. So Delilah cuts his hair and makes him weak. However, the messenger does not know this, and he thinks that his wife doesn't let him go. In order to return to Lydia with Samson, he hires the troublemaker Ursus who recently lost a fight to Maciste to kidnap him. Cast Alan Steel as Hercules Howard Ross as Maciste Nadir Moretti (credited as Nadir Baltimore) as Samson Yann L'Arvor as Ursus Luciano Marin as Inor Hélène Chanel as Onphale Elisa Montés as Onfale Lia Zoppelli as Nemea Moira Orfei as Delilah Maria Luisa Ponte as Ursus' mother Conrado San Martín as Marinero Livio Lorenzon Carlo Tamberlani Reinterpretation In 1993 this film was re-released as a comedy under the name Hercules Returns. The original dialogue was overdubbed by Australian actors and a number of extra scenes were filmed. Bibliography Hughes, Howard (2011). Cinema Italiano - The Complete Guide From Classics To Cult. London - New York: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-608-0. See also List of films featuring Hercules References External links Samson and His Mighty Challenge at IMDb Samson and His Mighty Challenge at Variety Distribution Hercules Returns at IMDb (1993 remake)

Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station

The Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station was Canada’s first full-scale nuclear power plant and the second CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) pressurised heavy water reactor. Its success was a major milestone and marked Canada's entry into the global nuclear power scene. The same site was later used for the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station. Douglas Point was built and owned by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) but operated by Ontario Hydro. It was in service from 26 September 1968 to 5 May 1984.

The Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station was Canada’s first full-scale nuclear power plant and the second CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) pressurised heavy water reactor. Its success was a major milestone and marked Canada's entry into the global nuclear power scene. The same site was later used for the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station. Douglas Point was built and owned by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) but operated by Ontario Hydro. It was in service from 26 September 1968 to 5 May 1984. The plant served as a teaching tool for the emerging Canadian nuclear industry, and the experience gained was applied to the later CANDU power plants. Design The first CANDU was a demonstration unit, the Nuclear Power Demonstrator (NPD). In 1958, before NPD was complete, AECL formed the Nuclear Power Plant Division at Ontario Hydro’s A.W. Manby Service Centre in Toronto to manage the construction of a full-scale prototype for future CANDU commercial power plants. Ontario Hydro would operate the prototype. The plant would have a 200 MWe reactor and be built in Ontario. The reactor's stainless steel calandria would mass 54.4 tonne (60 ton) and have a 6.1 metres (20 ft) diameter. The design was compact to reduce the required amount of heavy water moderator; the reactor required several tons of heavy water, which was very expensive at $26 per pound (roughly 5 cents per gram). The added cost of using heavy water was at least partially offset by the ability to use natural uranium and forego uranium enrichment - a technology which Canada did not have access to when the CANDU design was developed. While the natural uranium fuel allows for lower burnup than enriched fuel as used in light water reactors, overall more thermal power is extracted from the same amount of uranium ore in a heavy water reactor than in a comparable light water reactor. However, a higher amount of spent nuclear fuel is produced. Foregoing enrichment also means that no depleted uranium is left over. As the lower burnup requires more frequent refueling, the CANDU was designed to be capable of online refueling, a feature successfully demonstrated at Douglas Point (see below) and still a distinguishing factor of the CANDU design. Sites along Lake Huron on the shoreline north of Manitoulin Island and along the shoreline from Tobermory to Goderich were considered. Low-lying Douglas Point, within the latter area, was chosen by the end of June 1959; its solid limestone base made it ideal. The Hydro Electric Power Commission acquired a 9.31 square kilometres (2,301 acres) area at the site for $50 to $70 an acre, the going price of farm land at the time (1.2 to 1.7 cents per square meter). Gordon Churchill, the Minister of Trade and Commerce, officially announced the decision to build the plant at Douglas Point on 18 June 1959. Construction In 1961, Douglas Point set up an information office and a Bailey bridge at tree-top level providing a view of the site. The site was cleared and excavated by 500 workers, including Hydro construction crews from Toronto and locally and provincially hired labour. Contractors included 600 Canadian, plus British and American, firms. Canadian manufacturers supplied 71% of the plant's components, with the remainder coming from British and American manufacturers. The relatively high share of domestic companies and resources used in the construction of this reactor continues to be a feature of CANDU reactors which can now claim a 90+% Canadian supply chain from uranium mine to replacement parts to intermediate storage of spent fuel. This high degree of autarky was a design consideration in the development of the CANDU and led to choices like the Calandria instead of "regular" reactor pressure vessels which were beyond the capabilities of Canadian heavy industry at the time. The calandria was manufactured by the Dominion Bridge Company of Montreal. It was shipped by barge from Lachine, Quebec to Kincardine, Ontario; from there it was moved 16 kilometres (10 mi) north by flatbed truck to the construction site. In May 1964, work began on transmission lines linking Douglas Point to the provincial power grid near Hanover. All the major equipment was installed by 1965. The total cost of the plant was $91 million. Douglas Point had an oil-filled window which allowed direct observation of the East reactor face, even during full-power operation. Operation The Douglas Point reactor first attained criticality on 15 November 1966 at 16:26 hours. It began feeding power into the grid on 7 January 1967 and officially entered service on 26 September 1968 with a 54% capacity factor. The plant made its first on-power fuelling (i.e. refuelling the reactor without having to shut down) on 1 March 1970. This CANDU feature was first demonstrated by NPD on 23 November 1963. While light water reactors are usually not capable of this feat, heavy water reactors like the CANDU and the related IPHWR as well as some graphite moderated reactors like the Magnox, the AGR and the RBMK have this capability as part of their design specs to allow efficient operation at lower burnup with natural uranium or low enriched uranium fuel. Douglas Point suffered from early unreliability and heavy water leakage. The system was delicate and shut down frequently and easily; the plant was offline for more than half the time between 1968 and 1971. Repairs were expensive and time-consuming, and were made more difficult by the compact design that placed critical components in inaccessible locations. These engineering problems, including the vulnerability of the design to leaks in the primary coolant circuits, are seen and discussed in an official 1968 documentary on the reactor. Repairs were done by remote control or large teams; the latter was done to reduce the time an individual employee was exposed to radiation. Following the successful deployment of four larger 542 MWe reactors at the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station, the 220 MWe reactor was judged as inadequate. Plans to add another 220 MWe unit to Douglas Point were cancelled. Shutdown Douglas Point was shut down on 5 May 1984, having achieved a capacity factor of 75% in 1982, and 82% just before retirement. Douglas Point was not wholly satisfactory as an operational power plant and, being too expensive to up-scale, Ontario Hydro refused to purchase it from AECL. AECL subsequently withdrew funding. The plant is co-located with the newer Bruce Nuclear Generating Station. Bruce Power now leases the site and the newer plant from Ontario Hydro's successor company, Ontario Power Generation, although the Douglas Point structure and equipment remain owned by AECL. See also List of Canadian nuclear facilities Rajasthan Atomic Power Station References Bothwell R. Nucleus: The History of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. University of Toronto Press, 1988 External links The Historical Significance of the Douglas Point Nuclear Power Plant

Wattles Mansion

The Wattles Estate, originally known as Jualita, is a historic house and park in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was built in 1907 by wealthy Omaha, Nebraska, banker Gurdon Wattles as a winter home. Next to the Wattles Mansion are Wattles Park and Wattles Gardens, now administered by the City of Los Angeles and open to the public. The estate has been recognized as "the only remaining intact example of the once plentiful Hollywood estates from the period preceding the film industry, when Hollywood was primarily agricultural and was a wintering home for wealthy Easterners and Midwesterners." According to the City of Los Angeles, "'Jualita' is one of the few remaining landscapes reminiscent of another era and tradition, possessing a genuine integrity of setting, design, workmanship, and association."

The Wattles Estate, originally known as Jualita, is a historic house and park in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was built in 1907 by wealthy Omaha, Nebraska, banker Gurdon Wattles as a winter home. Next to the Wattles Mansion are Wattles Park and Wattles Gardens, now administered by the City of Los Angeles and open to the public. The estate has been recognized as "the only remaining intact example of the once plentiful Hollywood estates from the period preceding the film industry, when Hollywood was primarily agricultural and was a wintering home for wealthy Easterners and Midwesterners." According to the City of Los Angeles, "'Jualita' is one of the few remaining landscapes reminiscent of another era and tradition, possessing a genuine integrity of setting, design, workmanship, and association." History Noted local architects Myron Hunt and Elmer Grey designed the Mission Revival residence in 1907 with grounds featuring a Japanese garden, an Italian rose garden, a formal Spanish garden, a palm court, and orchards. It was one of Hollywood's first tourist attractions. Wattles was responsible for gradually transforming 49 acres (200,000 m2) of agricultural land into orchards, thematic gardens and naturalistic landscapes based on his trips to Japan and Mexico.Prior to permanent residence in Los Angeles, Wattles headed the streetcar company in Omaha. His strike-breaking efforts contributed to four days of violence in the city in 1909. The attempt to unionize failed and many of the strikers had to seek work elsewhere, but the incident damaged Wattles' social standing and worsened relations between the city's rich and the general citizenry. A jury's refusal in 1906 to convict career criminal Pat Crowe for the kidnapping of Omaha packing house scion Edward Cudahy was widely seen as an expression of contempt for the city's ruling elite. Several millionaires fled the city, including the Cudahy family. With his civic reputation damaged, Wattles himself began to spend more time in Los Angeles after the strike and permanently relocated in 1920.After Wattles' death in 1932, his wife, Julia Vance Wattles, and his son continued to live on the property. Gurdon Wallace Wattles Jr. negotiated the sale of the residence to the City of Los Angeles in 1965. In March of that year, the City of Los Angeles Board of Recreation and Parks Commission adopted Resolution 5135, designating the Wattles estate as an acquisition area, and purchased the property for $1,917,000 in June 1968.Hollywood Heritage, a private nonprofit preservation organization, began restoration efforts in 1983, and the estate served as their headquarters until May 22, 2009, when control of the property reverted to the Los Angeles Department of Recreation and Parks. Over the first decade, volunteers with the Hollywood Heritage organization removed several feet of mud from the garden, replanted landscaping, and repainted and refinished the interior woodwork. Through their dedicated efforts, the Wattles Mansion was returned to its original state. In 1993, the Wattles Mansion was designated as City of Los Angeles Cultural Monument No. 579. In 2000, the J. Paul Getty Trust donated $75,000 toward a Preserve L.A. planning project designed to further the site's preservation. Wattles Mansion The home is two stories with a full basement. The first-floor rooms include a paneled library, a formal dining room, a large living room with a picture window to the south gardens, two large bathrooms off the entrance hall, a servant's dining hall, and a kitchen and pantry. Five bedrooms and three baths are on the second floor. Some of the original features in the Wattles Mansion include a black-and-white-checkerboard marble floor in the foyer, and intricately carved walnut bookcases and a hand-painted ceiling in the library. Hardwood moldings, white stucco walls, wood-beamed ceilings, and hardwood floors with Oriental carpets are found throughout the house. There is a terracotta tile terrace and a wide, sloping lawn. Brick landings on a wide stairway go down toward landscaped terraces on each side, with a Spanish balustraded patio overlooking 3 acres (12,000 m2) of formal gardens. Wattles Farm Once the avocado and fruit orchard of the Wattles Mansion, in 1975 a group of local residents converted a 4.2-acre (17,000 m2) section of the then-neglected Wattles estate into a community garden. Today, this members-only organic garden is among the oldest community gardens in Los Angeles. It is run by a nonprofit organization called the Wattles Farm and Neighborhood Gardeners Inc. in partnership with the Los Angeles Department of Recreation and Parks. Wattles Park Some of the gardens surrounding Wattles Mansion have been designated as Wattles Park. Gurdon Wattles met the original head gardener during his world travels in 1910, and retained him for the next 20 years until his death in 1930. Gurdon's concept for the gardens was influenced by trips to Mexico and Japan; he bought a tea house, shrines and lanterns from Japan for use in the gardens. Four gardens were eventually developed, with the first corresponding to the architecture of the house, the second Italian, the third American, and the fourth Japanese. Today, Wattles Park occupies approximately 50 acres (200,000 m2) of a long narrow corridor of space that rises 950 feet (290 m) from Hollywood Boulevard. The lower park is 4.13 acres (16,700 m2) in size and fronts on Hollywood Boulevard. The Wattles Mansion and formal garden area runs along the private roadway to the building. The early American garden area is directly behind the residence and was composed of rose and vegetable gardens. The Japanese teahouse along Curson Avenue was a gift to the City of Los Angeles from Nagoya, its sister city in Japan. The Japanese garden portion of the grounds was designed by Fugo, an influential landscape architect in Japan. All of the shrubs, plants, and vegetation were brought directly from Japan for the garden.In the 1970s and 1980s, the park was popular among L.A.'s punk scene. In the 1980s and 1990s, crime at the park increased, with individuals using the tea house for drug sales and use. Vandalism and a couple of fires ruined the tea house, which has since been off limits to all visitors, and only a small portion of the tea house is still standing. Heavy flooding overflowed the small lake and stream, drying them up forever. Some of the palm trees had to be cut down. The place became unkempt as a result of the cutbacks, making it difficult to maintain the gardens. Graffiti was reported on the white columns and the Japanese entrance, as well as the outdoor temple, and the roof of the temple was removed. The park now has a sign warning of rattlesnakes in the area. Benches were removed as well. Wattles Park has become popular with dog walkers. Eviction notice Hollywood Heritage was served an eviction notice in 2008 by the City of Los Angeles for failure to maintain the landmark and for throwing loud parties. Hollywood Heritage denied the allegations but ultimately agreed to vacate the mansion in May 2009. Cultural references Author Lucky McKee used the park as a backdrop in the novel May. The mansion was featured on the television series The O.C. and Buffy the Vampire Slayer ("Reptile Boy"), in the movie Troop Beverly Hills, and the sanatorium scenes in the film Rain Man were shot there as well. It was also featured in Jennifer Lopez's first film, My Family. Wattles was also used extensively for the 1985 movie Ghoulies and for the Diana Ross music video "Eaten Alive". The park was used for many scenes in the 1984 film The Lost Empire directed by Jim Wynorski. Portions of the Nirvana music video for "Come as You Are," directed by Kevin Kerslake, were filmed at the park in 1992. See also History of Hollywood, California Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in Hollywood References External links Wattles Mansion and Gardens Wattles Farm and Neighborhood Garden

Khtzkonk Monastery

Khtzkonk Monastery (Armenian: Խծկոնք, also transcribed as Khtskonk and Xc'konk'; Turkish: Beşkilise) was a monastic ensemble of five Armenian churches built between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in what was then the Armenian Bagratid kingdom. The site is located near the town of Digor, the administrative capital of the Digor District of the Kars Province in Turkey, about 19 kilometres west of the border with Armenia, in a gorge formed by the Digor River.

Khtzkonk Monastery (Armenian: Խծկոնք, also transcribed as Khtskonk and Xc'konk'; Turkish: Beşkilise) was a monastic ensemble of five Armenian churches built between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in what was then the Armenian Bagratid kingdom. The site is located near the town of Digor, the administrative capital of the Digor District of the Kars Province in Turkey, about 19 kilometres west of the border with Armenia, in a gorge formed by the Digor River. Present condition The monastery with its five churches was intact when photographed by the Armenian archaeologist Ashkharbek Kalantar in August 1920, just before Turkey captured the region from Armenia. In 1959 the French art historian Jean-Michel Thierry visited the site and found that four of the five churches had been destroyed, with only the Church of Saint Sargis surviving. While historian Thomas Sinclair in 1987 ventured an explanation that the buildings were destroyed by "rolling rocks," others, including locals themselves, have attested that the churches were blown up by the Turkish army using high explosive rounds, which was reaffirmed by the residents of Digor in 2002. Their information is corroborated by the physical evidence on the site which "seems to confirm that these buildings were intentionally destroyed with modern, probably military means" as part of "a phenomenon that could be defined as cultural genocide." The dome of the surviving church is intact but the side walls have been blown outwards; the destroyed churches have been entirely leveled with their masonry blasted into the gorge below. This is damage that cannot have occurred as a result of an earthquake, William Dalrymple wrote similarly in 1989. Gallery Notes External links The Monastery օf Khtzkonk on VirtualAni.org Gagik Arzumanyan's photo gallery Image gallery of Khtzkonk at Research on Armenian Architecture's website Images from 1968 at the Gateway to Armenian Cultural Heritage website

Infinity (philosophy)

In philosophy and theology, infinity is explored in articles under headings such as the Absolute, God, and Zeno's paradoxes. In Greek philosophy, for example in Anaximander, 'the Boundless' is the origin of all that is. He took the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (ἄπειρον, apeiron). The Jain metaphysics and mathematics were the first to define and delineate different "types" of infinities. The work of the mathematician Georg Cantor first placed infinity into a coherent mathematical framework.

In philosophy and theology, infinity is explored in articles under headings such as the Absolute, God, and Zeno's paradoxes. In Greek philosophy, for example in Anaximander, 'the Boundless' is the origin of all that is. He took the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (ἄπειρον, apeiron). The Jain metaphysics and mathematics were the first to define and delineate different "types" of infinities. The work of the mathematician Georg Cantor first placed infinity into a coherent mathematical framework. Keenly aware of his departure from traditional wisdom, Cantor also presented a comprehensive historical and philosophical discussion of infinity. In Christian theology, for example in the work of Duns Scotus, the infinite nature of God invokes a sense of being without constraint, rather than a sense of being unlimited in quantity. Early thinking Egyptian ...how sad is the descent in the land of silence, the wakeful sleeps, he who did not slumber at night lies still forever. The scorners say: The dwelling place of the inhabitants of the West is deep and dark, it has no door, no window, no light to illuminate it, no north wind to refresh the heart, the sun does not rise there, but they lie every day in darkness - the guardian has been taken away to the land of infinity... Greek Anaximander An early engagement with the idea of infinity was made by Anaximander who considered infinity to be a foundational and primitive basis of reality. Anaximander was the first in the Greek philosophical tradition to propose that the universe was infinite. Anaxagoras Anaxagoras (500–428 BCE) was of the opinion that matter of the universe had an innate capacity for infinite division. The Atomists A group of thinkers of ancient Greece (later identified as the Atomists) all similarly considered matter to be made of an infinite number of structures as considered by imagining dividing or separating matter from itself an infinite number of times. Aristotle and after Aristotle, alive for the period 384–322 BCE, is credited with being the root of a field of thought, in his influence of succeeding thinking for a period spanning more than one subsequent millennium, by his rejection of the idea of actual infinity.In Book 3 of the work entitled Physics, written by Aristotle, Aristotle deals with the concept of infinity in terms of his notion of actuality and of potentiality. ... It is always possible to think of a larger number: for the number of times a magnitude can be bisected is infinite. Hence the infinite is potential, never actual; the number of parts that can be taken always surpasses any assigned number. This is often called potential infinity; however, there are two ideas mixed up with this. One is that it is always possible to find a number of things that surpasses any given number, even if there are not actually such things. The other is that we may quantify over infinite sets without restriction. For example, ∀ n ∈ Z ( ∃ m ∈ Z [ m > n ∧ P ( m ) ] ) {\displaystyle \forall n\in \mathbb {Z} (\exists m\in \mathbb {Z} [m>n\wedge P(m)])} , which reads, "for any integer n, there exists an integer m > n such that P(m)". The second view is found in a clearer form by medieval writers such as William of Ockham: Sed omne continuum est actualiter existens. Igitur quaelibet pars sua est vere existens in rerum natura. Sed partes continui sunt infinitae quia non tot quin plures, igitur partes infinitae sunt actualiter existentes.But every continuum is actually existent. Therefore any of its parts is really existent in nature. But the parts of the continuum are infinite because there are not so many that there are not more, and therefore the infinite parts are actually existent. The parts are actually there, in some sense. However, on this view, no infinite magnitude can have a number, for whatever number we can imagine, there is always a larger one: "There are not so many (in number) that there are no more." Aristotle's views on the continuum foreshadow some topological aspects of modern mathematical theories of the continuum. Aristotle's emphasis on the connectedness of the continuum may have inspired—in different ways—modern philosophers and mathematicians such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Cantor, and LEJ Brouwer.Among the scholastics, Aquinas also argued against the idea that infinity could be in any sense complete or a totality. Aristotle deals with infinity in the context of the prime mover, in Book 7 of the same work, the reasoning of which was later studied and commented on by Simplicius. Roman Plotinus Plotinus considered infinity, while he was alive, during the 3rd century A.D. Simplicius Simplicius, alive circa 490 to 560 AD, thought the concept "Mind" was infinite. Augustine Augustine thought infinity to be "incomprehensible for the human mind". Early Indian thinking The Jain upanga āgama Surya Prajnapti (c. 400 BC) classifies all numbers into three sets: enumerable, innumerable, and infinite. Each of these was further subdivided into three orders: Enumerable: lowest, intermediate and highest Innumerable: nearly innumerable, truly innumerable and innumerably innumerable Infinite: nearly infinite, truly infinite, infinitely infiniteThe Jains were the first to discard the idea that all infinities were the same or equal. They recognized different types of infinities: infinite in length (one dimension), infinite in area (two dimensions), infinite in volume (three dimensions), and infinite perpetually (infinite number of dimensions). According to Singh (1987), Joseph (2000) and Agrawal (2000), the highest enumerable number N of the Jains corresponds to the modern concept of aleph-null ℵ 0 {\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} (the cardinal number of the infinite set of integers 1, 2, ...), the smallest cardinal transfinite number. The Jains also defined a whole system of infinite cardinal numbers, of which the highest enumerable number N is the smallest. In the Jaina work on the theory of sets, two basic types of infinite numbers are distinguished. On both physical and ontological grounds, a distinction was made between asaṃkhyāta ("countless, innumerable") and ananta ("endless, unlimited"), between rigidly bounded and loosely bounded infinities. Views from the Renaissance to modern times Galileo Galileo Galilei (February 1564 - January 1642 ) discussed the example of comparing the square numbers {1, 4, 9, 16, ...} with the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} as follows: 1 → 1 2 → 4 3 → 9 4 → 16 …It appeared by this reasoning as though a "set" (Galileo did not use the terminology) which is naturally smaller than the "set" of which it is a part (since it does not contain all the members) is in some sense the same "size". Galileo found no way around this problem: So far as I see we can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes "equal," "greater," and "less," are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities. The idea that size can be measured by one-to-one correspondence is today known as Hume's principle, although Hume, like Galileo, believed the principle could not be applied to the infinite. The same concept, applied by Georg Cantor, is used in relation to infinite sets. Thomas Hobbes Famously, the ultra-empiricist Hobbes ( April 1588 - December 1679 ) tried to defend the idea of a potential infinity in light of the discovery, by Evangelista Torricelli, of a figure (Gabriel's Horn) whose surface area is infinite, but whose volume is finite. Not reported, this motivation of Hobbes came too late as curves having infinite length yet bounding finite areas were known much before. John Locke Locke ( August 1632 - October 1704 ) in common with most of the empiricist philosophers, also believed that we can have no proper idea of the infinite. They believed all our ideas were derived from sense data or "impressions," and since all sensory impressions are inherently finite, so too are our thoughts and ideas. Our idea of infinity is merely negative or privative. Whatever positive ideas we have in our minds of any space, duration, or number, let them be never so great, they are still finite; but when we suppose an inexhaustible remainder, from which we remove all bounds, and wherein we allow the mind an endless progression of thought, without ever completing the idea, there we have our idea of infinity... yet when we would frame in our minds the idea of an infinite space or duration, that idea is very obscure and confused, because it is made up of two parts very different, if not inconsistent. For let a man frame in his mind an idea of any space or number, as great as he will, it is plain the mind rests and terminates in that idea; which is contrary to the idea of infinity, which consists in a supposed endless progression. He considered that in considerations on the subject of eternity, which he classified as an infinity, humans are likely to make mistakes. Modern philosophical views Modern discussion of the infinite is now regarded as part of set theory and mathematics. Contemporary philosophers of mathematics engage with the topic of infinity and generally acknowledge its role in mathematical practice. But, although set theory is now widely accepted, this was not always so. Influenced by L.E.J Brouwer and verificationism in part, Wittgenstein (April 1889 Vienna - April 1951 Cambridge, England ), made an impassioned attack upon axiomatic set theory, and upon the idea of the actual infinite, during his "middle period". Does the relation m = 2 n {\displaystyle m=2n} correlate the class of all numbers with one of its subclasses? No. It correlates any arbitrary number with another, and in that way we arrive at infinitely many pairs of classes, of which one is correlated with the other, but which are never related as class and subclass. Neither is this infinite process itself in some sense or other such a pair of classes... In the superstition that m = 2 n {\displaystyle m=2n} correlates a class with its subclass, we merely have yet another case of ambiguous grammar. Unlike the traditional empiricists, he thought that the infinite was in some way given to sense experience. ... I can see in space the possibility of any finite experience... we recognize [the] essential infinity of space in its smallest part." "[Time] is infinite in the same sense as the three-dimensional space of sight and movement is infinite, even if in fact I can only see as far as the walls of my room. ... what is infinite about endlessness is only the endlessness itself. Emmanuel Levinas The philosopher Emmanuel Levinas ( January 1906, Lithuania - December 25 1995, Paris ) uses infinity to designate that which cannot be defined or reduced to knowledge or power. In Levinas' magnum opus Totality and Infinity he says : ...infinity is produced in the relationship of the same with the other, and how the particular and the personal, which are unsurpassable, as it were magnetize the very field in which the production of infinity is enacted... The idea of infinity is not an incidental notion forged by a subjectivity to reflect the case of an entity encountering on the outside nothing that limits it, overflowing every limit, and thereby infinite. The production of the infinite entity is inseparable from the idea of infinity, for it is precisely in the disproportion between the idea of infinity and the infinity of which it is the idea that this exceeding of limits is produced. The idea of infinity is the mode of being, the infinition, of infinity... All knowing qua intentionality already presupposes the idea of infinity, which is preeminently non-adequation. Levinas also wrote a work entitled Philosophy and the Idea of Infinity, which was published during 1957. See also Infinite monkey theorem Measure problem (cosmology) Philosophy of space and time Notes References D. P. Agrawal (2000). Ancient Jaina Mathematics: an Introduction, Infinity Foundation. L. C. Jain (1973). "Set theory in the Jaina school of mathematics", Indian Journal of History of Science. George G. Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-14-027778-4. A. Newstead (2001). "Aristotle and Modern Mathematical Theories of the Continuum", in Aristotle and Contemporary Science II, D. Sfendoni-Mentzou, J. Hattiangadi, and D.M. Johnson, eds. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2001, 113–129, ISBN 0820441473. A. Newstead (2009). "Cantor on Infinity in Nature, Number, and the Divine Mind", American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly, 83 (4), 533–553. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Jaina mathematics", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews Ian Pearce (2002). 'Jainism', MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. N. Singh (1988). 'Jaina Theory of Actual Infinity and Transfinite Numbers', Journal of Asiatic Society, Vol. 30. External links Thomas Taylor - A Dissertation on the Philosophy of Aristotle, in Four Books. In which his principle physical and metaphysical dogmas are unfolded, and it is shown, from undubitable evidence, that his philosophy has not been accurately known since the destruction of the Greeks. The insufficiency also of the philosophy that has been substituted by the moderns for that of Aristotle, is demonstrated published by Robert Wilks, London 1812

Louis George Harper

Louis George Harper (February 28, 1830 – April 16, 1884) was a prothonotary and political figure in Quebec. He represented Gaspé in the House of Commons of Canada from 1874 to 1875 as a Conservative member. He was born in Cap-Santé, Lower Canada, the son of George Harper and Marie-Anne Piché. He was admitted to the Lower Canada bar in 1855 and practised at Quebec City and then Percé. In 1858, he was named prothonotary in the Quebec Superior Court.

Louis George Harper (February 28, 1830 – April 16, 1884) was a prothonotary and political figure in Quebec. He represented Gaspé in the House of Commons of Canada from 1874 to 1875 as a Conservative member. He was born in Cap-Santé, Lower Canada, the son of George Harper and Marie-Anne Piché. He was admitted to the Lower Canada bar in 1855 and practised at Quebec City and then Percé. In 1858, he was named prothonotary in the Quebec Superior Court. His election in 1874 was overturned after an appeal and John Short won the by-election which followed in 1875. In 1876, he was named magistrate for Gaspé district. Harper died at Percé at the age of 54. References Louis George Harper – Parliament of Canada biography Les avocats de la région de Québec (1936) Roy, PG p. 215 (in French)

John Pym

John Pym, 20 May 1584 to 8 December 1643, was a politician and administrator from London, who played a major role in establishing what became the modern English Parliamentary system. One of the Five Members whose attempted arrest in January 1642 was a major step in sparking the First English Civil War, his use of procedure to out manoeuvre opponents was unusual for the period. Although this meant he was respected by contemporaries rather than admired, in 1895 historian Goldwin Smith described him as "the greatest member of Parliament that ever lived".Pym's father died when he was seven months old, and he was brought up by his stepfather Sir Anthony Rous, inheriting his Puritan views and deep opposition to the reforms of Archbishop William Laud. He was also a leading member of the Providence Island Company, an attempt to establish a Puritan colony in Central America. Described as 'a true revolutionary', he led the opposition to arbitrary rule under first James I, then Charles I.

John Pym, 20 May 1584 to 8 December 1643, was a politician and administrator from London, who played a major role in establishing what became the modern English Parliamentary system. One of the Five Members whose attempted arrest in January 1642 was a major step in sparking the First English Civil War, his use of procedure to out manoeuvre opponents was unusual for the period. Although this meant he was respected by contemporaries rather than admired, in 1895 historian Goldwin Smith described him as "the greatest member of Parliament that ever lived".Pym's father died when he was seven months old, and he was brought up by his stepfather Sir Anthony Rous, inheriting his Puritan views and deep opposition to the reforms of Archbishop William Laud. He was also a leading member of the Providence Island Company, an attempt to establish a Puritan colony in Central America. Described as 'a true revolutionary', he led the opposition to arbitrary rule under first James I, then Charles I. His leadership in the early stages of the war was essential to the Parliamentarian cause, particularly his role in negotiating the Solemn League and Covenant with the Scots Covenanters; his death from cancer in December 1643 was seen as a major blow.Originally buried in Westminster Abbey, after the Stuart Restoration in 1660, his body was dumped in a pit at nearby St Margaret's, Westminster along with those of other Parliamentary leaders. Although his reputation later suffered in comparison to less complex figures like John Hampden and Viscount Falkland, he is now viewed as an astute politician and effective speaker. Many of his ideas were adopted by Patriots during the American Revolution and 19th-century American liberals. Personal details His father Alexander Pym (1547–1585) was a member of the minor gentry, from Brymore, Somerset, who became a successful lawyer in London, where John was born in 1584. Alexander died seven months later and his mother, Philippa Colles (died 1620), married a wealthy Cornish landowner, Sir Anthony Rous. A close friend and executor of Sir Francis Drake, Sir Anthony instilled in his stepson a strong dislike of Spain, a zealous belief in Puritanism and opposition to both the Catholic Church, and the rival Protestant theology of Arminianism.The Rous were a large and close-knit family, who often wed relatives and friends. In May 1604, Pym married Anne Hooke, a daughter of Barbara Rous and John Hooke, and aunt of the scientist Robert Hooke. Before her death in 1620, they had seven children, of whom four survived into adulthood; Philippa (1604–1654), Charles (1615–1671), Dorothy (1617–1661), and Catherine. Career Pym was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, then known as Broadgates and famous for 'advanced Protestantism'. Since legal knowledge was considered part of an education, he subsequently attended the Middle Temple in 1602; while he does not appear to have formally graduated from either, he made a number of lifelong friends, the most important being William Whitaker.In June 1605, he was appointed collector of taxes for the Exchequer in Hampshire, Gloucestershire, and Wiltshire; this gave him a broader range of connections than many contemporaries, who were often confined to family or county networks. Whitaker's father had been Member of Parliament for Westbury, Wiltshire, and in 1621, Pym was elected for the nearby seat of Calne. Forced Loan and Petition of Right Pym's diary shows he viewed Parliamentary legislation as a whole, not just issues of interest to himself; combined with an ability to explain them clearly, it led to his appointment to numerous committees. Since direct criticism of the king was considered treason, the only way to express opposition was by attacking his advisors, using the process of impeachment. Pym argued it was for the Commons to decide guilt or innocence, leaving the Lords only to determine the penalty; this would become significant in his future Parliamentary career. Even in an era when it was common, he was notable for his anti-Catholicism, and opposition to alleged Catholic practices in the Church of England. One reason for this belief were the close links in the 17th-century between religion and politics, with alterations in one viewed as implying alterations in the other. Many contemporaries fought in the Thirty Years War and were concerned at the apparent failure of James to defend his own son-in-law and Protestant Europe as a whole.After the dissolution of Parliament in 1621, Pym was arrested, and brought before the Privy Council, but released in August 1622. In 1624, he was elected for Tavistock, a seat controlled by Earl of Bedford, which he retained for the rest of his career. In 1626, he led an attempt to impeach the Duke of Buckingham, an action that led to Parliament being dissolved. Only Buckingham's assassination in August 1628 prevented a second attempt, while Pym supported the presentation of the Petition of Right to Charles I in 1628.Pym, his stepbrother Francis Rous, and John Hampden, also led the Parliamentary attack on Roger Maynwaring and Robert Sibthorpe, two clergymen who published sermons supporting the Caroline precepts of the divine right of kings, and passive obedience. Although censured by Parliament for preaching against the established English constitution, Charles pardoned them, and dissolved Parliament, initiating the period of Personal Rule that continued until 1640.Pym became treasurer of the Providence Island Company in 1630, a role that increasingly consumed his time, and he relinquished his Exchequer position in 1639. Participation in the colonial movement was common among Puritan leaders, while company meetings later provided cover for co-ordinating political opposition. Many of these became leaders of the Parliamentary opposition in 1642, among them Hampden, Rous, Henry Darley, Lord Saye, William Waller, and Lord Brooke. Leader of the opposition; 1640 to 1641 Following defeat in the first of the Bishops Wars, Charles recalled Parliament in April 1640. When the Short Parliament refused to vote him taxes without political concessions, he dissolved it after only three weeks. When the Treaty of Ripon imposed by the Scots after a second defeat forced him to hold fresh elections in November, Pym became unofficial leader of the opposition.Historians like Tim Harris argue that with the exception of a few extremists, by 1640 there was general consensus attempts to rule without Parliament had gone too far. This changed after the Grand Remonstrance in November 1641, when constitutional monarchists like Clarendon switched sides, arguing Parliament now wanted too much.Where Pym differed from Clarendon, and many of his own colleagues, was recognising Charles would not keep commitments he felt had been forced from him. Even during negotiations with Parliament, he and Henrietta Maria openly told foreign ambassadors any concessions were temporary, and would be retrieved by force if needed. These suspicions increased after October 1641, when Irish Catholic rebels claimed his approval for their actions. Many believed them, given previous attempts by Charles to use Irish troops against the Scots, and his initial refusal to condemn the rebellion.However, Pym was hampered by the fact Charles was essential to a stable government and society. Regardless of religion or political belief, in 1642 the vast majority believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely mandated; where they disagreed was what 'well-ordered' meant, and who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs. Royalists generally supported a Church of England governed by bishops, appointed by, and answerable to, the king; Parliamentarians believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations.Puritan was a term for anyone who wanted to reform, or 'purify', the Church of England, and contained many different sects. Presbyterians were the most prominent, and included leaders like Pym and John Hampden, but there were many others, such as Congregationalists, often grouped together as Independents. Close links between religion and politics added further complexity; one reason for opposition to bishops was their presence in the House of Lords, where they often blocked Parliamentary legislation. Their removal by the Clergy Act 1640 was a major step along the road to war.Most Presbyterians were political conservatives, who believed in a limited electorate, and wanted to keep the Church of England, but as a reformed, Presbyterian body, similar to the Church of Scotland. In general, England was a structured, socially conservative, and largely peaceful society, while the devastation caused by the Thirty Years War meant many wanted to avoid conflict at any cost. Pym was one of the few who believed only military defeat would force Charles into agreeing meaningful reforms. Road to war; 1641 to 1643 Shortly after the Long Parliament assembled, it was presented with the Root and Branch petition; signed by 15,000 Londoners, it demanded England follow the Scots, and expel bishops. This reflected widespread concerns about 'Catholic practices', or Arminianism in the Church of England, given weight by Charles' apparent willingness to make war on the Protestant Scots, but not assist his nephew Charles Louis regain his hereditary lands. Many feared Charles was about to sign an alliance with Spain, a view shared by experienced diplomatic observers like Venice, and even France. This meant ending Charles' arbitrary rule was not only important for England, but the Protestant cause in general. Since respect for the institution of monarchy prevented direct attacks on Charles, the traditional route was to prosecute his 'evil counsellors.' Doing so made it clear that although the king was above the law, his subordinates were not, and he could not protect them; the intention was to make others think twice about their actions. Archbishop William Laud was impeached in December 1640 and held in the Tower of London until his execution in 1645; Strafford, former Lord Deputy of Ireland and organiser of the 1640 Bishops War, was attainted and executed in May 1641.The Commons also passed a series of constitutional reforms, including the Triennial Acts, abolition of the Star Chamber, and an end to levying taxes without Parliament's consent. Voting as a block, the bishops ensured all these were rejected by the Lords. In June 1641, Pym secured passage of the Clergy Act in the Commons; one of its key provisions was to remove bishops from the Lords, which therefore rejected it. The growing political tension was brought to head in October with the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion. both Charles and Parliament supported raising troops to suppress it, but neither trusted the other with their control, fearing any army would be used against them first.Pym helped draft the Grand Remonstrance, presented to Charles on 1 December 1641; unrest culminated in 23 to 29 December with widespread riots in Westminster, led by the London apprentices. Suggestions Pym and other Parliamentary leaders helped organise these have not been proved, but as a result, bishops stopped attending the Lords. On 30 December, John Williams, Archbishop of York and eleven other bishops, signed a complaint, disputing the legality of any laws passed by the Lords during their exclusion. Viewed by the Commons as inviting Charles to dissolve Parliament, all twelve were imprisoned for treason. In response to the growing unrest, on 4 January Charles made an unsuccessful attempt to arrest the Five Members, one of whom was Pym. Having failed to do so, he left London accompanied by many Royalist MPs and his supporters in the Lords, a major tactical mistake as it gave the opposition majorities in both houses. When the First English Civil War began in August, Pym headed the Committee of Safety; his reputation for integrity and ability to keep a diverse coalition of interests together was crucial to surviving the first 18 months of the conflict.By early August 1643, a series of Royalist victories combined with the death of the popular John Hampden in June meant the Parliamentarian cause seemed close to collapse. At this crucial point, it was saved by Pym's leadership and determination, which led to a renewed commitment to win the war. He created the foundations of victory by ensuring Parliament had sufficient financial and military resources, one of his last acts being to negotiate the Solemn League and Covenant that secured Scottish support.He died, probably of cancer, at Derby House on 8 December 1643; Parliament agreed to pay off the debts he incurred as a result of neglecting his private business interests, although they were still being disputed in 1665. Buried in Westminster Abbey, his remains were exhumed after the Stuart Restoration in 1660 and re-buried in a common pit at St Margaret's, Westminster.His chief opponent, the Earl of Clarendon, a senior advisor to Charles during the First English Civil War, later wrote; 'he had a very comely and grave way of expressing himself...and understood the temper and affections of the kingdom as well as any man’. Pym's reputation suffered in comparison to less complex figures like Hampden and Viscount Falkland, especially during the Victorian era which romanticised the Royalist cause. One exception was the historian Goldwin Smith, who described him as "the greatest member of Parliament that ever lived". He is now generally viewed as an astute politician who laid the foundations of modern Parliamentary democracy and effective speaker, whose ideas and language were adapted by Patriots during the American Revolution and 19th century American liberals. Footnotes References Sources Clarendon, Earl of (1704). The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England; Volume III (2019 ed.). Wentworth Press. ISBN 978-0469445765. Duinen, Jared, van (2007). The Nature of Puritan Opposition in 1630s England in "Prosopography Approaches" and Applications: A Handbook. University of Oxford Linacre College Unit for Prosopographical Research. ISBN 978-1900934121.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ferris, John; Hunneyball, Paul (2010). PYM, John (1584-1643), of Westminster, Brymore, Som., Whitchurch and Wherwell, Hants; later of Holborn, Mdx. and Fawsley, Northants in The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1604–1629. CUP. ISBN 978-1107002258. Harris, Tim (2014). Rebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567-1642. OUP. ISBN 978-0199209002. Hutton, Ronald (2003). The Royalist War Effort 1642-1646. Routledge. ISBN 9780415305402. Jessup, Frank W. (2013). Background to the English Civil War: The Commonwealth and International Library: History Division. Elsevier. ISBN 9781483181073. Johnson, David (2012). Parliament in crisis; the disintegration of the Parliamentarian war effort during the summer of 1643 (PDF) (PHD). York University. Kuypers, Jim; Althouse, Mathew (2009). "John Pym, Ideographs, and the Rhetoric of Opposition to the English Crown". Rhetoric Review. 28 (3): 225–245. doi:10.1080/07350190902958677. JSTOR 25655957. S2CID 144891577. Little, Patrick (2008). Oliver Cromwell: New Perspectives. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137018854. MacDonald, William W (1969). "John Pym: Parliamentarian". Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 38 (1). Macleod, Donald (Autumn 2009). "The influence of Calvinism on politics" (PDF). Theology in Scotland. XVI (2). Manganiello, Stephen (2004). The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639–1660. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810851009. McGee, Sears J (2004). "Francis Rous and "scabby or itchy children": The Problem of Toleration in 1645". Huntington Library Quarterly. 67 (3): 401–422. doi:10.1525/hlq.2004.67.3.401. JSTOR 10.1525/hlq.2004.67.3.401. Plant. "John Pym". British Civil Wars Project. Retrieved 16 February 2021. Rees, John (2016). The Leveller Revolution. Verso. ISBN 978-1784783907. Royle, Trevor (2004). Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638–1660 (2006 ed.). Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11564-1. Russell, Conrad (1990). Unrevolutionary England, 1603-1642. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780826425669. Russell, Conrad (2009). "Pym, John". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/22926. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Smith, Steven (1979). "Almost Revolutionaries: The London Apprentices during the Civil Wars". Huntington Library Quarterly. 42 (4): 313–328. doi:10.2307/3817210. JSTOR 3817210. Stanley, Arthur P (1882). Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey. John Murray. Wedgwood, CV (1958). The King's War, 1641–1647 (2001 ed.). Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0141390727. Wedgwood, CV (1955). The King's Peace, 1637-1641 (1983 ed.). Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0140069907. Bibliography Glow, Lotte (1964). "Pym and Parliament: The Methods of Moderation". Journal of Modern History. 36 (4): 373–397. doi:10.1086/239490. JSTOR 1875246. S2CID 153405066. Hexter, Jack H (1974). The Reign of King Pym. Harvard UP. ISBN 978-0674754010. MacDonald, William W (1981). The making of an English revolutionary: the early parliamentary career of John Pym. Fairleigh Dickinson. ISBN 978-0838630181. Scott, David (2003). The Outbreak of the English Civil War: August 1642 – September 1643 in Politics and War in the Three Stuart Kingdoms, 1637–49. Palgrave. ISBN 978-0333658734. Yorke, Philip Chesney (1911). "Pym, John" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 680–682.

Nakenthana Ngairi

Nakenthana Ngairi (English: Autumn is Waiting) is a 2006 Indian Meitei language film written, produced and directed by Dinesh Tongbram. It is the first production of United Films Manipur. The film features Amarjeet Rajkumar, Huirem Seema, Kaiku Rajkumar and Devita Urikhinbam in the lead roles. It was released at Usha Cinema, Paona Bazar on 10 September 2006.Nakenthana Ngairi was initially named as Wahangsina. The processing of the film had been done at Rupayan (Kolkata), Ramoji Film City (Hyderabad) and AGC (Lamphel).

Nakenthana Ngairi (English: Autumn is Waiting) is a 2006 Indian Meitei language film written, produced and directed by Dinesh Tongbram. It is the first production of United Films Manipur. The film features Amarjeet Rajkumar, Huirem Seema, Kaiku Rajkumar and Devita Urikhinbam in the lead roles. It was released at Usha Cinema, Paona Bazar on 10 September 2006.Nakenthana Ngairi was initially named as Wahangsina. The processing of the film had been done at Rupayan (Kolkata), Ramoji Film City (Hyderabad) and AGC (Lamphel). This was the first Manipuri video film converted from celluloid in the state. Plot Aya's and Bem's romance is disrupted by Bem's mother on the ground that Aya is from a poor family background. Despite Bem's father repeated suggestions to not interfere in their relationship, his wife continues to follow her own line of thoughts. Carving out elaborate plans, Bem's mother gets her daughter married to a rich guy Sobhas. The guy happens to be an immoral person who maintains illicit affairs with his long time girlfriend Indira even after the marriage. Pushpa (Bem's younger sister) tries to win Sanjoy's (Aya's younger brother) heart as a revenge against her mother who forcefully marries Bem without her consent. Pushpa succeeds. Due to repeated physical and mental harassment by Sobhas, Bem becomes ill and gets hospitalised. During her stay in the hospital, her son Momocha dies. Bem becomes a mentally retarded woman. She comes back to her maternal home. There, Aya comes to take her. True love triumphs at the end. Cast Amarjeet Rajkumar as Aya Huirem Seema as Bem Kaiku Rajkumar as Sanjoy, Aya's younger brother Devita Urikhinbam as Pushpa, Bem's younger sister Wangkhem Lalitkumar as IAS officer, Bem's father R.K. Hemabati as Bem's mother Khwairakpam Bishwamittra as Sobhas Laimayum Gayatri as Indira, Sobhas' girlfriend Longjam Ongbi Lalitabi as Sanjoy's mother Gurumayum Ongbi Gunabati as Aya's mother Joseph Thokchom as Munal, Aya's college mate Master Bolex as Momocha, Bem's son Soundtrack The tune and music were composed by Jiten Khaidem, Tomba Thangjam and Gopi. Manichandra, Bobi, Kemo and Yu Gandhi wrote the lyrics. Sunita Nepram, Huidrom Nowboy, Maibam Roshibina, Khun Joykumar and Pushparani Huidrom are the playback singers in the movie. == References ==

Gregg Saretsky

Gregg Saretsky (born 1959 in Châteauguay, Quebec) is the former president and CEO of WestJet, a carrier based in Calgary, Alberta. He served in that position from April 2010 to March 8, 2018, after the resignation of Sean Durfy.He grew up in a Montreal suburb to a French mother and a German father. He moved with his family to Richmond, British Columbia in 1970. He acquired a Bachelor of Science in microbiology and biochemistry in 1982 and a master of business administration in 1984, both at University of British Columbia. 1985-1998 he worked with Canadian Airlines International Ltd. (formerly Pacific Western Airlines and CP Air), rising to vice president roles for Airports and Marketing.

Gregg Saretsky (born 1959 in Châteauguay, Quebec) is the former president and CEO of WestJet, a carrier based in Calgary, Alberta. He served in that position from April 2010 to March 8, 2018, after the resignation of Sean Durfy.He grew up in a Montreal suburb to a French mother and a German father. He moved with his family to Richmond, British Columbia in 1970. He acquired a Bachelor of Science in microbiology and biochemistry in 1982 and a master of business administration in 1984, both at University of British Columbia. 1985-1998 he worked with Canadian Airlines International Ltd. (formerly Pacific Western Airlines and CP Air), rising to vice president roles for Airports and Marketing. From 1998-2008 he was an executive at Seattle based Alaska Airlines Inc. In mid 2009 he joined WestJet Airlines Ltd. as vacation vice-president; in April 2010 he became CEO of the airline. Saretsky is married and has three children. He has also two older brothers who are commercial pilots, one with Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd. and the other with Air Canada. Awards and recognitions Business Person of the Year for 2012 by Alberta Venture magazine. References External links Westjet: Gregg Saretsky, president and chief executive officer University of British Columbia alumni: Gregg Saretsky, BSc 1982, MBA 1984

Aircraft Manufacturing and Design

Aircraft Manufacturing and Design Co. (AMD) is a manufacturer of three aircraft- the Alarus CH2000, the Zodiac CH601, and the Patriot 150. The CH2000 is a two-seat, single engine aircraft used primarily for flight training purposes. The CH601 is a two-seat light sport aircraft in the United States of America and an AULA in Canada and is used mainly as a personal aircraft. The Patriot 150 is a two-seat, high-winged SLSA with STOL performance. Unlike the other SLSA (Zodiac), the Patriot is not available as a kit; only as a ready-to-fly SLSA.

Aircraft Manufacturing and Design Co. (AMD) is a manufacturer of three aircraft- the Alarus CH2000, the Zodiac CH601, and the Patriot 150. The CH2000 is a two-seat, single engine aircraft used primarily for flight training purposes. The CH601 is a two-seat light sport aircraft in the United States of America and an AULA in Canada and is used mainly as a personal aircraft. The Patriot 150 is a two-seat, high-winged SLSA with STOL performance. Unlike the other SLSA (Zodiac), the Patriot is not available as a kit; only as a ready-to-fly SLSA. The company is headquartered in Eastman, Georgia, USA. History Founded in 1974 by aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz, Zenair, Ltd. of Midland, Ontario, Canada began its presence in the light aircraft industry with a single aircraft design, the ZENITH CH 200. This two-seat kit aircraft was designed by Heintz during the sixties while he was chief engineer at French aircraft manufacturer Avions Pierre Robin. The ZENITH was an all-metal two-seat low-wing monoplane, designed to be simple and affordable: Simple because Heintz was an engineer and not a craftsman, and affordable because he was raising a family with five children while building the prototype.Since 1974, Heintz has designed and developed more than 12 new aircraft models which have been marketed and sold as kit aircraft around the world. Among them was the Zenair ZENITH CH2000. This aircraft, based on Heintz' kit aircraft CH640 design, received FAA type certification on July 25, 1995. This type-certified aircraft was renamed and is now manufactured as the AMD Alarus CH2000.Recently, the company changed hands. Where the original company was owned by a member of the Heintz family (and known as Aircraft Manufacturing and Development, Inc.), the new company was created by the existing executive team and incorporated in Georgia, USA as a Limited Liability Company named Aircraft Manufacturing and Design, LLC. The new company retained the "AMD" shorthand and very similar logos. The new company also took over the responsibility for all the previous AMD's Zodiacs; but not the Alarus. And, the new AMD will be producing the Patriot. References External links Company website archives on Archive.org

Jordan River Dam

The Jordan River Dam, officially the Jordan River Diversion Dam, and known locally simply as Diversion Dam, is a dam located in Jordan River, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the second hydroelectric development on Vancouver Island.

The Jordan River Dam, officially the Jordan River Diversion Dam, and known locally simply as Diversion Dam, is a dam located in Jordan River, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the second hydroelectric development on Vancouver Island. History Prior to the dam's construction, the Goldstream Powerhouse was the main source of electricity to Victoria. Upon completion, it dwarfed the previous plant. The Vancouver Island Power Company, a subsidiary of British Columbia Electric Railway, completed construction of the smaller Bear Creek Dam and the main Jordan River Diversion Dam in 1911. At 126 feet (38.4 metres) from top to bottom, the Diversion Dam was upon its construction, the highest dam in Canada. Water flowed through a 31,600 ft long flume to the penstock above the power house.: 92  The construction of the dam, due to its remoteness, required the construction of a three-foot narrow gauge railway as well as a cable-railway for the initial ascent from Jordan River. From 1912 to 1931 continual improvements and additional generators pushed the capacity of the power house to 26 megawatts. In 1971 the flume was replaced by a 7 km tunnel, with a penstock flowing down to a new power house, located across the river from the original. The same year, the accompanying service railway was also dismantled. A Japanese built generator replaced the old equipment, boosting power output from 26 megawatts to 175 megawatts. Current operation Water collected at Bear Creek Dam and Diversion Dam, is then used to fill Jack Elliott equalization reservoir on demand and flows from there through a 8.8 km (5.5 mi) long tunnel into a steel penstock for the last 330 feet (101 metres) of vertical height. It provides 35% of Vancouver Island's generating capacity. In 1996, the provincial government initiated a Water Use Planning (WUP) program, demanding that BC's water licence holders show they can manage the potential environmental impact of reservoirs. in 2001 the Jordan River "WUP" was underway, with restoration of fish habitat a top issue.A 2014 BC Hydro study indicated Jordan River had a high risk of seismic dam failure. BC Hydro has offered to purchase the nine residences in the evacuation zone. See also HVDC Vancouver Island Powerlines connecting Vancouver Island with Canadian Mainland List of generating stations in BC List of dams and reservoirs in Canada Lubbe Powerhouse References External links aerial image of the project, BC Hydro webpage Archived 2015-09-19 at the Wayback Machine Aerial image of the powerhouse, BC Hydro webpage Archived 2015-09-19 at the Wayback Machine

West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade

West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade (Chinese: 西九龍海濱長廊) is a promenade running alongside Victoria Harbour on reclaimed land in Tsim Sha Tsui on the Kowloon peninsula of Hong Kong. It opened to the public on 17 September 2005.The promenade starts at the junction of Nga Cheung Road (雅翔道) and Austin Road West, outside the toll gate leading to the Western Harbour Crossing. As the West Kowloon Cultural District project has remained stagnant after a long debate, the Hong Kong Government constructed a promenade on unused reclamed land. The promenade is decorated with pillars of wind chimes and illuminated paintings as well as calligraphy invarious styles.

West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade (Chinese: 西九龍海濱長廊) is a promenade running alongside Victoria Harbour on reclaimed land in Tsim Sha Tsui on the Kowloon peninsula of Hong Kong. It opened to the public on 17 September 2005.The promenade starts at the junction of Nga Cheung Road (雅翔道) and Austin Road West, outside the toll gate leading to the Western Harbour Crossing. As the West Kowloon Cultural District project has remained stagnant after a long debate, the Hong Kong Government constructed a promenade on unused reclamed land. The promenade is decorated with pillars of wind chimes and illuminated paintings as well as calligraphy invarious styles. Specialties Timber Boardwalk The 700 metres (2,300 ft) section along the shore is covered with wooden strips made from construction waste. Dragon of Lanterns There are seventy 4-metre (13 ft) high triangular lighting towers on the 1-kilometre (0.62 mi) "Dragon of Lanterns". Wind chimes are hung at the top of the lighting towers. See also Freespace Fest == References ==

CIA Library

The CIA Library is a library available only to Central Intelligence Agency personnel, contains approximately 125,000 books and archives of about 1,700 periodicals. Many of its information resources are available via its Digital Library, which include CD-ROMs and web-based resources.

The CIA Library is a library available only to Central Intelligence Agency personnel, contains approximately 125,000 books and archives of about 1,700 periodicals. Many of its information resources are available via its Digital Library, which include CD-ROMs and web-based resources. History The library was created in 1947. During the Hungarian Revolution, the CIA librarian reviewed tapes of broadcasts by Radio Free Europe two other Hungarian speakers who worked for the agency, and provided answers to questions posed by the Agency's International Organization Division. In later years, names of two librarians would be revealed: Alexander Toth who worked as a librarian in the 1950s, and Evelyn C. Chen, who received a masters degree in library science from Columbia University, working as a librarian from 1961 to 1972.In 1994, Harold Weisberg told CIA Director R. James Woolsey that a librarian that used to work at Hood College had once worked for the Agency as a librarian.In February 1997, three librarians working at the institution spoke to Information Outlook, a publication of the Special Libraries Association (SLA), noted the importance of the library in disseminating information to employees, even with a small staff, and how the library organizes its materials.Peggy Tuten, chief of the CIA library from 1999 to 2006, revealed in 2020 that staff at the library were some of the first users of the internet, in 1999, at the Agency. She also noted that in 2001 the library moved from being part of the Directorate of Intelligence to under the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, a subdivision of the Agency's Directorate of Science and Technology, annoying staff. Tuten also noted that following 9/11, the library was renovated as the Agency began to hire new staff, and that she left the library in 2006 to join the Open Source Center of the Director of National Intelligence. In later years she recruited students in library schools to join the Agency for their careers. In August 2000, Kimberley W. Condas of library was awarded the 2000 International Special Librarians Day (ISLD) Award, which is given to a member, or members, of the SLA who use the International Special Librarians Day to "promote their own libraries and the profession." Condas chaired a committee which promoted ISLD to Agency employees, with more than 500 attending the event. In May 2007, it was reported that the Agency was looking for "trained, innovative, customer-service oriented librarians" who knew East Asian, Chinese, and Arabic, and had various library skills.In March 2016 it was reported that the Agency was hiring a librarian, with a salary of "$50,864 to $118,069 a year," which would serve as embedded "information experts" within the Agency. The job notice also stated that librarians play an important part in "intelligence gathering and managing CIA materials." In a April 2019 Twitter thread, the Agency said they had full-time librarians, with library cards only available to those with security clearances. An accompanying blog post said that the library might appear like modern public libraries, but has a mostly declassified collection, even with DVDs of "spy movies and documentaries," and noted that some librarians are even recruited by other parts of the Agency due to their research and information science skills.In April 2020, the Agency promoted the library's resources during National Library Week, noting the roles of libraries at the CIA, sharing declassified and unclassified resources about the Agency. American Libraries, the flagship magazine of the American Library Association, entitled a post "Find the CIA Library at your place," quoting and linking to the Agency's post.In May 2021, an unnamed gay librarian, who worked for the library, was shown in a recruitment video for the Agency. Collections The Library maintains three collections: Reference, Circulating, and Historical Intelligence. New material for these collections is selected around current intelligence objectives and priorities.The reference collection includes core research tools such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, commercial directories, atlases, diplomatic lists, and foreign and domestic phone books. CD-ROMs and extensive commercial database services round out the collection. At one time, the CREST, otherwise known as the Central Intelligence Agency's Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room, was under the library, along with other historical publications, and current ones like The World Factbook. In 1994, the collection was described as a "centralized library reference file," with documents retained in paper and microform.The circulating collection consists of monographs, newspapers, and journals. Many information resources, such as CD-ROMs and web-based resources, are available to customers via the Digital Library. The library also participates in inter-library loans of circulating items with other domestic libraries.The Historical Intelligence Collection is primarily an open-source library dedicated to the collection, retention, and exploitation of material dealing with the intelligence profession. Currently there are over 25,000 books and an extensive collection of press clippings on that subject. This likely includes documents which detail the "CIA's role in Indochina during the Vietnam War," and about the launching of Sputnik. See also The Library of National Intelligence, part of the CIA's A-Space project References Further reading Central Intelligence Agency (1960). CIA Library Subject Headings and Classed Schedules for Law, Communism and the Communist Parties, Intelligence and Security. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Central Reference.Central Intelligence Agency (1959). Subject Headings and Classed Schedules for Law, Communism and the Communist Parties, and Intelligence and Security in the CIA Library. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Central Reference. External links Official page on Central Intelligence Agency website Factbook on Intelligence

Mundy Park

Mundy Park at 176 hectares (435 acres), is the largest park in Coquitlam, British Columbia. The park has many walking trails that pass the park's two lakes - Mundy Lake and Lost Lake. There are also sports fields, a lacrosse box, an outdoor swimming pool, disc golf area, picnic area, and playground.The Coquitlam Reds of the B.C. Premier Baseball League play their home games at Mundy Park.Scenes from the 2006 Danny DeVito/Matthew Broderick film Deck the Halls were shot at Mundy Park.There a wide variety of wildlife in Mundy Park, including black bears, deer, raccoons, ducks, geese, swans, and a large variety of other birds. Some endangered plants are also to be found at Mundy Park.Mundy Park was originally named Munday Park after George Munday, who originally bought the land.

Mundy Park at 176 hectares (435 acres), is the largest park in Coquitlam, British Columbia. The park has many walking trails that pass the park's two lakes - Mundy Lake and Lost Lake. There are also sports fields, a lacrosse box, an outdoor swimming pool, disc golf area, picnic area, and playground.The Coquitlam Reds of the B.C. Premier Baseball League play their home games at Mundy Park.Scenes from the 2006 Danny DeVito/Matthew Broderick film Deck the Halls were shot at Mundy Park.There a wide variety of wildlife in Mundy Park, including black bears, deer, raccoons, ducks, geese, swans, and a large variety of other birds. Some endangered plants are also to be found at Mundy Park.Mundy Park was originally named Munday Park after George Munday, who originally bought the land. The reason for the changed name is unknown. == References ==

Peter Crüger

Peter Crüger or Peter Krüger (20 October 1580 – 6 June 1639) was a mathematician, astronomer, polymath, and teacher of Johannes Hevelius.

Peter Crüger or Peter Krüger (20 October 1580 – 6 June 1639) was a mathematician, astronomer, polymath, and teacher of Johannes Hevelius. Life Crüger was born in Königsberg, Duchy of Prussia, a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. In scientific documents published in Latin, his common name Krüger (German for potter or innkeeper) was Latinized and spelled Crüger. (Compared to the frequency of the family name Krüger, the name Crüger is relatively uncommon.) Crüger studied at the universities in Königsberg, Leipzig and Wittenberg, graduating from Wittenberg in 1606. Among his teachers were Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. He then moved to the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) in the Kingdom of Poland, where he worked for the rest of his life as a professor of poetry and mathematics at the Danziger Akademikum (Danzig Academy). As a philosopher and poet, Crüger was associated with the poet Johannes Plavius, who in his Institutio Poetica mentions Crüger in the opening letter. Crüger dedicated an extremely laudatory poem to Plavius, which appears in the preface to Plavius' Praecepta logicalia. At the time of the Thirty Years' War a number of Silesians took refuge in Danzig from the ravages of war in their towns, among them Andreas Gryphius, who, when he studied at the Danzig academy from 1634 to 1636, had Crüger as a teacher and was very much influenced by the famous mathematician and astronomer. Professors Crüger and Mochingert made Gryphius aware of the new style of German-language poetry. Gryphius wrote memorial verses, when in 1638 Crüger's child died. Years earlier Crüger had already developed a great friendship with Martin Opitz, "father of German poetry", who also lived in Danzig. Crüger published treatises on many scientific subjects and contributed to the progress of trigonometry, geography and astronomy, and to the development of astronomical instruments. In the years 1627 to 1630, Crüger was the teacher of a teenager of the Hewelke family who would become known later as Johannes Hevelius, the astronomer. After Hevelius had returned to Danzig in 1634, the dying Crüger appealed to him to pursue astronomy. Hevelius gratefully mentions Crüger in his Machina coelestis.He died in Danzig. The crater Crüger on the Moon is named after him. See also Johannes Hevelius Notes References Moritz Cantor (1876), "Peter Crüger", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (in German), vol. 4, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, p. 625 External links Peter Krüger, a pioneer of trigonometry Peter Krüger, a pioneer of science from old Gdansk Gelegenheitsdichtung in Danzig (in German) Biography of Peter Krüger (1580-1639)

Asiatic Society of Japan

The Asiatic Society of Japan, Inc. (一般社団法人日本アジア協会” or “Ippan Shadan Hojin Nihon Ajia Kyokai”) or "ASJ" is a non-profit organization of Japanology. ASJ serves members of a general audience that have shared interests in Japan. Founded in 1872 as The Asiatic Society of Japan (日本アジア協会, Nihon Ajia Kyōkai, lit. "Japan Asia Society"), ASJ is Japan's oldest learned society. The Honorary Patron is Hisako, Princess Takamado.

The Asiatic Society of Japan, Inc. (一般社団法人日本アジア協会” or “Ippan Shadan Hojin Nihon Ajia Kyokai”) or "ASJ" is a non-profit organization of Japanology. ASJ serves members of a general audience that have shared interests in Japan. Founded in 1872 as The Asiatic Society of Japan (日本アジア協会, Nihon Ajia Kyōkai, lit. "Japan Asia Society"), ASJ is Japan's oldest learned society. The Honorary Patron is Hisako, Princess Takamado. The Representative Director and President as of September 2019 is H.E. Ambassador Yoshinori Kato. Overview The Asiatic Society of Japan's founders set into motion coordinated activities "to collect and publish information on subjects relating to Japan and other Asiatic Countries." They intentionally differentiated ASJ from its affiliated Royal Asiatic societies of the day by having established ASJ as a "Society for scholarly gentlemen" rather than a society of scholars. Nor was "Royal" to be used in ASJ's title, a measure to encourage Japanese people to join. Women also began to join within a few years. ASJ quickly became the first organization of its kind in Japan to promote the sharing of discoveries about Japan to the rest of the world. ASJ was founded at a meeting held on 8 October 1872 at the Grand Hotel, Yokohama, when Robert Grant Watson of the British Legation was elected the first President, and the first papers were read there on 30 October—Notes on Loochoo by Ernest Mason Satow, then Japanese Secretary at the British Legation, and The Hyalonema Mirabilis, a marine biological study by Henry Hadlow, a Royal Navy surgeon. The opening papers were significant for two reasons: the subjects themselves, and the presence of Dr. James Curtis Hepburn and Satow at the very beginning of the ASJ's life.ASJ's founders and earliest members were adventurous leaders who became pillars of Japan's modernization and industrialization at the dawn of Meiji Period. Physicians, scientists, teachers, engineers, military officers, lawyers, and diplomats numbered among them. In those days, there were numerous organizations like ASJ, each in their own way serving as focal points for documenting and discussing the discoveries that were being made by the men who were participating in the building of a new Japan. Many members of ASJ were also members of the other organizations. Japanese members who were central to the Meiji Restoration included: Kanō Jigorō, Baron Naibu Kanda, Tsuda Sen, Nakamura Masanao, and Viscount Mori Arinori. The 'foreign expert' group was, likewise, a roster of the famous: Dr. James Curtis Hepburn; Josiah Conder; John Milne, Edward Divers, James Main Dixon and Charles Dickinson West, all of the Imperial College of Engineering; Henry Faulds of the Tsukiji Hospital; Robert Maclagan of the Osaka Mint; Basil Hall Chamberlain; and William George Aston and Ernest Mason Satow.ASJ, embracing a core of pioneers with the self-imposed task of interpreting the Japanese and their civilization to the rest of the world, played a highly significant part in transmitting new standards of critical and technical excellence to a whole generation of Japanese teachers and students, which, once adopted, made the 'foreign experts' superfluous. By the 1890s, ASJ's first generation of Japanese and foreign members—leaders of change in Meiji—began to move on. Academicians began to make-up more of the membership. Today, the membership is approximately: academicians (46%); businesspeople (36%); students, fine arts, clergy, retired and other (18%). ASJ is still active today. Members meet monthly to hear a guest explain discoveries based on original research. The lectures last approximately fifty minutes and are followed by questions and discussion. Topics have come from the full spectrum of fields of knowledge as related to Japan, including culture, history, literature, science, business, politics, and economics. Publications The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan is a journal that contains the full texts of selected papers presented at meetings, as well as other papers submitted for publication. The ASJ also publishes a monthly newsletter known as the Bulletin, which contains a detailed summary of the previous month's lecture, lecturers' profiles, announcements of coming events, and news about the ASJ and its members. For most of the ASJ's history, there has been no limit to the range of interests covered in the pursuit of the objective. The first ten volumes of the Society's Transactions, 1872-1882, printed 146 papers, of which 25 can be roughly classified as geographical or topographical. They are, however, far outnumbered by the largest subject grouping: the scientific papers during the same period, which included 52 studies. But to take the figures further, during the second decade, 1882-1892, 107 papers were printed, of which only 4 were geographical and 18 scientific, a reflection of the end of the 'exploration' phase of Meiji. The men who contributed to the exploration phase and to the explosive growth of the ASJ during its first 20 years began to wind-up their activities and move to their next opportunities. On the occasion of the 110th Anniversary of the ASJ, after having completed his historical account of the first one-hundred years of the ASJ, President Douglas Moore Kenrick remarked to Their Imperial Highnesses and members present: The only requirement of authors, and this is the root of our policy, is that each is expected to tell us something in his or her field that has not been previously published. We ask for something new. The Transactions have covered an extraordinarily wide range of Japanese studies and the papers provide a fascinating conspectus of Western achievements in the field of Japanology over the decades, as well as useful examinations of many subjects that have not been treated elsewhere." Early Presidents Presidents of the organization during the 19th century: Notable members In addition to the early presidents, other members who joined during the first 111 years (1872–1983) of the organization include: References External links Official website (in English) Works related to Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan at Wikisource

Pavel Baudiš

Pavel Baudiš (born 15 May 1960) is a Czech software engineer, entrepreneur and the co-founder of Avast along with Eduard Kučera. As of 2023, he is the 8th wealthiest person in the Czech Republic, with a net worth of more than 45.9 billion Czech koruna according to Forbes.

Pavel Baudiš (born 15 May 1960) is a Czech software engineer, entrepreneur and the co-founder of Avast along with Eduard Kučera. As of 2023, he is the 8th wealthiest person in the Czech Republic, with a net worth of more than 45.9 billion Czech koruna according to Forbes. Biography Born in Prague, he graduated in Information Technology from the Prague University of Chemical Technology. He then worked as a Graphics Specialist at the Mathematical Research Institute.He entered business began with his friend Eduard Kučera at the end of the communist regime in 1989, when he founded Alwil. In the early 1990s, the company was renamed Avast Software, based on its best known product, Avast Antivirus. It soon faced intense competition, especially from Symantec, which used an aggressive pricing policy in a bid to lead the market. In response, Baudiš and Kucera took a radical defense strategy, offering its product for free. As a result, Avast ultimately emerged as the largest anti-virus firm in the world. == References ==

Bunkyū

Bunkyū (文久) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō, "year name") after Man'en and before Genji. This period spanned the years from March 1861 through March 1864. The reigning emperor was Kōmei-tennō (孝明天皇).

Bunkyū (文久) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō, "year name") after Man'en and before Genji. This period spanned the years from March 1861 through March 1864. The reigning emperor was Kōmei-tennō (孝明天皇). Change of era March 29, 1861 (Man'en 2/Bunkyū 1, 19th day of the 2nd month) Bunkyū gannen (文久元年): The new era name of Bunkyū (meaning "Literate Story") was created because of a belief drawn from Chinese astrology that the 58th year of any zodiacal cycle brings great changes. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Man'en 2. Events of the Bunkyū era 1861 (Bunkyu 1): Ukai Gyokusen established the first commercial photography studio (Eishin-dō) in Edo. January 1862 (Bunkyū 1, 12th month): The Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands) are re-confirmed as a territory of Japan, following up "discovery" of the islands in Kanbun 10 (1670) and a shogunate expedition to the islands in Enpō 3 (1675). 1862 (Bunkyū 2): The Bunkyū Reforms relax restrictions on daimyōs which had been imposed by former Tairō Ii Naosuke in the Ansei era. September 14, 1862 (Bunkyū 2, 21st day of the 8th month): Namamugi Incident. Satsuma retainers kill English merchant Charles Lennox Richardson at Namamugi on the Tōkaidō road. April 22, 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 5th day of the 3rd month): Shōgun Iemochi travelled in a great procession to the capital. He had been summoned by the emperor, and had 3,000 retainers as escort. This was the first time that a shōgun had visited Heian-kyō since the visit of Iemitsu in Kan'ei 11 (1634) – 230 years before. April 28, 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 11th day of the 3rd month): Emperor Komei made an Imperial progress to the Kamo Shrines. He was accompanied by the shōgun, all the principal officials and many feudal lords. This was the first Imperial progress since Emperor Go-Mizunoo visited Nijō Castle more than 230 years before; and no Emperor had visited Kamo since Emperor Go-Daigo honored both shrines in Kenmu 1 (1334). April 29, 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 12th day of the 3rd month): In the early morning, Aizu accepts under its patronage the men of the Rōshigumi, who went on to form the Shinsengumi. May 2, 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 15th day of the 3rd month): The Rōshigumi men who were taken under Aizu patronage go to Konkaikōmyōji Temple to make their first formal, public appearance, and pay their respects to their new patron, Matsudaira Katamori. As Katamori is unavailable, they are instead met by two of his senior retainers. August 15–17, 1863 (Bunkyū 3, 2nd-4th of the 7th month): Bombardment of Kagoshima in retaliation for the Namamugi Incident. See also Japanese calendar Notes References Jansen, Marius B. (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674003347; OCLC 44090600 Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard A. B. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869. Kyoto: The Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 36644 Satow, Ernest Mason and Baba Bunyei. (1905). Japan 1853–1864, Or, Genji Yume Monogatari. Tokyo: Naigai suppan kyokai (内外出版協會). OCLC 1384148 Tanaka, Hiroyuki. "The Ogasawara Islands in Tokugawa Japan". Kaiji Shi Kenkyuu (Journal of the Maritime History). No. 50, June, 1993, Tokyo: The Japan Society of the History of Maritime. External links National Diet Library, The Japanese Calendar – historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection Bunkyū 3 procession of Shogun towards Kyoto – link to digitized image of woodblock print by Utagawa Tsuyanaga Archived 2007-12-06 at the Wayback Machine

Arabian trident bat

The Arabian trident bat (Asellia arabica) is a species of Old World leaf-nosed bat found in the Middle East.

The Arabian trident bat (Asellia arabica) is a species of Old World leaf-nosed bat found in the Middle East. Taxonomy and etymology The Arabian trident bat was described as a new species in 2011. It was distinguished as a result of a taxonomic split in the trident bat, A. tridens. The holotype was collected in 2005 in the Al Mahrah Governorate of Yemen. Its species name "arabica" is derived from the Arabian Peninsula where it is found. Description Its forearm length is approximately 46.5 mm (1.83 in). The fur of its back is beige or a pale, brownish-gray. The fur may have a yellowish or faint rusty tint. Its belly fur is paler than its back fur. Its flight membranes are also a pale, brownish-gray. Range and status It is found in the Middle East, with documented occurrence in southwestern Oman and southeastern Yemen. As of 2017, it is evaluated as a data deficient species by the IUCN. There is no estimate of its population size. == References ==

Elsie May Kittredge

Elsie May Kittredge (May 14, 1870 – 1954) was an American botanist, photographer, and curator for the New York Botanical Gardens.The standard author abbreviation Kittr. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. == References ==

Elsie May Kittredge (May 14, 1870 – 1954) was an American botanist, photographer, and curator for the New York Botanical Gardens.The standard author abbreviation Kittr. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. == References ==

Capital Brewery

Capital Brewery is a brewery in Middleton, Wisconsin. Founded on March 14, 1984, by entrepreneur Ed Janus in Madison, Wisconsin, it is situated in a former egg processing plant. The company first began production in 1986 and now produces over 20,000 barrels of beer annually. It produces 24 distinct beers, of which nine are annuals, five are seasonal, and ten are limited edition. Most are made using the strict Reinheitsgebot guidelines.

Capital Brewery is a brewery in Middleton, Wisconsin. Founded on March 14, 1984, by entrepreneur Ed Janus in Madison, Wisconsin, it is situated in a former egg processing plant. The company first began production in 1986 and now produces over 20,000 barrels of beer annually. It produces 24 distinct beers, of which nine are annuals, five are seasonal, and ten are limited edition. Most are made using the strict Reinheitsgebot guidelines. The company's brews have won awards at a number of competitions, including the Great American Beer Festival, and The Great Taste of the Midwest. The brewery was awarded the distinction of Madison's Favorite Local/Regional Beer from 1998 to 2004 in The Capital Times/Wisconsin State Journal Reader's Choice Awards. The company has received over 240 major awards in both domestic and international competitions in over 15 categories, and the flagship Wisconsin Amber beer has been available in cans since 1997.Capital Brewery was named "America's #1 Rated Brewery" by the Beverage Testing Institute's World Beer Championships in 1998. The brewery was also rated #7 in the world at this time.Capital was named the Grand National Champion in the 2013 US Open Beer Championship, winning six medals.Capital Brewery’s beers are currently distributed in four Midwestern States: Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and Minnesota. Capital Brewery has an indoor Bierstube and a large outdoor Bier garten (a.k.a. 'Middleton's Backyard') that plays host to events throughout the year. One of the more notable events is Bockfest, held on the last Saturday of February. Bockfest ushers in the annual release of Capital Blonde Doppelbock, Capital's award-winning brew. Blonde Doppelbock was awarded platinum six times in the past ten years at the World Beer Championships.The Capital Brewery Bike Club was formed in 2009 and currently has over 400 members. The bicycle rides are held Tuesday and Thursday evenings from April through October (weather permitting) and start from the Bier garten. Beers produced Annual Supper Club Special Pilsner Wisconsin Amber Capital Dark Mutiny IPA (Capital Brewery's First India Pale Ale) Island Wheat Seasonal Maibock - Available March - May Lake House - Available June - July Oktoberfest - Available August - October Autumnal Fire September - December Winter Skal - Available November - Feb. Limited release (some are included in the 'Capital Square Series') Blonde Dopplebock (Winter/Spring) Fishin' in the Dark (Summer) Dark Dopplebock (Fall/Winter) Jobu (Brown Ale aged in rum barrels - Winter) Capital Coffee Dark (Coffee/vanilla infused Munich Dark) Beers in hibernation Bavarian Lager Brown Ale - Went into hibernation in Spring 2009 (except for an occasional appearance as Jobu) Capital 1900 - Hibernating since 2006. Hop Cream Weizen U.S. Pale Ale Dark Voyage (dark IPA) Ghost Ship (white IPA) Grateful IPA (red IPA) Jacked Maibock (Spring) Capsized Appleanche (Fall) Pumpkinataur (Fall) Eternal Flame (Fall/Winter) Schwarz in a Box (Fall/Winter) References External links Official website Capital Brewery Bicycle Club website

Coedymwstwr Woodlands

Coedymwstwr Woodlands is a Site of Special Scientific Interest located between Coychurch and Pencoed in Bridgend County Borough, south Wales.

Coedymwstwr Woodlands is a Site of Special Scientific Interest located between Coychurch and Pencoed in Bridgend County Borough, south Wales. See also List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Mid & South Glamorgan

Ritz Cinema, Randwick

The Ritz Cinema, also known as the Ritz Theatre, is a heritage-listed cinema located at 43 St Pauls Street, in the Sydney suburb of Randwick in the City of Randwick local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by Aaron Bolot and built in 1937 by C. & B. J. Williams. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. The architect, Aaron Bolot, is known for his classic art deco buildings throughout Sydney, such as his commissions for grand apartment buildings in Potts Point.

The Ritz Cinema, also known as the Ritz Theatre, is a heritage-listed cinema located at 43 St Pauls Street, in the Sydney suburb of Randwick in the City of Randwick local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by Aaron Bolot and built in 1937 by C. & B. J. Williams. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. The architect, Aaron Bolot, is known for his classic art deco buildings throughout Sydney, such as his commissions for grand apartment buildings in Potts Point. History Indigenous history Pre-1780s the local Aboriginal people in the area used the site for fishing and cultural activities; rock engravings, grinding grooves and middens remain in evidence. In 1789 Governor Arthur Phillip referred to "a long bay", which became known as Long Bay. Aboriginal people are believed to have inhabited the Sydney region for at least 20,000 years. The population of Aboriginal people between Palm Beach and Botany Bay in 1788 has been estimated to have been 1500. Those living south of Port Jackson to Botany Bay were the Cadigal people who spoke Dharug, while the local clan name of Maroubra people was "Muru-ora-dial". By the mid nineteenth century the traditional owners of this land had typically either moved inland in search of food and shelter, or had died as the result of European disease or confrontation with British colonisers. Colonial history One of the earliest land grants in this area was made in 1824 to Captain Francis Marsh, who received 4.9 hectares (12 acres) bounded by the present Botany and High Streets, Alison and Belmore Roads. In 1839 William Newcombe acquired the land north-west of the present town hall in Avoca Street.Randwick takes its name from the town of Randwick, Gloucestershire, England. The name was suggested by Simeon Pearce (1821–86) and his brother James. Simeon was born in the English Randwick and the brothers were responsible for the early development of both Randwick and its neighbour, Coogee. Simeon had come to the colony in 1841as a 21 year old surveyor. He built his Blenheim House on the 1.6 hectares (4 acres) he bought from Marsh, and called his property "Randwick". The brothers bought and sold land profitably in the area and elsewhere. Simeon campaigned for construction of a road from the city to Coogee (achieved in 1853) and promoted the incorporation of the suburb. Pearce sought construction of a church modelled on the church of St. John in his birthplace. In 1857 the first St Jude's stood on the site of the present post office, at the corner of the present Alison Road and Avoca Street.: 217–8 Randwick was slow to progress. The village was isolated from Sydney by swamps and sandhills, and although a horse-bus was operated by a man named Grice from the late 1850s, the journey was more a test of nerves than a pleasure jaunt. Wind blew sand over the track, and the bus sometimes became bogged, so that passengers had to get out and push it free. From its early days Randwick had a divided society. The wealthy lived elegantly in large houses built when Pearce promoted Randwick and Coogee as a fashionable area. But the market gardens, orchards and piggeries that continued alongside the large estates were the lot of the working class. Even on the later estates that became racing empires, many jockeys and stablehands lived in huts or even under canvas. An even poorer group were the immigrants who existed on the periphery of Randwick in a place called Irishtown, in the area now known as The Spot, around the junction of St.Paul's Street and Perouse Road. Here families lived in makeshift houses, taking on the most menial tasks in their struggle to survive.In 1858 when the NSW Government passed the Municipalities Act, enabling formation of municipal districts empowered to collect rates and borrow money to improve their suburb, Randwick was the first suburb to apply for the status of a municipality. It was approved in February 1859, and its first Council was elected in March 1859.Randwick had been the venue for sporting events, as well as duels and illegal sports, from the early days in the colony's history. Its first racecourse, the Sandy Racecourse or Old Sand Track, had been a hazardous track over hills and gullies since 1860. When a move was made in 1863 by John Tait, to establish Randwick Racecourse, Simeon Pearce was furious, especially when he heard that Tait also intended to move into Byron Lodge. Tait's venture prospered, however and he became the first person in Australia to organise racing as a commercial sport. The racecourse made a big difference to the progress of Randwick. The horse-bus gave way to trams that linked the suburb to Sydney and civilisation. Randwick soon became a prosperous and lively place, and it still retains a busy residential, professional and commercial life.Today, some of the houses have been replaced by home units. Many European migrants have made their homes in the area, along with students and workers at the nearby University of NSW and the Prince of Wales Hospital.: 218–9 The Ritz Theatre Aaron Bolot was born in 1900 in Crimea. To escape persecution against Jewish people, Bolot migrated to Brisbane in 1911. Bolot enrolled at Brisbane's Central Technical College to study architecture and graduated in 1926. Upon graduation he was awarded the Queensland Institute of Architects Gold medal. Following graduation Bolot worked for Hollinshed and Gailey and whilst there assisted on two notable theatre projects, the Melbourne Comedy and Brisbane Regent.In 1930 Bolot moved to Sydney and set up his own practice. He completed several building projects during the decade ranging from houses and multi-storeyed apartments buildings to incinerators and theatres. During this time Bolot worked with Walter Burley Griffin. Bolot produced drawings for Griffin for two incinerators, one located at Pyrmont and the other at Willoughby.Bolot designed two theatres, the Hoyts Theatre at Goulburn described at that time as "an outstanding example of its genre" and the Astra at Wyong. In 1937 Bolot designed the Randwick Ritz for his clients Randwick Estate Ltd. At the same time he also designed the Regal Theatre at Gosford.In 1938 Bolot designed Ashdown located at 96 Eilzabeth Bay Road, Elizabeth Bay. Consisting of thirty-six apartments it is regarded as an outstanding building of interwar functionalist style. Later in 1938 Bolot remodelled the Melba Theatre in Melbourne which was renamed the New Liberty Theatre. In 1941 he remodelled West's Nowra Theatre.In 1942 Bolot joined the army and served as a Warrant Officer in Egypt and New Guinea. After the war Bolot resumed work as an architect and in 1948 designed the landmark apartment building located at 17 Wylde Street, Potts Point. Designed in 1948 and completed in late 1951 due to shortages in building materials, it was one of the largest buildings of any type to be constructed in the inner city area following the Second World War. In 1965 Bolot married and lived with his wife in Gommerah an apartment block located at Darling Point designed by him in 1957. In 1989 Bolot died leaving a legacy of innovative architecture.Since its construction, the cinema has been owned by, among others, the Hoyts cinema group and the Brigidine Sisters (an order of nuns running the adjacent Brigidine College). In the late 1980s the current owners planned to demolish the existing cinema and to redevelop the site.: para 2  However, Randwick City Council and the then Minister for Planning intervened and a Permanent Conservation Order was imposed on the Ritz building in March, 1993.: para 7  The current owners refurbished the building in the late 1990s, adding additional cinemas to the original single principal cinema theatre in order to allow the Ritz to survive in the era of competition with larger multiplex cinema chains. Description The Ritz Theatre is constructed of brick with a galvanised iron roof supported on angle steel trusses. It has seating capacity of about 900.The Randwick Ritz was built on two levels in the Inter-war Art Deco linear geometric style. The rendered facade reflects the early skyscraper style concept with a strong vertical emphasis expressed by vertical linear ribbing and reeding, as well as the stepped parapet. This feeling of strong verticality was even further emphasised by the deliberate stepping of the street awning over the entrance foyer doors. The awning itself retains its original pressed metal soffit, or underside lining, which is wholly decorated with characteristic geometric Art Deco motifs in a regular repeated pattern.The Art Deco linear geometric style is relieved internally by curved walls to the main stair, half landing and curved corners in the foyer and first floor lounge. The auditorium is distinctive through its Art Deco lights in two panels of nine wall lights to either side of the screen and the continuous ground glass box lighting with its chevron motif. The plaster decoration to the walls and ceiling is in geometric patterns in low relief with extensive use of grills and reveals. The detailing to the gilded plaster speaker boxes, which flank the main screen is particularly fine. Australian Film Walk of Fame In 2008, the Australian Film Walk of Fame was created outside the Ritz, with plaques honouring members of the Australian film industry. The walk was initiated by Randwick Council, with support from the Coogee Arts Festival and The Ritz. Condition As at 1 October 1997, the physical condition is good. Archaeological potential is low. Modifications and dates Built in 1937. Alterations made about 1954 to accommodate a wide screen. Interior redecorated around 1963. Heritage listing The Randwick Ritz is a good example of a picture theatre showing the smaller scaling and reduced decoration often applied to suburban theatres. It is one of the few surviving examples of the hundreds of cinema which were built during the 1930s, the most creative period of cinematic design in Australia It has many fine pieces of Art Deco decoration in a restrained Art Deco setting. The Ritz Theatre is a record of the cinema culture of the 1930s. The building has an excellent ability to interpret aspirations, uses, tastes and importance of cinema in the society of the 1930s It is the last known surviving theatre by A.M. Bolot. Following demolition or alteration of most suburban picture theatres, it is now an important and rare survival.Ritz Theatre was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. The Ritz Theatre is one of the few surviving examples of the hundreds of cinema which were built during the 1930s, the most creative period of cinematic design in Australia.It is an excellent example of the later expressionist style of cinemas showing the evolution of the theatre from the picture palaces of the 1920s, the French inspired art deco designs of early 1930s to the German influenced expressionist futuristic cinemas of the late 1930s.It is an example of cinema design and philosophy reflecting the influences of the German dominated cinematic world of the 1920s rather than American Hollywood which has had a mjor and overpoering impact on the world for the past 50 years.The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. The Ritz Theatre is aesthetically significant because the exterior and interior detailing and remaining fittings and finishes are excellent example of the 1930s crafts and skills which are of high aesthetic quality.It is a very good example of A. M. Bolot's cinema architecture, and is the last surviving of his cinemas. His early association with the architects Walter burley Griffin and Hollinshed and Gailey has particular significance for tracing the evolution of cinema design in Australia and represents a major cultural item in Australia's cinema history.The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The Ritz Theatre is socially significant because is a record of the cinema culture of the 1930s. These values have undergone a metamorphosis since the 1930s. The building has an excellent ability to interpret aspirations, uses, tastes and importance of cinema in the society of the 1930s.The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The Ritz Theatre is of scientific significance because it is an excellent record of a 1930s cinema which is substantially intact with all associated acoustic and ventilation panels, lighting systems, original materials and fabrics and projection room.The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The Randwick Ritz has a major rarity value. The Randwick Ritz is one of the very few which remain in Sydney. it is comparable in architectural importance to the Orpheum in Cremorne. Register of the National Estate (defunct) In 1997, the Ritz Cinema was placed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate by the Australian Heritage Council. That (defunct) record notes that: The Ritz Cinema is the only one of three remaining theatres of this style in an unaltered state still used as a cinema in New South Wales and is one of the few surviving examples of the hundreds of cinemas which were built during the 1930s, one of the most creative periods of cinematic design in Australia. ... The Ritz, which has operated almost continuously as a movie theatre since 1937, has social values as a community cultural entertainment centre in the Randwick area. The place is also highly valued by the Art Deco Society. ... The Ritz is significant for its intact and well detailed Art Deco design and is a prominent element in the St Paul's Road urban precinct ... See also Australian non-residential architectural styles References Bibliography "Ritz Theatre". 2007. Architectural Projects P/L (1996). A conservation plan, plan of conservation management, an assessment of cultural significance, a state of conservation policy for the Ritz Cinema, Randwick. Attraction Homepage (2007). "Ritz Theatre". Chapman, W. (1984). National Trust Classification Card. Jean, Amanda (1995). Heritage Assessment Randwick Ritz Theatre. O'Connell, Charles (1985). Inquiry pursuant to Section 41 or the Heritage Act 1977 into objections to the making of a permanent conservation order in respect of the buildings known as the Ritz Theatre, Randwick. Pollon, F.; Healy, G., eds. (1988). Randwick entry, in 'The Book of Sydney Suburbs'. Veale, Sharon (1995). Research Report on A. Bolot in Amanda Jean., Heritage Assessment Randwick Ritz Theatre. Attribution This Wikipedia article contains material from Ritz Theatre, entry number 00348 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on 1 June 2018. External links Official website

Raoul de Caours

Raoul de Caours was a Breton knight who served both the English and French during the Hundred Years' War.

Raoul de Caours was a Breton knight who served both the English and French during the Hundred Years' War. Biography Raoul de Caours was a knight originally from the Breton town of Guerande. With the Anglo-Bretons Raoul appears to have originally sided with the Montfortist cause in the War of the Breton Succession and was in the service of Jean de Montfort. This made him an English ally. With the Franco-Bretons By 1344, Raoul obtained a letter of remission from Philip VI of France. Remission was granted in forgiveness for "rebellions of which he was guilty and for the excesses he had committed in the wars in Brittany" "tam in partibus Britannie, quam Pictavie et alibi" Raoul then opposed Jean de Montfort. A return to the Anglo-Bretons Raoul was however back in the service of the English by 1347, when he was appointed Lieutenant in Poitou by Edward III of England. Raoul obtained a large monetary commission and ordered to capture Nantes. During 1347, Raoul captured the French captain, Louis I, Viscount of Thouars. During the truce signed on November 13, 1348, between France and England, he is one of the captains appointed by England from among the judges and truce keepers in Brittany. By June 14, 1350, he is mentioned as an ally of the English. Back to the Franco-Bretons After a dispute with Walter Bentley, Raoul switched his allegiance back to France. His is mentioned in a treaty, negotiated in 1350 with the commissioners of the new King of France, John II, according to which he "undertakes to leave the English party and to serve faithfully the King of France" at the cost of restitution in his favor "of the castles and lands of Beauvoir-sur-Mer, Île-Chauvet, Bouin and Lampant" which had been seized in 1349, by Galois de la Heuse, sovereign captain for the King in Poitou.During an ambush set by Raoul in August 1350 at Auray, he defeated and killed Sir Thomas Dagworth, the English commander in Brittany.In January 4, 1351, he undertakes by contract to retake for the French King, the towns of Vannes, Quimper and Guérande, as well as other strongholds. The king, in his letters from January 1351, calls it "dilectus and fidelis consiliarius noster."(our beloved and faithful counselor). Raoul captured Noirmoutier from the English in late 1351. He was taken prisoner shortly after by a band led by a privateer Maciot de Mareuil, a former bourgeois of Nantes. The French offer Letters of remission and an annuity of 200 pounds on February 25, 1352, to them in exchange for the release of prisoners and safe return, however letters from October 19, 1353, showed that the negotiations had not yet been concluded and subsequently Raoul Caours died in captivity before July 1354. Lasting Reputation Raoul constant changing of sides has not left him a favourable reputation: "Raoul Cahours is a figure of the most cynical bandit offered the XIV th century, yet so rich in types of robbery. Perpetually changing parties according to his interest of the moment, lunch in England and supper in France, fight the next day those we served the day before, betray the highest bidder and the last bidder, such is the profession that Raoul does all. his life. " - Siméon Luce, History of Bertrand Du Guesclin: the youth of Bertrand, 1876 Citations References Sumption, Jonathan (1999). The Hundred Years War II: Trial by Fire. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-13896-8. Alain GALLICE, Guérande the Middle Ages: Guérande, Le Croisic, Guérande the country from the mid XIV th in the middle of THE XVI th century, Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, coll. " Story ",2003, 411 p. (ISBN 2-86847-837-9, notice BnF n o FRBNF39066487, read online ) Paul Guérin, Collection of documents concerning Poitou contained in the registers of the Chancellery of France: 1348-1369, vol. III, t. September 1350, Poitiers, Impr. Oudin, coll. “Historical Archives of Poitou”, 1881-1958 ( BnF notice n o FRBNF30551581, read online )

Council for Science and Technology

The Council for Science and Technology (CST) is an advisory non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government. Its role is to give advice on issues that cut across government departments to the Prime Minister, the First Minister of Scotland and the First Minister for Wales. It was established in 1993 and relaunched in 2003. It is based in London. The Council has 17 independent members and two co-chairs.

The Council for Science and Technology (CST) is an advisory non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government. Its role is to give advice on issues that cut across government departments to the Prime Minister, the First Minister of Scotland and the First Minister for Wales. It was established in 1993 and relaunched in 2003. It is based in London. The Council has 17 independent members and two co-chairs. Professor Dame Nancy Rothwell chairs meetings where advice is being developed. Sir Patrick Vallance, the Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the Government Office for Science, chairs meetings reporting its advice to government. The advisory functions of the CST had previously been performed by the Advisory Council for Applied Research and Development (ACARD), from 1976 to 1987, and the Advisory Council on Science and Technology (ACOST) from 1987 to 1993. References "How research was commissioned and funded", The BSE Inquiry Report, vol.2 pt.1 sect.6 External links CST website

Shell Technology Centre

The Shell Technology Centre was a chemical and oil products research institute in northern Cheshire, near Stanlow, owned by Anglo-Dutch Shell.

The Shell Technology Centre was a chemical and oil products research institute in northern Cheshire, near Stanlow, owned by Anglo-Dutch Shell. History World War II The site was first set up, in 1941, by Shell for the Ministry of Aircraft Production as the Aero Engine Research Laboratory. Opening It returned to Shell ownership in April 1947. The site had 70 scientists, and around 250 technicians working on quartz combustion tubes, direct fuel injection, butane fuel and the atomisation of fuel. It claimed to be the largest oil research centre in the British Empire. The site was 30 acres and 730,000 square feet, with 900 staff. The site had developed synthetic rubber, paint, varnish and soap. A new 85-acre chemicals plant was to open in 1948 (the Stanlow refinery).Stanlow made around 24,000 tons of chemicals per year. The neighbouring oil refinery opened in 1949, although a smaller plant had been there since 1924. The Shellhaven plant, in Essex, would make 30,000 tons of chemicals. It opened officially on Thursday 20 May 1948 as Shell Research Centre. Also attending the opening was Lt-Gen Jimmy Doolittle, known for his strategy of bombing Germany, John Cunningham (Royal Navy officer), First Sea Lord, and Air Chief Marshal Arthur Barratt Vehicle engineering In the 1950s it was one of three main Shell research sites in the UK, the others being in Kent and Buckinghamshire. In 1962, Shell spent £25m on research, with 19 worldwide research centres, 8 in Europe, and 11 in the US. Pre-ignition was prevented by Ignition Control Additive (ICA), developed at the centre, which was added to Shell petrol, in the UK, from Monday 11 January 1954. ICA contained tricresyl phosphate. Vehicle testing was conducted at the former RAF Poulton, but in 1957, this was moved to the former RAF Hooton Park, when flying operations ceased. The site had 1000 staff, with 200 graduates in 1957.In October 1960 a three-day international symposium held entitled Wear in the gasoline engine. Prof Frank Philip Bowden FRS spoke at the meeting.Testing work in the 1960s took place at the Autodrome de Linas-Montlhéry in France, and MIRA in Leicestershire. By the early 1960s Shell also had its Central Laboratories in Surrey (which opened in 1956), the Tunstall Laboratory, and Chemical Enzymology Laboratory at Sittingbourne in Kent. Shell X-100 was Europe's top selling motor oil (lubrication). North Sea oil was produced from 1975. Overseas research In the mid 1970s Shell had around 5,000 worldwide research staff. In 1975 it closed two of its four British research sites, and one in Delft in the Netherlands. The Surrey research site closed with its 430 employees, with its work transferred work to Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and Cheshire with the centre's 850 employees. Before the closures, Shell had 2080 employees at British research centres. The main Dutch research sites were at Amsterdam (Royal Shell Laboratory Amsterdam) and Rijswijk. Directors 1947 Ralph Bagnold FRS 1948, CG Williams. Dr C.B. Davies 1958 R G Larsen, US citizen 3 April 1967, Sir Morris Sugden FRS December 1975, GG Rose 1980s, David Parkes 1990s, Graeme Sweeney Visits Minister of State for Energy, and Conservative MP for Chester, Sir Peter Morrison visited on Friday 3 March 1989, with the chairman of Shell Ltd, Sir Bob Reid, where a meeting of the Offshore Energy Technology Board was held. Ayrton Senna and Ron Dennis visited in September 1991, and Ayrton Senna visited again in November 1991. Local schools It has had much contact with local schools. In the 1960s it worked informally with Ellesmere Port County Grammar School for Boys In the 1990s it worked with Stanney High School (now Ellesmere Port Church of England College), Pensby High School, and Helsby High School. Closure Shell closed its research centres in the UK in 2014, moving the research to Germany. Shell had sold the neighbouring oil refinery. 280 staff moved to London and Manchester, with 170 to northern Germany. Research The site was largely an automotive engineering research facility. Work was carried out on direct fuel injection and butane-powered engines. Fuel cells A 5 kW fuel cell had been first demonstrated at Cambridge in 1959 by Francis Thomas Bacon; the site looked into fuel cell technology. A methanol fuel cell was demonstrated in December 1964. Aircraft engines The site had worked on early jet engines in the war, on work for the Comet, and would work on lubrication and fuel for Concorde. By 1961 around 500 scientists and 350 technicians. Fuel-efficient vehicles In 1977 made a record-breaking vehicle that did 1141 mpg, with bicycle wheels. In 1977 it was predicted that oil would run out by 1990. A competition run by the centre for fuel efficient vehicles took place on 5 July 1977 at Mallory Park, with teams from 23 universities - the Shell Mileage Marathon. The Shell vehicle had a Honda 50cc engine, and consumed 1252 mpg. At a Deutsche Shell Mileage Marathon at Hockenheim, it managed 1373 mpg, but three German vehicles consumed less, with one managing 1904 mpg. Shell now run the Shell Eco-marathon, which largely the only international event of its kind. Environmental research In 1994, Shell decided to invest £70m in new buildings at the site, when it moved out from its Kent site at the end of 1995, so environmental research and 140 scientists moved to Cheshire. Alfred McAlpine started construction in August 1994. In 1997, Shell took fuel additive research away from Cheshire, when it undertook joint research work with Esso. Lubricants Its scientists researched lubrication with the Ubbelohde viscometer. In 1949 Britain's first diesel train, with an English Electric engine, had Shell lubricating oil. Two-thirds of the lubricating oil made in UK was Shell, with Shell conducting £6m of research in 1949. The centre researched tyres, paint, textiles, and detergents. BEA airliners only had Shell lubricants. In the 1960s automotive companies from Europe would test automotive engines there.In May 1985, an automated £14m lubrication oil laboratory opened, called ELMA - Engine Laboratory Modernisation and Automation, with sixteen engine test beds, for different driving cycles. With ELMA, it developed the petrol known as Formula Shell, sold from 19 May 1986. Pollution The site conducted work with British Leyland on pollution in the late 1960s, due to increasing legislation in the US, costing £100,000 a year, overlooked by Morris Sugden. BP conducted similar research at its Sunbury Research Centre. Formula 1 racing The site researched fuel for the Ferrari F1 team (Scuderia Ferrari). Structure The site is 66 acres. It was situated north of the M56, north-west of junction 14, at the Hapsford services (a Shell services), to the north of the A5117. It is directly east of the large oil refinery, south of the neighbouring Hooton–Helsby line. See also Castrol Technology Centre in Oxfordshire (owned by BP) The former Esso Research Centre in Oxfordshire Widnes Laboratory Winnington Laboratory == References ==

Joseph F. Timilty (state senator)

Joseph F. Timilty (October 3, 1938 – December 22, 2017) was an American politician.

Joseph F. Timilty (October 3, 1938 – December 22, 2017) was an American politician. Political career Timilty was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He was a member of the Boston City Council from 1967 to 1971 and served in the Massachusetts Senate from 1972 to 1985. Timilty was a Democrat.Timilty was a candidate for Mayor of Boston in 1971, 1975 and 1979.Eight years after leaving office, on January 27, 1993, Timilty was indicted on one count of conspiracy to commit wire fraud. On August 31, 1993, he was sentenced to four months in prison and two years of probation.In 2001, he was a candidate in the special election to fill the vacancy in the 9th congressional district caused by the death of Joe Moakley. He dropped out of the race due to fundraising issues. Personal life Timilty's grandfather James P. Timilty was a state senator and the namesake of the James P. Timilty Middle School in Boston. His uncle Joseph F. Timilty was Boston Police Commissioner from 1936 to 1943. His son, James E. Timilty is a former State Senator and now Treasurer of Norfolk County, and his nephew, Walter Timilty Jr. is a State Senator. His daughter, Kelly Timilty, was a member of the Massachusetts Governor's Council. His brother, Walter F. Timilty Sr. is the Clerk of Courts in Norfolk County. Timilty went to Providence College. He served in the United States Marine Corps. He was involved with his family's laundry business and with the real estate business. Timilty also served as a teaching fellow at the John F. Kennedy School of Government. He died of cancer at his home in Canton, Massachusetts. == References ==

Theophrastus

Theophrastus (; Ancient Greek: Θεόφραστος, romanized: Theóphrastos, lit. 'godly phrased'; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos. His given name was Τύρταμος (Túrtamos); his nickname Θεόφραστος (Theóphrastos) was given by Aristotle, his teacher, for his "divine style of expression". He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school.

Theophrastus (; Ancient Greek: Θεόφραστος, romanized: Theóphrastos, lit. 'godly phrased'; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos. His given name was Τύρταμος (Túrtamos); his nickname Θεόφραστος (Theóphrastos) was given by Aristotle, his teacher, for his "divine style of expression". He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus in his writings. When Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as head of the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants. After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus. The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, including biology, physics, ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on Renaissance science. There are also surviving works On Moral Characters, On Sense Perception, and On Stones, as well as fragments on Physics and Metaphysics. In philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotle's work on logic. He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion, and motion as a necessary consequence of all activity. In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue. Life Most of the biographical information about Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus's time. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos. His given name was Tyrtamus (Τύρταμος), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from Ancient Greek Θεός 'god' and φράζειν 'to phrase', i.e. divine expression). After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens, where he may have studied under Plato. He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus. It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science, with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants. Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2. Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head (scholarch) of the Peripatetic school, a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus, with whom he was close. Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice.Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years, and died at the age of eighty-five according to Diogenes. He is said to have remarked, "We die just when we are beginning to live".Under his guidance the school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2000 students, Diogenes affirms—and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him. He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave." He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus. Writings From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are lost works. Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second Analytic (Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων and Ἀναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων). He had also written books on Topics (Ἀνηγμένων τόπων, Τοπικῶν and Τὰ πρὸ τῶν τόπων); on the Analysis of Syllogisms (Περὶ ἀναλύσεως συλλογισμῶν and Περὶ συλλογισμῶν λύσεως), on Sophisms (Σοφισμάτων) and on Affirmation and Denial (Περὶ καταφάσεως καὶ ἀποφάσεως) as well as on the Natural Philosophy (Περὶ φύσεως, Περὶ φυσικῶν, Φυσικῶν and others), on Heaven (Περὶ οὐρανοῦ), and on Meteorological Phenomena (Τῆς μεταρσιολεσχίας and Μεταρσιολογικῶν). In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the Warm and the Cold (Περὶ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ), on Water (Περὶ ὕδατος), Fire (Περὶ πυρóς), the Sea (Περὶ θαλάττης), on Coagulation and Melting (Περὶ πήξεων καὶ τήξεων), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life, and on the Soul (Περὶ ψυχῆς), on Experience (Περὶ ἐμπειρίας) and On Sense Perception (also known as On the Senses; Περὶ αἰσθήσεων). Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Archelaus, Diogenes of Apollonia, Democritus, which were made use of by Simplicius; and also on Xenocrates, against the Academics, and a sketch of the political doctrine of Plato.He studied general history, as we know from Plutarch's lives of Lycurgus, Solon, Aristides, Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, Agesilaus, and Demosthenes, which were probably borrowed from the work on Lives (Περὶ βίων). But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in natural history. This is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of zoology, of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books On Stones, his Enquiry into Plants, and On the Causes of Plants (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the State (Πολιτικῶν and Πολιτικοῦ), we find quoted various treatises on Education (Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Περὶ παιδείας), on Royalty (Περὶ βασιλείας, Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Πρὸς Κάσανδρον περὶ βασιλείας), on the Best State (Περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης πολιτείας), on Political Morals (Πολιτικῶν ἐθῶν), and particularly his works on the Laws (Νόμων κατὰ στοιχεῖον, Νόμων ἐπιτομῆς and Περὶ νόμων), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of Politics, and must have been similar to it. He also wrote on oratory and poetry. Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical writings, as also in his metaphysical investigations of motion, the soul, and God.Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the Problems that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle, and commentaries, partly dialogue, to which probably belonged the Erotikos (Ἐρωτικός), Megacles (Μεγακλῆς), Callisthenes (Καλλισθένης), and Megarikos (Μεγαρικός), and letters, partly books on mathematical sciences and their history.Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks. "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity". The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants. On plants The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, Enquiry into Plants (Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία, generally known as Historia Plantarum), and On the Causes of Plants (Greek: Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν, Latin: De causis plantarum), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages, the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, following Linnaeus, call him the "father of botany".The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc. The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums, resins, etc.On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned. A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work. Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants. Theophrastus observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great: to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the cotton-plant, banyan, pepper, cinnamon, myrrh, and frankincense. Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483; in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared. Christian Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library, which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. On moral characters His book Characters (Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628), and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated the Characters. George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus's Characters, most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology. On sensation A treatise On Sense Perception (Περὶ αἰσθήσεων) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century. With this type of work we may connect the fragments on Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on Sweat, on Swooning, on Palsy, and on Honey. Physics Fragments of a History of Physics (Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on Fire, on the Winds, and on the signs of Waters, Winds, and Storms.Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842–62) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta Theophrastea. Metaphysics The Metaphysics (anachronistic Greek title: Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά), in nine chapters (also known as On First Principles), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos, Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it. On stones In his treatise On Stones (Περὶ λίθων), which would become a source for other lapidaries until at least the Renaissance, Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite, which both have the power of attraction.Theophrastus describes different marbles; mentions coal, which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the various metal ores; and knew that pumice stones had a volcanic origin. He also deals with precious stones, emeralds, amethysts, onyx, jasper, etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumably lapis lazuli.He knew that pearls came from shellfish, that coral came from India, and speaks of the fossilized remains of organic life. He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as ochre; and for the manufacture of plaster.Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines, presumably of Laurium near Athens – the basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to gold mines. The Laurium silver mines, which were the property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea from c. 413 BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo (c. 64 BCE to c. 24 CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias (c. 110 to c. 180) speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work On Mining, which – like most of his writings – is a lost work. Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic, although he did describe lyngurium, a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the lynx (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century. It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus the first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of tourmaline, which made mineralogists of the time associate the lyngurium with it. Lyngurium is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar to amber, capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties. Philosophy The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings. Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Simplicius. Logic Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric, since in his book on the elements of speech, he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions (κυρία λέξις kuria lexis) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions (πάθη pathe) of speech. He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech (σχίσις schisis) to things (πράγματα pragmata) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to the latter.He wrote at length on the unity of judgment, on the different kinds of negation, and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity. In his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms, partly in the proof of them, partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion. Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them; and further, with hypothetical conclusions. For the doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine. In different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science. To this, too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics, that the principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus. For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from the Topica of Theophrastus. Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas, which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Physics and metaphysics Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires principles, and first and foremost, motion, as the basis of all change. Denying the substance of space, he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the mere arrangement and position (taxis and thesis) of bodies. Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion. He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment. He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle. He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself (ateles), of that which only potentially exists, but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular: Surely, then, if the life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way? He recognised no activity without motion, and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment (kriseis) and contemplation to spiritual motion. The idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it. Other Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and especially Strato, developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian doctrine. Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in his Metaphysics. He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution: With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification. He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena. In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God, and had understood it at one time as Heaven, at another an (enlivening) breath (pneuma). Ethics Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely upon virtue, or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality. He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend, and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the Callisthenes, "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom" (vitam regit fortuna non sapientia). That in the definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it. Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life, he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in a manner of which Aristotle would not have approved.Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do. The "portrait" of Theophrastus The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome. This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch. In popular culture A world is named Theophrastus in the 2014 Firefly graphic novel Serenity: Leaves on the Wind.Theodor Geisel used the name "Theophrastus" as the given name of his pen-name alter ego, Dr. Seuss.A board game named Theophrastus was released in 2001. Players compete through a series of Alchemy experiments in order to become Theophrastus's apprentice. Works Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references Attribution: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wheeler, Emmanuel (1911). "Theophrastus". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 787. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Theophrastus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. 3. Further reading External links Works by Theophrastus at Perseus Digital Library Theophrastus (1956) [315 BC]. Theophrastus On Stones: Introduction, Greek text, English translation, and Commentary (PDF). Translated by Richards, John F.; Caley, Earle Radcliffe. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. p. 238. hdl:1811/32541. Theophrastus (January 1956). Theophrastus on stones. Translated by Caley, Earle Radcliffe. Ohio State University. ISBN 978-0-8142-0033-9. Theophrastus (1916). Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants. Vol. 1. Translated by Hort, A. F. New York: Loeb Classical Library/G.P. Putnam's Sons. Book I–V. "Theophrastus". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 1, 2016. Stratton, George Malcolm (1917). Theophrastus and the Greek physiological psychology before Aristotle.—Contains a translation of On the Senses by Theophrastus. Katerina Ierodiakonou. "Theophrastus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Peripatetic Logic: The Work of Eudemus of Rhodes and Theophrastus of Eresus". Project Theophrastus (in Greek) Online Galleries, University of Oklahoma Libraries Theophrastus of Eresus at the Edward Worth Library, Dublin Theophrastus, Enquiry into Plants, Hort's English translation of 1916, as html tagged with geolocated place references, at ToposText Works by Theophrastus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Kepler space telescope

The Kepler space telescope is a defunct space telescope launched by NASA in 2009 to discover Earth-sized planets orbiting other stars. Named after astronomer Johannes Kepler, the spacecraft was launched into an Earth-trailing heliocentric orbit. The principal investigator was William J. Borucki. After nine and a half years of operation, the telescope's reaction control system fuel was depleted, and NASA announced its retirement on October 30, 2018.Designed to survey a portion of Earth's region of the Milky Way to discover Earth-size exoplanets in or near habitable zones and estimate how many of the billions of stars in the Milky Way have such planets, Kepler's sole scientific instrument is a photometer that continually monitored the brightness of approximately 150,000 main sequence stars in a fixed field of view. These data were transmitted to Earth, then analyzed to detect periodic dimming caused by exoplanets that cross in front of their host star.

The Kepler space telescope is a defunct space telescope launched by NASA in 2009 to discover Earth-sized planets orbiting other stars. Named after astronomer Johannes Kepler, the spacecraft was launched into an Earth-trailing heliocentric orbit. The principal investigator was William J. Borucki. After nine and a half years of operation, the telescope's reaction control system fuel was depleted, and NASA announced its retirement on October 30, 2018.Designed to survey a portion of Earth's region of the Milky Way to discover Earth-size exoplanets in or near habitable zones and estimate how many of the billions of stars in the Milky Way have such planets, Kepler's sole scientific instrument is a photometer that continually monitored the brightness of approximately 150,000 main sequence stars in a fixed field of view. These data were transmitted to Earth, then analyzed to detect periodic dimming caused by exoplanets that cross in front of their host star. Only planets whose orbits are seen edge-on from Earth could be detected. Kepler observed 530,506 stars and detected 2,778 confirmed planets as of June 16, 2023. History Pre-launch development The Kepler space telescope was part of NASA's Discovery Program of relatively low-cost science missions. The telescope's construction and initial operation were managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, with Ball Aerospace responsible for developing the Kepler flight system. In January 2006, the project's launch was delayed eight months because of budget cuts and consolidation at NASA. It was delayed again by four months in March 2006 due to fiscal problems. At this time, the high-gain antenna was changed from a design using a gimbal to one fixed to the frame of the spacecraft to reduce cost and complexity, at the cost of one observation day per month. Post launch The Ames Research Center was responsible for the ground system development, mission operations since December 2009, and scientific data analysis. The initial planned lifetime was 3.5 years, but greater-than-expected noise in the data, from both the stars and the spacecraft, meant additional time was needed to fulfill all mission goals. Initially, in 2012, the mission was expected to be extended until 2016, but on July 14, 2012, one of the spacecraft's four reaction wheels used for pointing the spacecraft stopped turning, and completing the mission would only be possible if all other reaction wheels remained reliable. Then, on May 11, 2013, a second reaction wheel failed, disabling the collection of science data and threatening the continuation of the mission.On August 15, 2013, NASA announced that they had given up trying to fix the two failed reaction wheels. This meant the current mission needed to be modified, but it did not necessarily mean the end of planet hunting. NASA had asked the space science community to propose alternative mission plans "potentially including an exoplanet search, using the remaining two good reaction wheels and thrusters". On November 18, 2013, the K2 "Second Light" proposal was reported. This would include utilizing the disabled Kepler in a way that could detect habitable planets around smaller, dimmer red dwarfs. On May 16, 2014, NASA announced the approval of the K2 extension.By January 2015, Kepler and its follow-up observations had found 1,013 confirmed exoplanets in about 440 star systems, along with a further 3,199 unconfirmed planet candidates. Four planets have been confirmed through Kepler's K2 mission. In November 2013, astronomers estimated, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion rocky Earth-size exoplanets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. It is estimated that 11 billion of these planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 3.7 parsecs (12 ly) away, according to the scientists.On January 6, 2015, NASA announced the 1,000th confirmed exoplanet discovered by the Kepler space telescope. Four of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within habitable zones of their related stars: three of the four, Kepler-438b, Kepler-442b and Kepler-452b, are almost Earth-size and likely rocky; the fourth, Kepler-440b, is a super-Earth. On May 10, 2016, NASA verified 1,284 new exoplanets found by Kepler, the single largest finding of planets to date.Kepler data has also helped scientists observe and understand supernovae; measurements were collected every half-hour so the light curves were especially useful for studying these types of astronomical events.On October 30, 2018, after the spacecraft ran out of fuel, NASA announced that the telescope would be retired. The telescope was shut down the same day, bringing an end to its nine-year service. Kepler observed 530,506 stars and discovered 2,662 exoplanets over its lifetime. A newer NASA mission, TESS, launched in 2018, is continuing the search for exoplanets. Spacecraft design The telescope has a mass of 1,039 kilograms (2,291 lb) and contains a Schmidt camera with a 0.95-meter (37.4 in) front corrector plate (lens) feeding a 1.4-meter (55 in) primary mirror—at the time of its launch this was the largest mirror on any telescope outside Earth orbit, though the Herschel Space Observatory took this title a few months later. Its telescope has a 115 deg2 (about 12-degree diameter) field of view (FoV), roughly equivalent to the size of one's fist held at arm's length. Of this, 105 deg2 is of science quality, with less than 11% vignetting. The photometer has a soft focus to provide excellent photometry, rather than sharp images. The mission goal was a combined differential photometric precision (CDPP) of 20 ppm for a m(V)=12 Sun-like star for a 6.5-hour integration, though the observations fell short of this objective (see mission status). Camera The focal plane of the spacecraft's camera is made out of forty-two 50 × 25 mm (2 × 1 in) CCDs at 2200×1024 pixels each, possessing a total resolution of 94.6 megapixels, which at the time made it the largest camera system launched into space. The array was cooled by heat pipes connected to an external radiator. The CCDs were read out every 6.5 seconds (to limit saturation) and co-added on board for 58.89 seconds for short cadence targets, and 1765.5 seconds (29.4 minutes) for long cadence targets. Due to the larger bandwidth requirements for the former, these were limited in number to 512 compared to 170,000 for long cadence. However, even though at launch Kepler had the highest data rate of any NASA mission, the 29-minute sums of all 95 million pixels constituted more data than could be stored and sent back to Earth. Therefore, the science team pre-selected the relevant pixels associated with each star of interest, amounting to about 6 percent of the pixels (5.4 megapixels). The data from these pixels was then requantized, compressed and stored, along with other auxiliary data, in the on-board 16 gigabyte solid-state recorder. Data that was stored and downlinked includes science stars, p-mode stars, smear, black level, background and full field-of-view images. Primary mirror The Kepler primary mirror is 1.4 meters (4.6 ft) in diameter. Manufactured by glass maker Corning using ultra-low expansion (ULE) glass, the mirror is specifically designed to have a mass only 14% that of a solid mirror of the same size. To produce a space telescope system with sufficient sensitivity to detect relatively small planets, as they pass in front of stars, a very high reflectance coating on the primary mirror was required. Using ion assisted evaporation, Surface Optics Corp. applied a protective nine-layer silver coating to enhance reflection and a dielectric interference coating to minimize the formation of color centers and atmospheric moisture absorption. Photometric performance In terms of photometric performance, Kepler worked well, much better than any Earth-bound telescope, but short of design goals. The objective was a combined differential photometric precision (CDPP) of 20 parts per million (PPM) on a magnitude 12 star for a 6.5-hour integration. This estimate was developed allowing 10 ppm for stellar variability, roughly the value for the Sun. The obtained accuracy for this observation has a wide range, depending on the star and position on the focal plane, with a median of 29 ppm. Most of the additional noise appears to be due to a larger-than-expected variability in the stars themselves (19.5 ppm as opposed to the assumed 10.0 ppm), with the rest due to instrumental noise sources slightly larger than predicted.Because decrease in brightness from an Earth-size planet transiting a Sun-like star is so small, only 80 ppm, the increased noise means each individual transit is only a 2.7 σ event, instead of the intended 4 σ. This, in turn, means more transits must be observed to be sure of a detection. Scientific estimates indicated that a mission lasting 7 to 8 years, as opposed to the originally planned 3.5 years, would be needed to find all transiting Earth-sized planets. On April 4, 2012, the Kepler mission was approved for extension through the fiscal year 2016, but this also depended on all remaining reaction wheels staying healthy, which turned out not to be the case (see Reaction wheel issues below). Orbit and orientation Kepler orbits the Sun, which avoids Earth occultations, stray light, and gravitational perturbations and torques inherent in an Earth orbit. NASA has characterized Kepler's orbit as "Earth-trailing". With an orbital period of 372.5 days, Kepler is slowly falling farther behind Earth (about 16 million miles per annum). As of May 1, 2018, the distance to Kepler from Earth was about 0.917 AU (137 million km). This means that after about 26 years Kepler will reach the other side of the Sun and will get back to the neighborhood of the Earth after 51 years. Until 2013 the photometer pointed to a field in the northern constellations of Cygnus, Lyra and Draco, which is well out of the ecliptic plane, so that sunlight never enters the photometer as the spacecraft orbits. This is also the direction of the Solar System's motion around the center of the galaxy. Thus, the stars which Kepler observed are roughly the same distance from the Galactic Center as the Solar System, and also close to the galactic plane. This fact is important if position in the galaxy is related to habitability, as suggested by the Rare Earth hypothesis. Orientation is three-axis stabilized by sensing rotations using fine-guidance sensors located on the instrument focal plane (instead of rate sensing gyroscopes, e.g. as used on Hubble). and using reaction wheels and hydrazine thrusters to control the orientation. Operations Kepler was operated out of Boulder, Colorado, by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) under contract to Ball Aerospace & Technologies. The spacecraft's solar array was rotated to face the Sun at the solstices and equinoxes, so as to optimize the amount of sunlight falling on the solar array and to keep the heat radiator pointing towards deep space. Together, LASP and Ball Aerospace control the spacecraft from a mission operations center located on the research campus of the University of Colorado. LASP performs essential mission planning and the initial collection and distribution of the science data. The mission's initial life-cycle cost was estimated at US$600 million, including funding for 3.5 years of operation. In 2012, NASA announced that the Kepler mission would be funded until 2016 at a cost of about $20 million per year. Communications NASA contacted the spacecraft using the X band communication link twice a week for command and status updates. Scientific data are downloaded once a month using the Ka band link at a maximum data transfer rate of approximately 550 kB/s. The high gain antenna is not steerable so data collection is interrupted for a day to reorient the whole spacecraft and the high gain antenna for communications to Earth.: 16 The Kepler space telescope conducted its own partial analysis on board and only transmitted scientific data deemed necessary to the mission in order to conserve bandwidth. Data management Science data telemetry collected during mission operations at LASP is sent for processing to the Kepler Data Management Center (DMC) which is located at the Space Telescope Science Institute on the campus of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. The science data telemetry is decoded and processed into uncalibrated FITS-format science data products by the DMC, which are then passed along to the Science Operations Center (SOC) at NASA Ames Research Center, for calibration and final processing. The SOC at NASA Ames Research Center (ARC) develops and operates the tools needed to process scientific data for use by the Kepler Science Office (SO). Accordingly, the SOC develops the pipeline data processing software based on scientific algorithms developed jointly by the SO and SOC. During operations, the SOC: Receives uncalibrated pixel data from the DMC Applies the analysis algorithms to produce calibrated pixels and light curves for each star Performs transit searches for detection of planets (threshold-crossing events, or TCEs) Performs data validation of candidate planets by evaluating various data products for consistency as a way to eliminate false positive detectionsThe SOC also evaluates the photometric performance on an ongoing basis and provides the performance metrics to the SO and Mission Management Office. Finally, the SOC develops and maintains the project's scientific databases, including catalogs and processed data. The SOC finally returns calibrated data products and scientific results back to the DMC for long-term archiving, and distribution to astronomers around the world through the Multimission Archive at STScI (MAST). Reaction wheel failures On July 14, 2012, one of the four reaction wheels used for fine pointing of the spacecraft failed. While Kepler requires only three reaction wheels to accurately aim the telescope, another failure would leave the spacecraft unable to aim at its original field.After showing some problems in January 2013, a second reaction wheel failed on May 11, 2013, ending Kepler's primary mission. The spacecraft was put into safe mode, then from June to August 2013 a series of engineering tests were done to try to recover either failed wheel. By August 15, 2013, it was decided that the wheels were unrecoverable, and an engineering report was ordered to assess the spacecraft's remaining capabilities.This effort ultimately led to the "K2" follow-on mission observing different fields near the ecliptic. Operational timeline In January 2006, the project's launch was delayed eight months because of budget cuts and consolidation at NASA. It was delayed again by four months in March 2006 due to fiscal problems. At this time, the high-gain antenna was changed from a gimballed design to one fixed to the frame of the spacecraft to reduce cost and complexity, at the cost of one observation day per month. The Kepler observatory was launched on March 7, 2009, at 03:49:57 UTC aboard a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. The launch was a success and all three stages were completed by 04:55 UTC. The cover of the telescope was jettisoned on April 7, 2009, and the first light images were taken on the next day.On April 20, 2009, it was announced that the Kepler science team had concluded that further refinement of the focus would dramatically increase the scientific return. On April 23, 2009, it was announced that the focus had been successfully optimized by moving the primary mirror 40 micrometers (1.6 thousandths of an inch) towards the focal plane and tilting the primary mirror 0.0072 degree.On May 13, 2009, at 00:01 UTC, Kepler successfully completed its commissioning phase and began its search for planets around other stars.On June 19, 2009, the spacecraft successfully sent its first science data to Earth. It was discovered that Kepler had entered safe mode on June 15. A second safe mode event occurred on July 2. In both cases the event was triggered by a processor reset. The spacecraft resumed normal operation on July 3 and the science data that had been collected since June 19 was downlinked that day. On October 14, 2009, the cause of these safing events was determined to be a low voltage power supply that provides power to the RAD750 processor. On January 12, 2010, one portion of the focal plane transmitted anomalous data, suggesting a problem with focal plane MOD-3 module, covering two out of Kepler's 42 CCDs. As of October 2010, the module was described as "failed", but the coverage still exceeded the science goals.Kepler downlinked roughly twelve gigabytes of data about once per month. Field of view Kepler has a fixed field of view (FOV) against the sky. The diagram to the right shows the celestial coordinates and where the detector fields are located, along with the locations of a few bright stars with celestial north at the top left corner. The mission website has a calculator that will determine if a given object falls in the FOV, and if so, where it will appear in the photo detector output data stream. Data on exoplanet candidates is submitted to the Kepler Follow-up Program, or KFOP, to conduct follow-up observations. Kepler's field of view covers 115 square degrees, around 0.25 percent of the sky, or "about two scoops of the Big Dipper". Thus, it would require around 400 Kepler-like telescopes to cover the whole sky. The Kepler field contains portions of the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco. The nearest star system in Kepler's field of view is the trinary star system Gliese 1245, 15 light years from the Sun. The brown dwarf WISE J2000+3629, 22.8 ± 1 light years from the Sun is also in the field of view, but is invisible to Kepler due to emitting light primarily in infrared wavelengths. Objectives and methods The scientific objective of the Kepler space telescope was to explore the structure and diversity of planetary systems. This spacecraft observes a large sample of stars to achieve several key goals: To determine how many Earth-size and larger planets there are in or near the habitable zone (often called "Goldilocks planets") of a wide variety of spectral types of stars. To determine the range of size and shape of the orbits of these planets. To estimate how many planets there are in multiple-star systems. To determine the range of orbit size, brightness, size, mass and density of short-period giant planets. To identify additional members of each discovered planetary system using other techniques. Determine the properties of those stars that harbor planetary systems.Most of the exoplanets previously detected by other projects were giant planets, mostly the size of Jupiter and bigger. Kepler was designed to look for planets 30 to 600 times less massive, closer to the order of Earth's mass (Jupiter is 318 times more massive than Earth). The method used, the transit method, involves observing repeated transit of planets in front of their stars, which causes a slight reduction in the star's apparent magnitude, on the order of 0.01% for an Earth-size planet. The degree of this reduction in brightness can be used to deduce the diameter of the planet, and the interval between transits can be used to deduce the planet's orbital period, from which estimates of its orbital semi-major axis (using Kepler's laws) and its temperature (using models of stellar radiation) can be calculated.The probability of a random planetary orbit being along the line-of-sight to a star is the diameter of the star divided by the diameter of the orbit. For an Earth-size planet at 1 AU transiting a Sun-like star the probability is 0.47%, or about 1 in 210. For a planet like Venus orbiting a Sun-like star the probability is slightly higher, at 0.65%; If the host star has multiple planets, the probability of additional detections is higher than the probability of initial detection assuming planets in a given system tend to orbit in similar planes—an assumption consistent with current models of planetary system formation. For instance, if a Kepler-like mission conducted by aliens observed Earth transiting the Sun, there is a 7% chance that it would also see Venus transiting.Kepler's 115 deg2 field of view gives it a much higher probability of detecting Earth-sized planets than the Hubble Space Telescope, which has a field of view of only 10 sq. arc-minutes. Moreover, Kepler is dedicated to detecting planetary transits, while the Hubble Space Telescope is used to address a wide range of scientific questions, and rarely looks continuously at just one starfield. Of the approximately half-million stars in Kepler's field of view, around 150,000 stars were selected for observation. More than 90,000 are G-type stars on, or near, the main sequence. Thus, Kepler was designed to be sensitive to wavelengths of 400–865 nm where brightness of those stars peaks. Most of the stars observed by Kepler have apparent visual magnitude between 14 and 16 but the brightest observed stars have apparent visual magnitude of 8 or lower. Most of the planet candidates were initially not expected to be confirmed due to being too faint for follow-up observations. All the selected stars are observed simultaneously, with the spacecraft measuring variations in their brightness every thirty minutes. This provides a better chance for seeing a transit. The mission was designed to maximize the probability of detecting planets orbiting other stars.Because Kepler must observe at least three transits to confirm that the dimming of a star was caused by a transiting planet, and because larger planets give a signal that is easier to check, scientists expected the first reported results to be larger Jupiter-size planets in tight orbits. The first of these were reported after only a few months of operation. Smaller planets, and planets farther from their sun would take longer, and discovering planets comparable to Earth were expected to take three years or longer.Data collected by Kepler is also being used for studying variable stars of various types and performing asteroseismology, particularly on stars showing solar-like oscillations. Planet finding process Finding planet candidates Once Kepler has collected and sent back the data, raw light curves are constructed. Brightness values are then adjusted to take the brightness variations due to the rotation of the spacecraft into account. The next step is processing (folding) light curves into a more easily observable form and letting software select signals that seem potentially transit-like. At this point, any signal that shows potential transit-like features is called a threshold crossing event. These signals are individually inspected in two inspection rounds, with the first round taking only a few seconds per target. This inspection eliminates erroneously selected non-signals, signals caused by instrumental noise and obvious eclipsing binaries.Threshold crossing events that pass these tests are called Kepler Objects of Interest (KOI), receive a KOI designation and are archived. KOIs are inspected more thoroughly in a process called dispositioning. Those which pass the dispositioning are called Kepler planet candidates. The KOI archive is not static, meaning that a Kepler candidate could end up in the false-positive list upon further inspection. In turn, KOIs that were mistakenly classified as false positives could end up back in the candidates list.Not all the planet candidates go through this process. Circumbinary planets do not show strictly periodic transits, and have to be inspected through other methods. In addition, third-party researchers use different data-processing methods, or even search planet candidates from the unprocessed light curve data. As a consequence, those planets may be missing KOI designation. Confirming planet candidates Once suitable candidates have been found from Kepler data, it is necessary to rule out false positives with follow-up tests. Usually, Kepler candidates are imaged individually with more-advanced ground-based telescopes in order to resolve any background objects which could contaminate the brightness signature of the transit signal. Another method to rule out planet candidates is astrometry for which Kepler can collect good data even though doing so was not a design goal. While Kepler cannot detect planetary-mass objects with this method, it can be used to determine if the transit was caused by a stellar-mass object. Through other detection methods There are a few different exoplanet detection methods which help to rule out false positives by giving further proof that a candidate is a real planet. One of the methods, called doppler spectroscopy, requires follow-up observations from ground-based telescopes. This method works well if the planet is massive or is located around a relatively bright star. While current spectrographs are insufficient for confirming planetary candidates with small masses around relatively dim stars, this method can be used to discover additional massive non-transiting planet candidates around targeted stars. In multiplanetary systems, planets can often be confirmed through transit timing variation by looking at the time between successive transits, which may vary if planets are gravitationally perturbed by each other. This helps to confirm relatively low-mass planets even when the star is relatively distant. Transit timing variations indicate that two or more planets belong to the same planetary system. There are even cases where a non-transiting planet is also discovered in this way.Circumbinary planets show much larger transit timing variations between transits than planets gravitationally disturbed by other planets. Their transit duration times also vary significantly. Transit timing and duration variations for circumbinary planets are caused by the orbital motion of the host stars, rather than by other planets. In addition, if the planet is massive enough, it can cause slight variations of the host stars' orbital periods. Despite being harder to find circumbinary planets due to their non-periodic transits, it is much easier to confirm them, as timing patterns of transits cannot be mimicked by an eclipsing binary or a background star system.In addition to transits, planets orbiting around their stars undergo reflected-light variations—like the Moon, they go through phases from full to new and back again. Because Kepler cannot resolve the planet from the star, it sees only the combined light, and the brightness of the host star seems to change over each orbit in a periodic manner. Although the effect is small—the photometric precision required to see a close-in giant planet is about the same as to detect an Earth-sized planet in transit across a solar-type star—Jupiter-sized planets with an orbital period of a few days or less are detectable by sensitive space telescopes such as Kepler. In the long run, this method may help find more planets than the transit method, because the reflected light variation with orbital phase is largely independent of the planet's orbital inclination, and does not require the planet to pass in front of the disk of the star. In addition, the phase function of a giant planet is also a function of its thermal properties and atmosphere, if any. Therefore, the phase curve may constrain other planetary properties, such as the particle size distribution of the atmospheric particles.Kepler's photometric precision is often high enough to observe a star's brightness changes caused by doppler beaming or a star's shape deformation by a companion. These can sometimes be used to rule out hot Jupiter candidates as false positives caused by a star or a brown dwarf when these effects are too noticeable. However, there are some cases where such effects are detected even by planetary-mass companions such as TrES-2b. Through validation If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes. In 2014, a new confirmation method called "validation by multiplicity" was announced. From the planets previously confirmed through various methods, it was found that planets in most planetary systems orbit in a relatively flat plane, similar to the planets found in the Solar System. This means that if a star has multiple planet candidates, it is very likely a real planetary system. Transit signals still need to meet several criteria which rule out false-positive scenarios. For instance, it has to have considerable signal-to-noise ratio, it has at least three observed transits, orbital stability of those systems have to be stable and transit curve has to have a shape that partly eclipsing binaries could not mimic the transit signal. In addition, its orbital period needs to be 1.6 days or longer to rule out common false positives caused by eclipsing binaries. Validation by multiplicity method is very efficient and allows to confirm hundreds of Kepler candidates in a relatively short amount of time. A new validation method using a tool called PASTIS has been developed. It makes it possible to confirm a planet even when only a single candidate transit event for the host star has been detected. A drawback of this tool is that it requires a relatively high signal-to-noise ratio from Kepler data, so it can mainly confirm only larger planets or planets around quiet and relatively bright stars. Currently, the analysis of Kepler candidates through this method is underway. PASTIS was first successful for validating the planet Kepler-420b. Mission results The Kepler space telescope was in active operation from 2009 through 2013, with the first main results announced on January 4, 2010. As expected, the initial discoveries were all short-period planets. As the mission continued, additional longer-period candidates were found. As of November 2018, Kepler has discovered 5,011 exoplanet candidates and 2,662 confirmed exoplanets. As of August 2022, 2,056 exoplanet candidates remain to be confirmed and 2,711 are now confirmed exoplanets. 2009 NASA held a press conference to discuss early science results of the Kepler mission on August 6, 2009. At this press conference, it was revealed that Kepler had confirmed the existence of the previously known transiting exoplanet HAT-P-7b, and was functioning well enough to discover Earth-size planets.Because Kepler's detection of planets depends on seeing very small changes in brightness, stars that vary in brightness by themselves (variable stars) are not useful in this search. From the first few months of data, Kepler scientists determined that about 7,500 stars from the initial target list are such variable stars. These were dropped from the target list, and replaced by new candidates. On November 4, 2009, the Kepler project publicly released the light curves of the dropped stars. The first new planet candidate observed by Kepler was originally marked as a false positive because of uncertainties in the mass of its parent star. However, it was confirmed ten years later and is now designated Kepler-1658b.The first six weeks of data revealed five previously unknown planets, all very close to their stars. Among the notable results are one of the least dense planets yet found, two low-mass white dwarfs that were initially reported as being members of a new class of stellar objects, and Kepler-16b, a well-characterized planet orbiting a binary star. 2010 On June 15, 2010, the Kepler mission released data on all but 400 of the ~156,000 planetary target stars to the public. 706 targets from this first data set have viable exoplanet candidates, with sizes ranging from as small as Earth to larger than Jupiter. The identity and characteristics of 306 of the 706 targets were given. The released targets included five candidate multi-planet systems, including six extra exoplanet candidates. Only 33.5 days of data were available for most of the candidates. NASA also announced data for another 400 candidates were being withheld to allow members of the Kepler team to perform follow-up observations. The data for these candidates was published February 2, 2011. (See the Kepler results for 2011 below.) The Kepler results, based on the candidates in the list released in 2010, implied that most candidate planets have radii less than half that of Jupiter. The results also imply that small candidate planets with periods less than thirty days are much more common than large candidate planets with periods less than thirty days and that the ground-based discoveries are sampling the large-size tail of the size distribution. This contradicted older theories which had suggested small and Earth-size planets would be relatively infrequent. Based on extrapolations from the Kepler data, an estimate of around 100 million habitable planets in the Milky Way may be realistic. Some media reports of the TED talk have led to the misunderstanding that Kepler had actually found these planets. This was clarified in a letter to the Director of the NASA Ames Research Center, for the Kepler Science Council dated August 2, 2010 states, "Analysis of the current Kepler data does not support the assertion that Kepler has found any Earth-like planets."In 2010, Kepler identified two systems containing objects which are smaller and hotter than their parent stars: KOI 74 and KOI 81. These objects are probably low-mass white dwarfs produced by previous episodes of mass transfer in their systems. 2011 On February 2, 2011, the Kepler team announced the results of analysis of the data taken between 2 May and September 16, 2009. They found 1235 planetary candidates circling 997 host stars. (The numbers that follow assume the candidates are really planets, though the official papers called them only candidates. Independent analysis indicated that at least 90% of them are real planets and not false positives). 68 planets were approximately Earth-size, 288 super-Earth-size, 662 Neptune-size, 165 Jupiter-size, and 19 up to twice the size of Jupiter. In contrast to previous work, roughly 74% of the planets are smaller than Neptune, most likely as a result of previous work finding large planets more easily than smaller ones. That February 2, 2011 release of 1235 exoplanet candidates included 54 that may be in the "habitable zone", including five less than twice the size of Earth. There were previously only two planets thought to be in the "habitable zone", so these new findings represent an enormous expansion of the potential number of "Goldilocks planets" (planets of the right temperature to support liquid water). All of the habitable zone candidates found thus far orbit stars significantly smaller and cooler than the Sun (habitable candidates around Sun-like stars will take several additional years to accumulate the three transits required for detection). Of all the new planet candidates, 68 are 125% of Earth's size or smaller, or smaller than all previously discovered exoplanets. "Earth-size" and "super-Earth-size" is defined as "less than or equal to 2 Earth radii (Re)" [(or, Rp ≤ 2.0 Re) – Table 5]. Six such planet candidates [namely: KOI 326.01 (Rp=0.85), KOI 701.03 (Rp=1.73), KOI 268.01 (Rp=1.75), KOI 1026.01 (Rp=1.77), KOI 854.01 (Rp=1.91), KOI 70.03 (Rp=1.96) – Table 6] are in the "habitable zone." A more recent study found that one of these candidates (KOI 326.01) is in fact much larger and hotter than first reported.The frequency of planet observations was highest for exoplanets two to three times Earth-size, and then declined in inverse proportionality to the area of the planet. The best estimate (as of March 2011), after accounting for observational biases, was: 5.4% of stars host Earth-size candidates, 6.8% host super-Earth-size candidates, 19.3% host Neptune-size candidates, and 2.55% host Jupiter-size or larger candidates. Multi-planet systems are common; 17% of the host stars have multi-candidate systems, and 33.9% of all the planets are in multiple planet systems.By December 5, 2011, the Kepler team announced that they had discovered 2,326 planetary candidates, of which 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Compared to the February 2011 figures, the number of Earth-size and super-Earth-size planets increased by 200% and 140% respectively. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars, marking a decrease from the February figure; this was due to the more stringent criteria in use in the December data.On December 20, 2011, the Kepler team announced the discovery of the first Earth-size exoplanets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.Based on Kepler's findings, astronomer Seth Shostak estimated in 2011 that "within a thousand light-years of Earth", there are "at least 30,000" habitable planets. Also based on the findings, the Kepler team has estimated that there are "at least 50 billion planets in the Milky Way", of which "at least 500 million" are in the habitable zone. In March 2011, astronomers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) reported that about "1.4 to 2.7 percent" of all Sun-like stars are expected to have Earth-size planets "within the habitable zones of their stars". This means there are "two billion" of these "Earth analogs" in the Milky Way alone. The JPL astronomers also noted that there are "50 billion other galaxies", potentially yielding more than one sextillion "Earth analog" planets if all galaxies have similar numbers of planets to the Milky Way. 2012 In January 2012, an international team of astronomers reported that each star in the Milky Way may host "on average...at least 1.6 planets", suggesting that over 160 billion star-bound planets may exist in the Milky Way. Kepler also recorded distant stellar super-flares, some of which are 10,000 times more powerful than the 1859 Carrington event. The superflares may be triggered by close-orbiting Jupiter-sized planets. The Transit Timing Variation (TTV) technique, which was used to discover Kepler-9d, gained popularity for confirming exoplanet discoveries. A planet in a system with four stars was also confirmed, the first time such a system had been discovered.As of 2012, there were a total of 2,321 candidates. Of these, 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars. The Kepler team estimated that 5.4% of all stars host Earth-size planet candidates, and that 17% of all stars have multiple planets. 2013 According to a study by Caltech astronomers published in January 2013, the Milky Way contains at least as many planets as it does stars, resulting in 100–400 billion exoplanets. The study, based on planets orbiting the star Kepler-32, suggests that planetary systems may be common around stars in the Milky Way. The discovery of 461 more candidates was announced on January 7, 2013. The longer Kepler watches, the more planets with long periods it can detect. Since the last Kepler catalog was released in February 2012, the number of candidates discovered in the Kepler data has increased by 20 percent and now totals 2,740 potential planets orbiting 2,036 stars A candidate, newly announced on January 7, 2013, was Kepler-69c (formerly, KOI-172.02), an Earth-size exoplanet orbiting a star similar to the Sun in the habitable zone and possibly habitable.In April 2013, a white dwarf was discovered bending the light of its companion red dwarf in the KOI-256 star system.In April 2013, NASA announced the discovery of three new Earth-size exoplanets—Kepler-62e, Kepler-62f, and Kepler-69c—in the habitable zones of their respective host stars, Kepler-62 and Kepler-69. The new exoplanets are considered prime candidates for possessing liquid water and thus a habitable environment. A more recent analysis has shown that Kepler-69c is likely more analogous to Venus, and thus unlikely to be habitable.On May 15, 2013, NASA announced the space telescope had been crippled by failure of a reaction wheel that keeps it pointed in the right direction. A second wheel had previously failed, and the telescope required three wheels (out of four total) to be operational for the instrument to function properly. Further testing in July and August determined that while Kepler was capable of using its damaged reaction wheels to prevent itself from entering safe mode and of downlinking previously collected science data it was not capable of collecting further science data as previously configured. Scientists working on the Kepler project said there was a backlog of data still to be looked at, and that more discoveries would be made in the following couple of years, despite the setback.Although no new science data from Kepler field had been collected since the problem, an additional sixty-three candidates were announced in July 2013 based on the previously collected observations.In November 2013, the second Kepler science conference was held. The discoveries included the median size of planet candidates getting smaller compared to early 2013, preliminary results of the discovery of a few circumbinary planets and planets in the habitable zone. 2014 On February 13, over 530 additional planet candidates were announced residing around single planet systems. Several of them were nearly Earth-sized and located in the habitable zone. This number was further increased by about 400 in June 2014.On February 26, scientists announced that data from Kepler had confirmed the existence of 715 new exoplanets. A new statistical method of confirmation was used called "verification by multiplicity" which is based on how many planets around multiple stars were found to be real planets. This allowed much quicker confirmation of numerous candidates which are part of multiplanetary systems. 95% of the discovered exoplanets were smaller than Neptune and four, including Kepler-296f, were less than 2 1/2 the size of Earth and were in habitable zones where surface temperatures are suitable for liquid water.In March, a study found that small planets with orbital periods of less than one day are usually accompanied by at least one additional planet with orbital period of 1–50 days. This study also noted that ultra-short period planets are almost always smaller than 2 Earth radii unless it is a misaligned hot Jupiter.On April 17, the Kepler team announced the discovery of Kepler-186f, the first nearly Earth-sized planet located in the habitable zone. This planet orbits around a red dwarf.In May 2014, K2 observations fields 0 to 13 were announced and described in detail. K2 observations began in June 2014. In July 2014, the first discoveries from K2 field data were reported in the form of eclipsing binaries. Discoveries were derived from a Kepler engineering data set which was collected prior to campaign 0 in preparation to the main K2 mission.On September 23, 2014, NASA reported that the K2 mission had completed campaign 1, the first official set of science observations, and that campaign 2 was underway. Campaign 3 lasted from November 14, 2014, to February 6, 2015, and included "16,375 standard long cadence and 55 standard short cadence targets". 2015 In January 2015, the number of confirmed Kepler planets exceeded 1000. At least two (Kepler-438b and Kepler-442b) of the discovered planets announced that month were likely rocky and in the habitable zone. Also in January 2015, NASA reported that five confirmed sub-earth-sized rocky exoplanets, all smaller than the planet Venus, were found orbiting the 11.2 billion year old star Kepler-444, making this star system, at 80% of the age of the universe, the oldest yet discovered. In April 2015, campaign 4 was reported to last between February 7, 2015, and April 24, 2015, and to include observations of nearly 16,000 target stars and two notable open star clusters, Pleiades and Hyades. In May 2015, Kepler observed a newly discovered supernova, KSN 2011b (Type 1a), before, during and after explosion. Details of the pre-nova moments may help scientists better understand dark energy. On July 24, 2015, NASA announced the discovery of Kepler-452b, a confirmed exoplanet that is near-Earth in size and found orbiting the habitable zone of a Sun-like star. The seventh Kepler planet candidate catalog was released, containing 4,696 candidates, and increase of 521 candidates since the previous catalog release in January 2015. On September 14, 2015, astronomers reported unusual light fluctuations of KIC 8462852, an F-type main-sequence star in the constellation Cygnus, as detected by Kepler, while searching for exoplanets. Various hypotheses have been presented, including comets, asteroids, and an alien civilization. 2016 By May 10, 2016, the Kepler mission had verified 1,284 new planets. Based on their size, about 550 could be rocky planets. Nine of these orbit in their stars' habitable zone: Kepler-560b, Kepler-705b, Kepler-1229b, Kepler-1410b, Kepler-1455b, Kepler-1544 b, Kepler-1593b, Kepler-1606b, and Kepler-1638b. Mission status Kepler was launched in 2009. It was very successful at finding exoplanets, but failures in two of four reaction wheels crippled its extended mission in 2013. Without three functioning wheels, the telescope could not be pointed accurately. On October 30, 2018, NASA announced that the spacecraft was out of fuel and its mission was officially ended. Extension In April 2012, an independent panel of senior NASA scientists recommended that the Kepler mission be continued through 2016. According to the senior review, Kepler observations needed to continue until at least 2015 to achieve all the stated scientific goals. On November 14, 2012, NASA announced the completion of Kepler's primary mission, and the beginning of its extended mission, which ended in 2018 when it ran out of fuel. Reaction wheel issues In July 2012, one of Kepler's four reaction wheels (wheel 2) failed. On May 11, 2013, a second wheel (wheel 4) failed, jeopardizing the continuation of the mission, as three wheels are necessary for its planet hunting. Kepler had not collected science data since May because it was not able to point with sufficient accuracy. On July 18 and 22 reaction wheels 4 and 2 were tested respectively; wheel 4 only rotated counter-clockwise but wheel 2 ran in both directions, albeit with significantly elevated friction levels. A further test of wheel 4 on July 25 managed to achieve bi-directional rotation. Both wheels, however, exhibited too much friction to be useful. On August 2, NASA put out a call for proposals to use the remaining capabilities of Kepler for other scientific missions. Starting on August 8, a full systems evaluation was conducted. It was determined that wheel 2 could not provide sufficient precision for scientific missions and the spacecraft was returned to a "rest" state to conserve fuel. Wheel 4 was previously ruled out because it exhibited higher friction levels than wheel 2 in previous tests. Sending astronauts to fix Kepler is not an option because it orbits the Sun and is millions of kilometers from Earth.On August 15, 2013, NASA announced that Kepler would not continue searching for planets using the transit method after attempts to resolve issues with two of the four reaction wheels failed. An engineering report was ordered to assess the spacecraft's capabilities, its two good reaction wheels and its thrusters. Concurrently, a scientific study was conducted to determine whether enough knowledge can be obtained from Kepler's limited scope to justify its $18 million per year cost. Possible ideas included searching for asteroids and comets, looking for evidence of supernovas, and finding huge exoplanets through gravitational microlensing. Another proposal was to modify the software on Kepler to compensate for the disabled reaction wheels. Instead of the stars being fixed and stable in Kepler's field of view, they will drift. However, proposed software was to track this drift and more or less completely recover the mission goals despite being unable to hold the stars in a fixed view.Previously collected data continues to be analyzed. Second Light (K2) In November 2013, a new mission plan named K2 "Second Light" was presented for consideration. K2 would involve using Kepler's remaining capability, photometric precision of about 300 parts per million, compared with about 20 parts per million earlier, to collect data for the study of "supernova explosions, star formation and Solar-System bodies such as asteroids and comets, ... " and for finding and studying more exoplanets. In this proposed mission plan, Kepler would search a much larger area in the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Celestial objects, including exoplanets, stars and others, detected by the K2 mission would be associated with the EPIC acronym, standing for Ecliptic Plane Input Catalog. In early 2014, the spacecraft underwent successful testing for the K2 mission. From March to May 2014, data from a new field called Field 0 was collected as a testing run. On May 16, 2014, NASA announced the approval of extending the Kepler mission to the K2 mission. Kepler's photometric precision for the K2 mission was estimated to be 50 ppm on a magnitude 12 star for a 6.5-hour integration. In February 2014, photometric precision for the K2 mission using two-wheel, fine-point precision operations was measured as 44 ppm on magnitude 12 stars for a 6.5-hour integration. The analysis of these measurements by NASA suggests the K2 photometric precision approaches that of the Kepler archive of three-wheel, fine-point precision data.On May 29, 2014, campaign fields 0 to 13 were reported and described in detail. Field 1 of the K2 mission is set towards the Leo-Virgo region of the sky, while Field 2 is towards the "head" area of Scorpius and includes two globular clusters, Messier 4 and Messier 80, and part of the Scorpius–Centaurus association, which is only about 11 million years old and 120–140 parsecs (380–470 ly) distant with probably over 1,000 members.On December 18, 2014, NASA announced that the K2 mission had detected its first confirmed exoplanet, a super-Earth named HIP 116454 b. Its signature was found in a set of engineering data meant to prepare the spacecraft for the full K2 mission. Radial velocity follow-up observations were needed as only a single transit of the planet was detected.During a scheduled contact on April 7, 2016, Kepler was found to be operating in emergency mode, the lowest operational and most fuel intensive mode. Mission operations declared a spacecraft emergency, which afforded them priority access to NASA's Deep Space Network. By the evening of April 8 the spacecraft had been upgraded to safe mode, and on April 10 it was placed into point-rest state, a stable mode which provides normal communication and the lowest fuel burn. At that time, the cause of the emergency was unknown, but it was not believed that Kepler's reaction wheels or a planned maneuver to support K2's Campaign 9 were responsible. Operators downloaded and analyzed engineering data from the spacecraft, with the prioritization of returning to normal science operations. Kepler was returned to science mode on April 22. The emergency caused the first half of Campaign 9 to be shortened by two weeks.In June 2016, NASA announced a K2 mission extension of three additional years, beyond the expected exhaustion of on-board fuel in 2018. In August 2018, NASA roused the spacecraft from sleep mode, applied a modified configuration to deal with thruster problems that degraded pointing performance, and began collecting scientific data for the 19th observation campaign, finding that the onboard fuel was not yet utterly exhausted. Data releases The Kepler team originally promised to release data within one year of observations. However, this plan was changed after launch, with data being scheduled for release up to three years after its collection. This resulted in considerable criticism, leading the Kepler science team to release the third quarter of their data one year and nine months after collection. The data through September 2010 (quarters 4, 5, and 6) was made public in January 2012. Follow-ups by others Periodically, the Kepler team releases a list of candidates (Kepler Objects of Interest, or KOIs) to the public. Using this information, a team of astronomers collected radial velocity data using the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph to confirm the existence of the candidate KOI-428b in 2010, later named Kepler-40b. In 2011, the same team confirmed candidate KOI-423b, later named Kepler-39b. Citizen scientist participation Since December 2010, Kepler mission data has been used for the Planet Hunters project, which allows volunteers to look for transit events in the light curves of Kepler images to identify planets that computer algorithms might miss. By June 2011, users had found sixty-nine potential candidates that were previously unrecognized by the Kepler mission team. The team has plans to publicly credit amateurs who spot such planets. In January 2012, the BBC program Stargazing Live aired a public appeal for volunteers to analyse Planethunters.org data for potential new exoplanets. This led two amateur astronomers—one in Peterborough, England—to discover a new Neptune-sized exoplanet, to be named Threapleton Holmes B. One hundred thousand other volunteers were also engaged in the search by late January, analyzing over one million Kepler images by early 2012. One such exoplanet, PH1b (or Kepler-64b from its Kepler designation), was discovered in 2012. A second exoplanet, PH2b (Kepler-86b) was discovered in 2013. In April 2017, ABC Stargazing Live, a variation of BBC Stargazing Live, launched the Zooniverse project "Exoplanet Explorers". While Planethunters.org worked with archived data, Exoplanet Explorers used recently downlinked data from the K2 mission. On the first day of the project, 184 transit candidates were identified that passed simple tests. On the second day, the research team identified a star system, later named K2-138, with a Sun-like star and four super-Earths in a tight orbit. In the end, volunteers helped to identify 90 exoplanet candidates. The citizen scientists that helped discover the new star system will be added as co-authors in the research paper when published. Confirmed exoplanets Exoplanets discovered using Kepler's data, but confirmed by outside researchers, include Kepler-39b, Kepler-40b, Kepler-41b, Kepler-43b, Kepler-44b, Kepler-45b, as well as the planets orbiting Kepler-223 and Kepler-42. The "KOI" acronym indicates that the star is a Kepler Object of Interest. Kepler Input Catalog The Kepler Input Catalog is a publicly searchable database of roughly 13.2 million targets used for the Kepler Spectral Classification Program and the Kepler mission. The catalog alone is not used for finding Kepler targets, because only a portion of the listed stars (about one-third of the catalog) can be observed by the spacecraft. Solar System observations Kepler has been assigned an observatory code (C55) in order to report its astrometric observations of small Solar System bodies to the Minor Planet Center. In 2013 the alternative NEOKepler mission was proposed, a search for near-Earth objects, in particular potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs). Its unique orbit and larger field of view than existing survey telescopes allow it to look for objects inside Earth's orbit. It was predicted a 12-month survey could make a significant contribution to the hunt for PHAs as well as potentially locating targets for NASA's Asteroid Redirect Mission. Kepler's first discovery in the Solar System, however, was (506121) 2016 BP81, a 200-kilometer cold classical Kuiper belt object located beyond the orbit of Neptune. Retirement On October 30, 2018, NASA announced that the Kepler space telescope, having run out of fuel, and after nine years of service and the discovery of over 2,600 exoplanets, has been officially retired, and will maintain its current, safe orbit, away from Earth. The spacecraft was deactivated with a "goodnight" command sent from the mission's control center at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics on November 15, 2018. Kepler's retirement coincides with the 388th anniversary of Johannes Kepler's death in 1630. See also Other space-based exoplanet search projects Other ground-based exoplanet search projects Notes References External links Official website by NASA's Ames Research Center Kepler website by NASA Kepler Science Center by NASA's Ames Research Center Kepler public data archive by the Space Telescope Science Institute Kepler – Tally of Exoplanets (NYT; October 30, 2018) Strömgren survey for Asteroseismology and Galactic Archaeology Video (1:00): Kepler Orrey V (Oct 30, 2018) on YouTubeExoplanet catalogs and databases NASA Exoplanet Archive Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia by the Paris Observatory The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog by UPR Arecibo New Worlds Atlas by the NASA/JPL PlanetQuest

George David Birkhoff

George David Birkhoff (March 21, 1884 – November 12, 1944) was an American mathematician best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation, and during his time he was considered by many to be the preeminent American mathematician.The George D. Birkhoff House, his residence in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been designated a National Historic Landmark.

George David Birkhoff (March 21, 1884 – November 12, 1944) was an American mathematician best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation, and during his time he was considered by many to be the preeminent American mathematician.The George D. Birkhoff House, his residence in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. Early life He was born in Overisel Township, Michigan, the son of two Dutch immigrants, David Birkhoff, who arrived in the United States in 1870, and Jane Gertrude Droppers. Birkhoff's father worked as a physician in Chicago while he was a child. From 1896 to 1902, he would attend the Lewis Institute as a teenager. Career Birkhoff was part of a generation of American mathematicians who were the first to study entirely within the United States and not participate in academics within Europe. Following his time at the Lewis Institute, Birkhoff would spend a year at the University of Chicago. He then obtained his A.B. and A.M. from Harvard University, would return to the University of Chicago in 1905 and at the age of twenty-three graduated summa cum laude with his Ph.D. in 1907, on differential equations. While E. H. Moore was his supervisor, he was most influenced by the writings of Henri Poincaré. After teaching at the University of Wisconsin–Madison from 1907 to 1909 and at Princeton University from 1909 to 1912, he taught at Harvard from 1912 until his death. Being the only American familiar with the three main mathematical institutions within the United States – Chicago, Harvard and Princeton – he was held in high professional regard. Service During his membership in the American Mathematical Society, Birkhoff served multiple positions in the organization. In 1919, he served as vice president of the society. He was editor of Transactions of the American Mathematical Society from 1920 to 1924. From 1925 to 1926, he was President of the American Mathematical Society. During his tenure as president of the society, Birkhoff sought to create a lectureship program to travel the United States to promote mathematics. In 1926, he travelled Europe to serve as an unofficial representative if the Rockefeller Foundation's International Education Board. During his time in Europe, Birkhoff attempted to create links between American and French institutions, especially due to his affection for Paris.In 1937, he served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a rare occurrence for mathematicians and was proof of his respect amongst the scientific community. Work In 1912, attempting to solve the four color problem, Birkhoff introduced the chromatic polynomial. Even though this line of attack did not prove fruitful, the polynomial itself became an important object of study in algebraic graph theory. In 1913, he proved Poincaré's "Last Geometric Theorem," a special case of the three-body problem, a result that made him world-famous and improved the international recognition of American mathematics.Birkhoff was also a contributor to developing general relativity.He wrote on the foundations of relativity and quantum mechanics, publishing (with R. E. Langer) the monograph Relativity and Modern Physics in 1923. In 1923, Birkhoff also proved that the Schwarzschild geometry is the unique spherically symmetric solution of the Einstein field equations. A consequence is that black holes are not merely a mathematical curiosity, but could result from any spherical star having sufficient mass. In 1927, he published his Dynamical Systems. His theorem would be used to develop the Oppenheimer–Snyder model. Birkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the ergodic theorem. Combining insights from physics on the ergodic hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of statistical mechanics. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics, probability theory, group theory, and functional analysis. He also worked on number theory, the Riemann–Hilbert problem, and the four colour problem. He proposed an axiomatization of Euclidean geometry different from Hilbert's (see Birkhoff's axioms); this work culminated in his text Basic Geometry (1941). His 1933 Aesthetic Measure proposed a mathematical theory of aesthetics. While writing this book, he spent a year studying the art, music and poetry of various cultures around the world. His 1938 Electricity as a Fluid combined his ideas on philosophy and science. His 1943 theory of gravitation is also puzzling since Birkhoff knew (but didn't seem to mind) that his theory allows as sources only matter which is a perfect fluid in which the speed of sound must equal the speed of light. Influence on selection process Birkhoff believed that fellowships from foreign nations would improve the mathematic standards in the United States, though he wanted to raise the standards for fellowships, believing that the qualifications in less-developed countries were different and that access should be limited. He also was adamant that foreign fellows be able to meet language requirements.Albert Einstein and Norbert Wiener, among others, accused Birkhoff of advocating anti-Semitic selection processes. During the 1930s, when many Jewish mathematicians fled Europe and tried to obtain positions in the United States, Birkhoff is alleged to have influenced the selection process at American institutions to exclude Jews. Saunders Mac Lane, who was at Harvard at the time, would call Einstein's allegations "worthless" as he was not familiar with American processes and that the two had competing ideas regarding general relativity while also rebutting the reports of anti-Semitism against Wiener, writing "Birkhoff clearly listened to Norbert's ideas. There could be many reasons why Birkhoff did not take steps to appoint him". Mac Lane also stated that Birkhoff's efforts were motivated less by animus towards Jews than by a desire to find jobs for home-grown American mathematicians.Birkhoff was also close to Jewish mathematician Stanislaw Ulam. Gian-Carlo Rota writes: "Like other persons rumored to be anti-Semitic, he would occasionally feel the urge to shower his protective instincts on some good-looking young Jew. Ulam's sparkling manners were diametrically opposite to Birkhoff's hard-working, aggressive, touchy personality. Birkhoff tried to keep Ulam at Harvard, but his colleagues balked at the idea."Summarizing Birkhoff's selection process, fellow mathematician Oswald Veblen would write: While Birkhoff was subject to as many prejudices as most of us, he kept always what most of us lose as we grow older, the power to see people and events simply and naively rather than with reference to current opinion. Recognition In 1923, he was awarded the inaugural Bôcher Memorial Prize by the American Mathematical Society for his paper in 1917 containing, among other things, what is now called the Birkhoff curve shortening process.He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Académie des Sciences in Paris, the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and the London and Edinburgh Mathematical Societies. The George David Birkhoff Prize in applied mathematics is awarded jointly by the American Mathematical Society and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics in his honor. Personal life Birkhoff would marry Margaret Elizabeth Graftus in 1908 and would remain married with her. The two had three children, Barbara, mathematician Garrett Birkhoff (1911–1996) and Rodney. Selected publications Birkhoff, George David (1912). "A determinant formula for the number of ways of coloring a map". Ann. Math. 14 (1/4): 42–46. doi:10.2307/1967597. JSTOR 1967597. Birkhoff, George David (1913). "Proof of Poincaré's geometric theorem". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 14: 14–22. doi:10.1090/s0002-9947-1913-1500933-9. Birkhoff, George David (1917). "Dynamical Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 18 (2): 199–300. doi:10.1090/s0002-9947-1917-1501070-3. PMC 1091243. PMID 16586726. Birkhoff, George David and Ralph Beatley. 1959. Basic Geometry, 3rd ed. Chelsea Publishing Co. [Reprint: American Mathematical Society, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8218-2101-5] See also Birkhoff factorization Birkhoff–Grothendieck theorem Birkhoff's theorem Birkhoff's axioms Birkhoff interpolation Birkhoff–Kellogg invariant-direction theorem Poincaré–Birkhoff theorem Equidistribution theorem Chromatic polynomial Recurrent point Topological dynamics Notes References Aubin, David, 2005, "Dynamical systems" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 871–81. Mac Lane, Saunders (1994). "Jobs in the 1930s and the views of George D. Birkhoff". Math. Intelligencer. 16 (3): 9–10. doi:10.1007/bf03024350. S2CID 189887142. Kip Thorne, 19nn. Black Holes and Time Warps. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31276-3. Vandiver, H. S. (1963). "Some of my recollections of George David Birkhoff". J. Math. Anal. Appl. 7 (2): 271–83. doi:10.1016/0022-247x(63)90052-0. Norbert Wiener, 1956. I am a Mathematician. MIT Press. Especially pp. 27–28. George D. Birkhoff, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1943 August; 29(8): 231–239, "Matter, Electricity and Gravitation in Flat Space-Time". Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard (2001). Rockefeller and the Internationalization of Mathematics Between the Two Worlds Wars: Documents and Studies for the Social History of Mathematics in the 20th Century. Progress in Mathematics. Vol. 25. Springer. ISBN 9783764364687. Further reading Morse, Marston (1970–1980). "Birkhoff, George David". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 143–146. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9. External links Media related to George David Birkhoff at Wikimedia Commons O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "George David Birkhoff", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews George David Birkhoff at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Birkhoff's biography − from National Academies Press, by Oswald Veblen. National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir

Casinycteris

Casinycteris (Short-palated bat) is a genus of bats described in 1910. It currently consists of three species: Short-palated fruit bat (Casinycteris argynnis) Campo-Ma’an fruit bat (Casinycteris campomaanensis) Pohle's fruit bat (Casinycteris ophiodon)Previously, the genus Casinycteris was thought to be monotypic, with only the short-palated fruit bat as a member. In 2014 however, a new species (C. campomaanensis) was described and added to the genus. In the same paper, they recommended that the Pohle's fruit bat move from Scotonycteris to Casinycteris.Casinycteris species can be identified by the greenish skin on their snouts and eyelids and yellowish finger joints.Casinycteris is often compared to Scotonycteris in appearance, but certain features in living Casinycteris bats such as their upturned rostrum and larger ears distinguish the genera. The genera also differ internally, with Casinycteris bats possessing a very shortened palate and a different dental structure.

Casinycteris (Short-palated bat) is a genus of bats described in 1910. It currently consists of three species: Short-palated fruit bat (Casinycteris argynnis) Campo-Ma’an fruit bat (Casinycteris campomaanensis) Pohle's fruit bat (Casinycteris ophiodon)Previously, the genus Casinycteris was thought to be monotypic, with only the short-palated fruit bat as a member. In 2014 however, a new species (C. campomaanensis) was described and added to the genus. In the same paper, they recommended that the Pohle's fruit bat move from Scotonycteris to Casinycteris.Casinycteris species can be identified by the greenish skin on their snouts and eyelids and yellowish finger joints.Casinycteris is often compared to Scotonycteris in appearance, but certain features in living Casinycteris bats such as their upturned rostrum and larger ears distinguish the genera. The genera also differ internally, with Casinycteris bats possessing a very shortened palate and a different dental structure. The similarities between the genera are attributed to their similar habitat, and differences are attributed to a dissimilar diet or feeding mechanism. == References ==

Hampton Park, Ottawa

Hampton Park (French: Parc Hampton) is a park and neighbourhood in Kitchissippi Ward, in the west end of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is directly north of the Queensway at Island Park Drive. The park is maintained by the National Capital Commission.

Hampton Park (French: Parc Hampton) is a park and neighbourhood in Kitchissippi Ward, in the west end of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is directly north of the Queensway at Island Park Drive. The park is maintained by the National Capital Commission. Neighbourhood The neighbourhood, referred to as Hampton Iona by its community association is sometimes considered a sub-neighbourhood of the Westboro area. The neighbourhood is bounded on the west by Tweedsmuir Avenue, on the east by Island Park Drive on the north by Richmond Road and the south by Carling Avenue. The population of the neighbourhood was 3,198 according to the Canada 2016 Census.The area was first developed in 1910 by J.C. Brennan who shares his name with Brennan Avenue which is a residential street in the area. Originally, the neighbourhood was named Laurentian View. Many streets near Hampton Park are named for upper-class neighbourhoods of London, including Kensington, Piccadilly and Mayfair. The name Hampton Park might itself be named after the neighbourhood of Hampton in London. History Hampton Park has a fairly long history in the context of parks in the city of Ottawa. Baseball games were played in the park at least far back as 1916. An Ottawa Citizen article from the time indicates that the park was the location of a Trolley Line Baseball League game between Britannia and Ottawa West.The park itself has existed in Ottawa's west end for almost 100 years. The area was purchased by the Federal District Commission (now the National Capital Commission) in 1927. The park is several blocks in length and has a flat grassy area with benches as well as a wooded area with paths which is mainly used by people walking their dogs. Current Use Hampton Park is owned by the National Capital Commission and maintained by the City of Ottawa (under contract by the NCC). Maintenance includes but is not limited to garbage removal, mowing, tree planting, invasive species removal, upkeep of recreational facilities, and bylaw enforcement. The Woods of Hampton Park contains a great variety of tree and plant species; some trees have been estimated to be more than 250 years old. The woods are classified as Urban Natural Area 122 and are designated an Environmental Protected Zone (EPZ) to recognize the ecological services they provide. In Hampton Park, these services specifically include storm water and temperature control, and habitat for local and migratory wildlife. Walking dogs off leash, cycling, or building structures (forts, ramps, etc.) is prohibited in an EPZ. The area of the park just north of the Queensway contains a basketball court, two baseball diamonds, a seasonal outdoor swimming pool, a playground, swings, and changing room facilities. Dogs are only allowed off leash in the fenced in dog run parallel to the Queensway. In all other areas of the park, dogs must be kept on leash. There is also another park in the neighbourhood called Iona Park. Queensway expansion and Hampton Park Hampton Park is notable for being the construction site for the Island Park bridge replacement project that occurred during the summer of 2007. In recent years there has been mounting pressure from the Ontario provincial government to expand the Queensway and make it more efficient. This led to a proposal by the National Capital Commission to build a new off ramp on the west side of Island Park drive. The proposed off ramp would have cut through part of the wooded area north of the Queensway, and would have linked Island Park Drive with Merivale Road via a roundabout. After months of pressure from the Island Park community the plan was eventually scrapped. == References ==

List of airports in Tunisia

This is a list of airports in Tunisia, sorted by location.

This is a list of airports in Tunisia, sorted by location. List ICAO location identifiers link to airport page at Office de l'Aviation Civile et des Aeroports (OACA), the Tunisian Civil Aviation & Airports Authority. Airport names shown in bold indicate the airport has scheduled service on commercial airlines. See also Transport in Tunisia Tunisian Air Force List of airports by ICAO code: D#DT - Tunisia Wikipedia:WikiProject Aviation/Airline destination lists: Africa#Tunisia References Office de l'Aviation Civile et des Aeroports (OACA) at Tunisian Ministry of Transport "ICAO Location Indicators by State" (PDF). International Civil Aviation Organization. 2006-01-12. "UN Location Codes: Tunisia (includes IATA codes)". UN/LOCODE 2006-2. UNECE. 2007-04-30.

Moel y Ffridd

Moel y Ffridd (also known as Foel y Ffridd) is a mountain in Wales. It lies north-west of the village of Aberangell and west of Mallwyd and is one of the Dyfi Hills. == References ==

Moel y Ffridd (also known as Foel y Ffridd) is a mountain in Wales. It lies north-west of the village of Aberangell and west of Mallwyd and is one of the Dyfi Hills. == References ==

List of airports in Kerala

Kerala state has four operational international airports as of 2023 and is, along with Tamil Nadu, an Indian state with four international airports. Kerala is also the only state with the closest proximity to multiple international/domestic airports in the country. All four international airports lie in very close proximity, which makes it easy for the people in Kerala to access air travel. The state also has four defence airports that are widely used by the Indian Armed Forces. Airports in Kerala provide domestic transport, support tourism in Kerala and also serve the high number of expatriates belonging to the state.

Kerala state has four operational international airports as of 2023 and is, along with Tamil Nadu, an Indian state with four international airports. Kerala is also the only state with the closest proximity to multiple international/domestic airports in the country. All four international airports lie in very close proximity, which makes it easy for the people in Kerala to access air travel. The state also has four defence airports that are widely used by the Indian Armed Forces. Airports in Kerala provide domestic transport, support tourism in Kerala and also serve the high number of expatriates belonging to the state. The presently operating airports in the state of Kerala are as follows: Trivandrum International Airport in Shankumugham in state capital of Thiruvananthapuram district Cochin International Airport in Nedumbassery in Ernakulam district Calicut International Airport in Karipur in Malappuram district Kannur International Airport in Mattanur in Kannur district Sabarimala Greenfield Airport in Cheruvally in Kottayam and Pathanamthitta (Planning and Pre-construction stage)The first airport was started in Quilon during the 1920s but ceased operation when an accident involving a training aircraft at the boundary of the aerodrome resulted in the death of the pilot and the trainee. There are two defence airports also situated in Kerala, each being operated by the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. == References ==

John Fugelsang

John Joseph Fugelsang (born September 3, 1969) is an American actor, comedian, writer, television host, political commentator and television personality.

John Joseph Fugelsang (born September 3, 1969) is an American actor, comedian, writer, television host, political commentator and television personality. Early life and education Fugelsang was born on Long Island, New York. Of Danish, German, and Irish descent, he is the son of a former Carmelite nun and a former Franciscan friar.At New York University, Fugelsang attended the Tisch School of the Arts and graduated with a degree in Film and Television. Fugelsang also studied Theatre at the Circle in the Square Theatre. Career Stage and screen Fugelsang has appeared in diverse projects as an actor, ranging from CSI and Providence to Coyote Ugly. As a comedian, he has performed at the US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen and the Just for Laughs Festival in Montréal and made over 20 appearances on Politically Incorrect. In 2007, he premiered the acclaimed solo show All The Wrong Reasons Off Broadway at New York Theatre Workshop. The show received a Drama League nomination for "Distinguished Performance". New York Magazine said "Fugelsang has the soul of an iconoclast" and The New York Daily News said the piece "packed an unexpectedly lovely and life affirming wallop."Subsequent runs included Los Angeles, Seattle, New York City's Barrow Street Theatre, Albuquerque, and closing the South Beach Comedy Festival in Miami. Additional film, television, and stage credits include Becker, Somewhere in the City, The Michael Richards Show, Beyond Belief, Chicken Soup for the Soul, Hamlet, Blue Window, and Savage in Limbo. Fugelsang also appeared in the 2015 documentary film Dream On. Host and presenter Fugelsang has hosted George Harrison: The Last Performance and Paul McCartney's Live Town Hall on VH1. He was also on America's Funniest Home Videos (co-hosting with Daisy Fuentes) for two seasons (1998–99), co-hosted John McEnroe's short-lived CNBC talk show in 2004, and was a regular on CNBC's Bullseye and Fox News's Red Eye. He was the co-host of the World Series of Blackjack on GSN alongside Bringing Down the House author Ben Mezrich. He also co-hosted, along with Debra Wilson and Teresa Strasser, TV Watercooler on TV Guide Channel (2005–09). In 2012, John Fugelsang hosted a series of videos on the YouTube channel "POLIPOP". From January 2013 until August 2013, Fugelsang was the host of the Current TV political talk show Viewpoint. The show ended with the end of all live programming on Current. Political commentator In addition to his appearances on the late-night political talk show Politically Incorrect (1993–2002), Fugelsang has been a contributor to HuffPost weblog. He is a regular commentator and guest on nationally syndicated progressive radio program The Stephanie Miller Show, and has served as guest host on occasion. His usual guest spot on the show is called "Fridays with Fugelsang." He also tours alongside Miller and comedian/musician Hal Sparks as part of the Sexy Liberal Comedy Show. For 2017, the tour is now called "Sexy Liberal Resistance Tour" along with Frangela (Frances Callier and Angela Shelton). The first show for the new tour was at the Barrymore, April 22, 2017, Madison, WI. He's been featured on CNN, Fox News, Dennis Miller, The Young Turks, Air America, CNBC, and MSNBC. He served as the host on the Current TV political talk show, So That Happened. Additionally, he has contributed to Current TV's coverage of the 2012 presidential campaign. In an appearance on CNN in 2012, a question of his prompted the Romney campaign's Etch-a-sketch gaffe. On January 6, 2013, he replaced Eliot Spitzer as host of Viewpoint on Current TV; however, Current TV was bought by Al Jazeera America later in 2013. Since January 12, 2015, Fugelsang has been hosting Tell Me Everything, a talk show on Sirius XM Insight. Personal life He lives with his wife, designer Charmien La Framenta, and their son, Henry Jack, in Hollywood and New York City's Greenwich Village. Fugelsang debated atheist Jamie Kilstein, noting his views as being founded upon what Jesus preached. He is politically liberal. Filmography References External links Official website John Fugelsang at IMDb Videos on YouTube Biography at William Morris Agency

Polo Grounds

The Polo Grounds was the name of three stadiums in Upper Manhattan, New York City, used mainly for professional baseball and American football from 1880 through 1963. The original Polo Grounds, opened in 1876 and demolished in 1889, was built for the sport of polo. Bound on the south and north by 110th and 112th streets and on the east and west by Fifth and Sixth (Lenox) avenues, just north of Central Park, it was converted to a baseball stadium when leased by the New York Metropolitans in 1880. The third Polo Grounds, built in 1890, was renovated after a fire in 1911 and became Polo Grounds IV, the one generally indicated when the Polo Grounds is referenced. It was located in Coogan's Hollow and was noted for its distinctive bathtub shape, with very short distances to the left and right field walls and an unusually deep center field.

The Polo Grounds was the name of three stadiums in Upper Manhattan, New York City, used mainly for professional baseball and American football from 1880 through 1963. The original Polo Grounds, opened in 1876 and demolished in 1889, was built for the sport of polo. Bound on the south and north by 110th and 112th streets and on the east and west by Fifth and Sixth (Lenox) avenues, just north of Central Park, it was converted to a baseball stadium when leased by the New York Metropolitans in 1880. The third Polo Grounds, built in 1890, was renovated after a fire in 1911 and became Polo Grounds IV, the one generally indicated when the Polo Grounds is referenced. It was located in Coogan's Hollow and was noted for its distinctive bathtub shape, with very short distances to the left and right field walls and an unusually deep center field. In baseball, the original Polo Grounds was home to the New York Metropolitans from 1880 through 1885, and the New York Giants from 1883 through 1888. The Giants played in the second Polo Grounds for part of the 1889 season and all of the 1890 season, and at the third and fourth Polo Grounds from 1891 through 1957. The Polo Grounds was also the home field of the New York Yankees from 1913 through 1922 and the expansion New York Mets in their first two seasons (1962, 1963). Each of the four versions of the ballpark held at least one World Series. The fourth version also hosted the 1934 and 1942 All-Star Games. In American football, the third Polo Grounds was home to the New York Brickley Giants for one game in 1921 and the New York Giants from 1925 through 1955. The New York Titans/Jets of the American Football League played at the stadium from the league's inaugural season of 1960 through 1963. Other sporting events held at the Polo Grounds included soccer, boxing, and Gaelic football. Its final sporting event was a pro football game between the Jets and Buffalo Bills on December 14, 1963. Shea Stadium opened in 1964 and replaced the Polo Grounds as the home of the Mets and Jets. The Polo Grounds was demolished over a period of four months that year and a public housing complex, known as the Polo Grounds Towers, was built on the site. Polo Grounds I The original Polo Grounds stood at 110th Street between Fifth Avenue and Sixth Avenue, directly across 110th Street from the northeast corner of Central Park. The venue's original purpose was for the sport of polo, and its name was initially merely descriptive, not a formal name, often rendered as "the polo grounds" in newspapers. The Metropolitans, an independent team of roughly major-league caliber, was the first professional baseball team to play there, beginning in September 1880, and remained the sole professional occupant through the 1882 season. At that time the Metropolitans' ownership had the opportunity to bring it into the National League, but elected instead to organize a new team, the New York Gothams — who soon came to be known as the Giants — mainly using players from the Metropolitans and the newly defunct Troy Trojans, and entered it in the National League, while bringing what remained of the Metropolitan club into the competing American Association. For this purpose the ownership built a second diamond and grandstand at the park, dividing it into eastern and western fields for use by the Giants and Metropolitans respectively. Polo Grounds I thus hosted its first Major League Baseball games in 1883 as the home stadium of two teams, the American Association Metropolitans and the National League Gothams. The dual-fields arrangement proved unworkable because of faulty surfacing of the western field, and after various other arrangements were tried, the Metropolitans and Giants alternated play on the eastern field in later years until the Metropolitans moved to the St. George Cricket Grounds on Staten Island in 1886. Although the Giants would soon become the team of choice in the city, the "Mets" had a good year in 1884. They had started the season in a new facility called Metropolitan Park, which proved to be such a poor venue that they moved back to the Polo Grounds within a few weeks. Despite that bit of drama, the Mets went on to win the American Association pennant. Their good fortune ran out when they faced the Providence Grays in the World Series, in which Providence pitcher Old Hoss Radbourn pitched three consecutive shutouts against them. All three games had been staged at the Polo Grounds. An early highlight of Giants' play at the Polo Grounds was Roger Connor's home run over the right-field wall and into 112th Street; Connor eventually held the record for career home runs that Babe Ruth would break July 8, 1921. The original Polo Grounds was used not only for Polo and professional baseball, but often for college baseball and football as well – even by teams outside New York. The earliest known surviving image of the field is an engraving of a baseball game between Yale University and Princeton University on Decoration Day, May 30, 1882. Yale and Harvard also played their traditional Thanksgiving Day football game there on November 29, 1883 and November 24, 1887. (See Football below) Demolition and forced relocation New York City was in the process of extending its street grid into uptown Manhattan in 1889. Plans for an extended West 111th Street ran through the Polo Grounds. City workers are said to have shown up suddenly one day and begun cutting through the fence to lay out the new street. With the Giants having won the National League pennant the year before, as well as the World Series there was significant sentiment in the city against the move; a bill was even passed by the state legislature giving the Giants a variance which would allow the park to stand. Governor David B. Hill, who had campaigned for office on a "home rule" pledge, vetoed it on the grounds that whatever he might think of the forced destruction of the park, the will of the city government was to be respected. The loss of their park forced the Giants to look quickly for alternative grounds. Polo Grounds II The Giants opened the 1889 season at Oakland Park in Jersey City, New Jersey, playing their first two games there. Four days later, they moved to the St. George Cricket Grounds (where the Metropolitans had continued to play until their demise following the 1887 season).After closing out a homestand at the St. George Grounds on June 14, the Giants went on the road. Upon their return on July 8 they had relocated again, to a "New Polo Grounds" site within Manhattan at the far terminus of the then Ninth Avenue Elevated at 155th Street and 8th Avenue (now Frederick Douglass Boulevard). Newspaper accounts indicate that the seats from the original Polo Grounds were moved to the new Polo Grounds stands. Despite their vagabond existence during the first half of the 1889 season, the Giants began their stay at the new ballpark just 4 games behind the league-leading Boston club. They rallied to win the pennant for the second consecutive year, as well as that year's World Series against Brooklyn. The new site was overlooked to the north and west by a steep promontory known as Coogan's Bluff. Because of its elevation, fans frequently watched games from the Bluff without buying tickets. The ballpark itself was in bottomland known as Coogan's Hollow. The grandstand had a conventional curve around the infield, but the shape of the property made the center field area actually closer than left center or right center. This was not much of an issue in the "dead ball era" of baseball. The land remained in the Coogan estate, and the Giants were renters for their entire time at Polo Grounds II, III and IV. The Brooklyn Dodgers played a pair of home series at this ballpark in late July and early August 1890. After the National League version of the New York Giants moved into Polo Grounds III in 1891, Polo Grounds II was sub-leased to the Manhattan Athletic Club and was referred to ever after as Manhattan Field. It was converted for other sports such as football and track-and-field. The New York Giants leased Manhattan Field to the Columbia University football team for $14,000 in 1899 and $15,000 in 1900.The superstructure of Manhattan Field was demolished in 1911 following the fire that destroyed Polo Grounds III, but the site still existed as a field for 20 more years. Babe Ruth's first home run as a Yankee, on May 1, 1920, was characterized by The New York Times reporter as a "sockdolager" (i.e. a decisive blow), and was described as traveling "over the right field grand stand into Manhattan Field". Bill Jenkinson's modern research indicates the ball traveled about 500 feet (150 m) in total, after clearing the Polo Grounds double decked right field stand. Manhattan Field continued to be an occasional site for amateur sports reported in local newspapers as late as spring of 1942. In June 1948, the Giants again leased the Manhattan Field property, and had it paved over to serve as a parking lot for the Polo Grounds. Polo Grounds III and IV Polo Grounds III Polo Grounds III was the stadium that made the name nationally famous. Built in 1890, it initially had a completely open outfield bounded by just the outer fence, but bleachers were gradually added. By the early 1900s, some bleacher sections encroached on the field from the foul lines about halfway along left and right field. Additionally, there was a pair of "cigar box" bleachers on either side of the "batter's eye" in center field. The expansive outfield was cut down somewhat by a rope fence behind which carriages (and early automobiles) were allowed to park. By 1910, bleachers enclosed the outfield, and the carriage ropes were gone. The hodge-podge approach to the bleacher construction formed a multi-faceted outfield area. There were a couple of gaps between some of the sections, and that would prove significant in 1911. Known as Brotherhood Park when it opened in 1890, Polo Grounds III was the home of a second New York Giants franchise in the Players' League. The latter was a creation of Major League Baseball's first union, the Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players. After failing to win concessions from National League owners, the Brotherhood founded its own league in 1890. The Players' League Giants built Brotherhood Park in the northern half of Coogan's Hollow, next door to Polo Grounds II, otherwise bounded by rail yards and the bluff. Brotherhood Park hosted its first game on April 19, 1890, the same day the National League's Giants played their first home game of the season. For the full 1890 season the two editions of the Giants were neighbors. When the teams played on the same day, fans in the upper decks could watch each other's games, and home run balls hit in one park might land on the other team's playing field. After the one season the Players' League folded, and the Brotherhood's members went back to the National League. The National League Giants then moved out of Polo Grounds II and into Brotherhood Park, which was larger. They took their stadium's name with them once again, turning Brotherhood Park into the new-new Polo Grounds. Between Polo Grounds II and III-IV, they would remain in Coogan's Hollow for 69 seasons. Fire and reconstruction as Polo Grounds IV In the very early morning hours of Friday, April 14, 1911, a fire of uncertain origin swept through the stadium's horseshoe-shaped grandstand, consuming wood and leaving only steel uprights in place. The gaps between some sections of the stands saved a good portion of the outfield seating and the clubhouse from destruction. Giants owner John T. Brush decided to rebuild the Polo Grounds with concrete and steel, renting Hilltop Park from the Highlanders during reconstruction. Progress was sufficient to allow the stadium to reopen just 2½ months later, June 28, 1911, the date some baseball guides date the structure. As configured, it was the ninth concrete-and-steel stadium in the Majors and fourth in the National League. Unfinished seating areas were rebuilt during the season while the games went on. The new structure stretched in roughly the same semicircle from the left field corner around home plate to the right field corner as prior but was extended into deep right-center field. The surviving wooden bleachers were retained basically as is, with gaps remaining on each side between the new fireproof construction. The Giants rose from the ashes along with their ballpark, winning the National League pennant in 1911 (as they also would in 1912 and 1913). As evidenced from the World Series programs, the team renamed the new structure Brush Stadium in honor of their then-owner John T. Brush, but the name did not stick, and by the late 1910s it was passé. The remaining old bleachers were demolished during the 1923 season when the permanent double-deck was extended around most of the rest of the field and new bleachers and clubhouse were constructed across center field. This construction gave the stadium its familiar horseshoe or bathtub style shape, as well as a new nickname, "The Bathtub". This version of the ballpark had its share of quirks. The "unofficial" distances (never marked on the wall) down the left and right field lines were 279 and 258 feet (85 and 79 m) respectively, but there was a 21-foot (6.4 m) overhang in left field, which often intercepted fly balls which would otherwise have been catchable and turned them into home runs. Contrasting with the short distances down the lines were the 450 distances in deepest left and right center (the gaps), with the base of the straightaway centerfield clubhouse standing 483 feet distant from home plate, up a 58-foot runway from the grandstand corners on either side of the clubhouse, which were themselves 425 feet (130 m) from home plate. The famous photo of The catch made by Willie Mays in the 1954 World Series against Vic Wertz of the Cleveland Indians occurred immediately in front of the "batter's eye", a metal screen atop the grandstand wall directly to the right of the centerfield runway. It would have been a home run in several other ballparks of the time as well as in most of today's modern ballparks. The bullpens were actually in play, in the left and right center field gaps. The outfield sloped downward from the infield, and people in the dugouts often could only see the top half of the outfielders. The New York Yankees sublet the Polo Grounds from the Giants during 1913–1922 after their lease on Hilltop Park expired. After the 1922 season, the Yankees built Yankee Stadium directly across the Harlem River from the Polo Grounds, which spurred the Giants to expand their park to reach a comparable seating capacity to stay competitive. However, since nearly all the new seating was in the outfield, Yankee Stadium still had more desirable seats than did the Polo Grounds for watching baseball. However, the Polo Grounds became better suited for football due to the new seating placement. The Giants' first night game at the stadium was played on May 24, 1940. The Polo Grounds was the site of one of the most iconic moments in baseball history – the historic "Shot Heard 'Round the World" walk-off home run on October 3, 1951 that decided the hard-fought National League pennant playoff series between the Giants and their cross-town rivals, the Brooklyn Dodgers. Deaths at the Polo Grounds On August 16, 1920, Cleveland Indians shortstop Ray Chapman was hit in the head by a pitch thrown by the Yankees' Carl Mays. At the time, batters did not wear helmets. Chapman died 12 hours after he was hit, at 4:30 a.m. on August 17. He remains the only player to die from an injury sustained in a Major League Baseball game.On July 4, 1950, Bernard Doyle, a resident of Fairview, New Jersey, in his 50s, originally from Dublin, Ireland, was struck and killed by a stray bullet while in his seat at the Polo Grounds. Doyle had brought a neighbor's son with him to see a doubleheader between the Dodgers and the Giants. Doyle was killed about an hour prior to the start of the first game. A 14-year-old boy later confessed to having shot a .45 caliber pistol into the air from his rooftop at 515 Edgecombe Avenue, located 1,120 feet (340 m) from where Doyle was seated. Giants' final years The Polo Grounds' end was somewhat anticlimactic, especially compared to other "Jewel Box" parks. Part of the problem was that the stadium was not well maintained from the late 1940s onward: while the baseball Giants owned the stadium, the Coogan heirs still owned the parcel of land on which it stood, while the neighborhood around the stadium had begun to go to seed in the late 1940s. These, along with other factors, combined to restrict ticket sales, even when the Giants played well. In 1954, for example, the baseball Giants only drew 1.1 million fans (compared to over two million for the Milwaukee Braves) despite winning the World Series. The football Giants left for Yankee Stadium across the Harlem River following the 1955 NFL season, and the baseball Giants' disastrous 1956 season – most of which they spent in last place before a late-season surge moved them up to sixth – caused a further decline on ticket sales. The Giants' 1956 attendance was less than half of that for the Giants' World Series-winning 1954 season, and also ranked last in Major League Baseball. Along with the departure of the football Giants and the consequental loss of their rent, this collapse of the baseball Giants' gate financially devastated franchise owner Horace Stoneham, who was not nearly as wealthy as his fellow owners – the Giants were his sole source of income. To make matters worse, Stoneham was left with no money for stadium upkeep, and he was forced to lay off the stadium's maintenance staff in order to stay afloat. The stadium also had very little parking; its final form had opened two years after the Model T was introduced. Due to the manner in which the stadium was designed, fans had to actually pour onto the field to exit via the center field gates, making for a problematic situation whenever attendance was anywhere near capacity. Frustrated with the Polo Grounds being obsolete and dilapidated, and with no maintenance staff or prospect of the stadium being renovated, Stoneham seriously considered having the Giants become tenants of the Yankees in the Bronx, or moving to a proposed stadium that would have been owned by the city.After both of those plans fizzled, the Giants announced on August 19, 1957 that after 74 years of professional baseball in New York, they would relocate to San Francisco, California at the end of the season, following their long-time rivals Dodgers to the West Coast. The Giants had won five World Series titles in the Polo Grounds. The final years of the Polo Grounds The ballpark then sat largely vacant for nearly three years, until the newly formed Titans of New York (present-day New York Jets) began play in 1960, followed by the newly formed Mets in 1962, using the Polo Grounds as an interim home while Shea Stadium was being built. As a 1962 baseball magazine noted, "The Mets will have to play in the Polo Grounds, hardly the last word in 20th Century stadia." In 1961, the city of New York decided to claim the land under eminent domain, for the purpose of condemning the stadium and building a high-rise housing project on the site. The Coogan family, which still owned the property, fought this effort until it was finally settled in the city's favor in 1967.On September 18, 1963, 1,752 fans went to see the New York Mets play their last game at the Polo Grounds against the Philadelphia Phillies with a 5–1 Philadelphia win. The game's highlights were later shown on Universal's Universal International Newsreel. On October 12, the Polo Grounds played host to one last exhibition contest, as Latin American All-Stars of the National League, managed by Roberto Clemente and behind the pitching of Juan Marichal and Al McBean, defeated Hector Lopez's AL Stars, 5–2.The final sporting event played at the Polo Grounds was on December 14, 1963 when the now renamed AFL team New York Jets lost to the Buffalo Bills 19–10. In the 1992 book The Gospel According to Casey, by Ira Berkow and Jim Kaplan, it is reported (p. 62) that in 1963, Mets manager Casey Stengel, who had bittersweet memories of his playing days at the Polo Grounds, had this to say during a rough outing to pitcher Tracy Stallard, whose greatest claim to fame had been giving up Roger Maris' 61st homer in 1961: "At the end of this season, they're gonna tear this joint down. The way you're pitchin', the right field section will be gone already!" Demolition The final iteration of the Polo Grounds was demolished in 1964, beginning on April 10 with a wrecking ball bomb painted to look like a baseball, the same one that had been used four years earlier on Ebbets Field. The wrecking crew wore Giants jerseys and tipped their hard hats to the historic stadium as they began dismantling it, with a crew of 60 workers taking 4½ months to level the stadium. Stephen McNair, a Dodger fan, grabbed a sledge hammer as easily as Johnny Mize picked up a bat, marked off the left field fence beneath Section 33, and vowed, “I'm going to take that place down myself.” It was the fence over which Bobby Thompson hit the home run that kept the Dodgers out of the World Series in 1951 and put the Giants in. The foreman on the job, Abe Gach, shouted, “No, you don't. Be gentle over there. History was made there.” The Indians' bus passed the site in the midst of demolition while Cleveland was playing the Yankees: Dick Donovan, eyeing the rubble, remarked, "Boy, they must have had a helluva game there last night."The site is now home to the Polo Grounds Towers, a public housing project opened in 1968, and managed by the New York City Housing Authority. Sports other than baseball Football The various incarnations of the Polo Grounds were well-suited for football, and hundreds of football games were played there over the years. The first professional football game played in New York City was played at the Polo Grounds on December 4, 1920. The game featured the Buffalo All-Americans against the Canton Bulldogs in the first year of the American Professional Football Association. The Buffalo All-Americans won the game, 7–3. Some argue that the Buffalo All-Americans are tied with the Akron Pros for the first championship of the American Professional Football Association, which soon came to be known as the National Football League. In 1921 the NFL's New York Brickley Giants played the final game of their 1921 season against the Cleveland Indians at the Polo Grounds. The game ended in a 17–0 Giants loss. Shortly afterwards, the team folded. The Brickley Giants were originally formed with the intent of competing in 1919, and having all of their home games held at the Polo Grounds. However, after the team's first practice, the 1919 schedule, that began with an opening day game against the Massillon Tigers, was scratched because of conflict with New York's blue laws. In 1919, the city allowed professional baseball on Sunday and the Giants thought the law would also apply to football. However, it was ruled that professional football was still outlawed on Sundays, so the team disbanded until 1921. Other than the name, there is no relation between the Brickley Giants and the modern New York Giants franchise.Both the New York Giants of the National Football League and the New York Jets (then known as the New York Titans) of the American Football League used the Polo Grounds as their home field before moving on to other sites. The Giants moved initially to Yankee Stadium in 1956 while the Jets, founded in 1960, followed the New York Mets to Shea Stadium in 1964. The football Giants hosted the 1934, 1938, 1944, and 1946 NFL Championship Games at the Polo Grounds, while the 1936 NFL Championship Game, originally scheduled for Fenway Park, was moved to the Polo Grounds by mutual agreement of Boston Redskins franchise owner George Preston Marshall, the Green Bay Packers, and the NFL due to low ticket sales in Boston; the Redskins would relocate to Washington in 1937. College Football Columbia University and Yale University, two of American football's oldest teams, played football in the original 110th Street Polo Grounds in the 19th century, for some games which were expected to draw large crowds, including the Thanksgiving contests in 1883 and 1887. (See also List of Harvard-Yale football games). The grounds were also used for many games by New York-area college football teams such as Fordham and Army. An upset victory by the visiting University of Notre Dame over Army in 1924 led to Grantland Rice's famous article about the Irish backfield, which he called "The Four Horsemen". The field was also the site of several Army–Navy Games in the 1910s and 1920s. Soccer The Polo Grounds held its fair share of international soccer matches as well over the years. In 1926, Hakoah, an all-Jewish side from Vienna, Austria, "drew the largest crowds ever to watch soccer in America up to that time: three successive games drew 25,000, 30,000, and 36,000 spectators. The highlight of the tour was a May 1, 1926 exhibition game between Hakoah and an American Soccer League all-New York team which drew 46,000 fans to the Polo Grounds in New York." (The ASL team won 3–0.) The first soccer played at the Polo Grounds was as far back as 1894 when the owners of the various major baseball clubs thought it would be a great way to fill their stadiums in the off-season. Six famous baseball franchises of the era formed Association Football sections and fans were told that many would be fielding their baseball stars on the football field in the opening season. The New York Giants soccer team took the field in all-white uniforms with black socks and played six games before the threat of a rival baseball league being formed diverted the owner's attention away from their new venture and caused it to be suspended mid-season. The Giants lay third in the league after six games with two victories, having played their matches in midweek in front of attendances in the high hundreds paying 25 cents a game. Although the owners remained positive about the venture and wanted to run it again the following season this never happened and the Giants' soccer team was no more.On May 19, 1935, the Scotland national team toured the United States, and in their first game played against an ASL All-Star squad which was unofficially representing the United States. Scotland won 5–1 in front of 25,000 people at the Polo Grounds. In 1939, the Scots returned to America for another tour, and played at the Polo Grounds twice. In their first game at the Polo Grounds on May 21, 1939, Scotland tied the Eastern USA All-Stars 1–1 in front of 25,072 fans. In their second game at the Polo Grounds on June 18, 1939, Scotland beat the American League Stars 4–2. Following World War II, on September 26, 1948, the USA beat Israel 3–1 in their first ever game since independence before 25,000 fans at the Polo Grounds. On June 9, 1950, a crowd of 21,000 fans came to the Polo Grounds to watch an 'International Dream Double Header'. Beşiktaş J.K. of Turkey defeated the American Soccer League All-Stars 3–1, and then Manchester United defeated Jönköping (the top amateur team in Sweden) 4–0. On May 17, 1960, Birmingham City of England played Third Lanark of Scotland and lost 4–1 at the Polo Grounds in New York City. On August 6 of the same year, 25,440 patrons showed up at the Polo Grounds to watch the inaugural International Soccer League Final which saw Bangu of Brazil edge out Kilmarnock FC of Scotland 2–0. Bangu's six games on Polo Ground had a total attendance of 104,274. The following year, 1961, may have been the last year documented that soccer was played at the Polo Grounds. The second edition of the International Soccer League held most of its game at the Polo Grounds, with a few games held in Montreal. On July 16, 1961 Shamrock Rovers beat Red Star Belgrade 5–1, on August 9, Dukla Prague beat Everton 7–0, and four days later on August 13, Dukla Prague beat Everton again 2–0, thus winning the Dwight D. Eisenhower Trophy. The combined attendance for both games at the Polo Grounds was 31,627. In domestic league soccer, the Polo Grounds was the home to the New York Nationals of the American Soccer League in 1928. Gaelic football On September 14, 1947, the Polo Grounds hosted the final of the All-Ireland Senior Gaelic Football championship between Cavan and Kerry. It was decided that New York would host this match as a commemoration of the 1847 Irish famine which forced a large number of Irish people to emigrate to North America. This novel location for the game was chosen for the benefit of New York's large Irish immigrant population. It was the only time that the final has been played outside Ireland. Cavan emerged victorious in the game itself, fondly remembered for RTE commentator Michael O'Hehir's successful pleas to his station for the broadcast to be extended as the game had run late.The last Gaelic game at the Polo Grounds was on June 1, 1958 when Cavan played New York. Boxing The Polo Grounds was the site of many famous boxing matches. These included the legendary 1923 heavyweight championship bout between Jack Dempsey and Luis Ángel Firpo, Harry Greb's defense of the middleweight championship title against reigning World Welterweight Champion Mickey Walker in July 1925, and Billy Conn's near-upset over heavyweight champion Joe Louis in June 1941. It was also the venue for the rematch between World Heavyweight Champion Ingemar Johansson and former champion Floyd Patterson on June 20, 1960. In what turned out to be the last major boxing match at the Polo Grounds, Patterson became the first heavyweight boxer to regain the championship over the Swedish-born Johansson, who almost one year to the day took the crown from Patterson at Yankee Stadium. Motorsports The Polo Grounds were the site of three different oval tracks. The first track, a ¼ mile dirt oval, was used for midget racing in 1940 and 1941. The second, a 1/5 mile board track, was used briefly in 1948. The final track, a ¼ mile paved oval, was used for stock car racing in 1958 and 1959, after the Giants moved to San Francisco. Open-air concert A performance of Verdi's Requiem took place at the Polo Grounds on June 4, 1916, presented by the National Open Air Festival Society. It was given by a chorus of 1,200 singers (chorus master, Arnaldo Conti), selected from among the leading choral societies of New York; and an augmented New York Philharmonic Orchestra of 120 players. The soloists were Maria Gay, Louise Homer (under the assumed name of 'Lucile Lawrence'), Giovanni Zenatello (Gay's partner) and Leon Rothier, and the performance was conducted by Louis Koemmenich. Features for baseball Center field One of the oddest features at the Polo Grounds were the deep dimensions in straight away center field. The wall was so far away from home plate, at 483 feet (147 m), that few players ever hit home runs over it. Before its 1923 reconstruction, only Babe Ruth ever reached the centerfield stands; after 1923 only five players would reach the distant centerfield bleachers. The entire 60-foot (18 m) wall in dead center field was considered in play, as were the clubhouse windows on the in-play side of the wall. The ground rules of the Polo Grounds were set up so that if a ball went through an open window in the clubhouse, it was a ground rule double, rather than a home run. Since no ball ever reached that area in the life of the stadium, that rule was never tested. In Game 1 of the 1954 World Series, Giants outfielder Willie Mays made a sensational catch of a fly ball hit by the Cleveland Indians' Vic Wertz into deep center field, a catch which, in the words of NBC television sports announcer Jack Brickhouse, "must have looked like an optical illusion to a lot of people", and which turned the tide of that Series in the Giants' favor. On October 2, 1936, in Game 2 of the 1936 World Series, Yankees centerfielder Joe DiMaggio made a similar, though far less crucial, catch (his team being ahead 18–4) for the final out of the game. The Giants' Hank Leiber hit a long fly ball to deep center field that DiMaggio caught in the runway, perhaps 430–440 from the plate, and his momentum carried him partway up the clubhouse steps. He then stopped and turned around, as the crowd stood and acknowledged the departure of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was in attendance that day.Babe Ruth hit many of his early signature blasts at the Polo Grounds, reaching the center field seats on several occasions. His longest blast at the grounds, over the right-center upper deck in 1921, was estimated at over 550 feet. He also hit several centerfield home runs at other ballparks which exceeded 500 feet. Had Ruth played regularly in the remodeled Polo Grounds, theoretically he would have been capable of hitting the clubhouse if conditions were right. Neither he nor anyone else ever did, but a few came close. After the 1923 remodeling, only five players ever hit a home run into the center field stands: Schoolboy Rowe, while taking batting practice before a pre-season exhibition game on April 8, 1933. Luke Easter in a Negro leagues game on July 18, 1948. Joe Adcock on April 29, 1953. Hank Aaron and Lou Brock on consecutive days (June 17 and 18) in 1962. Right field The deep center field was complemented by the short right-field fence. Its foul pole was 258 feet (79 m) from home, one of the shortest ever used in the major leagues. Since the early 20th century, home runs that just cleared a field's shortest fence had been known as "Chinese home runs", from a stereotype of Chinese immigrant workers as doing the bare minimum required for the low wages they received for menial labor. Within baseball, by the 1940s those home runs were largely associated with the short right-field fence at the Polo Grounds. The 511 career homers hit by Giants outfielder Mel Ott, whose physique and batting technique were not those associated with power hitting, have often been downplayed because a significant number were hit to right at home, a criticism he often responded to by asking why few other hitters in the league were making that hit if it were so easy.Bobby Thomson's "Shot Heard 'Round the World" that won the 1951 National League pennant for the Giants was hit over the left field fence. But arguably the best-remembered home run hit to the right side was the walk-off three-run shot by Dusty Rhodes, batting for Monte Irvin in the 10th inning of Game 1 of the 1954 Series, after Mays' catch had kept the Giants tied. It just barely cleared the fence, above the outstretched glove of the leaping outfielder Dave Pope, leading Al López, manager of the heavily favored Indians, to attribute the Giants' stunning victory in the Series opener to the ballpark's unusual dimensions. Bullpens Both the home and visitors' bullpens resided on the outfield warning track, situated, respectively, in the right-center and left-center power alleys, each roughly 450 feet from home plate. Anyone seated on the bench was offered some measure of protection from the elements by what has been variously described as an awning, a canopy, or simply the top of the bullpen, as Pittsburgh sportswriter Les Biederman put it when, two years after the ballpark's demolition, he reminded readers that this had been the landing spot for Roberto Clemente's first major league home run. John T. Brush Stairway The only part of the Polo Grounds that still remains is the "John T. Brush Stairway", which runs down Coogan's Bluff from Edgecombe Avenue to Harlem River Driveway at about 158th Street. The stairway, named for John T. Brush—the then-recently deceased owner of the Giants—opened in 1913 and led to a ticket booth overlooking the stadium. The stairway reportedly offered a clear view of the stadium for fans who did not purchase tickets to a game. A marker on the stairway reads: "The John T. Brush Stairway Presented By The New York Giants."Donations from the New York Giants, Jets, Yankees, Mets, San Francisco Giants, and Major League Baseball enabled a $950,000 restoration project that began in 2011. The restoration was scheduled to be completed in September 2012, but after numerous delays, the restored steps opened finally in early August 2014. Polo Grounds light poles The light poles from the Polo Grounds remain in use at Phoenix Municipal Stadium, Arizona State University's baseball field in Phoenix, Arizona, built in 1964. When the stadium was built, Horace Stoneham, owner of the San Francisco Giants, had the original Polo Grounds light poles shipped there. The Giants held spring training at the stadium's predecessor since 1947 and played at the new ballpark during spring training in 1964. The poles were installed in the stadium where they currently remain standing. Timeline and teams Polo Grounds I Gothams/Giants (National League), 1883–1888 Metropolitans (American Association), 1880–1885 Polo Grounds II (otherwise known as Manhattan Field) Giants (NL), 1889–1890 Polo Grounds III (originally called Brotherhood Park, also known as Brush Stadium from 1911 to 1919) Giants (Players' League), 1890 Giants (NL), 1891–1911 Giants (NL), 1911–1957 Yankees (American League), 1913–1922 Giants (NFL), 1925–1955 Bulldogs (NFL) 1949 Titans/Jets (AFL), 1960–1963 Mets (NL), 1962–1963 Statistics Dimensions Compiled from various photos, baseball annuals, The Official Encyclopedia of Baseball (Turkin & Thompson, 1951) and Green Cathedrals by Phil Lowry. The disparities in some of the posted distances, notably straightaway center, have not been fully reconciled by researchers. The closest object in straight center field was the Grant Memorial, followed by the post supporting the overhang of the clubhouse (above which the 483 or 475 signs were posted), and a roll-up door several feet behind the overhang at ground level. The roof of the protruding part of the clubhouse sloped back and met the vertical wall of the larger part of the clubhouse. The exact objects referred to by the numbers 475, 483, and 505 can be speculated but remain unconfirmed. Seating capacity See also Polo Grounds Shuttle, an elevated railway shuttle to the grounds Bushman Steps, a set of stairs descending to the grounds References Sources Benson, Michael. Ballparks of North America. Bergin, Thomas G. The Game: The Harvard-Yale Football Rivalry. Yale Press, 1984. Harper's Young People. "A Game of Base-Ball at the Polo Grounds, New York City, on Decoration Day — Yale vs. Princeton". Vol. III (1882), p. 524. Lowry, Philip J. Green Cathedrals. Thornley, Stew. Land of the Giants: New York's Polo Grounds. Ziegel, Vic (text), New York Daily News (photos), Guglberger, Claus (ed.) Summer in the City. pp. 8,71,126,184 provide good documentation of the distance-markers on the walls Further reading Bracker, Milton (N.Y. Times News Service). "Mixed Feelings Attend Exit of Giants at Polo Grounds". Chattanooga Daily Times. September 30, 1957. p. 12 External links Polo Grounds dynamic diagram at Clem's Baseball Project Ballpark, Polo Grounds I Project Ballpark, Polo Grounds II (covers second and third Polo Grounds) Sanborn map, Manhattan Field and part of Polo Grounds, 1893 Sanborn map, part of Polo Grounds, 1893

David Neiman

David Neiman (1921 – February 22, 2004) was a renowned scholar in the fields of Biblical Studies, Jewish history, and the long and often complicated relationship between the Catholic Church and the Jews.

David Neiman (1921 – February 22, 2004) was a renowned scholar in the fields of Biblical Studies, Jewish history, and the long and often complicated relationship between the Catholic Church and the Jews. Early life and education Born in Russia in 1921, he escaped from the Soviet Union to the United States with his family in 1923. Raised in Brooklyn, New York in a traditional, observant Jewish family, Neiman studied in a Yeshiva elementary school, attended public high school and enrolled in City College of New York in 1938 In 1942, he returned to Yeshivah to study Talmud and Rabbinic literature and received Rabbinical ordination in 1945. Following his ordination, he entered the Oriental institute of the University of Chicago, at the time the world's leading institution of Near Eastern studies. In 1950 he received his MA after writing a research thesis on the Letters of Lachish—a set of ancient Hebrew inscriptions, which were discovered in Israel in 1936. He continued his studies at Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning in Philadelphia. He received his PhD in 1955 having completed a work on domestic relations in antiquity. Professional career Neiman started to teach at the New School for Social Research in New York in 1955. His continued involvement in the Jewish community led him to found the Academy for Higher Jewish Learning in New York in 1956, which is now known as the Academy for Jewish Religion. In 1963, Neiman was invited and accepted the professorship of Biblical Studies at Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts. While at Brandeis, he organized a special meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. Impressed, a group of Catholic priests approached him and asked him if he would be interested in a position at a Catholic Seminary. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed professor of Jewish Theology at Boston College. His appointment was the first for a Jewish professor of Theology at any Catholic university. While at Boston College, he organized the Institute of Biblical Archeology and conducted ten archaeological expeditions to Israel. In 1971, he was invited to teach a course at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, Italy, one of the Pope's universities and the world's leading Jesuit institute. He taught a course on the Jewish Background to the New Testament to a class of post-graduate priests and nuns. In 1973–74, he took his family to Israel for his sabbatical year. During this period Neiman entered the world of the ultra-orthodox Jews of Jerusalem where he studied Talmud, and began to learn the art of Hebrew calligraphy, a talent he continued to practice for years. He also taught at the World Union of Jewish Students, and at the Tantur Ecumenical Institute in Jerusalem. Over the years, Neiman led congregations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts. He was sought after to speak on a variety of topics related to Jewish History and Biblical Studies. He led tours of Spain, focusing on the history of the Jews in Spain, and led many biblical archaeological tours of Israel. After retirement from Boston College, he moved to Los Angeles, California where he taught courses at Loyola Marymount University and St. John's Seminary for Catholic Priests in Camarillo. From 1999, until shortly before his death on February 22, 2004, he taught courses relating to Jewish History at the University of Judaism (now the American Jewish University) in Los Angeles. He also led several private bible study groups and lectures at various institutions around the greater Los Angeles area. Neiman's library was donated to the Valley Beth Shalom Synagogue in Encino, California and St. John's Seminary in Camarillo, California. Written works Neiman was the author of The Book of Job, Domestic Relations in Antiquity, and the unpublished Mink Shmink – The Influence of Yiddish on the American Language, part of a comprehensive study of the history of the Jewish languages. He also wrote an article for the Encyclopedia Judaica, as well as contributing to many university journal publications. References External links Dr. David Neiman's website

Old Post Office (Pullman, Washington)

The Old Post Office is a historic building in Pullman, Washington listed on the National Register of Historic Places as U.S. Post Office-Pullman. The building served as Pullman's post office until 1975, when a new post office was constructed. The Old Post Office subsequently hosted various businesses, including a movie theater, a bakery, and a gun store. In 2002, a new owner began restoration of the building, leading to its NRHP listing in 2003. In 2005, the Old Post Office was home to a wine shop, a wine bar, a winery, and a café.

The Old Post Office is a historic building in Pullman, Washington listed on the National Register of Historic Places as U.S. Post Office-Pullman. The building served as Pullman's post office until 1975, when a new post office was constructed. The Old Post Office subsequently hosted various businesses, including a movie theater, a bakery, and a gun store. In 2002, a new owner began restoration of the building, leading to its NRHP listing in 2003. In 2005, the Old Post Office was home to a wine shop, a wine bar, a winery, and a café. As of 2010, the building is the home of Paradise Creek Brewery, a microbrewery and brewpub. References External links Media related to U.S. Post Office (Pullman, Washington) at Wikimedia Commons

Nybrogade 26

Nybrogade 26 is a property overlooking Slotsholmen Canal in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It consists of a seven-bays-wide, four-storey residential building towards the canal and a former brewery building from the beginning of the 19th century at Magstræde 13 on the other side of the block. The entire complex was listed in the Danish registry of protected buildings and places in 1918. Notable former residents include the army officer and engineer Ernst Peymann (1737-1823). theologian Peter Rørdam (1806-1883) and mathematician and politician Adolph Steen (1816-1886).

Nybrogade 26 is a property overlooking Slotsholmen Canal in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It consists of a seven-bays-wide, four-storey residential building towards the canal and a former brewery building from the beginning of the 19th century at Magstræde 13 on the other side of the block. The entire complex was listed in the Danish registry of protected buildings and places in 1918. Notable former residents include the army officer and engineer Ernst Peymann (1737-1823). theologian Peter Rørdam (1806-1883) and mathematician and politician Adolph Steen (1816-1886). History Early history The site was formerly made up of three separate properties. The property towards the canal was listed in Copenhagen's first cadastre of 1689 as No. 23 in Snaren's Quarter and belonged to skipper Peder Madsen at that time. The two other properties were listed as No. 31 and No. 32 and belonged to Bent Gutersen (No. 31) and distiller Hans Andersen (No. 32).The three properties were later merged into a single property. Brewer Jens Møller operated a brewery on his property. It was listed in the new cadastre of 1756 as No. 25 in Snaren's Quarter and belonged to his widow at that time. A two-storey building was constructed towards the canal in around 1745. H. C. Lange and his brewery Brewer Henrik Christian Langge(1756-1814) purchased the property in the mid-1780s. He also served as a treasurer for the Danish Asiatic Company. He lived there with his wife Elisabeth Clausen, a brewer, a brewery boy, a caretaker, a coachman two maids and one lodger at the time of the 1787 census. The lodger Hans Ebbesen worked as a senior clerk for the Danish Asiatic Company. Lange heightened the building with one storey in around 1790. Lange's first son, Michael Lange (1788-1851, who would later become Lord President (Overpræsident) of Copenhagen, was born in 1788. He was later followed by three younger siblings: Charlotte Friederica Christiane (1793-), Friederich Wilhelm Emil (1795-) and Christian Marius (1800-). Ernst Peymann (1737-1823), an officer in the engineering troops, was a resident of the building from 1784 to 1794. Lange's property was home to 21 residents in three households at the time of the 1801 census. The owner resided in one of the apartments with his wife, their four children, his wife's brother Marcus Clausen (ship doctor), a brewer, a caretaker, two maids and a wet nurse. Christian Thomassen Norup, who managed the brewery, resided in another apartment with his wife Marie Alling, two of their children (aged 32 and 33) and one maid. Iver Sørensen, a former stableman, resided in the building with his wife Kirstine Buch, their nine-year-old daughter Ane Cathrine [Sørensen] and the wife's brother Niels Christian Buch (tailor).The property was listed in the new cadastre of 1806 as No. 21. The building was hit by a cannonball and caught fire during the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807. Andreas Krogh and his brewery The property was around the time of the bombardment acquired by brewer Andreas Krogh (1781-1858). The building was hit by a cannonball during the bombardment (or the next one in 1807). The cannonball was subsequently embedded in the wall above the basement entrance as a memorial to the event. The present building in Magstræde was constructed for Krogh as a new brewery building in 1808–1809. The buildings in Nybrogade and Magstgræde were both heightened for Krogh in 1827. The theologian Peter Rørdam (1806-1883) was among the residents of the building in 1833. Krogh's property was home to a total of 45 residents at the time of the 1840 census. Krogh resided on the ground floor to the left with his wife Inger Marie Brick, their 24-year-old son Andreas Lauritz Kragh, a housekeeper (husjomfru), a maid and seven brewery workers. Ludvig Ferdinand Veyle, a musician in the Royal Danish Orchestra, resided on the ground floor to the right with his wife Dorthea Hendriette Corfitsenm their three children (aged three to seven) and one maid. Henriette Pauline Stage, widow of mate in the Danish Asiatic Company Georg Gottlob Stage (1766–1826), resided on the first floor with four unmarried children (aged 30 to 39), one maid and one lodger. One of the sons, Carl Frederik Gottlob Stage (1805-1892), a ship captain, would later become a ship-owner and founder of the Georg Stage Foundation, Justus Alexander von Stricker (1778-1941), a colonel and director of the fire corps of the old Copenhagen County, resided on the second floor with his wife Maria Amalia Henricca (née Stintzing), their five children (aged 14 to 29), one maid and the lodger Johann Petersen Klodsstrou (soldier in the King's Regiment). Carl Wilhelm Wichfeld, a clerk (kammerskriver) in General Tldkammeret, resided on the third floor with his wife Charlotte Amalie Petersen, their six-year-old son Carl Harald Ernst, one lodger and one maid. Hans Petersen, a sand trader, resided in the basement with his wife Anne Sophie Jensenm their three children (aged eight to 12) and one maid. The canal front in front of the building was the site of the so-called "Sandbox" /Sandkisten), a storage facility for sand. The sand was transported to the site by barge. It was then sold by the sand traders to the so-called "sandmen", who drove around in the streets with their carriages. Women would then call down to them from the windows: "Hey Sandman, come up with a skæppe!" (1 skæppe = 17.3 liter), The mathematician and later politician Adolph Steen (1816-1886) was a resident of the building in 1844. The 26-year-old Johan Krohn (1841-1925) was among the residents on the third floor in 1867 but would soon thereafter move to Bregentved where he served as a tutor for five years before returning to Copenhagen.Krog's property was home to seven households at the time of the 1850 census. The 70-year-old owner resided on the first floor with the widow Christsine Marie Drechmann, her eight-year-old daughter Marie Magdalene Drechmann, a female cook and three maids. Christen Hermansen, a professor of theology and orientalist, resided on the ground floor. Abigael Hendriette Rønne. a widow, resided on the same floor with a housekeeper and a maid. Joachim Georg Johan Nicolay Jørgensen, a painter and colonel in Copenhagenøs Civilian Artillery, resided on the second floor with his wife Caroline Margrethe (née Johansen), their six children (aged 10 to 18) and two maids. Jacob Christian Juul, a secretary in Generaladjutantenm, resided on the third floor with his wife Louise Andrea Juul and his sister Charlotte Laura Juul. Georg Christ. Houhton, a medical doctor, resided on the same floor. Jens Andersen, a sand trader, resided in the basement with his wife Mette Kirstine Jensen. their two-year-old son and a maid. 1860 census The property was listed as Nybrogade 26 when house numbering was introduced as a supplement to the old cadastrel numbers in 1859. The property was home to a total of 30 residents at the time of the 1860 census. Mads Christian Petersen, a brewery worker, resided on the ground floor to the left with his wife Margrethe Petersen (née Hansdatter). Carl Theodor Jespersen (1823-1908), a businessman, resided on the first floor with his wife Martha Sofie f. Eegholm and one maid. Jespersen was the owner of the wine wholesale firm Th. Jespersen & Co. (from 1862: T. Jespersen & Co.). Joachim Georg Johan Nicolaj Jørgensen, a broker, resided on the second floor with his wife Caroline Margrethe (née Johansen), three of their children (aged 20 ti 22) and two maids. Julius Edvard Lunddahl, a theologian and later teacher at Sorø Grammar School, resided on the third floor with the widow Elisa Prydz (née Liebind), her 18-year-old daughter Anna Margrethe Prydz and one maid. Jens Andersen, a nre sand trader, resided in the basement with his wife Mette Kirstine Jensen, their three children (aged three to 19), one male servant and one maid. A master tailor and his wife resided in the basement. give brewery workers resided in the rear wing. 20th century Nybrogade 26 was home to 24 residents at the 1906 census. Alvilda Eleonora, a 54-year-old widow, resided with her four children (aged 15–24) in the apartment on the ground floor to the left. Poul Hein Haslund, a physician, resided on the second floor with his family. Vilhelm Bruun (1858-1917), an architect, resided on the third floor to the left. Henriette Hartvig (1833-1920), widow of the businessman Julius Hartvig (1821-1875), resided on the third floor to the right with one maid. Jens Simon Koch (1871-1935), a lawyer and writer, resided on the fourth floor with his wife. The artist Wilhelm P. Jensenresided on the second floor of the rear wing Architecture Nybrogade 26 Nybrogade 26 was constructed as a two-storey structure in around 1745 and later heightened in around 1790 and again in 1827. The building owes its current appearance to a renovation in 1852. The seven-bays-wide building front is vertically divided by lesenes between the windows. It is rendered in a red colour, contrasted by the white windows, cornice, cornice band above the ground floor and white details around the gate and windows in the central bay on the three lower floors. The central bay on the second floor features a balcony and there is a blind balustrade below the central window on the first floor. The gate features a fanlight and above it is a lion head. The cannonball that hit the building during the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1796 has been inserted in the wall above the cellar entrance. Magstræde 13 Magstræde 13 is a five-storey structure built in brick. The front side is plastered in a red colour. The windows are relatively small and slightly arched. The roof features a central wall dormer which was originally the site of a pulley. The building is towards the yard finished in a yellow colour. The slightly projecting central bay is also on this side of the building tipped by a wall dormer. The entire complex was listed in the Danish registry of protected buildings and places in 1918. Today The building is today owned by Peter Andreas Amdrup. The arms retailer Arms Gallery opened in the building in 1876. Gallery References External links 1860 census 1907 ensus Andreas Krogh and his brewery

Egyptian free-tailed bat

The Egyptian free-tailed bat, also known as Egyptian guano bat or Egyptian nyctinome, (Tadarida aegyptiaca) is a species of bat in the family Molossidae.

The Egyptian free-tailed bat, also known as Egyptian guano bat or Egyptian nyctinome, (Tadarida aegyptiaca) is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. Description The Egyptian free-tailed bat has fine, dense fur which is greyish brown, shading darker on the head and back and paler on the underparts, particularly around the throat. The wings are narrow and pointed with translucent light brown membranes, there is a short tail which is projects beyond the membrane connecting the wings and the ears sit close together on the top of the head and are rather rounded in shape. The face is rather bulldog-like and heavily wrinkled faces and this gives rise to the family name Molossidae, which refers to the Ancient Epirote mastiffs called molossus. Head and body length is 6–8 cm. Forearms 5 cm. Distribution The Egyptian free-tailed bat is widely but apparently locally distributed throughout Africa, except parts of the north west and east through the Arabia and the Middle East to south Asia as far east as Bangladesh and south to Sri Lanka. Habitat The Egyptian free-tailed bat occurs in a wide range of habitats, from arid savannas to humid uplands, so long as there is access to water both as a source of moisture for the bats and because the bats' insect food tends to congregate over and around water. It also requires cliff faces and in caves to roost in but it will also use man-made structures for roosting, such as old buildings and temples. Habits The Egyptian free-tailed bat is, like most bats, nocturnal and roost by day in colonies which can vary from as few as 3 to thousands of individual bats. It is a fast flier and in a night's foraging can cover large distances over open terrain. Prey is taken both in flight and plucked from the ground and includes beetles, caterpillars, flies, moths, spiders, termites alates and wasps. It is not as clumsy as other bat species on the ground and can scamper about quite adeptly.Roost sites have a strong smell and it is thought that this odour may be important in social interactions and with the bats being able to identify their roost sites. The female gives birth to one young each year, normally in the summer, and pregnancy lasts 4 months. Taxonomy Molecular sequence data indicates T. aegyptiaca's closest relative is Chaerephon jobimena of Madagascar. These two species plus Tadarida brasiliensis of the Americas form a clade believed to be about 9.8 million years old. References External links Media related to Tadarida aegyptiaca at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Tadarida aegyptiaca at Wikispecies

Guenther Steiner

Guenther Steiner (born 7 April 1965) is an Italian-American motorsport engineer and team manager. He is the current team principal of the Haas Formula One Team (since 2014), and the previous managing director of Jaguar Racing (2001–2003) and technical operations director of its subsequent incarnation, Red Bull Racing.

Guenther Steiner (born 7 April 1965) is an Italian-American motorsport engineer and team manager. He is the current team principal of the Haas Formula One Team (since 2014), and the previous managing director of Jaguar Racing (2001–2003) and technical operations director of its subsequent incarnation, Red Bull Racing. Career Rally (1986–2001) Born in Merano, South Tyrol, the son of a butcher, Steiner studied engineering; however, without completing his degree, he then moved to Belgium, where he began his career as a mechanic in the World Rally Championship for Mazda Rally Team Europe from 1986 to 1988. From January 1989 – 1990, Steiner worked as the assistant team manager for Top Run Srl. He acted as head of reconnaissance, and later as a technical manager, at Jolly Club from 1991 to 1996. In 1997, Steiner managed Prodrive's Allstar Rally team, winning the European Rally Championship with Krzysztof Hołowczyc, and in 1998 M-Sport recruited him as project manager. In 2000, he was promoted to director of engineering, where he worked under the Ford World Rally Team alongside drivers Colin McRae and Carlos Sainz; ultimately, securing consecutive runner-up finishes in the 2000 and 2001 seasons. Jaguar (2001–2003) Steiner switched to Formula One in 2001 when Ford's official Formula One full-works team, Jaguar Racing, appointed him as their new team principal. Niki Lauda headhunted Steiner for the job of managing director. According to Steiner, "[Lauda] asked, 'are there any talented people at Ford?' And the reply was 'there's Günther.' The guy lied!" Assuming the role on 3 December, Steiner was responsible for the engineering side of the team at Milton Keynes, while the director of strategy John Allison handled administrative tasks.Steiner reorganised the team and reduced costs during his tenure. However, Jaguar underperformed in the 2002 season, with lead driver Eddie Irvine claiming only eight championship points while teammate Pedro de la Rosa failed to score, and parent company Ford dismissed Lauda on 26 November before making 70 team members redundant.On 5 December, Jaguar announced Steiner had been replaced by project manager David Pitchforth as part of the restructuring. Spokesman Nav Sidhu said, "he has relinquished his responsibilities as MD but has done nothing wrong. This organisation is in significantly better shape now than when he joined. Günther has clearly laid down the engineering baseline that David will now aim to take on to the next level."Although Jaguar's new management offered Steiner another role in the team, he ultimately declined, and spent the 2003 season on garden leave before replacing Wiet Huidekoper as technical director at Opel Performance Center in November of that year. Red Bull (2005–2008) After Red Bull purchased Jaguar Racing in November 2004, Steiner was invited to join Red Bull Racing. Opel's plans to withdraw from the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters at the end of 2005 motivated his return to the Milton Keynes team. His appointment as technical operations director was confirmed on 13 January 2005.Steiner and team principal Christian Horner jointly led the outfit to improved results in the 2005 season, but when Red Bull poached championship-winning technical director Adrian Newey from McLaren, team owner Dietrich Mateschitz approached Steiner to help establish a NASCAR team in the United States. Feeling the F1 team had become overcrowded, Steiner consulted his wife and agreed to move to Mooresville, North Carolina, where he served as Team Red Bull's technical director from 1 April 2006 to April 2008. Haas (2014–) Steiner remained in Mooresville after leaving Red Bull, where he founded the manufacturing company Fibreworks Composites in January 2009.While the US F1 Team was in development, Steiner met Joe Custer and Gene Haas of Stewart-Haas Racing, who had declined to invest in the project, at a steakhouse. He proposed they themselves enter F1 by ordering a customer car from an established constructor, but delays in securing approval prompted them to apply for entry as a privateer team. Steiner, described as "the prime 'doer'" by motorsport publication Autosport, recruited the core staff, interviewed every team member, and developed partnerships with outsourcers Dallara and Ferrari. On 14 April 2014, he was officially announced team principal of the fledgling Haas F1 Team.With their entry in the 2016 season, Haas became the first American constructor to compete in F1 in 30 years. The team took eight points at the 2016 Australian Grand Prix with a 6th-place finish by driver Romain Grosjean, becoming the first American entry, and the first constructor overall since Toyota Racing in 2002, to score in their debut race. Haas completed the season with an 8th-place finish in the 2016 constructor standings and 29 points, all scored by Grosjean. Personal life Steiner holds Italian and American passports, and lives in Mooresville, North Carolina, with his wife, Gertraud, and daughter. Being a native of South Tyrol, he speaks German and Italian, along with English. References External links Haas F1 profile

Thomas L. Daniels

Thomas L. Daniels (July 4, 1892 - May 1977) was an American businessman and diplomat. He served as the chairman of Archer Daniels Midland.

Thomas L. Daniels (July 4, 1892 - May 1977) was an American businessman and diplomat. He served as the chairman of Archer Daniels Midland. Early life Thomas L. Daniels was born in 1892 in Piqua, Ohio. His father, John W. Daniels, was the co-founder of Archer Daniels Midland. Daniels graduated from Yale University in 1914. Career Daniels began his career at his family business, Archer Daniels Midland, in 1914.Daniels joined the United States Foreign Service in 1921. He "was assigned to the American delegation to the Disarmament Conference in Washington, and later to the American embassies in Brussels, Rio de Janeiro and Rome." During World War II, he was "chief in the chemical division of the War Production Board and later as head of the Food Requirements Committee of the War Food Administration."Daniels served as the president of Archer Daniels Midland from 1947 to 1958 and as its chairman from 1958 to 1964. Personal life and death Daniels married Francis Hancock. They had three sons Forest, John and David and a adopted daughter, Carol. John H. Daniels became President and CEO of ADM in 1962. The family resided at 7 Heather Place in St. Paul, Minnesota and in Gem Lake, Minnesota. He was the captain of the Twin Cities Blues, a polo team. He was the chairman of the Minneapolis Institute of Art from 1961 to 1963, and he served on the board of the Minnesota Orchestra.Daniels died in 1977. His funeral was held at the Church of St. John the Evangelist in St. Paul, Minnesota. == References ==

George Jacobs (educator)

Dr. George Jacobs (born 1952) is a well-known educator and vegan activist in Singapore.

Dr. George Jacobs (born 1952) is a well-known educator and vegan activist in Singapore. Early life Born in the United States in 1952 Jacobs went to Metuchen High School, Metuchen, New Jersey, United States Career 1980: Bachelor of Arts, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States 1982: Master of Arts, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States 1991: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), University of Hawaiʻi, United States 2003–2013; 2015– President, Vegetarian Society (Singapore) 1993–present: Teaching for Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, Ministry of Education, Center for American Education, James Cook University Singapore Personal life Became Vegetarian in 1980, in recent years, George has switched to a vegan diet. George is married with Dr. Fong Cheng Hong Books (selection) and Publications (selection) To date, George Jacobs has authored/co-authored the following books: New Asian Traditions Vegetarian Cookbook, ISBN 9812480560 by Amy, Susan; Kiran Narain & George Jacobs The Heart Smart Oil Free Cookbook, ISBN 978-9814342292 by Mayura Mohta & George Jacobs Jacobs, G. M., Yeow, R., Lau, M., Loh, S., Chan, M., & Priyathanaa. (2013). Action research toolkit (ART). Singapore: Boys’ Town. Jacobs, G. M., & Kimura, H. (2013). Cooperative learning and teaching. In the series, English language teacher development. Alexandria, VA: TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages). Jacobs, G. M., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Teachers sourcebook for extensive reading. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Farrell, T. S. C., & Jacobs, G. M. (2010). Essentials for successful language teaching. New York, NY: Continuum. Jacobs, G. M., & Goh, C. M. C. (2007). Cooperative learning in the language classroom. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. McCafferty, S., Jacobs, G. M., & Iddings, C. (Eds.). (2006). Cooperative learning and second language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=052184486X&ss=fro Loh, W. I., & Jacobs, G. M. (2003). Nurturing the naturalist intelligence. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publications. Lie, A., Jacobs, G. M., & Amy, S. (Eds.). (2002). English via environmental education. Jakarta: Grasindo. Rajan, S. B. R., Jacobs, G. M., Loh, W. I., & Ward, C. S. (2002). English in focus: A lower secondary guide. Singapore: Pearson Education. Jacobs, G. M., Power, M. A., & Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher's sourcebook for cooperative learning: Practical techniques, basic principles, and frequently asked questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. http://www.corwinpress.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book220803. Translated into Japanese (visit http://www.amazon.co.jp to order), Chinese and Korean Loh, W. I., & Jacobs, G. M. (2002). Science made easy (Primary 4). Singapore: Longman. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2002). Grammar in use (Workbook 4). Singapore: Learners Publishing. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2002). Grammar in use (Workbook 3). Singapore: Learners Publishing. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2001). Grammar in use (Workbook 2). Singapore: Learners Publishing. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2001). Grammar in use (Workbook 1). Singapore: Learners Publishing. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2001). Read aloud Asia. Singapore: Times Media. Loh, W. I., & Jacobs, G. M. (2001). Science made easy (Primary 3). Singapore: Longman. Loh, W. I., & Jacobs, G. M. (2000). Little Sammy (a set of six preschool readers). Singapore: Singapore National Press. Jacobs, G. M., & Loh, W. I. (2000). Little observers (a set of six preschool readers). Singapore: Singapore National Press. Renandya, W. A., & Jacobs, G. M. (Eds.). (1998). Learners and language learning. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Jacobs, G. M., Kumarasamy, P., Nopparat, P., & Amy, S. (1998). Linking language and the environment. Toronto: Pippin. Jacobs, G. M., Gan, S. L., & Ball, J. (1997). Learning cooperative learning via cooperative learning: A sourcebook of lesson plans for teacher education. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. [Also translated into Chinese and Malay.] Jacobs, G. M., Davis, C., & Renandya, W. A. (Eds.). (1997). Successful strategies for extensive reading. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Jacobs, G. M. (ed.). (1997). Language classrooms of tomorrow: Issues and responses. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Jacobs, G. M., & Sundara Rajan, B. R. (Eds.). (1996). Stories for language teacher education. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Hidalgo, A.C., Hall, D., & Jacobs, G. M. (Eds.). (1995). Getting started: Materials writers on materials writing. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Jacobs, G. M. (1993). Integrating environmental education in second language instruction. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Jacobs, G. M., & Power, M. A. (1991). Putting it all together. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. And the following publications about him: Personal interview with George Jacobs: "Going green for life" Interview with Dr. George Jacobs about the "controversy over cooperative learning". See also List of vegans Vegetarian Society (Singapore) == References ==

Nation.Cymru

Nation.Cymru (transl. Nation.Wales) is a Welsh news service established in 2017 with the aim of creating a national English-language news service for Wales. It receives £20,000 a year from the Books Council of Wales and the rest of its financial support comes from 1,000 monthly subscribers to the site.

Nation.Cymru (transl. Nation.Wales) is a Welsh news service established in 2017 with the aim of creating a national English-language news service for Wales. It receives £20,000 a year from the Books Council of Wales and the rest of its financial support comes from 1,000 monthly subscribers to the site. History The website was established by Bangor University journalism lecturer Ifan Morgan Jones in response to the decline of the Welsh commercial media sector and lack of public knowledge of the activities of Welsh political institutions such as the Senedd. Jones was previously editor of the Golwg360 news website, as well as being a member of the Welsh Assembly's News and Digital Information Taskforce in 2017 and giving evidence to the Assembly's Culture, Welsh Language and Communications Committee.In early 2017, the service established a crowdfunding round on GoFundMe, securing £5,305 in donations for the goal of "setting up a community-driven national news website, run and contributed to by volunteers, and with any money made invested back in the website.Its first article published on 26 May 2017 said that the aim was to create a "national, popular, not for profit news service" that was independent of any other commercial organisation, therefore being "by the people of Wales, for the people of Wales".The website aims to close the Welsh 'democratic deficit', specifically targeting the absence of a national, Welsh-based, English language news service. Welsh language readers are currently only served by Golwg360 and S4C ("preaching to the converted – the Welsh-speaking middle class" according to Jones), while English language readers are "underserved" by the BBC (headquartered in London) and the Western Mail (which only runs as a semi-national daily newspaper). London School of Economics (LSE) researcher Samuel Parry cited the website when they attributed the "major stumbling block for Welsh independence" to the absence of an indigenous media in the country. Writing for the LSE Brexit blog, Parry cites the inception of Nation.Cymru and similar outlet Desolation Radio as seeking to stem that problem.Academics such as McAllister and Cole have noted that "the weakness of the media has an effect on political coverage within Wales and on how informed the Welsh electorate are." Meanwhile, Blain, et al., have compared Wales' media deficit with the reach of the media in Scotland, where 12 newspapers are written and published in the country, and where there are 24 total papers some of whom are national newspapers with Scottish-made editions, but in reply Jones has asserted that "Wales is not Scotland".The website states it is apolitical and will not support any particular candidate. It however rejects "the toxic politics of the far-right".Supporters of the service include Plaid Cymru's UK parliamentary candidate, Mark Hooper, who says it serves as an opportunity for "Welsh news for Welsh readers".In 2019 it received funding from the Books Council of Wales, who support similar publications such as Poetry Wales, the IWA's Click on Wales and The Welsh Agenda, the New Welsh Review, Planet, and the Wales Arts Review.In February 2021 Ifan Morgan Jones stepped down as editor and Gareth Hughes took over the role. Later the same year David Owens was appointed as culture editor. In January 2023, Emily Price took over the role of news editor. Coverage The site aims to provide frequent (but not 24/7) non commercial coverage of a range of subjects which tackle the "central question: how can we become a better nation?"The website has been cited widely: On the floor of the Senedd during Plenary discussions into devolution of broadcasting In the Welsh Government's Draft Budget 2021 In the Senedd Independent Review into the Arts In the Institute of Welsh Affairs (IWA) piece on Who Speaks for Wales? The IWA's report into Decarbonising Transport In pieces by Wales Online / Western Mail On the BBC News website On BBC Radio Cymru Coverage in national media The website has published a range of articles which have led to wider debate in other national media sources, some of which are covered below. Iron Ring debate Nation.Cymru drew attention in July 2017 when an article by Jones was featured by WalesOnline and the Western Mail, in which Jones criticises the £395,000 proposed iron ring sculpture at Flint Castle as being a tribute to "the fearsome castles built by Edward I in an enormous military and building effort to assert dominance over the uprising Welsh." 77% of respondents to a WalesOnline poll agreed with Jones' piece that the Iron Ring was a "symbol of oppression" rather than merely "a part of Welsh history". The sculpture was eventually put on hold by Cadw as a result of an intervention by the Welsh Government cabinet secretary for economy and infrastructure Ken Skates. National Assembly salaries The website led with a piece by political commentator and devolution advocate Daran Hill of Positif Politics, criticising the increasing average cost of National Assembly employees, citing a rise of £44,000 per employee and an increase of 90% between 2007 and 2017. The article was again picked up nationally by the Western Mail, and led to a response by a National Assembly spokeswoman, who said in part that "while the number of AMs has stayed the same their responsibilities have grown and the Commission has increased its staffing levels proportionately, to ensure that the support provided to AMs continues to adapt to meet the Assembly’s needs." Contribution to the Assembly Independent Review of Support for Publishing and Literature in Wales In October 2017, the website was cited in the Senedd as part of the Welsh Government's Independent Review of Support for Publishing and Literature in Wales. The panel was investigating concerns regarding funding for the Arts Council of Wales after controversy regarding the review of Eric Ngalle's novel I, Eric Ngalle. In the Independent Review, the panel discussed Swansea University critic Jasmine Donahaye's piece on Nation arguing that the critical review of the novel by Jim Perrin in the Wales Arts Review was problematic for telling "us more about the reviewer than about the book under review" and that the Wales Arts Council funded bodies should "make room for different voices and experiences that are challenging to established values, and to establishment norms." Neil McEvoy The website contributed to the national discussion of Plaid Cymru AM Neil McEvoy's increased tensions with his party, including the investigation which saw him suspended from the Party as well as publishing opinion pieces from McEvoy's perspective. A Nation article written by McEvoy was widely reported by the BBC. On the website, McEvoy argued in support for UKIP AM Gareth Bennett after the latter had been banned from speaking in the Assembly. Bennett's ban came after Assembly presiding officer Elin Jones describing his comments in the Senedd as "quite offensive" regarding transgender rights. McEvoy however said it highlighted the need for "diversity of thinking", which he felt was not present in the Assembly. Second Severn Crossing naming controversy The website contributed to discussion around the renaming of the Second Severn Crossing as the Prince of Wales Bridge when it commissioned a YouGov poll into support for the change. The website found twice as many people oppose renaming the bridge as support it, with a total of 34% in some way against the name change, and 17% in some way in favour. 47% had no strong feelings either way. Western Mail political Chief Reporter Martin Shipton picked up the poll in his column, and asked the Wales Office for comment, however the Secretary for State did not provide a response. Institute of Welsh Affairs Decarbonising Transport report An article written by North Wales AM Llŷr Huws Gruffydd was cited by the Institute of Welsh Affairs as part of a report into Decarbonising Transport, providing "a more contemporary, and political view of bus deregulation in North Wales". 'Radioactive' mud dumping scandal The website was cited nationally when it ran successive articles in August 2018 on the issue of "300,000 tonnes of mud" which was proposed to be dumped onto the River Severn, by EDF Energy from its Hinkley Point nuclear power plant. The article, entitled "What you can do to stop the dumping", was written by Neil McEvoy AM and was critical of Natural Resources Wales for taking only "five samples of mud taken from below 5cm back in 2009", as well as the agency's subsequent decision to then destroy those samples. McEvoy however praised the likes of Super Furry Animals keyboardist Cian Ciaran for their activist work. The views expressed in the article were re-published in the South Wales Argus and other newspapers. See also Media of Wales Politics of Wales References External links Official website

Anjali Mehr

Anjali Mehr (née Hora; 1928-1978) was an Indian classical dancer (Bharatnatyam), choreographer and educator. "Anjaliben", as she was called was known for her bold experiments and innovations in Bharatnatyam. As one of the earliest disciples of the legendary Rukmini Devi, and among the first students of the Kalakshetra, she played a vital role in building and strengthening dance-education in India. She was the first Principal of the Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan's Sangeet Nartan Shikshapeeth Archived 7 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine. In 1951, she became one of the two people to be featured from India in Magnum Photos' global project 'Generation X'.

Anjali Mehr (née Hora; 1928-1978) was an Indian classical dancer (Bharatnatyam), choreographer and educator. "Anjaliben", as she was called was known for her bold experiments and innovations in Bharatnatyam. As one of the earliest disciples of the legendary Rukmini Devi, and among the first students of the Kalakshetra, she played a vital role in building and strengthening dance-education in India. She was the first Principal of the Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan's Sangeet Nartan Shikshapeeth Archived 7 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine. In 1951, she became one of the two people to be featured from India in Magnum Photos' global project 'Generation X'. Anjali Mehr is counted amongst the first few post-Independence dance scholars of India. Early life and education Anjali was born in 1928 to Rameshbhai and Mugdhaben Hora and was their only daughter. She started learning Kathak at the age of four, but when her parents became acquainted with the Theosophical Society, she started to train in Bharatnatyam at Kalakshetra. Here, she had the opportunity to learn from the greatest Bharatnatyam teachers - Guru Meenakshisundaram Pillai, Chokkalingam Pillai, Sharadambai Devadasi and Dandayudhapani Pillai. Career In 1947, she was invited by Kulapati Dr. K. M. Munshi, founder of the Bhavan teach Dance at the Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan. For sometime she ran a school "Rukmini Kala Vihar" named after her Guru Rukmini Devi. After her marriage with Dr. Sukumar Merh, Professor and Head of Department of Geology , M. S. University at Baroda , Anjali settled in Gujarat.In the 1950s, when the Faculty of Performing Arts (Dance Department) was established at the M.S University, Baroda, Mohan Khokar, another alumni of Kalakshetra, stepped in as the Head of Department. Anjali first joined as a Visiting Professor and later succeeded him as the Head of Department. Here she played a vital role in developing dance pedagogy. She developed an easier learning system for non-Tamil speaking students through her "Stick Drawing Notation System" in the mid-1960s.She became known for establishing the Gujarati school of Bharatnatyam through her compositions and dance-dramas. In 1972, she wrote a margam (a formal dance format in Bharatnatyam) in Gujarati. In 1977, In 1977, Anjali wrote, composed and choreographed the Chandramoulishwara Kuravanji in Gujarati. It is considered to be the first ever Kuravanji (a kind of dance-drama) written in Gujarati. Anjali even composed the music for this Kuravanji in praise of the presiding deity of Somnath in Saurashtra. In doing so, she followed the example of Kutrala Kuravanji in which she danced as a Sakhi with Rukmini Devi.Anjali was well-versed with Hindustani and Carnatic music and used regional languages (Gujarati, Marathi, Hindi, Assamese) as well as Sanskrit to create compositions which made Bharatnatyam popular in non-Tamil speaking areas. She is also known to have sung for the AIR. Works She authored two books in Gujarati : Nartanadarśikā ( on Bharatanatyam ) and Chandramaulishwara Kuruvanji with Astha Nayika. She also wrote many songs in Gujarati. == References ==

Honour thy father and thy mother

"Honour thy father and thy mother" (Hebrew: כַּבֵּד אֶת אָבִיךָ וְאֶת אִמֶּךָ לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ, romanized: Kabbēḏ ’eṯ-’āḇîḵā wə’eṯ-’immeḵā ləma‘an ya’ăriḵûn yāmeyḵā) is one of the Ten Commandments in the Hebrew Bible. The commandment is generally regarded in Protestant and Jewish sources as the fifth in both the list in Exodus 20:1–21 and in Deuteronomy (Dvarim) 5:1–23. Catholics and Lutherans count this as the fourth.These commandments were enforced as law in many jurisdictions, and are still considered enforceable law by some. Exodus 20:1 describes the Ten Commandments as being spoken by Yahweh, inscribed on two stone tablets by the finger of God, broken by Moses, and rewritten on replacement stones by the Lord.

"Honour thy father and thy mother" (Hebrew: כַּבֵּד אֶת אָבִיךָ וְאֶת אִמֶּךָ לְמַעַן יַאֲרִכוּן יָמֶיךָ, romanized: Kabbēḏ ’eṯ-’āḇîḵā wə’eṯ-’immeḵā ləma‘an ya’ăriḵûn yāmeyḵā) is one of the Ten Commandments in the Hebrew Bible. The commandment is generally regarded in Protestant and Jewish sources as the fifth in both the list in Exodus 20:1–21 and in Deuteronomy (Dvarim) 5:1–23. Catholics and Lutherans count this as the fourth.These commandments were enforced as law in many jurisdictions, and are still considered enforceable law by some. Exodus 20:1 describes the Ten Commandments as being spoken by Yahweh, inscribed on two stone tablets by the finger of God, broken by Moses, and rewritten on replacement stones by the Lord. Hebrew Bible כבד את־אביך ואת־אמך למען יארכון ימיך על האדמה אשר־יהוה אלהיך נתן לך‎ Kabbēḏ ’eṯ-’āḇîḵā wə’eṯ-’immeḵā ləma‘an ya’ăriḵûn yāmeyḵā ‘al hā’ăḏāmāh ’ăšer-Yəhwāh ’ĕlōheyḵā nōṯēn lāḵ.Honour your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the land the LORD your God is giving you. In the Torah, keeping this commandment was associated with individual benefit and with the ability of the nation of Israel to remain in the land to which God was leading them. Dishonouring parents by striking or cursing them was punishable by death and so the clause "so that you may live long" could be interpreted as "so that you are not put to death". In the Talmud, the commandment to honour one's human parents is compared to honoring God. According to the prophet Malachi, God makes the analogy himself: "A son honours his father, and a servant his master. If I am a father, where is the honour due me? If I am a master, where is the respect due me?" says the LORD Almighty. "It is you, O priests, who show contempt for my name. But you ask, 'How have we shown contempt for your name?'" Judaism What constitutes "honour?" One must provide them with food and drink and clothing. One should bring them home and take them out, and provide them with all their needs cheerfully. The commandment to honour one's human parents is compared to honouring God, for one owes their existence to their father and their mother. ...Honor the body that bore thee, and the breasts that gave thee suck, maintain thy parents, for thy parents took part in thy creation." For man owes his existence to God, to his father, and to his mother, in that he receives from each of his parents five of the parts of his body, and ten from God. The bones, the veins, the nails, the brain, and the white of the eye come from the father. The mother gives him skin, flesh, blood, hair, and the pupil of the eye. God gives him the following: breath, soul, light of countenance, sight, hearing, speech, touch, sense, insight, and understanding...but if people do not honor their parents, God say: "It is good that I do not dwell among men, or they would have treated Me superciliously, too." The Talmud says that since there are three partners in the creation of a person (God and two parents), honour showed to parents is the same as honour shown to God. It also compares a number of similarly constructed passages from the Torah and concludes that honour toward parents and honour toward God are intentionally equated: Our Rabbis taught: It says, 'Honour your father and your mother' (Exodus 20:12), and it says, 'Honor God with your wealth' (Proverbs 3:9). By using the same terminology, the Torah compares the honour you owe your father and mother to the honour you have to give to the Almighty. It also says, 'Every person must respect his mother and his father' (Leviticus 19:3), and it says, 'God your Lord you shall respect, Him you shall serve' (Deuteronomy 10:20). Here the same word, respect, is used. The Torah equates the respect you owe your parents with the respect you must show God. Furthermore, it says, 'Whoever curses his father or mother shall be put to death (Exodus 21:17). And furthermore, it says, 'Anyone that curses God shall bear his sin' (Leviticus 24.–15). By using the same terms the Torah compares cursing of parents with cursing the Almighty. Because honouring parents is part of honouring God, the mitzvah does not depend on the worthiness of the parent: "Even if his father is wicked and a sinner, he must fear and revere him ... A convert to Judaism must not curse or despise his non-Jewish father." (Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 143:13,25) It also requires honour to one's stepparents or an older sibling who is raising one, and one's teachers, though one has a greater obligation to honor a parent than a grandparent.The commandment is repeated eight times throughout the bible. Historical beliefs Keeping this commandment was associated by the Israelites with the ability of the nation of Israel to remain in the land to which God was leading them. According to the Torah, striking or cursing one's father or mother was punishable by immediate death. In Deuteronomy, a procedure is described for parents to bring a persistently disobedient son to the city elders for death by stoning.Honouring one's parents is also described in the Torah as an analogue to honouring God. According to the prophet Jeremiah, God refers to himself as Father to Israel, and according to the prophet Isaiah, God refers to Israel as his sons and daughters. According to the prophet Malachi, God calls for similar honour. According to Jeremiah, God blessed the descendants of Rechab for obeying their forefather's command to not drink wine and uses the family as a counterexample to Israel's failure to obey his command to not worship other gods: "Will you not learn a lesson and obey my words?" declares the LORD. "Jonadab son of Recab ordered his sons not to drink wine and this command has been kept. To this day they do not drink wine, because they obey their forefather's command. But I have spoken to you again and again, yet you have not obeyed me. Again and again I sent all my servants the prophets to you. They said, 'Each of you must turn from your wicked ways and reform your actions; do not follow other gods to serve them. Then you will live in the land I have given to you and your fathers.' But you have not paid attention or listened to me. The descendants of Jonadab son of Recab have carried out the command their forefather gave them, but these people have not obeyed me." Precedence According to the Mishneh Torah, this commandment requires one to honour both of one's parents equally; there is no greater weight given to either the father or the mother. While in some parts of scripture, the father is stated first, in others, the mother comes first. This shows that the honour due to each is equal.While Jewish teaching holds that a married woman must honour her husband, there are also guidelines for how she may continue to honour her parents: It is the duty of both men and women to honour their parents. However, a married woman, who owes devotion to her husband, is exempt from the precept of honouring her parents. Yet, she is obliged to do for the parents, all she can, if her husband does not object. Requirements The commandment requires one to obey one's parents when the command given by a parent is reasonable and permissible under Jewish law. For example, if a parent asks a child to bring him/her water, he/she must obey. Because honouring God is above all mitzvot, if a parent asks a child to break a law of the Torah, he/she must refuse to obey. Everything that your father says to you, you are obliged to obey. But if he says to you: "Let us bow down to idols", you must not obey him, lest you become an apostate. I am the Lord your God, and both you and your parents are equally bound to honour Me, therefore, you must not hearken to them to disregard My word. A child is not required to obey if a parent says that he/she must marry a particular person, or must not marry a person he/she wishes to marry, provided the marriage is permissible by Jewish law.A child who is travelling has an obligation to communicate with his/her parents to let them know he/she is safe in order to prevent them from worrying.A child must continue to honour his/her parent after their deaths. This can be done by reciting Kaddish for 11 months and on the yarzeit (anniversary of the parent's death), and by donating charity in the memory of the parent. The study of the Torah is also considered to be reverence toward a parent, for it shows that a parent raised a worthy child.A child must never put a parent to shame, or speak arrogantly to a parent. A person who is told to do something by his/her mother for which his father does not like the result is not permitted to tell his/her father that his/her mother said to do that. This is because this could lead to his/her father cursing his/her mother. A child is not permitted to interrupt or contradict a parent, or to disturb a parent's sleep. New Testament In the gospels, Jesus affirmed the importance of honouring one's father and mother (Matthew 15:1–9, Matthew 19:17–19, Mark 10:17–19, Luke 18:18–21) Paul quotes the commandment in his letter to the church in Ephesus: Children, obey your parents in the Lord, for this is right. "Honour your father and mother" (this is the first commandment with a promise), "that it may go well with you and that you may live long in the land." (Ephesians 6:1–2, ESV. See also Colossians 3:20) In his letters to the Romans and Timothy, Paul describes disobedience to parents as a serious sin (Romans 1:29–31, 2 Timothy 3:2). The words of Jesus and the teaching of Paul indicate that adult children remain obligated to honour their parents by providing for material needs. In the gospels, Jesus is portrayed as angry with some people who avoided materially providing for their parents by claiming the money they would have used was given to God (Matthew 15:3–8, Mark 7:9–12. In these passages, Jesus quotes Isaiah 29:13) According to the Gospel of John, when Jesus was on the cross, he provided for his mother, Mary, by giving the Apostle John the charge to care for her, which John accepted.According to the gospel of Matthew, the obligation to honour one's parents is bounded by one's obligation to God: "Whoever loves father or mother more than me is not worthy of me." (Matthew 10:37 ESV) Such boundaries, and the primacy of the first commandment itself, lead scholars to conclude that honouring one's parents does not include breaking God's law (i.e., committing a sin) at the behest of a parent.Paul's instructions to Timothy regarding the physical care of widows include the following: But if a widow has children or grandchildren, these should learn first of all to put their religion into practice by caring for their own family and so repaying their parents and grandparents, for this is pleasing to God. Christian Catholicism The import of honouring father and mother is based on the divine origin of the parental role: The divine fatherhood is the source of human fatherhood. (Ephesians 3:14) This is the foundation of the honour owed to parents. ... It is required by God's commandment. (Exodus 20:12) Respect for parents (filial piety) derives from gratitude toward those who, by the gift of life, their love and their work, have brought their children into the world and enabled them to grow in stature, wisdom, and grace. According to the teachings of the Catholic Church, the commandment to honour father and mother reveals God's desired order of charity – first God, then parents, then others. Keeping the commandment to honour father and mother brings both spiritual and temporal rewards of peace and prosperity, while failure to honour parents harms the individual as well as society. The pervasive societal effect of obedience or disobedience to this command is attributed to the status of the family as the fundamental building block of society: The family is the original cell of social life. ...Authority, stability, and a life of relationships within the family constitute the foundations for freedom, security, and fraternity within society. The family is the community in which, from childhood, one can learn moral values, begin to honour God and make good use of freedom. Family life is an initiation into life in society. The Gospel of Luke notes that, as a child, Jesus was obedient to his earthly parents. For a child in the home, the commandment to honour parents is comprehensive, excluding immoral actions. Grown children, while not obligated to obedience in the same way, should continue to afford respect for parental wishes, advice and teaching. "Filial respect is shown by true docility and obedience. 'My son, keep your father's commandment, and forsake not your mother's teaching. ... When you walk, they will lead you; when you lie down, they will watch over you...'" (Proverbs 6:20–22)The Church teaches that adult children have a duty to honour their parents by providing "material and moral support in old age and in times of illness, loneliness, or distress". This honour should be based on the son or daughter's gratitude for the life, love and effort given by the parents and motivated by the desire to pay them back in some measure.The principle of the commandment is extended to the duty to honour others indirect authority, such as teachers, and employers. The commandment to honour father and mother also forms a basis for charity to others when each person is seen, ultimately, as "a son or daughter of the One who wants to be called 'our Father'." Thus, charitable actions are viewed as extensions of the honour owed to the heavenly Father. Orthodox Church Father Seraphim Stephens sees "Honor" defined as "Love and Respect", and notes that this commandment is positioned between those that address one's obligations to God and those that relate to how one treats others. "It clearly lays the foundation of our relationship to God and to all other people." Richard D. Andrews points out that, "Every time we do something good, just, pure, holy, we bring honour to our parents." Protestantism John Calvin describes the sacred origin of the role of the human father (which thus demands honour). The analogy between the honour of parents and the honour of God himself is further strengthened by this understanding that earthly fatherhood is derived from God's Fatherhood. Thus the duty to honour does not depend on whether the parent is particularly worthy. However, Calvin acknowledges that some fathers are outright wicked and emphasizes there is no excuse for sin in the name of honouring a parent, calling the notion "absurd". Since, therefore, the name of Father is a sacred one, and is transferred to men by the peculiar goodness of God, the dishonouring of parents redounds to the dishonour of God Himself, nor can anyone despise his father without being guilty of an offence against God, (sacrilegious.) If any should object that there are many ungodly and wicked fathers whom their children cannot regard with honour without destroying the distinction between good and evil, the reply is easy, that the perpetual law of nature is not subverted by the sins of men; and therefore, however unworthy of honour a father may be, that he still retains, inasmuch as he is a father, his right over his children, provided it does not in anywise derogating from the judgement of God; for it is too absurd to think of absolving under any pretext the sins which are condemned by His Law; nay, it would be a base profanation to misuse the name of father for the covering of sins. The commentary of John Wesley on the commandment to honour father and mother is consistent with the interpretation in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. He summarizes the actions that express honour as follows: 1. Inward esteem of them, outwardly expressed 2. Obedience to their lawful commands (Ephesians 6:1–3), 3. Submission to their rebukes, instructions and corrections, 4. Acting with consideration of parental advice, direction and consent, 5. Giving comfort and providing for the physical needs of aged parents. Like the Catechism, Wesley also teaches that the commandment includes honouring others in legitimate secular authority. He also encourages people toward honour of those in spiritual leadership with the question, "Have ye all obeyed them that watch over your souls, and esteemed them highly in love for their work's sake?" This question is reminiscent of Paul's statements to the church in Galatia and to Timothy.Matthew Henry explains that the commandment to honour father and mother applies not only to biological parents but also to those who fulfil the role of mother or father. He uses the example of Esther honouring her guardian and cousin Mordecai: Mordecai being Esther's guardian or pro-parent, we are told ... How respectful she was to him. Though in relation she was his equal, yet, being in age and dependence his inferior, she honoured him as her father—did his commandment, v. 20. This is an example to orphans; if they fall into the hands of those who love them and take care of them, let them make suitable returns of duty and affection. The less obliged their guardians were in duty to provide for them the more obliged they are in gratitude to honour and obey their guardians. The commandment itself encourages obedience "so that you may enjoy long life and that it may go well with you". Henry, Wesley and Calvin affirm the applicability of this promise for all who keep the commandment, though each notes that for the New Testament Christian, the promise may be fulfilled as earthly rewards and/or heavenly rewards, as God sees fit in his wisdom and love for the individual. In his commentary, Calvin notes the harsh consequences required in Exodus and Leviticus for specific failures to keep the commandment. Those who struck or cursed a parent were to be sentenced to death. Persistently disobedient sons were to be brought before the city elders and stoned by the whole community if the parents' testimony was judged to be accurate. Calvin writes that God knew capital punishment for these offences would seem harsh and be difficult to pronounce, even for those responsible for adjudicating the situation. This is why, he argues, the text specifically places responsibility for the consequences on the offender. The severity of the sentence emphasized the importance of removing such behaviour from the community and deterring others who might imitate it.Although Calvin refers mostly to fathers in his commentary on the commandment to honour father and mother, he writes near the beginning that the commandment mentions both parents on purpose. As described above, Proverbs supports the value of guidance from both father and mother, and Paul specified that children should provide for their own widowed mothers and grandmothers, "which is pleasing to God".Just as "honour" involves offering profound respect, the opposite of honouring someone is to trivialize him, as if of no importance.Respect is not something based solely on personal or professional qualifications, but also on the position that God has given that person. In 1 Samuel 26 David spares Saul's life, even at the risk of losing his own, submitting to the authority God had placed over him as anointed king. Rewards for compliance This commandment is distinct from the others in that a promise is attached to it: "...so that you may live long in the land the Lord your God is giving you." Deuteronomy 5:16 amplifies this: "...that your days may be prolonged, and that it may be well with you, in the land which the Lord your God is giving you." Consequences of disobedience As with most terms of the covenant between God and Israel, there are consequences for disobedience as well as rewards for obedience: Just as the reward for honouring father and mother is very great, the punishment for transgressing it is very great. And the one who afflicts his parents causes the shechinah [presence of God] to separate from him and harsh decrees fall upon him and he is given many sufferings. And even if life smiles on him in this life, he will surely be punished in the World to Come. See also Biblical law in Christianity Filial piety Pietas References Further reading U.S. Catholic Church. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2003, Doubleday Religion, ISBN 0-385-50819-0 (accessed 1 September 2009) External links A compilation of Jewish theology regarding the commandment to honour father and mother

Afon Ogwen

ˈ The Afon Ogwen (; Welsh: [ˈɔɡʊɛn]; Welsh, meaning River Ogwen in English) is a river in north-west Wales draining from some of the greatest peaks in Snowdonia before discharging to the sea on the eastern side of Bangor, Gwynedd.

ˈ The Afon Ogwen (; Welsh: [ˈɔɡʊɛn]; Welsh, meaning River Ogwen in English) is a river in north-west Wales draining from some of the greatest peaks in Snowdonia before discharging to the sea on the eastern side of Bangor, Gwynedd. Etymology Although the spoken form in the local North Wales dialect is Ogwan (with an A), and it has also recently been shown that Ogwan is an original form of the name; the form Ogwen is believed to have been mistakenly adopted as a kind of back-formation, because many words ending in -en become -an in the north Wales dialect. The name of the river is recorded as Oguanw (with the U doing duty for modern F) in a poem in the Hendregadredd Manuscript. The name is probably a compound word: og + Banw (after language mutation, turns into 'Fanw') 'piglet' = ogfanw. The precise meaning of og is less clear, but it may either be cognate with the Irish Tír na n-Óg (land of youth) or else derive from the Proto-Indo-European *oku ("soon, fast"). Sources The main source of the Ogwen is in Llyn Ogwen, which is situated alongside the A5 road as it starts to descend through Snowdonia. However, the true source of the river lies in the three streams draining into Llyn Ogwen. These are Nant Gwern y Gof, Afon Denau, and Afon Lloer which itself has its source in the upland lake, Ffynnon Lloer. Waterfalls The Ogwen emerging at the western end of Llyn Ogwen immediately descends cataracts and waterfalls, known as Ogwen Falls in English and Rhaeadr Ogwen in Welsh, before continuing in a north-north-westerly direction down the glaciated Nant Ffrancon valley. Re-Engineered In the 1950s and 1960s, the stretch of river through Nant Ffrancon was re-engineered to try to help drain the adjoining farmland. However, the beneficial effects were not significant and the ecological damage was great. In the 1990s, the Environment Agency, working with partners including the Countryside Council for Wales and farming groups, re-engineered the river to recreate pools and riffles with the intention of allowing the river to re-gain its original form and diversity of wildlife.As the river continues northwards, it passes close to the great waste tips of slate produced by the Penrhyn slate quarry. A dam was built in the Afon Ogwen at Ogwen Bank, in the early 20th century, to raise the level of the river in order to provide water for the use of the nearby Penrhyn Quarry and then past a caravan site, Ogwen Bank, where the remains of a long abandoned watermill and mill pond still exist. Passing Braichmelyn village on its eastern bank, it is joined by the substantial tributary, the Afon Caseg, which drains a large area of the Carneddau mountains. The course turns slightly more westwards as the river passes through Bethesda and becomes progressively more wooded and more deeply cut providing some white water conditions enjoyed by canoeists. The widening river is then followed by an abandoned railway line (now the Lon Las Ogwen cycle path) through a woodland valley crossing under the main north Wales coast line and the A55 before discharging to the Menai Strait at Aberogwen, near Bangor. Tributaries RightAfon Bodesi Afon Lloer Afon Denau Afon Caseg Afon Llafar Afon Ffrydlas Afon Llan (Llanllechid)LeftNant (neu Afon) Gwern y Gof Nant Bochlwyd Nant Cywion Nant Bual Nant Berfedd References External links www.geograph.co.uk : photos of the River Ogwen

Daniel J. Murphy (botanist)

Daniel J. Murphy is an Australian botanist.

Daniel J. Murphy is an Australian botanist. Biography Daniel J. Murphy completed his Ph.D. at the school of botany, The University of Melbourne in 2001. Murphy is currently a senior research scientist based at the National Herbarium of Victoria. Murphy's research is molecular based, investigating systematics, taxonomy, classification and biogeography of flowering plants. Murphy's taxa of interest include Acacia, Persoonia, Adansonia, Vachellia farnesiana and grasses.Murphy is currently an associate editor with the following journals: Muelleria (journal) Australian Systematic BotanyThe National Herbarium of Victoria holds over 200 specimens collected by Murphy and many more as an additional collector. Other herbaria in Australia holding his collections include the University of Melbourne Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Western Australian Herbarium, National Herbarium of New South Wales, Tasmanian Herbarium, and the N.C.W. Beadle Herbarium. Standard author abbreviation The standard author abbreviation D.J.Murphy is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. Selected published names Acacia leprosa var. crassipoda Maslin & D.J.Murphy Acacia leprosa var. graveolens Maslin & D.J.Murphy Acacia leprosa var. magna Maslin & D.J.Murphy Acacia leprosa var. uninervia Maslin & D.J.Murphy Acacia rostriformis Maslin & D.J.Murphy Acacia stictophylla Court ex Maslin & D.J.Murphy Falcataria pullenii (Verdc.) Gill.K.Br., D.J.Murphy & Ladiges Falcataria toona (F.M.Bailey) Gill.K.Br., D.J.Murphy & Ladiges See also Category:Taxa named by Daniel J. Murphyand International Plant Name Index Selected publications Books Chapters Luckow, M., Miller, J.T., Murphy, D.J. and Livshultz, T. (2003). A phylogenetic analysis of the Mimosoideae (Leguminosae) based on chloroplast DNA sequence data. In B. Klitgaard and A. Bruneau (eds), Advances in Legume Systematics,part 10, pp. 197–220. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Journal articles Murphy, D.J., Udovicic, F. and Ladiges, P.Y. (2000). Phylogenetic analysis of Australian Acacia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) using sequence variations of an intron and two intergenic spacers of chloroplast DNA. Australian Systematic Botany 13, 745–754 doi:10.1071/SB99027 == References ==

David Dunbar Buick

David Dunbar Buick (September 17, 1854 – March 5, 1929) was a Scottish-born American inventor, widely known for founding the Buick Motor Company. He headed this company and its predecessor from 1899–1906, thereby helping to create one of the most successful nameplates in United States motor vehicle history.

David Dunbar Buick (September 17, 1854 – March 5, 1929) was a Scottish-born American inventor, widely known for founding the Buick Motor Company. He headed this company and its predecessor from 1899–1906, thereby helping to create one of the most successful nameplates in United States motor vehicle history. Early life, family and education Buick was born in Arbroath, Scotland. He and his family moved to Detroit, Michigan when he was two years old. He left school in 1869. Career Buick quit school and worked for a company which made plumbing goods. When the company ran into trouble in 1882, he and a partner purchased it. At this time, Buick began to show his promise as an inventor, producing many innovations including a lawn sprinkler and a method for permanently coating cast iron with vitreous enamel which allowed the production of "white" baths at lower cost (although cast iron baths are uncommon nowadays, the method is still in use for enameling them). With the combination of Buick's innovation and his partner's sound business management, the company became quite successful. Buick Motor Company During the 1890s, Buick developed an interest in internal combustion engines and began experimenting with them. He was spending little time on the plumbing business, and his business partner became impatient with him. The partnership was dissolved, and the company was sold. Buick now had the time and capital to work on engines full-time, and he set up a new company, the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company, in 1899 to do so. The stated aim of the company was to market engines for agricultural use. Buick soon turned to the development of a complete car, rather than just an engine. He also concentrated on research and development at the expense of manufacturing and sales. The result was that he consumed his capital by early-1902 without having generated any significant return, only a single car. In early-1902, he established the Buick Manufacturing Company, with the objectives of marketing engines to other car companies, and manufacturing and selling its own cars. Manufacturing and development problems ensued, and, at the end of 1902, Buick was out of money with only one car to show for his work. The concentration on development had produced the revolutionary "Valve-in-Head" overhead valve engine. This method of engine construction produces a much more powerful engine than the rival side valve engine design used by all other manufacturers at the time. Overhead valve engines are used by most car manufacturers today, but now only General Motors (GM) and Chrysler produce the "push-rod" variant with any regularity. Since overhead cam engines are design variants of OHV engines, it is fair to classify virtually all modern engines as derivatives of Buick's invention. The money ran out again, and in 1903 Buick was forced to raise more money via a $5,000 loan (equivalent to $163,000 in 2022) from a friend and fellow car enthusiast, Benjamin Briscoe. With this financial help, Buick formed the Buick Motor Company, which would eventually become the cornerstone of the General Motors empire. Later life and business failure In 1906, Buick accepted a severance package and left the company that he had founded, with only one share of the company in his possession. Then president of Buick, William C. Durant, bought this share from him for $100,000 (equivalent to $3,300,000 in 2022).After unsuccessful investments in California oil and Florida land, and an attempt (with his son Tom) to manufacture carburetors, Buick made a brief return to the automotive business in 1921, as president of the short-lived Lorraine Motors, and in 1923 with the design of the Dunbar, an automobile prototype.In an interview with historian Bruce Catton in 1928, Buick admitted that he was almost completely broke, unable to even afford a telephone, and worked as an instructor at the Detroit School of Trades. He died of colon cancer on March 5, 1929, at the age of 74 and was buried at Woodmere Cemetery in Detroit. Commentator Theodore F. McManus noted that "Fame beckoned to David Buick. He sipped from the cup of greatness, and then spilled what it held." In 2000, automotive historian Vincent Curcio observed that "To date, over 35,000,000 motor cars have been built in his name, which will never be lost to history."He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1974. References External links "Who Remembers David Dunbar Buick?" – PreWarBuick.com "The Real Ghost in Buick's Past" – Promotex Online

El (deity)

ʼĒl (also 'Il, Ugaritic: 𐎛𐎍 ʾīlu; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤋 ʾīl; Hebrew: אֵל ʾēl; Syriac: ܐܺܝܠ ʾīyl; Arabic: إل ʾil or إله ʾilāh; cognate to Akkadian: 𒀭, romanized: ilu) is a Northwest Semitic word meaning "god" or "deity", or referring (as a proper name) to any one of multiple major ancient Near Eastern deities. A rarer form, 'ila, represents the predicate form in the Old Akkadian and Amorite languages. The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic *ʔil-, meaning "god".Specific deities known as 'El, 'Al or 'Il include the supreme god of the ancient Canaanite religion and the supreme god of East Semitic speakers in Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia. Among the Hittites, El was known as Elkunirsa (Hittite: 𒂖𒆪𒉌𒅕𒊭 Elkunīrša). Although ʼĒl gained different appearances and meanings in different languages ​ over time, it continues to exist as ..il or ..el in compound noun phrases such as Ishmael, Israel, Daniel, Raphael, Michael, Gabriel etc.

ʼĒl (also 'Il, Ugaritic: 𐎛𐎍 ʾīlu; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤋 ʾīl; Hebrew: אֵל ʾēl; Syriac: ܐܺܝܠ ʾīyl; Arabic: إل ʾil or إله ʾilāh; cognate to Akkadian: 𒀭, romanized: ilu) is a Northwest Semitic word meaning "god" or "deity", or referring (as a proper name) to any one of multiple major ancient Near Eastern deities. A rarer form, 'ila, represents the predicate form in the Old Akkadian and Amorite languages. The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic *ʔil-, meaning "god".Specific deities known as 'El, 'Al or 'Il include the supreme god of the ancient Canaanite religion and the supreme god of East Semitic speakers in Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia. Among the Hittites, El was known as Elkunirsa (Hittite: 𒂖𒆪𒉌𒅕𒊭 Elkunīrša). Although ʼĒl gained different appearances and meanings in different languages ​ over time, it continues to exist as ..il or ..el in compound noun phrases such as Ishmael, Israel, Daniel, Raphael, Michael, Gabriel etc. Linguistic forms and meanings Cognate forms of “ʼĒl” are found throughout the Semitic languages. They include Ugaritic ʾilu, pl. ʾlm; Phoenician ʾl pl. ʾlm; Hebrew ʾēl, pl. ʾēlîm; Aramaic ʾl; Akkadian ilu, pl. ilānu. In northwest Semitic use, “ʼĒl” was a generic word for any god as well as the special name or title of a particular god who was distinguished from other gods as being "the god". ʼĒl is listed at the head of many pantheons. In some Canaanite and Ugaritic sources, ʼĒl played a role as father of the gods, of creation, or both.However, because the word ʼĒl sometimes refers to a god other than the great god ʼĒl, it is frequently ambiguous as to whether ʼĒl followed by another name means the great god ʼĒl with a particular epithet applied or refers to another god entirely. For example, in the Ugaritic texts, ʾil mlk is understood to mean "ʼĒl the King" but ʾil hd as "the god Hadad".The Semitic root ʾlh (Arabic ʾilāh, Aramaic ʾAlāh, ʾElāh, Hebrew ʾelōah) may be ʾl with a parasitic h, and ʾl may be an abbreviated form of ʾlh. In Ugaritic the plural form meaning "gods" is ʾilhm, equivalent to Hebrew ʾelōhîm "powers". In the Hebrew texts this word is interpreted as being semantically singular for "god" by biblical commentators. However, according to the documentary hypothesis, at least four different authors – the Jahwist (J), Elohist (E), Deuteronomist (D), and Priestly (P) sources – were responsible for editing stories from a polytheistic religion into those of a monotheistic religion. These sources were joined together at various points in time by a series of editors or "redactors". Inconsistencies that arise between monotheism and polytheism in the texts are reflective of this hypothesis.The stem ʾl is found prominently in the earliest strata of east Semitic, northwest Semitic, and south Semitic groups. Personal names including the stem ʾl are found with similar patterns in both the Amorite and Sabaic languages. Proto-Sinaitic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Hittite texts The Egyptian god Ptah is given the title ḏū gitti 'Lord of Gath' in a prism from Tel Lachish which has on its opposite face the name of Amenhotep II (c. 1435 – c. 1420 BCE). The title ḏū gitti is also found in Serābitṭ text 353. Cross (1973, p. 19) points out that Ptah is often called the Lord (or one) of eternity and thinks it may be this identification of ʼĒl with Ptah that lead to the epithet 'olam 'eternal' being applied to ʼĒl so early and so consistently. (However, in the Ugaritic texts, Ptah is seemingly identified rather with the craftsman god Kothar-wa-Khasis.) Yet another connection is seen with the Mandaean angel Ptahil, whose name combines both the terms Ptah and Il.In an inscription in the Proto-Sinaitic script, William F. Albright transcribed the phrase ʾL Ḏ ʿLM, which he translated as the appellation "El, (god) of eternity".The name Raphael or Rapha-El, meaning 'God has healed' in Ugarit, is attested to in approximately 1350 BCE in one of the Amarna Letters EA333, found in Tell-el-Hesi from the ruler of Lachish to 'The Great One'A Phoenician inscribed amulet of the seventh century BCE from Arslan Tash may refer to ʼĒl. The text was translated by Rosenthal (1969, p. 658) as follows: However, Cross (1973, p. 17) translated the text as follows: In some inscriptions, the name 'Ēl qōne 'arṣ (Punic: 𐤀𐤋 𐤒𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ʾl qn ʾrṣ) meaning "ʼĒl creator of Earth" appears, even including a late inscription at Leptis Magna in Tripolitania dating to the second century. In Hittite texts, the expression becomes the single name Ilkunirsa, this Ilkunirsa appearing as the husband of Asherdu (Asherah) and father of 77 or 88 sons.In a Hurrian hymn to ʼĒl (published in Ugaritica V, text RS 24.278), he is called 'il brt and 'il dn, which Cross (p. 39) takes as 'ʼĒl of the covenant' and 'ʼĒl the judge' respectively. Ugarit and the Levant For the Canaanites and the ancient Levantine region as a whole, ʼĒl or ʼIl was the supreme god, the father of mankind and all creatures. He also fathered many gods, most importantly Baal, Yam, and Mot, each sharing similar attributes to the Greco-Roman gods: Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades respectively. As recorded on the clay tablets of Ugarit, El is the husband of the goddess Asherah. Three pantheon lists found at Ugarit (modern Ras Shamrā—Arabic: رأس شمرا, Syria) begin with the four gods 'il-'ib (which according to Cross; is the name of a generic kind of deity, perhaps the divine ancestor of the people), ʼĒl, Dagnu (that is Dagon), and Ba'l Ṣapān (that is the god Haddu or Hadad). Though Ugarit had a large temple dedicated to Dagon and another to Hadad, there was no temple dedicated to ʼĒl. ʼĒl is repeatedly referred to as Tôru ʼĒl ("Bull ʼĒl" or "the bull god"). He is bātnyu binwāti ("Creator of creatures"), 'abū banī 'ili ("father of the gods"), and 'abū 'adami ("father of man"). He is qāniyunu 'ôlam ("creator eternal"), the epithet 'ôlam appearing in Hebrew form in the Hebrew name of God 'ēl 'ôlam "God Eternal" in Genesis 21.33. He is ḥātikuka ("your patriarch"). ʼĒl is the grey-bearded ancient one, full of wisdom, malku ("King"), 'abū šamīma ("Father of years"), 'El gibbōr ("ʼĒl the warrior"). He is also named lṭpn of unknown meaning, variously rendered as Latpan, Latipan, or Lutpani ("shroud-face" by Strong's Hebrew Concordance), c.f. cognate with Arabic لطيف Latif "hidden"."El" (Father of Heaven / Saturn) and his major son: "Hadad" (Father of Earth / Jupiter), are symbolized both by the bull, and both wear bull horns on their headdresses.In Canaanite mythology, El builds a desert sanctuary with his children and his two wives, leading to speculation that at one point El was a desert god. The mysterious Ugaritic text Shachar and Shalim tells how (perhaps near the beginning of all things) ʼĒl came to shores of the sea and saw two women who bobbed up and down. ʼĒl was sexually aroused and took the two with him, killed a bird by throwing a staff at it, and roasted it over a fire. He asked the women to tell him when the bird was fully cooked, and to then address him either as husband or as father, for he would thenceforward behave to them as they called him. They saluted him as husband. He then lay with them, and they gave birth to Shachar ("Dawn") and Shalim ("Dusk"). Again ʼĒl lay with his wives and the wives gave birth to "the gracious gods", "cleavers of the sea", "children of the sea". The names of these wives are not explicitly provided, but some confusing rubrics at the beginning of the account mention the goddess Athirat, who is otherwise ʼĒl's chief wife and the goddess Raḥmayyu ("the one of the womb").In the Ugaritic Ba'al cycle, ʼĒl is introduced having an assembly of gods on Mount Lel (Lel possibly meaning "Night"), and dwelling on (or in) the fountains of the two rivers at the spring of the two deeps. He dwells in a tent according to some interpretations of the text which may explain why he had no temple in Ugarit. As to the rivers and the spring of the two deeps, these might refer to real streams, or to the mythological sources of the salt water ocean and the fresh water sources under the earth, or to the waters above the heavens and the waters beneath the earth. In the episode of the "Palace of Ba'al", the god Ba'al Hadad invites the "seventy sons of Athirat" to a feast in his new palace. Presumably these sons have been fathered on Athirat by ʼĒl; in following passages they seem to be the gods ('ilm) in general or at least a large portion of them. The only sons of ʼĒl named individually in the Ugaritic texts are Yamm ("Sea"), Mot ("Death"), and Ashtar, who may be the chief and leader of most of the sons of ʼĒl. Ba'al Hadad is a few times called ʼĒl's son rather than the son of Dagan as he is normally called, possibly because ʼĒl is in the position of a clan-father to all the gods. The fragmentary text R.S. 24.258 describes a banquet to which ʼĒl invites the other gods and then disgraces himself by becoming outrageously drunk and passing out after confronting an otherwise unknown Hubbay, "he with the horns and tail". The text ends with an incantation for the cure for a hangover.El's characterization in Ugarit texts is not always favorable. His authority is unquestioned, but sometimes exacted through threat or roundly mocked. He is "Both comical and pathetic" in a "rôle of impotence." Hebrew Bible The Hebrew form (אל) appears in Latin letters in Standard Hebrew transcription as El and in Tiberian Hebrew transcription as ʾĒl. ʼĒl is a generic word for god that could be used for any god, including Hadad, Moloch, or Yahweh. In the Tanakh, 'elōhîm is the normal word for a god or the great God (or gods, given that the 'im' suffix makes a word plural in Hebrew). But the form 'El also appears, mostly in poetic passages and in the patriarchal narratives attributed to the Priestly source of the documentary hypothesis. It occurs 217 times in the Masoretic Text: seventy-three times in the Psalms and fifty-five times in the Book of Job, and otherwise mostly in poetic passages or passages written in elevated prose. It occasionally appears with the definite article as hā'Ēl 'the god' (for example in 2 Samuel 22:31,33–48). The theological position of the Tanakh is that the names ʼĒl and 'Ĕlōhîm, when used in the singular to mean the supreme god, refer to Yahweh, beside whom other gods are supposed to be either nonexistent or insignificant. Whether this was a long-standing belief or a relatively new one has long been the subject of inconclusive scholarly debate about the prehistory of the sources of the Tanakh and about the prehistory of Israelite religion. In the P strand, Exodus 6:3 may be translated: I revealed myself to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as Ēl Shaddāi, but was not known to them by my name, YHWH. However, it is said in Genesis 14:18–20 that Abraham accepted the blessing of El, when Melchizedek, the king of Salem and high priest of its deity El Elyon blessed him. One scholarly position is that the identification of Yahweh with ʼĒl is late, that Yahweh was earlier thought of as only one of many gods, and not normally identified with ʼĒl. Another is that in much of the Hebrew Bible the name El is an alternative name for Yahweh, but in the Elohist and Priestly traditions it is considered an earlier name than Yahweh. Mark Smith has argued that Yahweh and El were originally separate, but were considered synonymous from very early on. The name Yahweh is used in the Bible Tanakh in the first book of Genesis 2:4; and Genesis 4:26 says that at that time, people began to "call upon the name of the LORD". In some places, especially in Psalm 29, Yahweh is clearly envisioned as a storm god, something not true of ʼĒl so far as scholars know (although true of his son, Ba'al Haddad). It is Yahweh who is prophesied to one day battle Leviathan the serpent, and slay the dragon in the sea in Isaiah 27:1. The slaying of the serpent in myth is a deed attributed to both Ba'al Hadad and 'Anat in the Ugaritic texts, but not to ʼĒl.Such mythological motifs are variously seen as late survivals from a period when Yahweh held a place in theology comparable to that of Hadad at Ugarit; or as late henotheistic/monotheistic applications to Yahweh of deeds more commonly attributed to Hadad; or simply as examples of eclectic application of the same motifs and imagery to various different gods. Similarly, it is argued inconclusively whether Ēl Shaddāi, Ēl 'Ôlām, Ēl 'Elyôn, and so forth, were originally understood as separate divinities. Albrecht Alt presented his theories on the original differences of such gods in Der Gott der Väter in 1929. But others have argued that from patriarchal times, these different names were generally understood to refer to the same single great god, ʼĒl. This is the position of Frank Moore Cross (1973). What is certain is that the form 'El does appear in Israelite names from every period including the name Yiśrā'ēl ("Israel"), meaning "El strives". According to The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, It seems almost certain that the God of the Jews evolved gradually from the Canaanite El, who was in all likelihood the "God of Abraham" ... If El was the high God of Abraham—Elohim, the prototype of Yahveh—Asherah was his wife, and there are archaeological indications that she was perceived as such before she was in effect "divorced" in the context of emerging Judaism of the 7th century BCE. (See 2 Kings 23:15.) The apparent plural form 'Ēlîm or 'Ēlim "gods" occurs only four times in the Tanakh. Psalm 29, understood as an enthronement psalm, begins: Psalm 89:6 (verse 7 in Hebrew) has: Traditionally bênê 'ēlîm has been interpreted as 'sons of the mighty', 'mighty ones', for 'El can mean 'mighty', though such use may be metaphorical (compare the English expression [by] God awful). It is possible also that the expression 'ēlîm in both places descends from an archaic stock phrase in which 'lm was a singular form with the m-enclitic and therefore to be translated as 'sons of ʼĒl'. The m-enclitic appears elsewhere in the Tanakh and in other Semitic languages. Its meaning is unknown, possibly simply emphasis. It appears in similar contexts in Ugaritic texts where the expression bn 'il alternates with bn 'ilm, but both must mean 'sons of ʼĒl'. That phrase with m-enclitic also appears in Phoenician inscriptions as late as the fifth century BCE. One of the other two occurrences in the Tanakh is in the "Song of Moses", Exodus 15:11a: Who is like you among the Gods ('ēlim), Yahweh? The final occurrence is in Daniel 11:36: And the king will do according to his pleasure; and he will exalt himself and magnify himself over every god ('ēl), and against the God of Gods ('El 'Elîm) he will speak outrageous things, and will prosper until the indignation is accomplished: for that which is decided will be done. There are a few cases in the Tanakh where some think 'El referring to the great god ʼĒl is not equated with Yahweh. One is in Ezekiel 28:2, in the taunt against a man who claims to be divine, in this instance, the leader of Tyre: Son of man, say to the prince of Tyre: "Thus says the Lord Yahweh: 'Because your heart is proud and you have said: "I am 'ēl (god), in the seat of 'elōhîm (gods), I am enthroned in the middle of the seas." Yet you are man and not 'El even though you have made your heart like the heart of 'elōhîm ('gods').'" Here 'ēl might refer to a generic god, or to a highest god, ʼĒl. When viewed as applying to the King of Tyre specifically, the king was probably not thinking of Yahweh. When viewed as a general taunt against anyone making divine claims, it may or may not refer to Yahweh depending on the context. In Judges 9:46 we find 'Ēl Bêrît 'God of the Covenant', seemingly the same as the Ba'al Bêrît 'Lord of the Covenant' whose worship has been condemned a few verses earlier. See Baal for a discussion of this passage. Psalm 82:1 says: This could mean that Yahweh judges along with many other gods as one of the council of the high god ʼĒl. However it can also mean that Yahweh stands in the Divine Council (generally known as the Council of ʼĒl), as ʼĒl judging among the other members of the council. The following verses in which the god condemns those whom he says were previously named gods (Elohim) and sons of the Most High suggest the god here is in fact ʼĒl judging the lesser gods. An archaic phrase appears in Isaiah 14:13, kôkkêbê 'ēl 'stars of God', referring to the circumpolar stars that never set, possibly especially to the seven stars of Ursa Major. The phrase also occurs in the Pyrgi Inscription as hkkbm 'l (preceded by the definite article h and followed by the m-enclitic). Two other apparent fossilized expressions are arzê-'ēl 'cedars of God' (generally translated something like 'mighty cedars', 'goodly cedars') in Psalm 80:10 (in Hebrew verse 11) and kêharrê-'ēl 'mountains of God' (generally translated something like 'great mountains', 'mighty mountains') in Psalm 36:7 (in Hebrew verse 6). For the reference in some texts of Deuteronomy 32:8 to seventy sons of God corresponding to the seventy sons of ʼĒl in the Ugaritic texts, see `Elyôn. It has been argued that in the supposed original version of Deuteronomy 32, as preserved in the Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Yahweh was described as a son of El, although some scholars disagree with this view. Sanchuniathon Philo of Byblos (c. 64–141 AD) was a Greek writer whose account Sanchuniathon survives in quotation by Eusebius and may contain the major surviving traces of Phoenician mythology. ʼĒl (rendered Elus or called by his standard Greek counterpart Cronus) is not the creator god or first god. ʼĒl is rather the son of Sky (Uranus) and Earth (Ge). Sky and Earth are themselves children of 'Elyôn 'Most High'. ʼĒl is brother to the God Bethel, to Dagon and to an unknown god, equated with the Greek Atlas and to the goddesses Aphrodite/'Ashtart, Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (equated with Ba'alat Gebal). ʼĒl is the father of Persephone and of Athena (presumably the goddess 'Anat).Sky and Earth have separated from one another in hostility, but Sky insists on continuing to force himself on Earth and attempts to destroy the children born of such unions. At last, with the advice of his daughter Athena and the god Hermes Trismegistus (perhaps Thoth), ʼĒl successfully attacks his father Sky with a sickle and spear of iron. He and his military allies the Eloim gain Sky's kingdom.In a later passage it is explained that ʼĒl castrated Sky. One of Sky's concubines (who was given to ʼĒl's brother Dagon) was already pregnant by Sky. The son who is born of the union, called Demarûs or Zeus, but once called Adodus, is obviously Hadad, the Ba'al of the Ugaritic texts who now becomes an ally of his grandfather Sky and begins to make war on ʼĒl. ʼĒl has three wives, his sisters or half-sisters Aphrodite/Astarte ('Ashtart), Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (identified by Sanchuniathon with Ba'alat Gebal the tutelary goddess of Byblos, a city which Sanchuniathon says that ʼĒl founded). El is depicted primarily as a warrior; in Ugaritic sources Baal has the warrior role and El is peaceful, and it may be that the Sanchuniathon depicts an earlier tradition that was more preserved in the southern regions of Canaan.: 255 Eusebius, through whom the Sanchuniathon is preserved, is not interested in setting the work forth completely or in order. But we are told that ʼĒl slew his own son Sadidus (a name that some commentators think might be a corruption of Shaddai, one of the epithets of the Biblical ʼĒl) and that ʼĒl also beheaded one of his daughters. Later, perhaps referring to this same death of Sadidus we are told: But on the occurrence of a pestilence and mortality Cronus offers his only begotten son as a whole burnt-offering to his father Sky and circumcises himself, compelling his allies also to do the same. A fuller account of the sacrifice appears later: It was a custom of the ancients in great crises of danger for the rulers of a city or nation, in order to avert the common ruin, to give up the most beloved of their children for sacrifice as a ransom to the avenging daemons; and those who were thus given up were sacrificed with mystic rites. Cronus then, whom the Phoenicians call Elus, who was king of the country and subsequently, after his decease, was deified as the star Saturn, had by a nymph of the country named Anobret an only begotten son, whom they on this account called Iedud, the only begotten being still so called among the Phoenicians; and when very great dangers from war had beset the country, he arrayed his son in royal apparel, and prepared an altar, and sacrificed him. The account also relates that Thoth: also devised for Cronus as insignia of royalty four eyes in front and behind ... but two of them quietly closed, and upon his shoulders four wings, two as spread for flying, and two as folded. And the symbol meant that Cronus could see when asleep, and sleep while waking: and similarly in the case of the wings, that he flew while at rest, and was at rest when flying. But to each of the other gods he gave two wings upon the shoulders, as meaning that they accompanied Cronus in his flight. And to Cronus himself again he gave two wings upon his head, one representing the all-ruling mind, and one sensation. This is the form under which ʼĒl/Cronus appears on coins from Byblos from the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BCE) four spread wings and two folded wings, leaning on a staff. Such images continued to appear on coins until after the time of Augustus. Poseidon A bilingual inscription from Palmyra dated to the 1st century equates ʼĒl-Creator-of-the-Earth with the Greek god Poseidon. Going back to the 8th century BCE, the bilingual inscription at Karatepe in the Taurus Mountains equates ʼĒl-Creator-of-the-Earth to Luwian hieroglyphs read as da-a-ś, this being the Luwian form of the name of the Babylonian water god Ea, lord of the abyss of water under the earth. (This inscription lists ʼĒl in second place in the local pantheon, following Ba'al Shamîm and preceding the Eternal Sun.) Poseidon is known to have been worshipped in Beirut, his image appearing on coins from that city. Poseidon of Beirut was also worshipped at Delos where there was an association of merchants, shipmasters, and warehousemen called the Poseidoniastae of Berytus founded in 110 or 109 BCE. Three of the four chapels at its headquarters on the hill northwest of the Sacred Lake were dedicated to Poseidon, the Tyche of the city equated with Astarte (that is 'Ashtart), and to Eshmun. Also at Delos, that association of Tyrians, though mostly devoted to Heracles-Melqart, elected a member to bear a crown every year when sacrifices to Poseidon took place. A banker named Philostratus donated two altars, one to Palaistine Aphrodite Urania ('Ashtart) and one to Poseidon "of Ascalon". Though Sanchuniathon distinguishes Poseidon from his Elus/Cronus, this might be a splitting off of a particular aspect of ʼĒl in a euhemeristic account. Identification of an aspect of ʼĒl with Poseidon rather than with Cronus might have been felt to better fit with Hellenistic religious practice, if indeed this Phoenician Poseidon really is the ʼĒl who dwells at the source of the two deeps in Ugaritic texts. More information is needed to be certain. See also Elagabalus (deity) Divine Council Allah Ancient Semitic religion Anu Enlil Names of God in Judaism Theophory in the Bible Footnotes References Archi, Alfonso (2004). "Translation of Gods: Kumarpi, Enlil, Dagan/NISABA, Ḫalki". Orientalia. GBPress – Gregorian Biblical Press. 73 (4): 319–336. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43078173. Retrieved 1 February 2023. Binger, Tilde (1997). Asherah: Goddesses in Ugarit, Israel and the Old Testament. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-637-8. LCCN 97205267. OCLC 37525364. Cross, Frank Moore (1973). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-09176-4. LCCN 72076564. OCLC 185400934. Cross, Frank Moore (1997), Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (reprint ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674091760, retrieved 30 April 2015 Donner, Herbert; Röllig, Wolfgang (1962–1964). Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz. Gelb, I. J. (1961), Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar (PDF) (2nd ed.), University of Chicago, retrieved 30 April 2015. Feliu, Lluís (2007). "Two brides for two gods. The case of Šala and Šalaš". He unfurrowed his brow and laughed. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-934628-32-8. OCLC 191759910. Fontenrose, Joseph (1957). "Dagon and El". Oriens. 10 (2): 277–279. doi:10.2307/1579640. ISSN 0078-6527. JSTOR 1579640. Güterbock, Hans Gustav (1983), "Kumarbi", Reallexikon der Assyriologie Kugel, James L. (2007). How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-3586-0. LCCN 2007023466. OCLC 181602277. Leeming, David (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0. LCCN 2005014216. OCLC 60492027. Margalit, Baruch (1989). The Ugaritic poem of Aqht: text; translation; commentary. Berlin, Germamy: de Gruyter. ISBN 0-89925-472-1. Matthews, Victor Harold (2004). Judges and Ruth. New Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00066-6. LCCN 2003053218. OCLC 52380969. Rahmouni, Aicha (2007). Divine epithets in the Ugaritic alphabetic texts. Translated by Ford, J. N. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts: Brill. ISBN 9789004157699. Rosenthal, Franz (1969). "The Amulet from Arslan Tash". In Pritchard, James (ed.). Trans. in: Ancient Near Eastern Texts (3rd ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 658. ISBN 978-0-691-03503-1. OCLC 5342384. Smith, Mark S. (2001). The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic background and the Ugaritic texts. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513480-3. LCCN 99058180. OCLC 53388532. Smith, Mark S. (2002). The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel. William B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-3972-5. van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6. LCCN 98042505. OCLC 39765350. Wyatt, Nicolas (2002). Religious Texts from Ugarit. The Biblical Seminar. Vol. 53 (2nd ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-6048-6. LCCN 2002489996. OCLC 48979997. Further reading Bruneau, Philippe (1970). Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l'époque hellénistique et à l'époque imperiale (in French). Paris, France: E. de Broccard. LCCN 78851163. OCLC 2349270. Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy (1959). Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04091-5. LCCN 59005144. OCLC 4089770. Teixidor, Javier (1977). The Pagan God. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07220-3. LCCN 76024300. OCLC 2644903. External links Bartleby: American Heritage Dictionary: Semitic Roots: ʾl Pronunciation (audio) of El

Drogo, Duke of Brittany

Drogo was the count of Vannes and Nantes and duke of Brittany from 952, when he succeeded his father, Alan Wrybeard, until his death in 958. Drogo was a minor throughout his reign, and so he was under a Regency. Drogo's Regents were his uncle the Count of Blois, Theobald I (who entrusted the administration of the Duchy to Wicohen, Archbishop of Dol, and the Count of Rennes, Juhel Berengar) and his stepfather the Count of Anjou, Fulk II, who married the Wrybeard's widow. The Chronique de Nantes suggests that Drogo was murdered on the orders of Fulk II, Count of Anjou.

Drogo was the count of Vannes and Nantes and duke of Brittany from 952, when he succeeded his father, Alan Wrybeard, until his death in 958. Drogo was a minor throughout his reign, and so he was under a Regency. Drogo's Regents were his uncle the Count of Blois, Theobald I (who entrusted the administration of the Duchy to Wicohen, Archbishop of Dol, and the Count of Rennes, Juhel Berengar) and his stepfather the Count of Anjou, Fulk II, who married the Wrybeard's widow. The Chronique de Nantes suggests that Drogo was murdered on the orders of Fulk II, Count of Anjou. References Sources Hagger, Mark S. (2017). Norman Rule in Normandy, 911-1144. The Boydell Press. See also Dukes of Brittany family tree

Open English

Open English is an online English school. In 2014, the school had 100,000 students in the Spanish speaking world.

Open English is an online English school. In 2014, the school had 100,000 students in the Spanish speaking world. History Andrés Moreno, Nicolette Rankin and Wilmer Samiento, co-founded Open English in Caracas, Venezuela in September 2006. In 2009, Rankin and Moreno moved the company to Miami, Florida. Moreno played the English student and Rankin played the English teacher in their homemade commercials for Open English.From 2010 to 2013, the company raised $120 million in VC funding, including $69 million in 2013 from venture firm Technology Crossover Ventures (TCV).In 2013, co-founder Rankin left Open English and co-founded another online school, Next University. In 2015, Next University was acquired by Open English. See also Language education References External links Open English Open English Junior

ADS Group

ADS Group Limited, informally known as ADS, is the trade organisation representing the aerospace, defence, security and space industries in the United Kingdom. It has more than 1,000 member companies across its sectors, including some of the UK's largest manufacturers, like Airbus, Rolls-Royce, BAE Systems, Meggitt PLC and GKN. Its subsidiary Farnborough International Limited runs the biennial Farnborough Air Show, one of the world's biggest air shows, and other events.

ADS Group Limited, informally known as ADS, is the trade organisation representing the aerospace, defence, security and space industries in the United Kingdom. It has more than 1,000 member companies across its sectors, including some of the UK's largest manufacturers, like Airbus, Rolls-Royce, BAE Systems, Meggitt PLC and GKN. Its subsidiary Farnborough International Limited runs the biennial Farnborough Air Show, one of the world's biggest air shows, and other events. History ADS Group Limited was incorporated on 11 September 2009 as a private, limited by guarantee, no share capital company registered in the United Kingdom with company number 07016635.It was formed from the merger of the Association of Police and Public Security Suppliers (APPSS), the Defence Manufacturers Association (DMA) and the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC). Activities ADS activities are focussed on supporting UK manufacturing and its industries supply chains, contributing to policy debates of importance to its industries, encouraging investments in technology and innovation, supporting business development, and enhancing the profile of its sectors. Its current published priority issues are around developing industrial strategy, productivity supply chain improvements, public procurement, and delivering net zero carbon by 2050.Farnborough International Limited, which runs the Farnborough Airshow, is a wholly owned subsidiary of ADS. ADS also encompasses the British Aviation Group (BAG).The organization participates in joint initiatives between industry and Government, including the Aerospace Growth Partnership and Defence Growth Partnership. It leads the National Aerospace Technology Exploitation Programme (NATEP), supported by funding from the Aerospace Technology Institute, aimed at helping UK supply chain companies develop innovative technologies. ADS is the largest member and contributor to the Aerospace and Defence Industries Association of Europe (ASD), the trade association representing Aerospace, Defence and Space in Europe.It publishes a quarterly magazine covering its four sectors, ADS Advance, and annual economic outlook reports on the UK aerospace, defence and security sectors. Events ADS coordinates UK Pavilions for UK companies exhibiting at international shows such as Paris Air Show and Singapore Air Show. The 2017 Paris Air Show saw 88 UK companies exhibiting in the UK Pavilion, while 150 companies exhibited in the 2017 UK Pavilion at DSEI. It also runs the annual United Kingdom Aerospace Youth Rocketry Challenge, a competition for secondary school student teams. The UK national champions compete in the International Rocketry Challenge against winners of the US, French and Japanese competitions. The International Rocketry Challenge final is held at the Farnborough Airshow or Paris Air Show in alternating years. ADS holds an Annual Dinner for member companies and invited guests, and since 2015 has held an annual reception in Parliament for apprentices from across its member companies. Special Interest Groups ADS has more than 30 Special Interest Groups formed of members with similar professional specialisms. All groups deliver activities that are led by members, and cover areas including aerospace exports, aircraft interiors, maritime, training and simulation, and environmental issues. Offices The head office is situated on the Albert Embankment (A3036), on the opposite side of the Thames to Millbank Tower, and next to the headquarters of the London Fire Brigade and the United Nations' International Maritime Organization, east of Lambeth Bridge. It also has offices in Farnborough Edinburgh Belfast Toulouse, France Governance ADS is overseen by the ADS Board, comprising the President, Chief Executive and representatives of member companies. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the Executive Team. A number of Boards and Committees oversee specific areas of work, such as membership, business ethics, and civil aviation safety.The ADS Chief Executive is Kevin Craven, who took up the post in April 2021, succeeding Paul Everitt, Chief Executive from 2013 to 2021. The current President is Julian Whitehead, Executive Vice-President Global Business and Strategic Programmes of Airbus Defence & Space. Previous Presidents include Tony Wood (British businessman), Chief Executive of Meggitt PLC who took up the post in January 2020, and former Rolls-Royce senior executive Colin Smith. Membership Membership is made up of more than 1,000 UK registered businesses. Companies include: Airbus UK Atkins BAE Systems Boeing UK Daher Aerospace Leonardo UK GE Aviation General Dynamics UK GKN Marshall Aerospace and Defence Group Messier-Dowty Meggitt PLC Qinetiq Raytheon Systems Rolls-Royce Holdings Serco Spirit AeroSystems Thales Air Defence Annual Dinner Each year ADS hosts an Annual Dinner for member companies from across its four sectors, and invited guests from across industry, politics, the armed forces, government and the media. The 8th ADS Annual Dinner in 2017 was addressed by ADS & Airbus President Paul Kahn - who spoke about the impact of Brexit on the ADS industries and about the Single Source Regulatory Office (SSRO) - and by former UK foreign secretary William Hague. The 2018 Annual Dinner, the 9th edition of the event, was held on 15 January in London. It drew more than 900 attendees, with speeches from ADS President Colin P. Smith, and Airbus Chief Executive Tom Enders. A charity collection for SSAFA – the Armed Forces Charity, raised more than £13,000 in donations. In 2019, speakers included Colin P. Smith, BAE Systems Chief Executive Charles Woodburn and former Home Secretary Alan Johnson. The 2020 Annual Dinner was addressed by the newly appointed ADS President Tony Wood and Rolls-Royce Chief Executive Warren East, who both spoke about the importance of the aviation industry addressing the challenges posed by climate change and acting firmly to cut carbon emissions, as well as the value of industrial strategy partnership between industry and Government. The after-dinner speaker was Eliza Manningham-Buller the former Director-General of MI5, while the dinner was also addressed by speakers from Armed Forces charity SSAFA and Invictus UK. There was no 2021 Annual Dinner due to the Covid pandemic. ADS instead held a virtual event, ADS Live, with speakers including Kwasi Kwarteng, Deborah Haynes and Interim Chief Executive Kevin Craven. See also Aerospace manufacturer Space industry Farnborough Airshow UK Space Agency Intellect (trade association) Arms industry UK Cyber Security Community References External links ADS Group Aerospace Technology Institute ADS Advance News items Belfast Telegraph - Boeing's Case Against Bombardier Unsettling for Aerospace Businesses in Northern Ireland Daily Telegraph - Aerospace Industry Warns Against Hard Brexit CityAM - Aircraft Order Books Soar To A New High Archived 17 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Shephard Media - DSEI 2017: UK procurement process could eliminate innovation BBC News - Queen's Speech: Plan aims to secure space sector Guardian - Aircraft orders increase tenfold in a year in boost for UK manufacturing

Köy

Köy is the word for "village" in Western Oghuz languages that are geographically western, such as Turkish, Ottoman Turkish and Crimean Tatar. It is a loanword from Persian gūy (or probably more likely kūy), which originally means "path, street". In Ottoman toponymic history a multitude of settlements with köy are attested, such as Boghaz Köy or Ermeni Köy.Toponyms with the word köy apparently came into use only after the end of the Seljuk period (1037–1194). For example, the word is not found in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk of Mahmud al-Kashgari (died 1102).The meaning of köy within the concept of an open village contrasts with that of the word kasaba, which refers to a small town. In Western Oghuz languages located to the east, such as the dialect used by Iraqi Turkmens, the word "kend" (a Sogdian loanword) is used at all times when denoting a village rather than köy; however, the Islamologist and Ottomanist Johannes Hendrik Kramers adds that "sometimes this last word seems to have been replaced by köy".

Köy is the word for "village" in Western Oghuz languages that are geographically western, such as Turkish, Ottoman Turkish and Crimean Tatar. It is a loanword from Persian gūy (or probably more likely kūy), which originally means "path, street". In Ottoman toponymic history a multitude of settlements with köy are attested, such as Boghaz Köy or Ermeni Köy.Toponyms with the word köy apparently came into use only after the end of the Seljuk period (1037–1194). For example, the word is not found in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk of Mahmud al-Kashgari (died 1102).The meaning of köy within the concept of an open village contrasts with that of the word kasaba, which refers to a small town. In Western Oghuz languages located to the east, such as the dialect used by Iraqi Turkmens, the word "kend" (a Sogdian loanword) is used at all times when denoting a village rather than köy; however, the Islamologist and Ottomanist Johannes Hendrik Kramers adds that "sometimes this last word seems to have been replaced by köy". For instance, the settlement of Ḳāḍī Kend near Mosul changes into Ḳāḍī Köy. == References ==

Litavis

Litavis (Gaulish: Litauī 'Earth', lit. 'the Broad One') is a Gallic deity whose cult is primarily attested in east-central Gaul during the Roman period. She was probably originally an earth-goddess. In medieval Celtic languages, various terms derived from *Litauia came to designate the Brittany Peninsula.

Litavis (Gaulish: Litauī 'Earth', lit. 'the Broad One') is a Gallic deity whose cult is primarily attested in east-central Gaul during the Roman period. She was probably originally an earth-goddess. In medieval Celtic languages, various terms derived from *Litauia came to designate the Brittany Peninsula. Epigraphic evidence Her name is found in inscriptions found at Aignay-le-Duc and Mâlain of the Côte-d'Or, France, where she is invoked along with the Gallo-Roman god Mars Cicolluis in a context which suggests that she might have been his consort. Also, a Latin dedicatory inscription from Narbonne (which was in the far south of Gaul), France, bears the words "MARTI CICOLLUI ET LITAVI" ("To Mars Cicolluos and Litavis"). Name Etymology The Gaulish divine name Litauī ('Earth', lit. 'the Vast One') likely stems from Proto-Celtic *flitawī ('broad'; cf. Old Breton litan, Middle Welsh llydan, 'broad'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *Pleth2-wih1 ('the Broad One'; cf. Sanskrit Pṛthvī, Greek Plátaia; also Old Norse fǫld, 'earth').The Gaulish personal name Litauicos ('sovereign', lit. 'possessor of the land') is also cognate with the Welsh Llydewig, meaning 'pertaining to Brittany', pointing to a Proto-Celtic term *Litauī-kos, here attached to the determinative suffix -kos. Medieval terms The medieval or 'neo-Celtic' names for the Brittany Peninsula (cf. Old Irish Letha, Old Welsh Litau, Old Breton Letau, Latinized as Letavia) all stem from an original *Litauia, meaning 'Land' or 'Country'. In the Irish Lebor Bretnach (11th c.), Bretain Letha means 'Britons of the Continent or Armorica, i.e. Bretons.' Linguist Rudolf Thurneysen proposed a semantic development from an Ancient Celtic term meaning 'broad land, continent' into the Insular Celtic names for the part of the Continent nearest the British Islands. References Bibliography Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental (in French). Errance. ISBN 9782877723695.Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. ISBN 9789004173361.Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-440-7. West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Further reading "Litavia" — article in Jones' Celtic Encyclopedia by Mary Jones "Litavis" — Litavis in the will of Lingon (in French); automatic Google translation into English Etymological translations of "Litanus," "Litaui/Litavi," "Litauis/Litavis," etc. by Patrick Cuadrado (in French); automatic Google translation into English

Luis de Florez

Luis de Florez (March 4, 1889 − November 1962) was a naval aviator and a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy that was actively involved in experimental aerospace development projects for the United States Government. As both an active duty and a retired U.S. Navy admiral, de Florez was influential in the development of early flight simulators, and was a pioneer in the use of "virtual reality" to simulate flight and combat situations in World War II.

Luis de Florez (March 4, 1889 − November 1962) was a naval aviator and a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy that was actively involved in experimental aerospace development projects for the United States Government. As both an active duty and a retired U.S. Navy admiral, de Florez was influential in the development of early flight simulators, and was a pioneer in the use of "virtual reality" to simulate flight and combat situations in World War II. Biography Luis de Florez was from New York City. De Florez attended MIT, and graduated in 1911 with a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering. He wrote his thesis on the subject of an aircraft problem, titled "Thrust of Propellers in Flight." The Admiral de Florez Design and Innovation Award is named after him, and his son, Peter de Florez, who was an MIT professor, established a $500,000 fund to foster and encourage activities related to humor at MIT. Other awards at the university include the MIT Mechanical Engineering De Florez Award and Admiral Luis de Florez Prize for Original Thinking and Ingenuity.De Florez worked in the United States Navy as a career officer in World War I. He worked in the aviation section of the Navy and also on the development of refinery technology. In the 1930s, De Florez also worked as an engineering consultant for various oil companies. His name is on several patents, including a 1918 U.S. patent (#1,264,374) for a "Liquid prism device" with rigid closed sides which included a system for varying the density of a medium filling the prism and thereby varying the refraction of light waves passing through the prism, and a 1930 Canadian patent for the "cracking and distillation of hydrocarbon oils". During World War II, he gave up his business to help solve the Navy's training problems. World War II In 1941, then Commander de Florez visited the United Kingdom and wrote what would become an influential report on British aircraft simulator techniques. It influenced the establishing of the Special Devices Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (what would later become the NAWCTSD). Later that year, Commander de Florez became head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics. De Florez championed the use of "synthetic training devices" and urged the Navy to undertake development of such devices to increase readiness. He also worked on the development of antisubmarine devices. De Florez has been credited with over sixty inventions. During World War II, he was subsequently promoted to captain and then to Flag rank, becoming a rear admiral in 1944. In 1944, de Florez was awarded the Robert J. Collier Trophy for 1943 for his work in training combat pilots and flight crews through the development of inexpensive synthetic devices.De Florez was awarded with the Legion of Merit in June 1945. Post-war In 1946, Tufts University awarded de Florez an honorary Doctor of Science degree at commencement. Admiral de Florez was the first director of technical research at the CIA. In 1950, de Florez helped Robert Fulton get a contract with the Office of Naval Research to develop the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system. In 1954, as the CIA's chairman of research, de Florez argued against reprimanding those responsible for the then-secret but now controversial MKULTRA L.S.D. research program.In the mid-1950s, de Florez was the president of the Flight Safety Foundation. Presented since 1966, the Foundation's Admiral Luis de Florez Flight Safety Award is named after him. It recognizes "outstanding individual contributions to aviation safety, through basic design, device or practice." De Florez established a trust to support the award that provides each recipient with $1,000. De Florez worked as an aide to Navy Vice Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr., Director of Office of Research and Invention (ORI) (later named ONR). He also once served as a director of Douglas Aircraft Corp. Luis de Florez died in November 1962, at the age of 73 in the cockpit of his airplane, which was ready for take-off at a Connecticut airport. The main building complex at the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division, Naval Support Activity Orlando, Florida, is named in his honor. See also Hispanics in the United States Navy Hispanic Americans in World War II == References ==

Brian d foy

brian d foy [sic] is the former publisher and editor of The Perl Review, a magazine devoted to Perl and co-author of several books on Perl including Learning Perl, Intermediate Perl and Mastering Perl. He is also the founder of Perl Mongers, the founder of the White Camel Awards, a frequent speaker at conferences including The Perl Conference and YAPC (Yet Another Perl Conference). He is the author of multiple Perl modules on CPAN and maintains the perlfaq portions of the core Perl documentation. He was a partner at Stonehenge Consulting Services from 1998 to 2009.

brian d foy [sic] is the former publisher and editor of The Perl Review, a magazine devoted to Perl and co-author of several books on Perl including Learning Perl, Intermediate Perl and Mastering Perl. He is also the founder of Perl Mongers, the founder of the White Camel Awards, a frequent speaker at conferences including The Perl Conference and YAPC (Yet Another Perl Conference). He is the author of multiple Perl modules on CPAN and maintains the perlfaq portions of the core Perl documentation. He was a partner at Stonehenge Consulting Services from 1998 to 2009. PerlPowerTools In 2014 he revitalized the PerlPowerTools AKA PPT project. In February 1999, Tom Christiansen announced the PerlPowerTools project to provide a unified BSD toolbox, i.e. a reimplementation of the classic Unix command set in pure Perl. Perl is the same (mostly) everywhere you go and the same programs could run the same everywhere instead of being reimplemented for each platform. Bibliography Learning Perl, ISBN 0-596-10105-8 (fourth edition, 2005) Learning Perl, ISBN 978-0-596-52010-6 (fifth edition, 2008) Learning Perl, ISBN 978-1-44930-358-7 (sixth edition, 2011) Learning Perl, ISBN 978-1-49195-432-4 (seventh edition, 2016) Learning Perl, ISBN 978-1-49209-495-1 (eighth edition, 2021) Student Workbook for Learning Perl, ISBN 0-596-00996-8 (2005) Learning Perl Student Workbook, ISBN 1-4493-2806-7 (second edition, 2012) Intermediate Perl, ISBN 0-596-10206-2 (2006) Intermediate Perl, ISBN 978-1-4493-9309-0 (second edition, 2012) Mastering Perl, ISBN 978-0-596-52724-2 (2007) Mastering Perl, ISBN 978-1-44939-311-3 (second edition, 2014) Effective Perl Programming: Ways to Write Better, More Idiomatic Perl, ISBN 978-0-321-49694-2 (second edition, 2010) Programming Perl, ISBN 0-596-00492-3 (fourth edition, 2011) Learning Perl 6, ISBN 1-49197-768-X (2018) References External links Author page on O'Reilly Media

Brunette Models

Brunette Models is a Polish-Cypriot musical project for experimental electronic music and sound sculpture, in the style of ambient music, atmospheric, hesychasm, deep listening music, and is one of a pioneer of this kind of music in Poland, although outside the media and without publicity.

Brunette Models is a Polish-Cypriot musical project for experimental electronic music and sound sculpture, in the style of ambient music, atmospheric, hesychasm, deep listening music, and is one of a pioneer of this kind of music in Poland, although outside the media and without publicity. Piotr Krzyżanowski Brunette Models is the alter ego of the artist Piotr Krzyzanowski, who was born (1974) and grew up in Toruń (Poland). He graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy (Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń). He was involved in projects for the Warsaw Electronic Festival (WEF) and Contemporary Electronic Soundscapes (CES). He also was a journalist of the „Estrada i Studio” magazine. Krzyzanowski is active in music production (Agnes de Venice, Xenia Agapene) and the implementation of sound, too. He performed live at the International Ambient Festival in Gorlice, 15 July 2004 and many more. The music of Brunette Models has been played by radio stations. In August 2009 a video-clip by Polish multimedia-artist Joanna Cholascinska was released with a track from the „Apsychastenia” album. Krzyzanowski designed and constructed hardware and software for high-resolution recording (Digital eXtreme Definition) on a 24-bit/352.8 kHz workstation. Krzyzanowski founded the Cypriot label Anadyomene' Secret Records. After 10 years this site was closed by a massive hacker attack. From 2018 April, the web-portal has been made fully working again. Πρόβατοφωνή Since 2018, Brunette Models as Ερημίτης Κατώτερος (Eremites Katoteros) alias, creates with Xenia Agapene a musical duet named Πρόβατοφωνή (Provatofoni). Musical development A characteristic of Brunette Models music is that it homes in on the dominant tone color, as a fundamental aesthetic value, which is a trait of synesthetes. For the past few years he has not officially published pressed albums. He withdrew from the world and focused on music only, without promotion, A&R, PR and without even connection to the internet. In his artistic manifesto he motivated this asceticism, that today's world looks more at the name of the composer, than at the music. BM thinks it is not a good. In music he sees mysticism as a possible prayer to God, a kind of hesychasm. Discography As Brunette Models 1995 - 97 – Magnus luctus in ergastulo – The first album. 1999 – Apsychastenia – The second album. 2000 – Impressions of whispers – The third album. 2002 – Apsychastenia 2. 2002 – Historia jednej chwili (History of one moment) – ANR0017. 2002 – City Songs 7 – compilation. 2004 – 6th International Music Presentations of Ambient 2004, 15 July, P5:00, presenter: Jerzy Kordowicz. 2008 – Last poem – The fifth album – GEN CD 007. 2010 – Αυτάρκεια (Autarky) [single – Studio Master 24-bit/96 kHz technology]. 2011 – Ατλαντίδα (Atlantis) [single – Studio Master 24-bit/96 kHz technology]. 2012 – Παρουσία (Parousia) [single – Studio Master 24-bit/96 kHz technology]. 2014 – Aναστενάζοντας στον Θεό [maxi-single – Studio Master 24-bit/96 kHz technology]. since 2019 – Πρόβατοφωνή (Provatofoni) etc. As Eremites Katoteros nick 2021 – Album from May 5, which has non–writable secret titles. See inlay for details. See also List of ambient music artists References Sources Polscy producenci muzyczni (Polish music producers), PL edition [paperback], Publication Date: 3 September 2011, ISBN 1-231-84654-2, ISBN 978-1-231-84654-4. Kalejdoskop polskich twórców (Kaleidoscope of Polish artists), „Astral Voyager” Magazyn Muzyki Elektronicznej (Electronic Music Magazine), 2001, No. 1. Czym jest dla mnie muzyka, czyli co ma Chopin do ambientu, „Astral Voyager” Magazyn Muzyki Elektronicznej (Electronic Music Magazine), 2001, No. 2. El-Skwarka, Impresje Szeptów (Impressions of whispers), „Estrada i Studio”, No. 5, 2001, ISSN 1427-0404, p. 96. AUDIOPHILE Sound Numero Speciale Top Audio 2011 p. 6. External links Art manifesto by Brunette Models Generator Brunette Models by AlienAirMusic' broadcast in Los Angeles Encyclopedia of Electronic Music

Ravenna Cathedral

Ravenna Cathedral or Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Italian: Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; Duomo di Ravenna) is a Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ in the city of Ravenna, Italy. Formerly the archiepiscopal seat of the Archdiocese of Ravenna, it is now the seat of the archbishops of Ravenna-Cervia.It was granted the status of a minor basilica by Pope John XXIII on 7 October 1960. It is the seat of the parish of San Giovanni in Fonte belonging to the Urban Vicariate of the archdiocese of Ravenna-Cervia.

Ravenna Cathedral or Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Italian: Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; Duomo di Ravenna) is a Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ in the city of Ravenna, Italy. Formerly the archiepiscopal seat of the Archdiocese of Ravenna, it is now the seat of the archbishops of Ravenna-Cervia.It was granted the status of a minor basilica by Pope John XXIII on 7 October 1960. It is the seat of the parish of San Giovanni in Fonte belonging to the Urban Vicariate of the archdiocese of Ravenna-Cervia. History The original cathedral was built during the early 5th century by the bishop Ursus of Ravenna and was originally called the Basilica Ursiana. During the Battle of Ravenna in April 1512, the basilica was sacked. In the 18th century, it was rebuilt in the Baroque style. The cathedral houses the sarcophagi of Maximianus of Ravenna, Exuperantius of Ravenna, and Barbatianus of Ravenna and once housed the Throne of Maximian.On the top of the belltower there are four bells in chord of D minor. == References ==

Endymion (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Endymion (; Ancient Greek: Ἐνδυμίων, gen.: Ἐνδυμίωνος) was variously a handsome Aeolian shepherd, hunter, or king who was said to rule and live at Olympia in Elis. He was also venerated and said to reside on Mount Latmus in Caria, on the west coast of Asia Minor.There is confusion over Endymion's identity, as some sources suppose that he was, or was related to, the prince of Elis, and others suggest he was a shepherd from Caria. There is also a later suggestion that he was an astronomer: Pliny the Elder mentions Endymion as the first human to observe the movements of the moon, which (according to Pliny) accounts for Endymion's infatuation with its tutelary goddess. Consequently, Endymion's tomb has been attributed to two different sites. The people of Heracleia claimed that he was laid to rest on Mount Latmus, while the Eleans declared that it was at Olympia.

In Greek mythology, Endymion (; Ancient Greek: Ἐνδυμίων, gen.: Ἐνδυμίωνος) was variously a handsome Aeolian shepherd, hunter, or king who was said to rule and live at Olympia in Elis. He was also venerated and said to reside on Mount Latmus in Caria, on the west coast of Asia Minor.There is confusion over Endymion's identity, as some sources suppose that he was, or was related to, the prince of Elis, and others suggest he was a shepherd from Caria. There is also a later suggestion that he was an astronomer: Pliny the Elder mentions Endymion as the first human to observe the movements of the moon, which (according to Pliny) accounts for Endymion's infatuation with its tutelary goddess. Consequently, Endymion's tomb has been attributed to two different sites. The people of Heracleia claimed that he was laid to rest on Mount Latmus, while the Eleans declared that it was at Olympia. However, the role of lover of Selene, the Moon, is attributed primarily to the Endymion who was either a shepherd or an astronomer, as either profession provides justification for the time he spent gazing at the Moon. Mythology Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd century BC) is one of the many poets who tell how Selene, the Titan goddess of the Moon, loved the mortal Endymion. She found Endymion so beautiful that she asked his father, Zeus, to grant him eternal youth so that he would never leave her. Alternatively, Selene so loved how Endymion looked when he was asleep in the cave on Mount Latmus, near Miletus in Caria, that she entreated Zeus that he might remain that way. In some versions, Zeus wanted to punish Endymion for daring to show romantic interest in Hera (much like Ixion). Whatever the case, Zeus granted Selene's wish and put Endymion into an eternal sleep. Every night, Selene visited him where he slept, and by him had fifty daughters who are equated by some scholars (such as James George Frazer or H. J. Rose) with the fifty months of the Olympiad..According to a passage in the Deipnosophistae, the sophist and dithyrambic poet Licymnius of Chios (probably 4th century BCE) told a different tale, in which Hypnos, the god of sleep, loves Endymion and does not close the eyes of his beloved even while he is asleep, but lulls him to rest with eyes wide open so that he may without interruption enjoy the pleasure of gazing at them.The Bibliotheke claims that: Calyce and Aethlius had a son Endymion who led Aeolians from Thessaly and founded Elis. But some say that he was a son of Zeus. As he was of unsurpassed beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless. Endymion had by a Naiad nymph or, as some say, by Iphianassa, a son Aetolus, who slew Apis, son of Phoroneus, and fled to the Curetian country. There he killed his hosts, Dorus and Laodocus and Polypoetes, the sons of Phthia and Apollo, and called the country Aetolia after himself. In a similar vein, a scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius wrote that, according to Hesiod, Zeus allowed Endymion to be the keeper of his own death and to decide on his own when he would die. According to Pausanias, Endymion deposed Clymenus, son of Cardys, at Olympia. Describing the "early history" of the Eleans, Pausanias reports that: The first to rule in this land, they say, was Aethlius, who was the son of Zeus and of Protogeneia, the daughter of Deucalion, and the father of Endymion. The Moon, they say, fell in love with this Endymion and bore him fifty daughters. Others with greater probability say that Endymion took a wife Asterodia—others say she was Chromia, the daughter of Itonus, the son of Amphictyon; others again, Hyperippe, the daughter of Arcas—but all agree that Endymion begat Paeon, Epeius, Aetolus, and also a daughter Eurycyda. Endymion set his sons to run a race at Olympia for the throne; Epeius won, and obtained the kingdom, and his subjects were then named Epeans for the first time. Of his brothers they say that Aetolus remained at home, while Paeon, vexed at his defeat, went into the farthest exile possible, and that the region beyond the river Axius was named after him Paeonia. As to the death of Endymion, the people of Heracleia near Miletus do not agree with the Eleans for while the Eleans show a tomb of Endymion, the folk of Heracleia say that he retired to Mount Latmus and give him honor, there being a shrine of Endymion on Latmus.Pausanias also reports seeing a statue of Endymion in the treasury of Metapontines at Olympia.Propertius (Book 2, el. 15), Cicero's Tusculanae Quaestiones (Book 1), and Theocritus discuss the Endymion myth at some length, but reiterate the above to varying degrees. The myth surrounding Endymion has been expanded and reworked during the modern period by figures like Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Keats (in his 1818 narrative poem Endymion). The satirical author Lucian of Samosata records an otherwise unattested myth where a fair nymph named Myia becomes Selene's rival for Endymion's affections; the chatty nymph would endlessly talk to him when he slept, waking him up. This annoyed Endymion, and enraged Selene, who transformed the girl into a fly. In memory of Endymion, the fly still grudges all sleepers their rest. Background No explicit narrative has survived. In the Argonautica (iv.57ff) the "daughter of Titan," the Moon, was witness to Medea's fearful night-time flight to Jason, and "rejoiced with malicious pleasure as she reflected to herself: 'I'm not the only one then to skulk off to the Latmian cave, nor is it only I that burn with desire for fair Endymion'" she muses. "But now you yourself it would seem, are a victim of a madness like mine." Lemprière's Classical Dictionary reinforces Pliny's account of Endymion's attachment to astronomy and cites it as the source of why Endymion was said to have a relationship with the moon as she passed by. The mytheme of Endymion being not dead but endlessly asleep, which was proverbial (the proverb—Endymionis somnum dormire, "to sleep the sleep of Endymion") ensured that scenes of Endymion and Selene were popular subjects for sculpted sarcophagi in Late Antiquity, when after-death existence began to be a heightened concern. The Louvre example, discovered at Saint-Médard-d'Eyrans, France (illustration above), is one of this class. Some believe that he was the personification of sleep, or the sunset (most likely the last one as his name, if it were Greek rather than Carian can be construed from "to dive in" [Greek en (ἐν) in, and duein (δύειν) dive], which would imply a representation of that sort. Latin writers explained the name from somnum ei inductum, the "sleep put upon him".) The myth of Endymion was never easily transferred to ever-chaste Artemis, the Olympian associated with the Moon. In the Renaissance, the revived moon goddess Diana had the Endymion myth attached to her. Notes Citations References Ancient Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica; with an English translation by R. C. Seaton. William Heinemann, 1912. Apollodorus. Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann 1921. Pausanias, Description of Greece. W.H.S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann (1918). Vol. 1. Books I–II: ISBN 0-674-99104-4. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 1 translated by Harold North Fowler; introduction by W.R.M. Lamb. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann 1966. Lucian, Phalaris. Hippias or The Bath. Dionysus. Heracles. Amber or The Swans. The Fly. Nigrinus. Demonax. The Hall. My Native Land. Octogenarians. A True Story. Slander. The Consonants at Law. The Carousal (Symposium) or The Lapiths. Translated by A. M. Harmon. Loeb Classical Library 14. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1913. Hyginus. Fabulae, 271. Modern Karl Kerenyi. The Gods of the Greeks. London: Thames & Hudson, 1951 (pp. 196–98). Robert Graves. The Greek Myths (1955) 1960, 64 a-c. Natalia Agapiou. "Endymion at the Crossroads: The Fortune of the Myth of Endymion at the Dawn of the Modern Era", in Res Publica Litterarum: Studies in the Classical Tradition, 27/7 (2004), p. 70-82. Natalia Agapiou. Endymion au carrefour. La fortune littéraire et artistique du mythe d'Endymion à l'aube de l'ère moderne (Berlin, 2005): ISBN 978-3-7861-2499-3. External links ENDYMION in The Theoi Project ENDYMION in Greek Mythology Link "Diana and Endymion circa 1700–1730, by Francesco Solimena (1657–1747)". Artwork of the Month. National Museums Liverpool: Walker Art Gallery. November 1999. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012. Retrieved 2008-02-24. For works by Gerard de Lairesse, Frans Floris, in RKD (The Hague) and Bildindex (Marburg), see the; et al. "Iconclass Browser".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) The Awakening of Endymion., a poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, being one of her Subjects for Pictures, 1837. Diana and Endymion painting by Pierre Subleyras (c. 1740) The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Endymion)

Robbie Weiss

Robbie Weiss (born December 1, 1966) is a former tour professional tennis player and NCAA Division 1 singles champion. The resident of Las Vegas achieved a career-high ATP ranking in singles of world No. 85, which he reached on the heels of winning his only ATP Tour event, the 1990 São Paulo Grand Prix. He also won, partnering Ricky Brown, the 1984 Wimbledon Championships junior doubles title. Weiss played just a few tournaments on the ITF Junior Circuit and his only notable junior success was winning Wimbledon doubles crown in '84 partnering Brown.

Robbie Weiss (born December 1, 1966) is a former tour professional tennis player and NCAA Division 1 singles champion. The resident of Las Vegas achieved a career-high ATP ranking in singles of world No. 85, which he reached on the heels of winning his only ATP Tour event, the 1990 São Paulo Grand Prix. He also won, partnering Ricky Brown, the 1984 Wimbledon Championships junior doubles title. Weiss played just a few tournaments on the ITF Junior Circuit and his only notable junior success was winning Wimbledon doubles crown in '84 partnering Brown. They won the final over Jonas Svensson and Mark Kratzmann despite losing the first set 1–6. As a collegian, Weiss won the 1988 NCAA Division 1 individual singles title despite being ranked only No. 48 in that year's preseason rankings. He did win however three individuals singles tournaments to raise his ranking to No. 1 entering the individual singles championship. In the title match, Weiss defeated UCLA's Brian Garrow 6–2, 4–6, 6–3 to become the first Pepperdine University player win an individual singles title. Weiss was an All-American selection 1986 and again in 1988. In '86 the Waves lost the team championship finals to Stanford. Turning pro shortly after winning the NCAA individual title, Weiss scored tour singles match wins over at the time World No. 19 Tim Mayotte and No. 31 Karel Nováček both on grass courts in 1990, over World No. 6 Ivan Lendl and No. 21 Henrik Holm on hard courts in 1993, World No. 14 Boris Becker on hard courts in 1994, and most impressively over World No. 2 Stefan Edberg on hard courts in 1992. He won a main draw round at the 1993 Australian Open, over World No. 64 Richey Reneberg, 6–2 in the fifth. In addition to his Grand Prix event triumph in São Paulo in 1990, when he beat Jaime Yzaga in the final despite dropping the first set, Weiss took three Challenger event titles - Itu-São Paulo in November 1992; Palm Springs in 1993; and Granby in 1995. In doubles, Weiss reached a career-high ranking of World No. 271, in June 1989. He won one Challenger - 1989 Salou, partnering Conny Falk. Weiss resided during his junior days in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida. ATP career finals Singles: 1 (1 title) ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals Singles: 7 (3–4) Doubles: 1 (1–0) Junior Grand Slam finals Doubles: 1 (1 title) Performance timelines Singles References External links Robbie Weiss at the Association of Tennis Professionals Robbie Weiss at the International Tennis Federation

Monde Selection

Monde Selection is an annual non-competitive award open to food, drinks, and cosmetics products, created in 1961. It is run by the commercial company, International Institute for Quality Selections, Brussels, Belgium. Consumer products are tasted and tested in order to grant them a quality label awarded by the "International Quality Institute". Monde Selection states that "This bronze, silver, gold or grand gold quality label can be compared to the quality stars of a hotel or those of the Michelin Guide." However, while both processes are anonymous, Michelin chooses the hotels and restaurants it reviews and pays for everything.

Monde Selection is an annual non-competitive award open to food, drinks, and cosmetics products, created in 1961. It is run by the commercial company, International Institute for Quality Selections, Brussels, Belgium. Consumer products are tasted and tested in order to grant them a quality label awarded by the "International Quality Institute". Monde Selection states that "This bronze, silver, gold or grand gold quality label can be compared to the quality stars of a hotel or those of the Michelin Guide." However, while both processes are anonymous, Michelin chooses the hotels and restaurants it reviews and pays for everything. Only products who pay the entry fee are reviewed by Monde Selection. Unlike Olympic gold, silver and bronze medals, where only one of each is awarded per event, there are no limits to how many can be awarded in each category. Awards All products with a minimum score of 60% receive an award: Bronze for an average between 60% and 69%, Silver for 70%-79%, Gold for 80-89%, Grand Gold for 90-100%. In addition, there are trophies for consecutive years of high quality.In 2015, 2595 of the 2952 participating products (87.9%) received an award. More than half received a score of Gold or Grand Gold. References External links Official website

SCI Aviation

SCI Aviation is a Chinese aircraft engine manufacturer. SCI Aviation started as an aircraft engine manufacturer when it bought the rights to the Sadler Radial engine originally intended for the Denny Kitfox homebuilt. The engine is redesigned and marketed as the R6-80. A follow-on of which is the R6-150. SCI also has designed a boxer engine using Suzuki 600cc cylinder heads on an aluminum block with gear reduction named the B4-160.

SCI Aviation is a Chinese aircraft engine manufacturer. SCI Aviation started as an aircraft engine manufacturer when it bought the rights to the Sadler Radial engine originally intended for the Denny Kitfox homebuilt. The engine is redesigned and marketed as the R6-80. A follow-on of which is the R6-150. SCI also has designed a boxer engine using Suzuki 600cc cylinder heads on an aluminum block with gear reduction named the B4-160. Aircraft Engines References === Bibliography ===

Zou Yan

Zou Yan (; 305 BC – 240 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and spiritual writer of Warring States-era. He was best known as the representative thinker of the Yin and Yang School (or School of Naturalists) during the Hundred Schools of Thought era in Chinese philosophy.

Zou Yan (; 305 BC – 240 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and spiritual writer of Warring States-era. He was best known as the representative thinker of the Yin and Yang School (or School of Naturalists) during the Hundred Schools of Thought era in Chinese philosophy. Biography Zou Yan was a noted scholar of the Jixia Academy in the state of Qi. The British biochemist and sinologist, Joseph Needham, describes Zou as "The real founder of all Chinese scientific thought." His teachings combined and systematized two current theories during the Warring States period: Yin-Yang and the Five Elements/Phases (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water). All of Zou Yan's writings have been lost and are only known through quotations in early Chinese texts. The best information comes from his brief biography in the Records of the Grand Historian (1st century BC) by Sima Qian. It describes him as a polymath (philosopher, historian, politician, naturalist, geographer, astrologer) who came from the coastal state of Qi (present day Shandong), where he was a member of the state-sponsored Jixia Academy. Needham writes: He saw that the rulers were becoming ever more dissolute and incapable of valuing virtue. ... So he examined deeply into the phenomena of the increase and decrease of the Yin and the Yang, and wrote essays totaling more than 100,000 words about their strange permutations, and about the cycles of the great sages from beginning to end. His sayings were vast and far-reaching, and not in accord with the accepted beliefs of the classics. First he had to examine small objects, and from these he drew conclusions about large ones, until he reached what was without limit. First he spoke about modern times, and from this he went back to the time of (Huang Di). The scholars all studied his arts. ... He began by classifying China's notable mountains, great rivers and connecting valleys; its birds and beasts; the fruitfulness of its water and soils, and its rare products; and from this extended his survey to what is beyond the seas, and men are unable to observe. Then starting from the time of the separation of the Heavens and the Earth, and coming down, he made citations of the revolutions and transmutations of the Five Powers (Virtues), arranging them until each found its proper place and was confirmed (by history). (Zou Yan) maintained that what the Confucians called the "Middle Kingdom" (i.e. China) holds a place in the whole world of but one part in eighty-one. ... Princes, dukes and great officials, when they first witnessed his arts, fearfully transformed themselves, but later were unable to practice them. Zou Yan is commonly associated with Daoism and the origins of Chinese alchemy, going back to the (ca. 100 AD) Book of Han that calls him a fangshi (方士 [literally "technique master"] "alchemist; magician; exorcist; diviner"). Holmes Welch proposes the fangshi were among those whom Sima Qian described as "unable to practice" Zou Yan's arts, and says while Zou "gradually acquired alchemistical stature, he himself knew nothing of the art. It was probably developed by those of his followers who became interested in physical experimentation with the Five Elements." See also Jiuzhou References Further reading Fung Yu-lun (1952). History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 1. p. 159-69.

Little World Beverages

Little World Beverages Pty Ltd (LWB) is an Australian beverage and hospitality company, best known for its ownership of the Little Creatures brewery. Although often associated with the independent craft brewery movement in Australia, Little World Beverages is owned by the giant Japanese-controlled beverages company Lion Nathan, who acquired the company in 2012.The company was launched in November 2000 by several ex-staff and shareholders of the Matilda Bay Brewing Company (which had been sold to Carlton & United Beverages). The company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 20 October 2005, using the ticker symbol LWB.

Little World Beverages Pty Ltd (LWB) is an Australian beverage and hospitality company, best known for its ownership of the Little Creatures brewery. Although often associated with the independent craft brewery movement in Australia, Little World Beverages is owned by the giant Japanese-controlled beverages company Lion Nathan, who acquired the company in 2012.The company was launched in November 2000 by several ex-staff and shareholders of the Matilda Bay Brewing Company (which had been sold to Carlton & United Beverages). The company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange on 20 October 2005, using the ticker symbol LWB. Brewing Little Creatures Brewing is the brewing subsidiary of Little World Beverages and currently operates out of one brewery in Fremantle, Western Australia, with a second brewery built in Geelong, Victoria, which opened Tuesday 10 December 2013.The brewery has a stable of four beer brands. Little Creatures Pale Ale was the brewery's original beer and continues to be its flagship; a mid strength ale (Rogers) is also brewed, along with a pilsner, and a light ale (Little Creatures Bright Ale). Alongside these staples brands, Little Creatures also produce single-batch releases, in pint-sized (568 ml) bottles. Examples have included a brown ale, an "imperial" India pale ale, a märzen, and an oatmeal stout. In March 2009, LWB opened a second operation, White Rabbit brewery, in Healesville, Victoria. White Rabbit is a smaller operation than Little Creatures, with distinct branding and products. They market various ales including White Rabbit Dark Ale and White Rabbit White Ale. The Healesville brewery is also where the Pipsqueak Cider is produced.A second Little Creatures brewery was constructed at a former woolen mill site in Geelong Victoria, with construction completed in late 2013.In February 2009, LWB bought a 20% stake in the Stone & Wood Brewing Co. based in Byron Bay, New South Wales. In 2012 Cook, Rogers and Jurisich bought back the share of its business held by Lion following that company's takeover of Little World Beverages.Lion purchased New Belgium Brewing Company out of Fort Collins, CO in late 2019. Hospitality and entertainment Little World Beverages operates three hospitality/entertainment venues: one in Fremantle in Western Australia; Little Creatures Dining Hall in Fitzroy, Victoria; and White Rabbit Cellar Door in Healesville, Victoria. Distribution Little World Beverages is the exclusive Australian distributor of Aspall Cyder, one of England's oldest cider brands. == References ==

Kumarbi

Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely did not reflect factual loss of the position of the head of the pantheon in Hurrian religion, but only a mythological narrative. It is often assumed that he was an agricultural deity, though this view is not universally accepted and the evidence is limited. He was also associated with prosperity.

Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely did not reflect factual loss of the position of the head of the pantheon in Hurrian religion, but only a mythological narrative. It is often assumed that he was an agricultural deity, though this view is not universally accepted and the evidence is limited. He was also associated with prosperity. It was believed that he resided in the underworld. Multiple Hurrian deities were regarded as Kumarbi's children, including Teshub, who he conceived after biting off the genitals of Anu. They were regarded as enemies. In myths dealing with the conflict between them Kumarbi fathers various enemies meant to supplant the weather god, such as the stone giant Ullikummi. Kumarbi was also closely associated with other deities who were regarded as the "fathers of gods" in their respective pantheons. As early as in the eighteenth century BCE, he came to be linked with Dagan, the head god of the pantheon of inland Syria in the Bronze Age. Both of them were associated with the goddess Shalash, and with the Mesopotamian god Enlil. From the sixteenth century BCE onward, and possibly also earlier, Kumarbi and Enlil were viewed as equivalents, though they were not necessarily conflated with each other, and could appear as two distinct figures in the same myths. A trilingual version of the Weidner god list from Ugarit presents both Kumarbi and Enlil as the equivalents of the local god El. A tentative restoration of a bilingual version from Emar might also indicate he could be associated with Ištaran. The worship of Kumarbi is attested from sites located in all areas inhabited by the Hurrians, from Anatolia to the Zagros Mountains, though it has been argued that his importance in the sphere of cult was comparatively minor. The oldest possible reference to him occurs in a royal inscription from Urkesh from either the Akkadian or Ur III period, though the correct reading of the name of the deity meant is a matter of scholarly debate. He is also already referenced in texts from Mari from the early second millennium BCE. Further attestations are available from Ugarit, Alalakh, and from the eastern kingdom of Arrapha, where he was worshiped in Azuḫinnu. Furthermore, he was incorporated into the Hittite pantheon, and as one of its members appears in texts from Hattusa, presumed to reflect the traditions of Kizzuwatna. A depiction of him has been identified among the gods from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary. In the first millennium BCE he continued to be worshiped in Taite, and as one of its deities he is attested in the Assyrian Tākultu rituals. He is also attested in Luwian inscriptions from sites such as Carchemish and Tell Ahmar. Multiple myths focused on Kumarbi are known. Many of them belong to the so-called Kumarbi Cycle, which describes the struggle for kingship among the gods between him and Teshub. The texts usually agreed to belong to it include the Song of Kumarbi (likely originally known as Song of Emergence), the Song of LAMMA, the Song of Silver, the Song of Ḫedammu and the Song of Ullikummi. Kumarbi is portrayed in them as a scheming deity who raises various challengers to depose or destroy Teshub. His plans are typically successful in the short term, but ultimately the adversaries he creates are defeated by the protagonists. Further texts argued to also be a part of the cycle include the Song of the Sea, the Song of Oil, and other fragmentary narratives. Kumarbi also appears in an adaptation of Atrahsasis, where he plays the role which originally belonged to Enlil. Myths focused on him are often compared to other narratives known from the tradition of other neighboring cultures, such as Mesopotamian Theogony of Dunnu or Ugaritic Baal Cycle. It is also commonly assumed that they were an influence on Theogony, especially on the succession of divine rulers and on the character of Kronos. Further works argued to show similar influences include the Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos and various Orphic theogonies, such as that known from the Derveni papyrus. Name In standard syllabic cuneiform, the theonym Kumarbi was written as dKu-mar-bi. A byform, Kumurwe, is attested in sources from Nuzi. In Ugaritic texts written in the local alphabetic cuneiform script it was rendered as kmrb (𐎋𐎎𐎗𐎁) or kmrw (𐎋𐎎𐎗𐎆), vocalized respectively as Kumarbi and Kumarwi. A late variant, Kumarma, appears in hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions, where it is rendered with the signs (DEUS)BONUS, “the good god”. The correct reading has been determined based on a syllabic spelling identified in an inscription from Tell Ahmar, (DEUS.BONUS)ku-mara/i+ra/i-ma-sa5.Kumarbi’s name has Hurrian origin and can be translated as “he of Kumar”. While no such a toponym is attested in any Hurrian sources, Gernot Wilhelm notes it shows similarities to Hurrian names from the third millennium BCE and on this basis proposes that it might refer to a settlement which existed in the early period of Hurrian history, poorly documented in textual sources. He suggests that its name in turn goes back to the Hurrian root kum, “to pile up”. Examples of other analogously structured Hurrian theonyms include Nabarbi (“she of Nawar”) and possibly Ḫiriḫibi (“he of [the mountain] Ḫiriḫi”). While it has been argued that Aštabi is a further example, his name was originally spelled as Aštabil in Ebla and as such cannot be considered another structurally Kumarbi-like theonym. Logographic writings According to Alfonso Archi, in a number of Hurrian texts Kumarbi’s name is represented by the sumerogram dNISABA. It was also used to refer to Dagan. Archi assumes both of these scribal conventions had the same origin. In Ugaritic and related dialects Dagan’s name was a homophone of the word for grain, with both written as dgn (𐎄𐎂𐎐) in Ugaritic alphabetic texts, and the logographic writing of both his name and that of Kumarbi as dNISABA was likely an example of wordplay popular among scribes, which in this case relied on the close association between these two gods and on the fact that Nisaba’s name could function as a metonym for grain. Lluís Feliu based on the attestations of this writing from Anatolia instead suggests that it reflected a connection to the Hittite grain deity Ḫalki, who similarly could be represented by the same sumerogram. One Anatolian example of the use of dNISABA to designate Kumarbi has been identified in an offering list dealing with the deities worshiped in the Hittite city of Durmitta. Despite the different character of the two deities, there is also evidence for the use of Ḫalki’s name as a logogram to refer to Kumarbi. Character Hurrian texts refer to Kumarbi as the “father of gods”. Volkert Haas has interpreted this as an indication that he was regarded as a creator deity. His position in the Hurrian pantheon was high, as reflected by his epithet ewri, “lord”. In myths he was portrayed as an old deposed king of the gods, replaced by his son Teshub, though this is presumed to be a fictional etiological narrative explaining the structure of the Hurrian pantheon, rather than reflection of a loss of importance at the expense of another deity. It has nonetheless been argued that the relation between them might have originally developed as a way to harmonize two originally distinct local pantheons.It is often assumed that Kumarbi was associated with grain. However, Lluís Feliu points out that the direct evidence for his supposed agrarian character is presently limited to the fact that the sumerogram dNISABA was sometimes employed to write his name, and the identification of a plant he holds on the Yazılıkaya relief as an ear of grain. Feliu’s criticism of this characterization is supported by Alfonso Archi, who points out the ear symbol is not used elsewhere, and might only represent a play on words referencing the scribal convention of using the name of dissimilar Hittite deity Ḫalki as a logogram designating Kumarbi. Feliu points out many arguments in favor of interpreting Kumarbi as an agricultural god are based on circular reasoning, specifically on the assumption that if Dagan, closely associated with him, had agricultural character, so did he. However, Dagan was regarded as a god of broadly understood prosperity, rather than specifically agriculture. Kumarbi himself was invoked in association with prosperity in hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions from the first millennium BCE.The underworld could be regarded as Kumarbi’s abode, as indicated for example by an incantation according to which water from a spring located under his throne “reaches the head of the Sun goddess of the Earth”, though he was not an underworld god in the strict sense.A single Hittite text, KUB 59.66, mentions a “star of Kumarbi”, which Volkert Haas proposed identifying with the planet Saturn. Associations with other deities Family and court It is assumed that Kumarbi’s father was Alalu. A direct statement confirming this relation has been identified in the text KUB 33.120 (I 19: dKumarbiš dAlaluwaš NUMUN-ŠU). It is typically translated as “Kumarbi, the descendant of Alalu”. A further piece of evidence supporting the view are sections of treaties enumerating gods invoked as their divine witnesses, in which they could be listed in sequence. Both of them appear for example in the treaty between Hittite king Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa. The myth establishing the relation between them, the Song of Kumarbi, seemingly involves two “dynasties” of deities competing for kingship. This assumption is nonetheless not universally accepted. An alternate interpretation is to see Alalu as the father of Anu, who reigned between Alalu and Kumarbi as the king of the gods, and grandfather of Kumarbi. However, Christian Zgoll, who supports this theory, admits that it is difficult to prove. He nonetheless questions the notion of two separate dynasties, and argues that no other examples of a theogonic myth involving two divine families is known. However, according to Wilfred G. Lambert succession involving master and servant rather than members of one family is not entirely unknown, and in addition to the account of Kumarbi’s overthrow of Anuy another example might be a section from the Theogony of Dunnu focused on a nameless figure seemingly labeled as a servant (ṣiḫru) rather than child (māru) of the god he deposes.Shalash could be viewed as the spouse of Kumarbi. She was originally associated with Dagan, as already attested in texts from Ebla, and the link between her and Kumarbi was a later development. However, the evidence associating Shalash with Kumarbi is also used as an argument in favor of continuity of her association with Dagan. In the Hurrian column of a multilingual edition of the Weidner god list from Ugarit, a goddess named Ašte Kumurbineve, literally “wife of Kumarbi”, appears instead. However, according to Aaron Tugendhaft she is one of the deities attested in it who would be considered “pure scholarly inventions” meant to mimic Mesopotamian pairs of major gods and their wives with etymologically related names, such as Anu and Antu. In myths Kumarbi appears without a wife.Teshub was regarded as a son of Kumarbi, conceived after he bit off and swallowed the genitals of Anu. Gary Beckman states that the weather god can thus be considered a descendant of both of the lines of gods present in the Song of Kumarbi. Due to the circumstances of the weather god’s conception, a Hurrian hymn (KUB 47.78) refers to Kumarbi as his mother: You are the strong one, which I (praise), the bull calf of Anu! You are the strong one, which I (praise), your father Anu begot you, your mother Kumarbi brought you to life. For the city of Aleppo I summon him, Teššop, for the pure throne. Noga Ayali-Darshan notes the relationship between Kumarbi and Teshub was portrayed as “dysfunctional” in Hurrian mythology. The other children of Kumarbi conceived the same way were Tašmišu and the river Tigris, known by the Hurrians under the name Aranzaḫ or Aranziḫ. While Šauška was regarded as a sister of both Teshub and Tašmišu, she is not mentioned among Kumarbi’s children in the Song of Kumarbi, though according to Marie-Claude Trémouille this might simply be the result of its incomplete state of preservation. She therefore argues it can nonetheless be assumed this deity was also one of the children of Kumarbi and Anu. However, according to Gary Beckman’s recent treatment of Song of Kumarbi, the text explicitly states that the eponymous god was impregnated with only three deities.In myths dealing with his conflict with Teshub, Kumarbi is also the father of various opponents of the weather god, such as Ullikummi, Ḫedammu and Silver. Ḫedammu’s mother was Šertapšuruḫi, a daughter of the deified sea. Silver was born to a mortal woman. Ullikummi was the product of Kumarbi’s “sexual union with a huge cliff” according to Harry Hoffner, though Daniel Schwemer instead assumes that the passage describing his conception alludes to a goddess related to stones. The former two of these three children of Kumarbi appear together in a ritual text (KUB 27.38) which states that he planned for both of them to become the king of the gods. The text places the so-called “divine determinative” (dingir) before the name of Ḫedammu, but not Silver. Both of them are also described with the terms šarra, used to refer to mythical, deified rulers and ewri, which designated non-supernatural kings.Like all other major Hurrian gods, Kumarbi was believed to be served by a divine “vizier”, Mukišānu. His name was derived from the toponym Mukiš. A single text from Ugarit instead describes Šarruma as the deity playing this role, but he is better attested in association with Ḫepat and Teshub. In myths belonging to the Kumarbi is also aided by the deified sea, who acts as his counsellor. In Song of Ḫašarri, a reference is made to a group of wandering deities referred to as the "Seven Eyes of Kumarbi", possibly analogous to Ḫutellurra. The circle of deities associated with him additionally included the so-called “former gods”, referred to as ammadena enna in Hurrian and karuilieš šiuneš in Hittite. They were portrayed as his helpers in myths. However, the same group of deities could also be affiliated with Allani. Kumarbi and other “fathers of gods” Kumarbi was closely associated with Dagan, the head god of the pantheon of inland Syria in the Bronze Age. The association goes back at least to the eighteenth century BCE. It has been proposed that Kumarbi’s character was in part influenced by him, or even that he originally developed as the Hurrian counterpart of this god. In Assyriology the identification of these two gods has been first pointed out by Emmanuel Laroche. Direct equations between Dagan and Kumarbi are absent from god lists, but other evidence in favor of identification of the two is available, including their similar position in the respective pantheons as the “fathers of gods” and especially the weather god, and their shared association with Shalash and Enlil. Furthermore, Tuttul, the cult center of Dagan, is mentioned as a city associated with Kumarbi in the Song of Ḫedammu. It is also sometimes assumed Kumarbi could be outright referred to as “Dagan of the Hurrians”. However, this assumptions rests on the proposed reading of a single inscription from Terqa from the end of the Old Babylonian period, in which Šunuḫru-ammu, a ruler of the kingdom of Khana, mentions the sacrifice he made to Dagan ša ḪAR-ri. The proposal that the epithet should be interpreted as ša Ḫur-ri, “of the Hurrians”, has originally been made by Ignace J. Gelb, and subsequently found support of authors such as Volkert Haas, Ichiro Nakata, Karel van der Toorn and Alfonso Archi. However, Lluís Feliu argues it should be read as ša ḫar-ri based on a reference to a similar epithet of Dagan, en ḫa-ar-ri, in a text from Emar, and rules out a reference to Hurrians or Kumarbi being the intent.As early as in the sixteenth century BCE Kumarbi also started to be equated with the Mesopotamian god Enlil due to both of them being regarded as the “fathers of gods” in their respective pantheons. The tradition might have been older, possibly going as far back as the end of the third millennium BCE. Lluís Feliu proposes that a damaged line from the later god list An = Anum which describes a deity whose name is not preserved as the “Enlil of Subartu” might refer to Kumarbi. However, Enlil and Kumarbi are for the most part treated as two separate figures in Hurrian myths, for example in the Song of Kumarbi Enlil and Ninlil are among the deities invited by the narrator to listen to the story of Kumarbi, while in the Song of Ullikummi, Enlil makes a brief appearance to comment on Kumarbi’s plan to create the eponymous monster to destroy Teshub. Alfonso Archi additionally notes that the notion of equivalence between the two was seemingly unknown to the Hittites, even though Hittite sources do indicate awareness of both of them as individual deities. He concludes the association between them should be understood as an example of what he deems “translation” of deities with similar positions meant to facilitate the understanding of different pantheons, rather than syncretism.The trilingual version of the Weidner god list from Ugarit in addition to equating Kumarbi with Enlil also presents him as analogous to El, a god who in the local pantheon fulfilled a role similar to Dagan in inland Syria. However, ritual texts where the two of them appear as separate figures are also known. Franks Simons has additionally suggested that a bilingual edition of the same god list known from Emar might equate Kumarbi with the high ranked but poorly known Mesopotamian god Ištaran, possibly also due to his presumed role as a “father of gods”. The theonym he restores as Ištaran is rendered logographically as KA.DI.DI rather than the expected KA.DI, which he argues represents a dittographic error (unnecessary duplication of a sign), while the restoration of Kumarbi’s name relies on the presence of the signs KU.MA in the Hurrian section of the same entry, which might reflect the spelling of his name used in Nuzi. He suggests that this equation would not necessarily contradict the fact the copy from Ugarit equates Kumarbi with Enlil, as the smaller size of the Hurrian pantheon necessitated using the same deities as translations of multiple Mesopotamian ones in god lists, as evident in the case of Šimige, equated both with Utu and Lugalbanda in such a context. However, it has been questioned if the multilingual editions of the Weidner god list can be considered an accurate source of information about Hurrian religion. Worship Kumarbi was one of the deities regarded as “pan-Hurrian”. As such, he was worshiped in all areas inhabited by the Hurrians, from southeastern Anatolia in the west to the Zagros Mountains in the east. However, it has been argued that his importance in the sphere of cult was relatively minor and references to him in religious texts are relatively rare. Volkert Haas has argued that he originated in the Khabur area. References to him have been identified in texts from Ugarit, Mari, Nuzi and Hattusa. In sources from the last of these sites, he is commonly linked to Urkesh (Tell Mozan), a city located in Upper Mesopotamia already known from sources from the Akkadian period. It has been argued that a reference to him might already occur in a building inscription of Tiš-atal, a local ruler of this city during the times of either the Akkadian Empire or the Third Dynasty of Ur: Tiš-atal, endan of Urkiš, built the temple of the god Kumarbi(?). May the god Lubadaga protect this temple. As for the one who destroys it, may the god Lubadaga destroy (him). May the (weather-god?) not hear his prayer. May the lady of Nagar, the sun-god, (and) the storm-god(?) [...] him who destroys it. The deity presumed to be Kumarbi by a number of authors is designated in this context by the sumerogram dKIŠ.GAL, normally used to refer to Nergal. Alfonso Archi agrees that the logogram might designate a Hurrian deity, though he instead proposes Aštabi, and based on other Hurrian evidence notes that the possibility that Nergal was meant cannot be ruled out. Doubts have also been expressed by Gernot Wilhelm, who states that while not entirely implausible, the proposal that Kumarbi is represented by a sumerogram in the inscription is impossible to prove. Beate Pongratz-Leisten tentatively refers to both Nergal and Kumarbi as possible identities of the deity of Urkesh.A temple found during excavations of Urkesh which remained in use from the third millennium BCE to the end of the Mitanni empire has been interpreted as possibly dedicated to Kumarbi. The apu, a type of offering pit, from the same site might have also been linked to him. A unique seal from Urkesh depicting a deity striding over a mountain range has also been described as a possible depiction of Kumarbi. It has been noted that it finds no close parallels among similar works of art known from southern Mesopotamia.Early attestations of Kumarbi are also present in sources from Mari. Gernot Wilhelm argues that the oldest certain reference to him occurs in a tablet from this city inscribed with a Hurrian text, dated to roughly 1700 BCE. In an incantation, he is mentioned alongside Pidenḫi, an epithet of Shalash: The tooth wails! The tooth sounds out! They (the teeth) cry out to mother Pidenḫi, to father Kumarbi! It has been suggested that it was meant to cure toothache. However, it is not certain why Kumarbi and Shalash would be invoked in connection with teeth.A further city in modern Syria from which evidence for the worship of Kumarbi is available is Ugarit. Hurrian offering lists from this city place him after a “god father” (a “generic ancestor of the gods”) and El (otherwise absent from Hurrian tradition). This sequence corresponds to the enumeration of Ilib, El and Dagan in similar texts written in Ugaritic or Akkadian. In KTU3 1.110, a description of a type of sacrifice (aṯḫulumma), Kumarbi instead appears after Kušuḫ. A Hurrian incantation, KTU3 1.44 (RS 1.007), mentions that he was worshiped “from Tuttul to Awirraše”. The latter settlement was presumably located in western Syria. Further cult centers of Kumarbi mentioned in the Ugaritic texts include Kumma (or Kummi) and Uriga. The latter toponym has alternatively been interpreted as Urkesh. References to Kumarbi have also been identified in texts from Alalakh, with one example being tablet A1T 15 which mentions a priest in his service, a certain Kabiya, though there is presently no indication that any of the structures discovered during excavations was dedicated to him. Piotr Taracha additionally tentatively suggests that the city deity of Emar, who he refers to as Il Imari (“the god of Emar”) following the earlier proposal of Joan Goodnick Westenholz, might have been understood as a manifestation of either Kumarbi or Dagan.Kumarbi was also worshiped further east in Azuḫinnu, a city located in the kingdom of Arrapha, in the proximity of modern Kirkuk. The local pantheon was apparently jointly headed by him and Šauška. In some of the offering lists from Nuzi linked to this location he is preceded by the deity Kurwe, who might have been the city god of Azuḫinnu.Kumarbi’s name is not common in the Hurrian onomasticon. He is entirely absent from the earliest known Hurrian personal names from the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods, though it has been noted they usually were not theophoric, in contrast with these from later sites such as Nuzi, and that other major deities, like Šimige, Kušuḫ or Šauška, are also not attested in them. The name Arip-Kumurwe, “Kumarbi gave (a child)”, is known from two sites, Mari and Shubat-Enlil. An example is also known from Hattusa, though due to the state of preservation of the text the full name cannot be restored. Hittite reception Kumarbi was among the Hurrian deities who also came to be worshiped in the Hittite Empire. Most of the ritual texts from Hattusa which mention him have a Hurrian background and likely originated in Kizzuwatna. In offering lists, he belonged to the circle of deities (kaluti) of Teshub. In the reliefs from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary, where the depicted deities seemingly follow the order of such lists, he is most likely depicted on relief assigned number 40 in the conventional numbering in modern literature. Typically in ritual texts in enumerations of deities he follows Teshub and Tašmišu and precedes Ea, Kušuḫ and Šimige. However, in a similar list dealing with the worship of Teshub in Šapinuwa he appears after Anu. During the reign of Tudḫaliya IV, he received offerings alongside other deities belonging to the kaluti of Teshub in the temple of Kataḫḫa in Ankuwa during the AN.TAḪ.ŠUM festival. In the Hurro-Hittite itkalzi rituals, Kumarbi appears alongside Shalash. She precedes him in instructions for the hišuwa festival. The ritual text KUB 45.28+ mentions Kumarbi alongside the “ancient gods” (Eltara, Nabira, Minki, Tuḫuši, Ammunki and Awannamu), Teshub, mountain gods and Ea.In lists of divine witnesses in Hittite diplomatic texts Kumarbi is only attested twice, in the treaties between Muršili II and Manapa-Tarhunta, and between Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa. In other similar texts a comparable entry in the list is occupied by a deity named Apantu instead. However, Alfonso Archi suggests that in treaties with Syrian rulers the pair Enlil and Ninlil might correspond to Kumarbi and Shalash. At the same time, he notes that the sumerogram dEN.LÍL was seemingly never used to designate him in offering lists. Late attestations In Taite, a Mitanni city conquered by Assyria during the reign of Adad-nirari I, Kumarbi apparently retained a degree of relevance well into Neo-Assyrian times alongside two other originally Hurrian deities, Nabarbi and Samnuha. All three of them are attested in a Tākultu text.The Luwian deity Kumarma, known from sources from the tenth century BCE, is presumed to be a late form of Kumarbi. Attestations of this theonym are available exclusively from hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions from south of the Taurus Mountains, which mention him in relation with prosperity. In three texts from Tell Ahmar (Masuwari) attributed to the local king Hamiyata he appears alongside “king Ea”, according to Ilya Yakubovich a calque of Hurrian Ea šarri. He is also mentioned alongside Tipariya, a wine god, in an inscription from Carchemish which states that the weather god Tarḫunz with established “the land of the good god and Tipariya”. A stele from Arsuz addresses them as “mother” and “father” respectively. This description has been described as an “unexpected reversal of sexes”, but Mark Weeden notes that it might echo the Hurrian tradition about the birth of Teshub, in the context of which Kumarbi could similarly be referred to as his mother. He states that whether this reflects a survival of a local belief connected to the worship of Teshub in Aleppo, possibly though not necessarily tied to Mitanni royal ideology, or a tradition preserved in Hattusa and later imported into northern Syria is unknown. Amir Gilan has voiced support for the former interpretation.Following the proposal of Edith Porada, it is sometimes assumed that the golden bowl of Hasanlu might depict Kumarbi, as well as other deities who appear in myths focused on him, which according to Alfonso Archi would indicate that as a “pan-Hurrian” deity he might have continued to be worshiped in eastern areas until the beginning of the first millennium BCE. Mythology Kumarbi played a central role in Hurrian mythology. Myths focused on him are known chiefly from the Bogazköy Archive, and most of them are preserved in Hittite translations. However, as noted by Gary Beckman, their themes, such as conflict over kingship in heaven, reflect Hurrian, rather than Hittite, theology. According to Alfonso Archi, they were transmitted in the beginning of the fourteenth century BCE, during a period of growing influence of Hurrian culture of the Hittites. Kumarbi Cycle The “Kumarbi Cycle” is a scholarly grouping of a number of myths focused on the eponymous god. It has been described as “[u]nquestionably the best-known belletristic work discovered in the Hittite archives”. The individual texts were referred to with the sumerogram SÌR, “song”, a designation also used for Hittite compositions about the exploits of Gilgamesh. The Hurrian word corresponding to this sign is unknown, while in Hittite it was most likely read as išḫamai-. Preserved incipits indicate that they might have been sung. However, it is not certain if they necessarily originated as oral compositions, even though the heavy reliance on direct speech might further support the possibility that the discovered versions were meant to be performed.The core theme of myths grouped under the label of "Kumarbi Cycle" are Kumarbi’s attempts to dethrone Teshub. The individual texts frequently characterize him as cunning (ḫattant-), and describe him plotting new schemes meant to bring upon the defeat of the weather god. As noted by Daniel Schwemer, ancient authors introduced a sense of suspense to the narratives by having each of the plans appear to be successful in the short term. Typically they involve a new enemy set up by Kumarbi to battle Teshub. However, the adversaries are eventually defeated, though not necessarily destroyed. Harry Hoffner has noted that the myths appear to present the two main characters and their allies in contrasting ways: Kumarbi is aided by figures linked to the underworld, such as Alalu, the deified sea, Ullikummi or the Irširra deities, while Teshub by heavenly deities such as Šauška, Šimige, Kušuḫ, Aštabi or Ḫepat and her maidservant Takitu.The five myths conventionally considered to be a part of the cycle are the Song of Kumarbi (CTH 344), the Song of LAMMA (CTH 343), the Song of Silver (CTH 364), the Song of Ḫedammu (CTH 348) and the Song of Ullikummi (CTH 345). Their arrangement used in the following sections reflects the most commonly accepted order. However, the overall number of texts which might have originally formed the cycle is not known. Anna Maria Polvani suggests that it is possible multiple cycles of myths involving Kumarbi existed, assumes the known narratives did not necessarily form a coherent whole. Alfonso Archi states that attempts at arranging them in a chronological order only reflect contemporary “hermeneutical needs”, though he agrees that the label “Kumarbi Cycle” should be retained in scholarship for practical reasons to refer to myths which deal with the conflict between Kumarbi and Teshub. Erik van Dongen does not regard Polvani’s proposal as necessarily incorrect, though he states due to the state of preservation of the individual myths, and the shared themes between them, separation into multiple cycles is presently impossible and continuing to refer to them as a singular cycle in scholarship remains preferable. However, he does suggest that it might be more correct to refer to it as a “Kingship in Heaven cycle” than Kumarbi Cycle. Carlo Corti, while he accepts the existence of a cycle of myths involving Kumarbi, has also questioned the label applied to them, and suggests that calling them the cycle of Teshub would more accurately reflect their contents. This objection is also supported by Piotr Taracha. Song of Kumarbi (Song of Emergence) The Song of Kumarbi is uniformly agreed to be beginning of the Kumarbi Cycle. The best known copy of the text is the tablet KUB 33.120, which is poorly preserved, with only around 125-150 lines out of original 350 surviving. Emmanuel Laroche identified tablet KUB 33.119 as a further section in 1950. Additional sections have been identified on KUB 48.97 + 1194/u. Further known fragments include KUB 36.31, KUB 36.1 and KBo 52.10. A short text written in Hurrian, KUB 47.56, is presumed to be a possible variant of the same myth due to a mention of Alalu, Anu and Kumarbi, though due to the still imperfect understanding of Hurrian its contents remain uncertain. The main tablet has been dated to the first decades of the fourteenth century, but the composition might be older. Amir Gilan has described it as “one of the finest and most sophisticated works of literature to survive from the Hittite world.”The title Song of Kumarbi has originally been proposed by Hans Gustav Güterbock. However, the first translation of the text was published as The Kingship among the Gods. It has been variously referred to as Kingship in Heaven or Theogony as well. More recent publications use the title Song of Emergence. It was established based on new joins to the texts, including a colophon, originally identified in 2007. As noted by Carlo Corti, the text is labeled in it as the song of GÁ✕È.A, which based on the information provided by the multilingual edition of the lexical list Erimḫuš can be interpreted as a writing of the Hittite phrase para-kán pauwar, which makes it possible to translate the title literally as “song of departure”, and metaphorically as the “song of emergence” or “song of genesis”. The fragment also identifies a certain Ašḫapala as the scribe responsible for copying the text.The myth begins with an invocation of primeval deities, who are invited to listen to the narrator’s song about the deeds of Kumarbi, and with an account the reigns of three “kings in heaven” are described, without the origin of any of them being mentioned. The first of the kings of the gods is Alalu, who after nine years is overthrown by his cupbearer Anu, who forces him to flee to the “Dark Earth”, the underworld. Anu is in turn overthrown by his own cupbearer Kumarbi, described as “scion of Alalu”, who fought him after first serving him for nine years. Some of the kaluti lists belonging to the cult of Teshub preserve an order of deities reflecting the succession described in this passage. The length of the reigns is most likely symbolic, and according to Gery Beckman in the light of the central themes of this work might be a reference to the nine months of human pregnancy. Kumarbi let Anu flee after defeating him, though only after biting off and swallowing his genitals. Anu then taunts him: Do not rejoice over your belly, for I have placed a burden in your belly. First, I have impregnated you with the mighty Storm-god. Second, I have impregnated you with the River Tigris, not to be borne. Third, I have impregnated you with the mighty Tašmišu. I have placed three frightful deities as a burden in your belly, and you will end up banging your head against the rocks of Mt. Tašša! Kumarbi spits out some of Anu’s semen, which falls on the mountain Kanzura which becomes pregnant with Tašmišu instead, though this still leaves the remaining two children inside him, and he travels to Nippur to seek a solution. It is presumed that the reference to this city reflected the theological tradition known from the Syro-Hurrian milieu, according to which Kumarbi and its main god, Enlil, were regarded as analogous. He apparently discusses the best course of action with Anu, Ea and Teshub, in this passage designated by the epithet KA.ZAL. Following the weather god’s argument that the only safe way for him to leave Kumarbi’s body would be to split the skull of the latter, the fate goddesses perform this operation, and subsequently mend the head “like a garment” while apparently the river Tigris leaves through another, unspecified, route. Kumarbi is not fond of his newborn children, and demands to have Teshub (here referred to as NAM.ḪÉ, “abundance”) to be handed over to him so that he can devour or crush him. However, a stone is given to him as a substitute and he breaks his teeth trying to bite it.It is assumed that the ultimate outcome of the myth, while not preserved, was most likely favorable for Teshub. However, he was not yet granted kingship over the gods, and in a surviving passage seemingly expresses displeasure, cursing the older deities. Song of LAMMA The Song of LAMMA, also known as the Song of KAL, is focused on a deity designated by the sumerogram LAMMA. It is considered improbable that a Mesopotamian lamma (lamassu) is meant, and Alfonso Archi suggests that the name is a logographic writing of Karḫuḫi. In the beginning of the narrative, LAMMA manages to defeat Teshub and Šauška. He is selected to act as the king of the gods by Kumarbi and Ea. He ignores the advice of Kubaba, who implores him to meet with the other gods. Ea and Kumarbi as a result eventually grow displeased with him . The former sends a messenger to the underworld to discuss how to depose LAMMA with Nara-Napšara, a pair of primeval deities, and in the end he is seemingly defeated and subsequently subjugated by Teshub.Anna Maria Polvani notes that Song of LAMMA appears to indicate that Kumarbi was not necessarily always portrayed as seeking kingship for himself or his sons, as he also supports LAMMA. However, Harry Hoffner argues that it is not impossible that he was also regarded as a son of Kumarbi. Song of Silver The classification of the Song of Silver as a part of the cycle is not universally accepted. The text does not explicitly refer to kingship among the gods or to the defeat of the eponymous figure, Silver, and the assumptions that it structurally resembled other myths belonging to the Kumarbi Cycle, while considered plausible, is only conjectural.In the beginning, the narrator praises Silver, crediting “wise men” as the source of information about him. Daniel Schwemer interprets him as the personification of the metal he represented. He is described as a son of a mortal woman and a god described as the “father of Urkesh”, presumed to be Kumarbi. Silver’s name is written without the so-called divine determinative, and according to Alfonso Archi the myth most likely reflects the belief that a couple consisting of a deity and a mortal would have mortal offspring.Other boys mock Silver because he was raised without a father. However, he is not actually an orphan, as his father has merely abandoned him. His mother eventually fearfully reveals to him that his father is Kumarbi, that his siblings are Teshub and Šauška, and that he should head to Urkesh, but when he reaches this city, he learns that he is gone from his house, and instead wanders the mountains. The rest of the myth is poorly preserved, but according to Hrry Hoffner’s restoration Silver confronts the heavenly gods, bringing the sun and the moon down from heaven temporarily. Despite initial success he was presumably subsequently defeated. Song of Ḫedammu In the Song of Ḫedammu, Kumarbi fathers a new opponent meant to defeat Teshub, a voracious sea monster. He is conceived after Kumarbi meets with the deified sea (Kiaše) and decides to have a child with his daughter Šertapšuruḫi. Their offspring is described as a tarpanalli (“substitute”, “rival”) of Teshub.Apparently the initial emergence of Ḫedammu leads to a destructive confrontation between Teshub’s allies and Kumarbi which puts mankind into danger, which prompts Ea to rebuke both factions in the divine assembly: (...) Ea began to say: “Why are you destroying mankind? They will not give sacrifices to the gods. They will not burn cedar and incense to you. If you destroy mankind, they will no longer worship the gods. No one will offer bread or libations to you any longer. Even Teššub, Kummiya’s heroic king, will himself work the plow. (...) Ea, King of Wisdom, said to Kumarbi: “Why are you, o Kumarbi, seeking to harm mankind? Does not the mortal take a grain heap and do they not promptly offer it to you, Kumarbi? Does he make offering to you alone, Kumarbi, Father of the Gods, joyfully in the midst of the temple? (...) Anna Maria Polvani notes that he apparently presents Kumarbi and Teshub as equals. It has also been noted that this scene seemingly marks the beginning of Ea’s estrangement from Kumarbi, which eventually leads to him supporting Teshub against him in the Song of Ullikummi. Kumarbi is displeased about being rebuked in front of other gods, and, possibly calling himself the son of Alalu, mentions the deity Ammezzadu in an unknown context while complaining about Ea’s words. He subsequently orders his servant Mukišānu to take a secret subterranean route to summon the sea god for a meeting during which they will discuss their plans. The remaining surviving fragments outline Šauška’s preparation for a second confrontation with Ḫedammu, which presumably culminates in his defeat, described in the now lost ending. Song of Ullikummi The Song of Ullikummi is focused on Kumarbi’s effort to destroy Teshub with the help of Ullikummi, a stone giant whose name means “Destroy Kumme!”, Kumme being the city of Teshub. It has been pointed out that this explicit goal adds a personal dimension to the conflict. Both Hittite and Hurrian versions exist, though they are not direct translations of each other, which might indicate the myth was transmitted orally. Most likely its compilers were familiar with the Song of Ḫedammu. In both myths, the challengers are addressed as “substitutes” (tarpanalli). Furthermore, both portray Kumarbi and the sea god as allies, and in both Šauška (dIŠTAR) attempts to seduce the eponymous monsters to subdue them.In the beginning of the composition, Kumarbi devises a new plan and travels from Urkesh to a cold spring, where he spots an enormous stone which he deems to be a suitable candidate to impregnate to create a new opponent for Teshub. After a lacuna, the sea sends his messenger, Impaluri, to ask Kumarbi why he is angry with him, and to invite him for a feast, which he subsequently attends alongside his messenger Mukišānu. The next surviving passage, preceded by another lacuna, describes the birth of Kumarbi’s new son. The child is presented to him by the fate goddesses, and he proclaims that his name will be Ullikummi. This scene might be depicted on the golden bowl of Hasanlu. Kumarbi states that Ullikummi will be able to destroy Teshub in the future, but for the time being needs to be hidden to have time to grow away from the sight of the weather god and his allies, and instructs Impaluri to summon the Irširra deities. He entrusts the Irširra with taking him to the underworld and placing him on the shoulders of Upelluri, an Atlas-like being. They first take it to Enlil, who instantly recognizes him as a product of Kumarbi’s “evil plot” and presumes he is supposed to supplant Teshub. Subsequently Ullikummi is placed on the shoulder of Upelluri, as ordered by Kumarbi. Teshub and his allies later attempt to battle the fully grown Ullikummi, but they fail to defeat him and he eventually manages to block the access to the temple of Teshub's wife Ḫepat, trapping her inside. Teshub eventually secures the help of Ea at Tašmišu’s suggestion. Ea subsequently consults Enlil, Upelluri and the "primordial gods" residing in the underworld and recovers a primordial tool which was used to separate earth from heaven long ago, with which he plans to separate Ullikummi from Upelluri. Afterwards Teshub once again battles the giant. Presumably the composition ended with the weather god’s victory. Possibly related texts It is commonly assumed that fragmentary myth preserved on the tablet KBo 22.87 belongs to the Kumarbi Cycle. It describes the reign of a deity named Eltara, one of the “ancient gods” known from presumably related myths. His relation to Kumarbi remains unclear. It has been suggested that the text might deal with the final victory of Teshub over his adversaries, though it has also been interpreted as an example of a narrative focused on a “minor kingship” as Eltara does not appear in sequences of “kings in heaven” in other sources, which list Alalu, Anu and Kumarbi.The Song of the Sea (CTH 785; preserved on tablets KBo 8.86 and KUB 44.7) might represent a further section of the Kumarbi Cycle. It most likely describes a battle between Teshub and the deified sea, though due to imperfect understanding of Hurrian little is known about the details of its plot. Kumarbi is mentioned in a damaged passage near the end of tablet KUB 44.7, though it is only possible to establish that he has a speaking role. It has also been argued that the Song of the Sea might have influenced the portrayal the eponymous being his ally in the Song of Ḫedammu and Song of Ullikummi. Ian Rutherford suggests that Song of the Sea might belong before the Song of Ḫedammu in the commonly accepted sequence of Kumarbi myths, possibly forming the first half of the same narrative, and that the sea offered Kumarbi his daughter in the aftermath of his defeat at the hands of Teshub, though he notes that an alternate proposal is to place it before the Song of LAMMA, in which case it would instead document the start of Teshub’s rise to power. Daniel Schwemer in a more recent study argues that a confrontation between Teshub and the sea might have been the final section of the Kumarbi Cycle, in the aftermath of which his kingship was firmly established.A possible additional fragment of Song of the Sea is preserved on the tablet KBo 26.105, and relays how Kumarbi urges other deities to pay tribute to the eponymous deity after Teshub fails to defeat him, which results in a flood apparently reaching even the sun and the moon. The text breaks off after due to lack of deities willing to volunteer Šauška is selected to bring the tribute. Kumarbi is seemingly described positively in this case and acts as the counselor of the gods, similarly to how Ea does in other myths. This portrayal is considered unusual, though according to Noga Ayali-Darshan attempts to harmonize it with the more hostile role he plays in other myths, while present in scholarship, are not necessary. She argues that the myth was an adaptation of an otherwise unknown Syrian composition, and Kumarbi was placed in a positive role which originally belonged to Dagan instead, despite the difference between their respective characters.Alfonso Archi counts the myth Ea and the Beast (KUB 36.32 and KUB 36.55) among these belonging to the Kumarbi Cycle. The similarities include references to deities being placed inside someone, presumably Kumarbi, details of the accounts of the births of Aranzaḫ and Teshub, and the mention of impregnation by spittle. However, the form of the text differs, as the events are presented as a prophecy given by the eponymous beast (suppalanza) to the god Ea. It might describe the conflict between Kumarbi and Teshub and their respective allies. Ian Rutherford proposes that the events of Ea and the Beast might be placed in the cycle either directly before the Song of Emergence, with Ea learning about the events involving Kumarbi and Teshub in advance, or after it with the beast in part recounting what has already happened. He also notes that while the characterization of Ea differs, as he is apparently portrayed as ignorant despite his usual role as an epitome of wisdom, it is possible that the author intended a scene in which the beast rhetorically asks him “Don’t you know?” to parallel questions Ea himself asks Enlil and the giant Upelluri in the Song of Ullikummi. He suggests that this might further support classifying the text as part of the Kumarbi Cycle, as Ea learning about the outcome of the conflict between Kumarbi and Teshub could explain why his attitude towards the latter seemingly changes for the better through the individual myths.Song of Oil (Song of Ḫašarri) has been classified as a part of the Kumarbi Cycle by Ilya Yakubovich, Erik van Dongen and a number of other authors, though this proposal has been evaluated as implausible by Meindert Dijkstra. In this composition, which is known from a number of fragments in Hurrian, Kumarbi apparently advises Šauška to seek the help of Ea when she faces troubles related to the development of the eponymous being, apparently a personification of olive oil or an olive tree. However, most of his speech is not preserved.It has also been proposed that the fragment KUB 22.118 belongs to the Kumarbi Cycle. It alludes to intercourse between Kumarbi and the personified mountain Wāšitta. The interpretation of two frequently words frequently repeated in it, tuḫḫima- and tuḫḫae-, is a matter of dispute, and the early assumption of Johannes Friedrich, who assumed they can be translated as “to have labor pains, to begin to have contractions” is no longer accepted as this term also occurs in other texts in context which makes a link to pregnancy implausible. Emmanuel Laroche instead suggested interpreting them as terms referring to gasping and suffocation, which has been adopted by a number of dictionaries of Hittite, such as Hethitisches Handwörterbuch and Chicago Hittite Dictionary. However, this translation did not find universal support either. Alwin Kloekhorst proposes interpreting both terms as related to the stem tuḫḫ-, which occurs in words related to smoke. On this basis he suggests that Wāšitta was a personified volcano, a “smoking mountain”, and that rest of the narrative, which is now lost, described her giving birth to another new opponent of Teshub through an eruption. Other myths A reference to Kumarbi has been identified in a fragment of the Hurrian version of the myth of Kešši, though it is not known what role he played in this narrative.A Hittite version of Atrahasis (KUB 8.63 + KBo 53.5), presumably adapted from Hurrian, casts Kumarbi in the role assigned to Enlil in the Akkadian original. A man named Hamsha informs his son, the eponymous protagonist, about actions this god plans to take, but their description is not preserved. Kumarbi is also mentioned in a historiola focused on the flood hero in a text presumed to be a healing ritual of “Hurro-Luwian” background, in the past sometimes classified as a fragment of a Gilgamesh myth instead. It is known from two tablets, KUB 8.62 and Bo 5700. Comparative scholarship Piotr Taracha has suggested that victory of Teshub over Kumarbi and his allies in myths conventionally classified as parts of the Kumarbi Cycle might constitute an example of the chaoskampf motif. Volkert Haas compared Kumarbi’s role as an antagonist seeking to overthrow the rule of another deity to those played by Mesopotamian Enmesharra and Ugaritic Mot in myths involving them, and has suggested that all of these narratives might symbolically represent times of hunger or other difficulties.Christopher Metcalf suggests that the account of Kumarbi’s temporary role as a cupbearer might be derived from Mesopotamian tradition. He compares it to the legends about the rise of Sargon of Akkad to power, such as the Sumerian Sargon Legend or the relevant section of the Weidner Chronicle, in which he similarly overthrows the fictional king Ur-Zababa of Kish after serving as his cupbearer or a time.Parallels between Kumarbi’s ascent to kingship and the Mesopotamian myth Theogony of Dunnu have been noted by Wilfred G. Lambert. It has been pointed out that one point in the latter myth kingship is seized by an unnamed “servant of heaven” (seḫer dḫamorni), in a passage which, while written in Akkadian, uses a Hurrian loanword to refer to heaven. Lambert also stated that an expository text referring to “"the day when Anu bound the king, the day when king Marduk bound Anu" might be interpreted as a Babylonian counterpart of the succession of kings of the gods in the myths focused on Kumarbi, though he also noted that it most likely reflects a tradition which was well known among contemporaries of the author but was not directly preserved.Comparisons have been made between the Kumarbi Cycle and the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, which also deals with a struggle for kingship among the gods. It has been argued that parallels exist between the portrayals of the relations between Kumarbi, Kiaše and Teshub with these between El, Yam and Baal, but Daniel Schwemer points out that they are not identical, as Kumarbi actively instigates the conflict while El is a passive figure. Noga Ayali-Darshan additionally suggests that descriptions of Baal as “son of Dagan” might have resulted from adapting the Hurrian tradition about both Kumarbi and Anu being fathers of Teshub, with El playing the role of Kumarbi as Baal’s enemy and Dagan that of his ally. However, Mark S. Smith notes that El is not directly opposed to Baal, and eventually even mourns his death (KTU 1.5 VI). He nonetheless accepts that the scene of El naming Yam, who acts as Baal’s rival, can be compared with Kumarbi naming Ullikummi in the Song of Ullikummi. He also notes both narratives take place on Mount Saphon.Similarities have been pointed out between the Song of the Sea and the ancient Egyptian Astarte Papyrus. They include a description of the sea covering the earth, a deity associated with grain (respectively Kumarbi and Renenutet) imploring other gods to pay tribute, and a goddess closely associated with a weather god (respectively Šauška and Astarte) being selected to bring it. A single passage describing Astarte undressing additionally shows similarity to scenes from the myths of Ḫedammu and Ullikummi involving Šauška. The role assigned to Renenutet is regarded as unusual, as she was a minor deity in ancient Egyptian religion, in contrast with Kumarbi in Hurrian religion. Since a direct transmission from a Hurrian source is considered implausible, Noga Ayali-Darshan suggests that both myths were transmitted to the respective cultures from the Levant. Daniel Schwemer similarly assumes that both of them were adaptations of the same hypothetical narrative originating in northern Syria. As early as in the 1940s, arguments have been made that the Kumarbi Cycle contains mythologems which can be considered forerunners of these found in Hesiod's Theogony. Comparisons have been made between the roles of Kumarbi and Kronos in particular, and more broadly between the succession of “kings in heaven” and the reigns of Ouranos, Kronos and Zeus. The existence of a relation between the two texts is widely accepted today. The castration of a sky god, and possibly also the swallowing of a rock in place of a deity, are presumed to be two elements of the myth of Kumarbi adopted by Greeks. Gary Beckman has expressed skepticism over whether Greeks necessarily received all of the shared elements of the two myths directly from Kumarbi myths, and suggested they might have belonged to a Mediterranean cultural milieu. At the same time, he referred to the birth of Teshub from Kumarbi’s split skull as a “template” for the myth of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. This proposal is also regarded as plausible by Ian Rutherford. Differences between the Kumarbi Cycle and theogony have also been pointed out: if the common interpretation that Alalu and Kumarbi are not related to Anu is accepted, kingship is not passed from father to son in the older myth. Furthermore, Kumarbi does not use a weapon to castrate Anu, but rather his teeth. Carolina López-Ruiz accepts that despite the differences Theogony represents Greek reception of the Kumarbi Cycle, but she notes that a closer parallel can be found in an Orphic theogony from the Derveni papyrus, where Zeus castrates Ouranos, swallows his genitals and thus becomes impregnated with the cosmos, which according to her better reflects the succession from Anu to Kumarbi. She notes Kumarbi and Kronos in theory were figures more similar to each other, and assumes the motif was reinterpreted to suit Zeus instead because the author of this text wanted to emphasize his creative powers. Further similar Orphic myths include an account of castration of Kronos by Zeus and a passage in the Orphic Rhapsodies where the latter swallows Phanes, a figure in this context described as his ancestor.As an extension of discussion of the possible influence of the Kumarbi Cycle and Theogony, additional parallels have been pointed out between both of these works and the accounts of the reigns of Elyon, Ouranos and El in the writings of Philo of Byblos. Hans Gustav Güterbock has proposed that Philo might have specifically relied on a source forming an intermediate stage between the Kumarbi Cycle and Theogony. However, more recent research stresses that the possibility of influence from early sources on his writing needs to be balanced with their historical context. Albert I. Baumgarten has criticized Güterbock’s position, and argued that none of the myths involved can be described as “intermediary” between others. He also pointed out that despite the frequent comparisons made in scholarship, Philo’s Phoenician History lacks a number of elements present in the Kumarbi Cycle: Demarous does not challenge the reign of Kronos in the way Teshub challenges Kumarbi, and no battles against monsters occur. He concluded that the Kumarbi Cycle, Theogony and Phoenician History merely represent different takes on a common mythological motif. More recently, it has proposed that the episode in Phoenician History in which Ouranos tasks Dagon (Dagan) with raising Damerous, a son he had with a concubine, might constitute a non-violent adaptation of the account of Teshub’s origin as a son of both Anu and Kumarbi in the Kumarbi Cycle, though Dagon does not supplant Ouranos as a ruler.Ian Rutherford has proposed that an anonymous scholion stating that Kronos was the father of Typhon, in this context placed in Cilicia, might echo a tradition involving Kumarbi, though he remarks the similarity between the Greek monster and Ullikummi or Ḫedammu is vague, and the respective Greek and Anatolian narratives do not parallel each other. Footnotes References === Bibliography ===

List of statutory instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2002

This is an incomplete list of statutory instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2002. Statutory instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales, such that every statutory instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The statutory instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.

This is an incomplete list of statutory instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2002. Statutory instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales, such that every statutory instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The statutory instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly. 1-100 The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 8 (W.1)) The Education (National Curriculum) (Assessment Arrangements for English, Welsh, Mathematics and Science) (Key Stage 1) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 45 (W.4)) Gorchymyn Addysg (Y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Y Trefniadau Asesu ar gyfer Cymraeg, Saesneg, Mathemateg a Gwyddoniaeth) (Cyfnod Allweddol 1) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 45 (Cy.4)) The Education (Individual Pupils' Achievements) (Information) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 46 (W.5)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyraeddiadau Disgyblion Unigol) (Gwybodaeth) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 46 (Cy.5)) The Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 47 (W.6)) Rheoliadau Cig Dofednod, Cig Adar Hela wedi'i Ffermio a Chig Cwningod (Hylendid ac Archwilio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 47 (Cy.6)) The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 74 (W.8) (C.1)) Gorchymyn Deddf Anghenion Addysgol Arbennig ac Anabledd 2001 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 74 (Cy.8) (C.1)) The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 85 (W.9)) The Education (School Day and School Year) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 107 (W.12)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Y Diwrnod Ysgol a'r Flwyddyn Ysgol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 107 (Cy.12)) The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 120 (W.14)) Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Deillio o'r Aifft (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 120 (Cy.14)) The Education (Budget Statements) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 122 (W.16)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Datganiadau Cyllideb) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 122 (Cy.16)) The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat, Meat Preparations and Meat Products) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 129 (W.17)) The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 130 (W.18)) The Financing of Maintained Schools (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 136 (W.19)) Rheoliadau Ariannu Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 136 (Cy.19)) The Education (Special Educational Needs) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 152 (W.20)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Anghenion Addysgol Arbennig) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 152 (Cy.20)) The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (Appointed Day) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 156 (W.22)) Gorchymyn Cod Ymarfer Anghenion Addysgol Arbennig (Diwrnod Penodedig) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 156 (Cy.22)) The Special Educational Needs (Provision of Information by Local Education Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 157 (W.23)) Rheoliadau Anghenion Addysgol Arbennig (Darparu Gwybodaeth gan Awdurdodau Addysg Lleol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 157 (Cy.23)) The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 186 (W.25)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 186 (Cy.25)) The Food and Animal Feedingstuffs (Products of Animal Origin from China) (Control) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 203 (W.26)) The Cattle (Identification of Older Animals) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 273 (W.29)) Rheoliadau Gwartheg (Adnabod Anifeiliaid Hŷn) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 273 (Cy.29)) The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 274 (W.30)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 280 (W.32)) The Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 281 (W.33)) The Animal Gatherings (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 283 (W.34)) Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 283 (Cy.34)) The Cattle Database (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 304 (W.35)) Rheoliadau'r Gronfa Ddata Gwartheg (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 304 (Cy.35)) The Care Homes (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 324 (W.37)) Rheoliadau Cartrefi Gofal (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 324 (Cy.37)) Private and Voluntary Health Care (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 325 (W.38)) Rheoliadau Gofal Iechyd Preifat a Gwirfoddol (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 325 (Cy.38)) The General Teaching Council for Wales (Fees) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 326 (W.39)) Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Ffioedd) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 326 (Cy.39)) The Children’s Homes (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 327 (W.40)) Rheoliadau Cartrefi Plant (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 327 (Cy.40)) The Local Authorities (Alteration of Requisite Calculations) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 328 (W.41)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Addasu Cyfrifiadau Angenrheidiol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 328 (Cy.41)) The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 329 (W.42)) Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 329 (Cy.42)) The Sweeteners in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 330 (W.43)) Rheoliadau Melysyddion mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 330 (Cy.43)) The Non-Domestic Rating (Rural Rate Relief) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 331 (W.44)) Gorchymyn Ardrethu Annomestig (Rhyddhad Ardrethi Gwledig) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 331 (Cy.44)) The Food (Star Anise from Third Countries) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 402 (W.50)) The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (England and Wales) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 430 (W.52)) Rheoliadau Anifeiliaid a Chynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Mewnforio ac Allforio) (Lloegr a Chymru) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 430 (Cy.52)) The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No.2) (Revocation) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 431 (W.53)) Rheoliadau Cyfyngiadau Mewnforio ac Allforio (Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diddymu) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 431 (Cy.53)) The School Organisation Proposals by the National Council for Education and Training for Wales Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 432 (W.55)) Rheoliadau Cynigion Trefniadaeth Ysgol gan Gyngor Cenedlaethol Cymru dros Addysg a Hyfforddiant 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 432 (Cy.55)) The Education Standards Grants (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 438 (W.56)) Rheoliadau Grantiau Safonau Addysg (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 438 (Cy.56)) The Velindre National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 442 (W.57)) Gorchymyn Diwygio Ymddiriedolaeth Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol Felindre (Sefydlu) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 442 (Cy.57)) The Service Subsidy Agreements (Tendering) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 520 (W.63)) Rheoliadau Cytundebau Cymhorthdal Gwasanaeth (Tendro) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 520 (Cy.63)) The Blaenau Gwent and Caerphilly (Tredegar and Rhymney) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 651 (W.68)) Gorchymyn Blaenau Gwent a Chaerffili (Tredegar a Rhymni) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 651 (Cy.68)) The Neath Port Talbot and Swansea (Trebanos and Clydach) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 652 (W.69)) Gorchymyn Castell-nedd Port Talbot ac Abertawe (Trebannws a Chlydach) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 652 (Cy.69)) The Rhondda Cynon Taff and Vale of Glamorgan (Llanharry, Pont-y-clun, Penllyn, Welsh St Donats and Pendoylan) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 654 (W.70)) Gorchymyn Rhondda Cynon Taf a Bro Morgannwg (Llanhari, Pont-y-clun, Penllyn, Llanddunwyd a Phendeulwyn) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 654 (Cy.70)) The Fisheries and Aquaculture Structures (Grants) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 675 (W.72)) Rheoliadau Strwythurau Pysgodfeydd a Dyframaethu (Grantiau) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 675 (Cy.72)) The Lobsters and Crawfish (Prohibition of Fishing and Landing) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 676 (W.73)) Gorchymyn Cimychiaid a Chimychiaid Cochion (Gwahardd eu Pysgota a'u Glanio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 676 (Cy.73)) The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Wales) Order 2000 Amendment Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 677 (W.74)) Rheoliadau Diwygio Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Cymunedol ar gyfer Monitro â Lloeren) (Cymru) 2000 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 677 (Cy.74)) The Local Government Best Value (Exclusion of Non-commercial Considerations) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 678 (W.75)) Gorchymyn Gwerth Gorau Llywodraeth Leol (Hepgor Ystyriaethau Anfasnachol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 678 (Cy.75)) The Education (Capital Grants) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 679 (W.76)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Grantiau Cyfalaf) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 679 (Cy.76)) The Local Government (Best Value Performance Indicators) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 757 (W.80)) Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dangosyddion Perfformiad Gwerth Gorau) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 757 (Cy.80)) The Warm Homes and Energy Conservation Act 2000 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 758 (W.81) (C.18)) Gorchymyn Deddf Cartrefi Cynnes ac Arbed Ynni 2000 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 758 (Cy.81) (C.18)) The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 763 (W.82)) Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 763 (Cy.82)) The Local Authorities Executive Arrangements (Functions and Responsibilities) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 783 (W.84)) Rheoliadau Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth Awdurdodau Lleol (Swyddogaethau a Chyfrifoldebau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 783 (Cy.84)) The Advisory Committee for Wales (Environment Agency) Abolition Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 784 (W.85)) Gorchymyn Diddymu Pwyllgor Ymgynghorol dros Gymru (Asiantaeth yr Amgylchedd) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 784 (Cy.85)) The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Rate of Discount for 2002/2003) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 785 (W.86)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Cyfradd y Disgownt ar gyfer 2002/2003) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 785 (Cy.86)) The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Discharge of Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 802 (W.87)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Cyflawni Swyddogaethau) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 802 (Cy.87)) The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Modification of Enactments and Further Provisions) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 803 (W.88)) Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Addasu Deddfiadau a Darpariaethau Pellach) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 803 (Cy.88)) The Local Authorities (Executive and Alternative Arrangements) (Modification of Enactments and Other Provisions) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 808 (W.89)) Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithredol a Threfniadau Amgen) (Addasu Deddfiadau a Darpariaethau Eraill) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 808 (Cy.89)) The Local Authorities (Alternative Arrangements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 810 (W.90)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Amgen) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 810 (Cy.90)) The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 811 (W.91)) Gorchymyn Adnabod a Symud Defaid a Geifr (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru)(Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 811 (Cy.91)) The Child Minding and Day Care (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 812 (W.92)) Rheoliadau Gwarchod Plant a Gofal Dydd (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 812 (Cy.92)) The Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 813 (W.93)) Rheoliadau Rhwymedigaethau Cyfrifoldeb Cynhyrchwyr (Gwastraff Deunydd Pacio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 813 (Cy.93)) The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 814 (W.94)) Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 814 (Cy.94)) The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 815 (W.95)) Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 815 (Cy.95)) The Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 820 (W.96)) The Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 821 (W.97)) The Disabled Facilities Grants and Home Repair Assistance (Maximum Amounts) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 837 (W.99)) Gorchymyn Grantiau Cyfleusterau i'r Anabl a Chymorth Trwsio Cartrefi (Uchafsymiau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 837 (Cy.99)) The Local Authorities (Capital Finance and Approved Investments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 885 (W.100)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf a Buddsoddiadau a Gymeradwywyd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 885 (Cy.100)) 101-200 The Local Government (Whole Authority Analyses and Improvement Plans) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 886 (W.101)) Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dadansoddiadau Awdurdodau Cyfan a Chynlluniau Gwella) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 886 (Cy.101)) The Disqualification from Caring for Children (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 896 (W.102)) Rheoliadau Datgymhwyso rhag Gofalu am Blant (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 896 (Cy.102)) The Dairy Produce Quotas (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 897 (W.103)) The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 916 (W. 104)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 916 (Cy. 104)) The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 917 (W. 105)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 917 (Cy. 105)) The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 918 (W. 106)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 918 (Cy. 106)) The Registration of Social Care and Independent Health Care (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 919 (W.107)) The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 8 (Wales) and Transitional, Savings and Consequential Provisions) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 920 (W.108) (C.24)) The Registration of Social Care and Independent Healthcare (Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 921 (W.109)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1038 (W.110)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1038 (Cy.110)) The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (England and Wales) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1039 (W.111)) Rheoliadau Anifeiliaid a Chynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Mewnforio ac Allforio) (Lloegr a Chymru) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1039 (Cy.111)) The Waste Management Licensing (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1087 (W.114)) Rheoliadau Trwyddedu Rheoli Gwastraff (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1087 (Cy.114)) The Food (Jelly Confectionery) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1090 (W.115)) The Bridgend (Cynffig, Cornelly and Pyle Communities) (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1129 (W.117)) Gorchymyn Pen-y-bont ar Ogwr (Cymunedau Cynffig, Corneli a'r Pîl) (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1129 (Cy.117)) The Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Animal Health) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1131 (W. 118)) Rheoliadau Ffrwythloni Artiffisial Gwartheg (Iechyd Anifeiliaid) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1131 (Cy. 118)) The Bovines and Bovine Products (Trade) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1174 (W.122)) Rheoliadau Bucholion a Chynhyrchion Buchol (Masnach) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1174 (Cy.122)) The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 9) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1175 (W.123) (C.31)) Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 9) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1175 (Cy.123) (C.31)) The Care Standards Act 2000 (Extension of Meaning of Social Care Worker) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1176 (W.124)) Rheoliadau Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Ehangu Ystyr Gweithiwr Gofal Cymdeithasol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1176 (Cy.124)) The Education Development Plans (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1187 (W.135)) Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Datblygu Addysg (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1187 (Cy.135)) The Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1350 (W.130)) The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Revocation) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1354 (W.131)) Rheoliadau Adnabod a Symud Defaid a Geifr (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Diddymu) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1354 (Cy.131)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1356 (W.132)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1356 (Cy.132)) The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1357 (W.133)) The Animal Gatherings (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1358 (W.134)) Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1358 (Cy.134)) The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Decisions, Documents and Meetings) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1385 (W.135)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Penderfyniadau, Dogfennau a Chyfarfodydd) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1385 (Cy.135)) The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1387 (W.136)) The School Teacher Appraisal (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1394 (W.137)) Rheoliadau Gwerthuso Athrawon Ysgol (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1394 (Cy.137)) The School Government (Terms of Reference) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1396 (W.138)) Rheoliadau Llywodraethu Ysgolion (Cylch Gwaith) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1396 (Cy.138)) The Education (School Information) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1400 (W.139)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth Ysgolion) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1400 (Cy.139)) The School Governors' Annual Reports (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1401 (W.140)) Rheoliadau Adroddiadau Blynyddol Llywodraethwyr Ysgol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1401 (Cy.140)) The TSE (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1416 (W.142)) The Bridgend (Cynffig, Cornelly and Pyle Communities)(Electoral Changes)(Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1432 (W.143)) Gorchymyn Pen-y-bont ar Ogwr (Cymunedau Cynffig, Corneli a'r Pîl) (Newidiadau Etholiadol) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1432 (Cy.143)) The Welsh Language Schemes (Public Bodies) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1441 (W.145)) Gorchymyn Cynlluniau Iaith Gymraeg (Cyrff Cyhoeddus) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1441 (Cy.145)) The Animal By-Products (Identification) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1472 (W.146)) Rheoliadau Sgil-gynyrchion Anifeiliaid (Adnabod) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1472 (Cy.146)) The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1475 (W.147) (C.41)) Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1475 (Cy.147) (C.41)) The Meat (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1476 (W.148)) Rheoliadau Cig (Dadansoddi Peryglon a Phwynt Rheoli Critigol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1476 (Cy.148)) The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1506 (W.151)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1506 (Cy.151)) The Seeds (Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1554 (W.152)) Rheoliadau Hadau (Ffioedd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1554 (Cy.152)) The Education (School Day and School Year) (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1556 (W.153)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Y Diwrnod Ysgol a'r Flwyddyn Ysgol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1556 (Cy.153)) The Education (Recognised Bodies) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1661 (W.157)) Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Cydnabod) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1661 (Cy.157)) Further Education Teachers' Qualifications (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1663 (W.158)) Rheoliadau Cymwysterau Athrawon Addysg Bellach (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1663 (Cy.158)) The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1667 (W.159)) Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Rhestru) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1667 (Cy.159)) The Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1726 (W.161)) The Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1728 (W.162)) The Local Authorities (Goods and Services) (Public Bodies) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1729 (W.163)) Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Nwyddau a Gwasanaethau) (Cyrff Cyhoeddus) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1729 (Cy.163)) The Environmental Protection (Restriction on Use of Lead Shot) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1730 (W.164)) Rheoliadau Diogelu'r Amgylchedd (Cyfyngu'r Defnydd ar Beledi Plwm) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1730 (Cy.164)) The Non-Domestic Rating (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1735 (W.165)) Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Newid Rhestri ac Apelau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1735 (Cy.165)) The Homelessness Act 2002 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1736 (W.166) (C.53)) Gorchymyn Deddf Digartrefedd 2002 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1736 (Cy.166) (C.53)) The Wildlife and Countryside (Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1772 (W.168)) Rheoliadau Bywyd Gwyllt a Chefn Gwlad (Safleoedd o Ddiddordeb Gwyddonol Arbennig, Apelau) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1772 (Cy.168)) The Countryside Access (Appeals Procedures) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1794 (W.169)) Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Gweithdrefnau Apelau) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1794 (Cy.169)) The Control of Noise (Codes of Practice for Construction and Open Sites) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1795 (W.170)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Swn (Codau Ymarfer ar gyfer Safleoedd Adeiladu a Safleoedd Agored) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1795 (Cy.170)) The Countryside Access (Provisional and Conclusive Maps) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1796 (W171)) Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Mapiau Dros Dro a Therfynol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1796 (Cy.171)) The Feeding Stuffs (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1797 (W.172)) Rheoliadau Porthiant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1797 (Cy.172)) The Food and Animal Feedingstuffs (Products of Animal Origin from China) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1798 (W.173)) The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (No. 3) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1804 (W.174)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1804 (Cy.174)) The Plant Health (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1805 (W.175)) Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1805 (Cy.175)) The Tir Mynydd (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1806 (W.176)) Rheoliadau Tir Mynydd (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1806 (Cy176)) The Children (Leaving Care) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1855 (W.179)) Rheoliadau Plant (Ymadael â Gofal) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1855 (Cy.179)) Local Education Authority (Post-Compulsory Education Awards)(Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1856 (W.180)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Addysg Lleol (Dyfarndaliadau Addysg Ôl-orfodol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1856 (Cy.180)) The Education (Assembly Learning Grant Scheme) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1857 (W.181)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Cynllun Grant Dysgu'r Cynulliad) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1857 (Cy.181)) The Seeds (Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1870 (W.183)) Rheoliadau Hadau (Ffïoedd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1870 (Cy.183)) The Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1875 (W.184)) Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Dosbarthiadau Defnydd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1875 (Cy.184)) The Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1876 (W.185)) Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Ffioedd ar gyfer Ceisiadau a Cheisiadau Tybiedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1876 (Cy.185)) The Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1877 (W.186)) Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Gweithdrefn Datblygu Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1877 (Cy.186)) The Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1878 (W.187)) Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Datblygu Cyffredinol a Ganiateir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1878 (Cy.187)) The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1879 (W.188)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1879 (Cy.188)) The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1880 (W.189)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1880 (Cy.189)) The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1881 (W.190)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1881 (Cy.190)) The National Health Service (General Medical Services Supplementary List) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1882 (W.191)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Rhestr Atodol Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1882 (Cy.191)) National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1883 (W.192)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1883 (Cy.192)) The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Approved Investments) (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1884 (W.193)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Buddsoddiadau wedi'u Cymeradwyo) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1884 (Cy.193)) The Shellfish (Specification of Crustaceans) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1885 (W.194)) Rheoliadau Pysgod Cregyn (Dynodi Cramenogion) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1885 (Cy.194)) The Contaminants in Food (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1886 (W.195)) Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1886 (Cy.195)) The Local Authorities (Allowances for Members of County and County Borough Councils and National Park Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1895 (W.196)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau i Aelodau Cynghorau Sir a Chynghorau Bwrdeistref Sirol ac Awdurdodau Parciau Cenedlaethol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1895 (Cy.196)) The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1896 (W.197)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1896 (Cy.197)) The Undersized Spider Crabs (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1897 (W.198)) Gorchymyn Crancod Heglog Rhy Fach (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1897 (Cy.198)) The Welfare of Farmed Animals (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 1898 (W.199)) Rheoliadau Lles Anifeiliaid a Ffermir (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 1898 (Cy.199)) 201-300 The Bus Service Operators Grant (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2022 (W.206)) Rheoliadau Grant Gweithredwyr Gwasanaethau Bysiau (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2022 (Cy.206)) The Travel Concessions (Eligible Services) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2023 (W.207)) Gorchymyn Consesiynau Teithio (Gwasanaethau Cymwys) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2023 (Cy.207)) The Transport Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2024 (W.208) (C.65)) Gorchymyn Deddf Trafnidiaeth 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2024 (Cy.208) (C.65)) The Animal Gatherings (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2060 (W.209)) Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2060 (Cy.209)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment No. 3) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2061 (W.210)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygiad Rhif 3) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2061 (Cy.210)) The Local Authorities (Companies) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2118 (W.213)) Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Cwmnïau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2118 (Cy.213)) The Environmental Impact Assessment (Uncultivated Land and Semi-Natural Areas) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2127 (W.214)) Rheoliadau Asesu Effeithiau Amgylcheddol (Tir heb ei Drin ac Ardaloedd Lled-naturiol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2127 (Cy.214)) The Child Minding and Day Care (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2171 (W.218)) Rheoliadau Gwarchod Plant a Gofal Dydd (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2171 (Cy.218)) The Velindre National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2199 (W.219)) Gorchymyn Diwygio Ymddiriedolaeth Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol Felindre (Sefydlu) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2199 (Cy.219)) The Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2258 (W.222)) Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Ffioedd ar gyfer Ceisiadau a Cheisiadau Tybiedig) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2258 (Cy.222)) The Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2295 (W.224)) The Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2296 (W.225)) The Protection of Water Against Agricultural Nitrate Pollution (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2297 (W.226)) Rheoliadau Diogelu Dŵr Rhag Llygredd Nitradau Amaethyddol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2297 (Cy.226)) The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2302 (W.227)) Gorchymyn Adnabod a Symud Defaid a Geifr (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2302 (Cy.227)) The Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2303 (W.228)) Gorchymyn Moch (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2303 (Cy.228)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2304 (W.229)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2304 (Cy.229)) The Bovines and Bovine Products (Trade) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2325 (W.232)) Rheoliadau Bucholion a Chynhyrchion Buchol (Masnach) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2325 (Cy.232)) The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2480 (W.243)) Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2480 (Cy.243)) The National Health Service Reform and Health Care Professions Act 2002 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2532 (W.248)(C.81)) Gorchymyn Deddf Diwygio'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol a Phroffesiynau Gofal Iechyd 2002 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2532 (Cy.248)(C.81)) The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 3) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2615 (W.253) (C.82)) Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2615 (Cy.253) (C.82)) The Children Act 1989 and the Care Standards Act 2000 (Miscellaneous Regulations) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2622 (W.254)) Rheoliadau Deddf Plant 1989 a Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Rheoliadau Amrywiol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2622 (Cy.254)) The Plant Health ("Phytophthora ramorum") (Wales) (No. 2) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2762 (W.263)) The Fees for Inquiries (Standard Daily Amount) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2780 (W.264)) Rheoliadau Ffioedd Ymchwiliadau (Swm Dyddiol Safonol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2780 (Cy.264)) The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2798 (W.266)) Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif. 2798 (Cy.266)]) The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Forms and Particulars) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2799 (W.267)) Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflenni a Manylion Rhagnodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2799 (Cy.267)) The Relocation Grants (Forms of Application) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2800 (W.268)) Rheoliadau Grantiau Adleoli (Ffurflen Gais) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2800 (Cy.268)) The Town and Country Planning (Costs of Inquiries etc.) (Standard Daily Amount) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2801 (W.269)) Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Costau Ymchwiliadau etc.) (Swm Dyddiol Safonol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2801 (Cy.269)) The National Health Service (General Medical Services Supplementary List) (Wales) (Amendment), the National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 3), the National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 3) and the National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2802 (W.270)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Rhestr Atodool Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Cymru) (Diwygio), y Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 3), y Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 3) a'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2802 (Cy.270)) The Education (Assembly Learning Grant Scheme) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2814 (W.271)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Cynllun Grant Dysgu'r Cynulliad) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2814 (Cy.271)) The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2834 (W.272)) Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2834 (Cy.272)) The Abortion (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2879 (W.275)) Rheoliadau Erthylu (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2879 (Cy.275)) The Local Authorities (Operation of Different Executive or Alternative Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2880 (W.276)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Gweithredu Trefniadau Gweithredol neu Amgen Gwahanol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2880 (Cy.276)) The Children Act 1989 and the Care Standards Act 2000 (Miscellaneous Regulations) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2935 (W.277)) Rheoliadau Deddf Plant 1989 a Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Rheoliadau Amrywiol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2935 (Cy.277)) The Education (Teachers' Qualifications and Health Standards) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2938 (W.279)) Rheoliadau Addysg (Cymwysterau a Safonau Iechyd Athrawon) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2938 (Cy.279)) The Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2939 (W.280)) Rheoliadau Bwyd at Ddefnydd Maethol Neilltuol (Ychwanegu Sylweddau at Ddibenion Maethol Penodol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2939 (Cy.280)) The General Teaching Council for Wales (Amendment) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2940 (W.281)) Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2940 (Cy.281)) The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Discharge of Functions) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 2941 (W.282)) Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Cyflawni Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 2941 (Cy.282)) The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3011 (W.283)) The Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1, Savings and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3012 (W.284) (C.96)) Gorchymyn Deddf Diwygio Deiliadaeth ar y Cyd a Lesddaliad 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 1, Arbedion a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3012 (Cy 284) (C.96)) The Arrangements for Placement of Children (General) and the Review of Children’s Cases (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3013 (W.285)) Rheoliadau Trefniadau ar gyfer Lleoli Plant (Cyffredinol) ac Adolygu Achosion Plant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3013 (Cy.285)) The Travel Concessions (Eligibility) Act 2002 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3014 (W.286) (C.97)) Gorchymyn Deddf Consesiynau Teithio (yr Hawl i'w Cael) 2002 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3014 (Cy.286) (C.97)) The Quality Partnership Schemes (Existing Facilities) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3017 (W.287)) Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Partneriaethau Ansawdd (Cyfleusterau sy'n Bodoli Eisioes) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3017 (Cy.287)) The National Assembly for Wales (Returning Officers' Charges) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3053 (W.288)) Gorchymyn Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru (Taliadau Swyddogion Canlyniadau) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3053 (Cy.288)) The Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3054 (W.289)) Rheoliadau Cyfraniadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3054 (Cy.289)) Welsh Administration Ombudsman (Jurisdiction) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3146 (W.292)) Gorchymyn Ombwdsmon Gweinyddiaeth Cymru (Awdurdodaeth) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3146 (Cy.292)) The Kava-kava in Food (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3157 (W.293)) Rheoliadau Cafa-cafa mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3157 (Cy.293)) The Organic Products (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3159 (W.294)) Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Organig (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3159 (Cy.294)) The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3160 (W.295)) Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Tanwyddau Awdurdodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3160 (Cy.295)) The Inspection of Boarding Schools and Colleges (Powers and Fees)(Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3161 (W.296)) Rheoliadau Arolygu Ysgolion a Cholegau Preswyl (Pwerau a Ffioedd)(Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3161 (Cy.296)) The Street Works (Inspection Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3181 (W.297)) Rheoliadau Gweithfeydd Stryd (Ffioedd Archwilio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3181 (Cy.297)) The Air Quality (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3182 (W.298)) Rheoliadau Ansawdd Aer (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3182 (Cy.298)) The Air Quality Limit Values (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3183 (W.299)) Rheoliadau Gwerthoedd Terfyn Ansawdd Aer (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3183 (Cy.299)) The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3184 (W.300)) Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3184 (Cy.300)) 301-400 The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3185 (W.301) (C.107)) Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3185 (Cy.301) (C.107)) The Rating Lists (Valuation Date) (Wales) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3186 (W.302)) Gorchymyn y Rhestrau Ardrethu (Dyddiad Prisio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3186 (Cy.302)) The Leasehold Reform (Notices) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3187 (W.303)) Rheoliadau Diwygio'r Drefn Brydlesol (Hysbysiadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3187 (Cy.303)) The Genetically Modified Organisms (Deliberate Release) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3188 (W.304)) Rheoliadau Organeddau A Addaswyd Yn Enetig (Eu Gollwng Yn Fwriadol) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3188 (Cy.304)) The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) and (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3189 (W.305)) Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol) a (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3189 (Cy.305)) The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3226 (W.306)) Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Deillio o'r Aifft (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3226 (Cy.306)) The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) (No.2) Regulations 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3230 (W.307)) Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Deillio o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3230 (Cy.307)) The Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire (Clynderwen, Cilymaenllwyd and Henllanfallteg) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3270 (W.308)) Gorchymyn Sir Gaerfyrddin a Sir Benfro (Clynderwen, Cilymaenllwyd a Henllanfallteg) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3270 (Cy.308)) The Newport (Caerleon and Malpas) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3271 (W.309)) Gorchymyn Casnewydd (Caerllion a Malpas) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3271 (Cy.309)) The Ceredigion and Pembrokeshire (St Dogmaels) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3272 (W.310)) Gorchymyn Ceredigion a Sir Benfro (Llandudoch) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3272 (Cy.310)) The Cardiff and Vale of Glamorgan (Michaelston and Grangetown) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3273 (W.311)) Gorchymyn Caerdydd a Bro Morgannwg (Llanfihangel-ynys-Afan a Grangetown) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3273 (Cy.311)) The County of Gwynedd (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3274 (W.312)) Gorchymyn Sir Gwynedd (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3274 (Cy.312)) The County of Monmouthshire (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3275 (W.313)) Gorchymyn Sir Fynwy (Newidiadau Etholiadaol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3275 (Cy.313)) The County Borough of Newport (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3276 (W.314)) Gorchymyn Bwrdeistref Sirol Casnewydd (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3276 (Cy.314)) The County Borough of The Vale of Glamorgan (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3277 (W.315)) Gorchymyn Bwrdeistref Sirol Bro Morgannwg (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3277 (Cy.315)) The County of Ceredigion (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3278 (W.316)) Gorchymyn Sir Ceredigion (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3278 (Cy.316)) The County Borough of Torfaen (Electoral Changes) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002 No. 3279 (W.317)) Gorchymyn Bwrdeistref Sirol Tor-faen (Newidiadau Etholiadol) 2002 (S.I. 2002 Rhif 3279 (Cy.317)) External links Welsh SI List

Laurie Dhue

Laurie Walker Dhue (born February 10, 1969) is an American television journalist. She was a Fox News Channel anchor from 2000 to 2008, reporting for the television show Geraldo at Large and the host of Fox Report Weekend. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Laurie Dhue grew up in Atlanta, Georgia. Her mother is Hutton Dhue, and her father, Bob Dhue, was a former vice president of wrestling operations for World Championship Wrestling. Dhue graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Laurie Walker Dhue (born February 10, 1969) is an American television journalist. She was a Fox News Channel anchor from 2000 to 2008, reporting for the television show Geraldo at Large and the host of Fox Report Weekend. Born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Laurie Dhue grew up in Atlanta, Georgia. Her mother is Hutton Dhue, and her father, Bob Dhue, was a former vice president of wrestling operations for World Championship Wrestling. Dhue graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She received a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science with a concentration in dramatic arts. Career Before joining the Fox News in 2000, she worked for MSNBC as host of its Special Edition. She started at MSNBC in April 1999 as the anchor of Newsfront. She worked at CNN from 1990 to 1999, where she served as anchor for weekend programs, such as CNN Saturday, CNN Sunday, World View, and The World Today.She interned as a weekend morning anchor for WSB-TV in Atlanta and did the occasional weekend edition of Today for NBC. She hosted Fox Report weekend edition and appeared weekly on The O'Reilly Factor. She also reported for Geraldo at Large, On the Record with Greta Van Susteren, and Fox Report with Shepard Smith. Dhue served as the voice of the official Fox News Radio launch in 2004 and anchored evening news updates for several years. On March 30, 2011, she was the guest host of The Joy Behar Show on CNN's sister network, HLN. She was replaced by Frances Rivera on the WPIX-TV Morning News in New York City August 29, 2011. Dhue began hosting For the Record on the new media channel 'TheBlaze' on March 13, 2013. On September 9, 2013, Dhue premiered as the evening anchor for TheBlaze TV News. Her last day with TheBlaze was April 17, 2015. Alcoholism and activism In February 2011, Dhue publicly admitted to a 15-year battle with alcoholism. She was successfully treated for her addiction and has since become a vocal spokesperson for the recovery movement. She has particularly advocated for the need for openness about the disease, the stigmas attached to those who are alcoholic, and the need for greater access to recovery options and programs. She performs public speaking at conventions, conferences, corporate events, and special events. Sexual harassment lawsuit Dhue is one of many women who have settled suits with Fox News in sexual harassment claims against long-time anchor Bill O'Reilly and former president Roger Ailes. As of 2017, she was writing a book discussing her experience. == References ==

Francisca Güemes

Francisca Güemes (1779–1871) was an Argentine heroine. A sister of Martín Miguel de Güemes, she, alongside her sister Macacha Güemes, is counted as a heroine of the Argentine War of Independence for her participation in the Gaucha War during the war of independence.

Francisca Güemes (1779–1871) was an Argentine heroine. A sister of Martín Miguel de Güemes, she, alongside her sister Macacha Güemes, is counted as a heroine of the Argentine War of Independence for her participation in the Gaucha War during the war of independence. References Sosa de Newton, Lily (1980). Diccionario Biografico de Mujeres Argentinas. Buenos Aires: Plus Ultra. ISBN 9502107748.

Lawrence G. Miller

Lawrence G. Miller (April 19, 1936 – June 1, 2014) was an American politician and businessman. Born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, Miller received his bachelor's degree in business administration from University of Bridgeport. He was President of Milo Oil. He served in the Connecticut House of Representatives from Stratford, Connecticut as a Republican from 1990 until his death. == Notes ==

Lawrence G. Miller (April 19, 1936 – June 1, 2014) was an American politician and businessman. Born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, Miller received his bachelor's degree in business administration from University of Bridgeport. He was President of Milo Oil. He served in the Connecticut House of Representatives from Stratford, Connecticut as a Republican from 1990 until his death. == Notes ==

Portal e-Cidadania

The e-Cidadania Portal is a website platform created in 2012 by the Federal Senate of Brazil to encourage citizen participation in the Senate's legislative, budgetary, oversight, and representative activities. The website was established months after the creation of the Access to Information Law, meeting the demands for transparency in public power.It is a tool free of partisan ties, enabling citizen participation in the Brazilian legislative process. Between May 2012 and March 2020, more than 74 million users had accessed the Portal. In 2017 alone, the site counted more than 130.5 million accesses by more than 21 million users. On July 26, 2016, the site recorded record participation of the population, with more than 300,000 votes on the Nonpartisan School (Escola sem Partido) project.

The e-Cidadania Portal is a website platform created in 2012 by the Federal Senate of Brazil to encourage citizen participation in the Senate's legislative, budgetary, oversight, and representative activities. The website was established months after the creation of the Access to Information Law, meeting the demands for transparency in public power.It is a tool free of partisan ties, enabling citizen participation in the Brazilian legislative process. Between May 2012 and March 2020, more than 74 million users had accessed the Portal. In 2017 alone, the site counted more than 130.5 million accesses by more than 21 million users. On July 26, 2016, the site recorded record participation of the population, with more than 300,000 votes on the Nonpartisan School (Escola sem Partido) project. In total, there were 183 thousand demonstrations against and 173 thousand in favor of the project.Almost all pages on the site are responsive (adapting to mobile devices) and approximately 85% of users access via cell phones. History The e-Cidadania program was established on February 13, 2012. In May 2012, the first working version of the portal was structured. The second version came in November of the same year.The idea came from a group of servers of the Federal Senate, who presented the proposal to the then President of the House, Senator José Sarney. A multidisciplinary group, with representatives from the General Secretariat of the Bureau; the General Directorate; the Secretariat of Social Communication; the Legislative Consultancy; the Budget, Inspection and Control Consultancy; and the Special Secretariat of Information Technology of the Federal Senate, was in charge of its management.An Act of the Senate Bureau listed the portal's tools: e-Legislação: space intended for the debate and proposition of new laws and amendment of current legislation or projects in progress; e-Fiscalização: a space to monitor the Brazilian budget and the administrative actions of the Federal Senate; e-Representação: a space for citizens to express their opinions and opinions about issues of interest to society and projects in progress.On July 10, 2013, under the presidency Senator Renan Calheiros, the Senate determined the creation of the mechanism known as Public Consultation, which allows popular participation in the processing of legislative propositions in the Federal Senate.On November 27, 2015, at the initiative of the Senate of the Future Commission, the e-Cidadania program was regulated, giving it legal certainty. Popular participation Currently, the portal has three tools for popular participation: Legislative Idea, Interactive Event, and Public Consultation. Legislative Idea The purpose of the tool is to offer citizens a way to suggest new laws, change existing ones, or improve the Constitution. The suggestions are available for popular vote for four months and the ideas that receive 20 thousand supports are forwarded to the Commission on Human Rights and Participatory Legislation (CDH), where they are formalized as Legislative Suggestions. The suggestions are debated by the senators and receive an opinion.From May 2012 to March 2020, more than 73,000 legislative ideas had been registered on the website. As of March 2020, 63 legislative suggestions were under evaluation at the Human Rights Commission, 67 had not been acted upon, and 25 had been converted into a Bill or Constitution Amendment Bill (PEC).Throughout this period, some ideas were highlighted, such as the suggestion No. 8 of 2014, which sought to regulate the recreational, medicinal and industrial use of marijuana. The idea incited debate with the population in six interactive public hearings and obtained an opinion from the CDH for the creation of a temporary subcommittee on the topic. Suggestion No. 15 of 2014, which sought to legalize abortion in the first twelve weeks of pregnancy, was the subject of five hearings. Together, these two suggestions, had over 8,000 comments at the hearings. Another popular idea that mobilized the social networks was the one that proposed reducing taxes on electronic games from 72% to 9%. The idea reached the required number of supports on the same day it was registered on the portal and was transformed into Suggestion No. 15 of 2017. In December 2017, the suggestion received a favorable opinion for transformation into a Constitution Amendment Bill.In November 2019, Senator Zenaide Maia (PROS-RN), adopted the first legislative idea presented in Libras on the e-Cidadania portal, by a student from Federal District. The Bill No. 5,961/2019, presented by the senator with the same content of the idea, seeks to include the Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) in school curricula for all students, not only deaf ones. In July 2020, Senator Paulo Paim (PT-SP) adopted a Legislative Suggestion and presented its content as a bill, giving credit to the author in the text's justification. The Suggestion, which came from a Legislative Idea published on the e-Cidadania portal, seeks to guarantee the concession of a fourteenth salary to retirees and pensioners from the INSS in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Converted into Constitutional Amendment Bill Converted into Bill of Law Not adopted In total, by March 2020, 67 suggestions originating from ideas sent by citizens were not taken up for various reasons during voting in the Federal Senate's Commission on Human Rights and Participative Legislation (CDH).The idea of criminalizing Brazilian funk as a public health crime to children, adolescents and the family (SUG No. 17 of 2017) divided public opinion and was widely reported by the media. Of the nearly 100,000 popular votes, 57% were in favor of the proposal. Despite this, the idea was rejected and shelved after a public hearing requested, by the rapporteur Senator Romário, on September 13, 2017. Others that generated intense debates in society were SUG n° 4 of 2017, which called for the end of the Disarmament Statute, and SUG n° 12 of 2017, which sought the reduction of the criminal age of majority to 15 years in crimes of rape and murder. Accessibility To enable accessibility for deaf people and citizens who communicate in Libras, in May 2019, the e-Cidadania Portal became the first body in Brazil to receive Legislative Ideas via video. Interactive Event Regimentally, only parliamentarians and guests have the right to speak in person during events such as thematic debate sessions, public hearings, and sabatinas. The Interactive Events tool opened the possibility for citizens to speak at these events, with questions and comments through the e-Cidadania Portal or by telephone, by calling the Senate toll-free. The questions received by telephone are subsequently registered on the portal. The citizens' manifestations are delivered to the Senators during the meetings. In addition, the tool also makes available to citizens the video of the event broadcast, slides presented by the speakers, guests, and other information when pertinent. The record number of participations in an interactive event was in the hearing that debated the transparency of the S system (SESI, SENAC, SENAI) in April 2018, with 2,400 comments or questions.Currently, the portal offers declaration of participation, available on the page of each event. The declaration can serve, for example, for university students to prove that they participated in the events, which can count as complementary hours. Public hearings In public hearings, representatives of society, researchers, and authorities are invited to present information and arguments about issues of public interest and about the themes and legislative proposals being debated in the commissions. Popular participation can help in the formulation of the projects, since citizens can suggest changes in the text of the propositions. In hearings held to debate the abuse of authority, several citizens were against items of the bill, among them, the crime of hermeneutics. In the final version, the rapporteur of the matter removed this part of the text.Since 2015, all public hearings held by Senate committees are open to popular participation through the e-Cidadania Portal. Between 2012 and 2015 only a few hearings were held interactively. Sabatinas Also called a public examination, a sabatinas is a meeting to inquire about the nominee to assume a high-profile public office, minister of higher courts, director of a regulatory agency, and ambassador. Since 2013, the Rules of Procedure of the Senate have determined that all sabatinas are open to popular participation.The events to choose the Attorney General of the Republic in August 2015 and the President of the Central Bank in May 2016 are examples of sabatinas in which popular manifestations were read during the meetings.The sabatina of Alexandre de Moraes, held on February 21, 2017, is currently the one that holds the record in popular participation, with more than 1,600 participations. Of the 12 questions asked by the rapporteur of the sabatina, Senator Eduardo Braga, 10 were from citizens who sent through the portal. The senator said he tried to ask one question on each subject addressed by the citizens. Thematic debate session As with the public hearings held by the committees, thematic debate sessions can be held on the Senate floor. These sessions have mostly been open for popular participation. The sessions to debate outsourcing in May 2015; the zika virus in February 2016; and labor reform in May 2017 had a considerable number of participations. Young Senator The Young Senator project is another example of popular participation. The project selects, through an essay contest, high school students from state public schools in Brazil. By experiencing the day-to-day legislative work, the young people meet in groups and present suggestions for projects. One of the proposals approved by the Young Senators was PLSJ No. 1 of 2017 from the Nísia Floresta Commission, which makes internet application providers responsible for the dissemination of fake news or offensive content to third parties. This proposition received, through the Interactive Event tool, criticism from internet users questioning the risk of censorship. Public Consultation Citizens can express their opinion in favor or against all propositions (bills, proposed amendments to the Constitution, provisional measures, etc.) from the beginning to the end of their processing in the Federal Senate. As of March 2020, 9 million users have registered more than 21 million opinions on 8,918 propositions.On April 20, 2016, the Constitution Amendment Bill that provides for the holding of presidential elections simultaneously with municipal elections in 2016 was published, and its Public Consultation was automatically opened, just as it occurs for all other propositions that are in progress in the Senate. In May 2016, the e-Cidadania Portal became unstable due to the large number of hits on the proposal's page.The record of participation by internet users recorded until September 2019 was in SUG No. 30 of 2017 which calls for the end of the housing allowance for deputies, judges and senators, with almost 2 million votes. Among the propositions presented by senators with the highest number of interactions is PEC No. 106 of 2015 which proposes the reduction of the number of deputies and senators with more than 1.8 million votes.The participation of the population can influence the fate of propositions. As an example, there is the project of the Medical Act (PLS 350/2014), which listed activities that would be exclusive to people trained in medicine, affecting other categories, such as tattooists. Due to the large number of opposing opinions, Senator Lúcia Vânia withdrew the project from the Federal Senate agenda. See also Citizenship E-government Federal Senate Constitutional Amendment References External links e-Cidadania website Legislative Idea Interactive Event Public Consultation

Kepler-30

Kepler-30 is a star in the northern constellation of Lyra. It is located at the celestial coordinates: Right Ascension 19h 01m 08.0747s Declination +38° 56′ 50.219″. With an apparent visual magnitude of 15.5, this star is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Kepler-30 is exhibiting a strong starspot activity.

Kepler-30 is a star in the northern constellation of Lyra. It is located at the celestial coordinates: Right Ascension 19h 01m 08.0747s Declination +38° 56′ 50.219″. With an apparent visual magnitude of 15.5, this star is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Kepler-30 is exhibiting a strong starspot activity. Planetary system Three planets of Kepler-30 were detected by the transit method in 2011. The planets are strongly interacting each other, with transit times variability exceeding one hour for each consecutive orbit. Due irregularity of orbits, confirmation of planetary system was delayed until 2012. The planetary periods are close to 1:2:5 orbital resonance but are not resonant, producing an extremely complex orbital dynamics. == References ==

Clifton Star Chamber Case

The Clifton Star Chamber Case or Clifton vs. Robinson was a court case of early modern England, in 1601, before the Star Chamber, concerning the abduction of children by choir schools.

The Clifton Star Chamber Case or Clifton vs. Robinson was a court case of early modern England, in 1601, before the Star Chamber, concerning the abduction of children by choir schools. The case In 1601, Henry Clifton, a nobleman from Norfolk, sued the Blackfriars company (headed by Gyles, Robinson, and Evans) for their abduction of his son Thomas, on 13 December 1600. Clifton obtained a warrant from Sir John Fortescue, who granted it using his authority as a member of the Privy Council due to his connections and high social status. The basis for the case was not that Thomas was forcibly impressed into the choir school (which was entirely legal) but that he was made to act in the plays of Children of the Chapel. Ostensible consequence In 1606, possibly as a result of this case, the royal patent allowing the Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal to impress children into service was revised to stipulate that choristers who had been forcibly impressed would not be "used or employed as Comedians or Stage players." Importance of the case The Clifton case is one of the only surviving objection records to the common practice of forcibly impressing boys into (ecclesiastical) choir schools in medieval and early modern England. It is notable that the objection is to the child's involvement in the controversial children's theatre companies of the period. Forcible impressment was royally condoned as seen in letters from Elizabeth I on 15 July 1597 for the Master of the Children of the Chapel. The prevalence is evidenced by documents such as an authorization for the Chapel Royal in 1420 and An Ordinance of the Lordes and Commons Assembled in Parliament, for the Apprehending and Bringing to Condigne Punishment, All Such Lewd Persons as Shall Steale, Sell, Buy, Inveigle, Purloune, Convey, or Receive Any Little Children (9 May 1644). Others such as Salmon Pavey, Avery Trussell, John Chappell, Nathan Field, John Motteram, Philip Pykman, and Thomas Grymes are known such impressees. == References ==

Sir Roger Dalison, 1st Baronet

Sir Roger Dalison, 1st Baronet (or Sir Roger Dallison or Dallyson) (c.1562 – 1620), of Laughton, Lincolnshire was an English courtier, Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance and Member of Parliament.

Sir Roger Dalison, 1st Baronet (or Sir Roger Dallison or Dallyson) (c.1562 – 1620), of Laughton, Lincolnshire was an English courtier, Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance and Member of Parliament. Career He was the eldest son of William Dalison of Laughton and Anne, daughter of Robert Dighton. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford (1575) and Gray's Inn (1577). He succeeded his father in 1587 and was knighted in 1603. He attached himself to Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton and the latter's nephew, Thomas Howard, Earl of Suffolk. With the help of those connections, he held a number of public commissions and offices, including those of Esquire of the Body (c.1605–c.1608), Gentleman of the Privy Chamber (by 1615) and Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance from 1608 to 1616. He was elected Member of Parliament for Malmesbury in 1604 and 1614, a seat then under the control of the Earls of Suffolk. He served as High Sheriff of Lincolnshire for 1601–02. As Lieutenant of Ordnance, Dalison organised the firework displays on the Thames beside Whitehall Palace at the investiture of Prince Henry, London's Love to Prince Henry in May 1610, and at the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate in February 1613.He purchased one of the earliest baronetcies in 1611 but was unable or unwilling to pay the whole price. After his death, an irregularity was discovered in the register of baronets, which meant that the surviving son, Thomas, could not automatically inherit the baronetcy. On 27 October 1624 the baronetcy was therefore recreated for him but became extinct when the unmarried Sir Thomas was killed at the Battle of Naseby in 1645. Imprisonment and death Dalison was suspected of embezzling Ordnance funds, and in 1620 Laughton Manor (in West Lindsey) was confiscated and given to a clerk of the Ordnance. Dalison died in the Fleet Prison in 1620 and was buried in St James, Clerkenwell. Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex persuaded Dalison's widow and son Thomas Dalison to surrender their rights to Laughton for an annuity of £200. Marriages and children He had married 3 times; firstly after 1588 Anne, the daughter of Sir Valentine Browne of Croft, Lincolnshire, secondly Elizabeth, the daughter of Marmaduke Tyrwhitt, of Scotter, Lincolnshire and thirdly by 1592, Elizabeth, the daughter of William Tuthill of Newton, Norfolk. He left one surviving son, Thomas, who was killed at the battle of Naseby, and a daughter by his third wife. == References ==

Dangerous Drugs (Supply to Addicts) Regulations 1968

The Dangerous Drugs (Supply to Addicts) Regulations 1968 determined the consultants who could prescribe, or treat addicts either in psychiatric hospitals or drug dependency units. Other medical staff, if supervised by the consultants within the hospitals, would also be able to obtain licences. Doctors working outside the NHS would be considered if their organisations had similar facilities to the DDUs. Doctors who disobeyed these regulations might have their permissions to supply rescinded. In fact only the treatment centers were allowed to supply.

The Dangerous Drugs (Supply to Addicts) Regulations 1968 determined the consultants who could prescribe, or treat addicts either in psychiatric hospitals or drug dependency units. Other medical staff, if supervised by the consultants within the hospitals, would also be able to obtain licences. Doctors working outside the NHS would be considered if their organisations had similar facilities to the DDUs. Doctors who disobeyed these regulations might have their permissions to supply rescinded. In fact only the treatment centers were allowed to supply. == References ==

Missing children of Pirmasens

The case of the missing children of Pirmasens refers to the disappearance of three German children in 1960, 1964, and 1967 in Pirmasens, who were suspected to have been murdered by a serial killer.

The case of the missing children of Pirmasens refers to the disappearance of three German children in 1960, 1964, and 1967 in Pirmasens, who were suspected to have been murdered by a serial killer. Events In the years 1960, 1964, and 1967, two boys and a girl — Walter Broschat (9), Klaus-Dieter Stark (9), and Eveline Lübbert (10) — disappeared. All three children were last seen near the area of Messeplatz in Pirmasens, Germany and all three abductions took place on a Friday. The children were never found, and the investigation went cold due to a lack of leads. 1973 investigations In 1973, a re-examination of the facts, in conjunction with offender profiling, brought new insights into the case. Following a checkout procedure, thousands of men in Pirmasens and the surrounding area were screened on the basis of suspicion. A then 42-year-old casual worker, who had known the boys well, became a preliminary suspect. He was often near the places where they later disappeared and led a "restless life." A son of a jeweler, he had been studying philosophy and psychology for a while, and in 1954 he began treatment for schizophrenia. He then lived in the wilderness in the forests around Pirmasens. During the 6-hour interrogations, he began to contradict himself, so his guilt was considered by investigators to be secured. Instead of an arrest warrant, the district court of Zweibrücken ordered that he be admitted to a hospital in October 1974. The man consistently denied involvement and was released following a trial in March 1976 at the district court of Zweibrücken. The admission to the asylum was also ruled to be against the presumption of innocence and unconstitutional since there was no evidence against the man. Paperback entry for criminologists Ernst Fischer, The Police Chief of Pirmasens who led the investigations which started in 1973, described the cases in his book The Pocket Book for Criminalists (1978). The check-out process involved searching public records with personal information, and was a precursor to dragnet search. See also List of German serial killers List of people who disappeared References Literature Ernst Fischer: Vermißte Kinder in Pirmasens. In: Waldemar Burghard; Hans Werner Hamacher (Hrsg.): Taschenbuch für Kriminalisten Bd. 28, Hilden 1978, S. 145–182. Schablone X. In: Der Spiegel. Nr. 46, 1974, S. 66–70 (online – 11. November 1974). Kleiner Mythos. In: Der Spiegel. Nr. 16, 1976, S. 62–66 (online – 12. April 1976). Keine Leichen und kein Geständnis. In: Die Zeit, Nr. 11 vom 5. März 1976, online. Netz mit Löchern. In: Die Zeit, Nr. 16 vom 9. April 1976, online. Zehnjährige seit sechs Tagen vermißt. In: Hamburger Abendblatt, Nr. 213 vom 13. September 1967, Seite 24, online.

List of bridges in Toronto

This is a list of bridges in the city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

This is a list of bridges in the city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Roadway bridges Ravine and river bridges List of bridges that cross over the Toronto ravine system and its waterways: Don River Bridges over the Don River ravine, listed from south to north Cherry Street lift bridge Gardiner Expressway pedestrian and bicycle bridge on the Waterfront Trail Don Valley Parkway northbound on ramp from Gardiner Expressway Don Valley Parkway southbound on ramp to Gardiner Expressway CNR Don River Bridge – a five lane railway bridge, part of the Corridor (VIA) c. Old Eastern Avenue BridgeDon Valley Parkway off ramp to westbound Eastern Avenue Queen Street Viaduct Dundas Street c. 1911 Gerrard StreetPlate girder railway bridge Prince Edward Viaduct carrying Bloor Street and the Bloor–Danforth line Rosedale Valley Bridge – built 1917 by Dominion Bridge Company and designed by Thomas Taylor Bloor Bayview Ramp for Don Valley Parkway access c. 1960 Half Mile Railway Bridge c. 1928 Pottery Road pre-1950 Railway bridge Beechwood Drive bridge, part of Don Valley bicycle trail Railway Bridge Leaside Bridge East Don River Don Mills Road Bridge providing road access to E.T. Seton Park Don Valley Parkway Railway bridge Bridge in Flemingdon Park Golf Club (south) Bridge in Flemingdon Park Golf Club (north) Eglinton Avenue bridge Railway bridge, north–south line – 3 crossings Railway bridge, east–west line Lawrence Avenue – replaced smaller concrete arch bridge, formerly Bayview Avenue Bridge Don Valley Parkway Donalda Golf and Country Club – 11 bridges York Mills Road bridge Don Mills Road bridge Duncan Mill Road bridge Pedestrian bridge Sheppard Avenue & Leslie Street Intersection Railway bridge Finch Avenue East just west of Leslie Street Cummer Avenue bridge Steeles Avenue East just west of Bayview Avenue Steeles Avenue East just east of Leslie Street Taylor Massey Creek Taylor Massey Creek is a tributary of the East Don River. Don Valley Parkway bridge O'Connor Drive Woodbine Bridge – c. 1931 large concrete arch bridge Dawes Road bridge Victoria Park Avenue bridge Pharmacy Avenue bridge West Don River Overlea Boulevard bridge (Charles H. Hiscott Bridge c. 1960) Railway bridge Eglinton Avenue East bridge Bayview Avenue north of Lawrence Avenue EastHogg's Hollow Bridge, MacDonald-Cartier Freeway (401) Sheppard Avenue Bridge east of Bathurst Street Humber River Finch Avenue and Islington Avenue – twin intersecting bridges Humber River Rowntree Mill Road Bridge – former road bridge for Rowntree Mill Road Over Humber River, now pedestrian traffic only Highway 27 Martin Grove Road Kipling Avenue Albion Road – concrete box girder bridge for vehicular traffic c. 1970s to replace the previous bridge that later became a pedestrian crossing Musson's or Flindon Road bridge – c. 1910 Warren truss bridge located near the current Albion Road bridge and demolished 1960; it replaced an earlier bridge built in late 1830s to carry the Weston Plank Road. The Queensway Steeles Avenue West over the Humber River (west of Islington Avenue) Scarlett Road St Phillip's Road Guelph Radial Line Bridge – c. 1917 and bridge removed after 1931; footing reused for current pedestrian bridge Lambton/Dundas Street Bridge c. 1929 Lambton Mills Bridge – c. 1907 and demolished 1955; only abutments remain Old Mill Bridge spanning Humber River, connecting Old Mill Rd. and Catherine St. c. 1916 Bloor Humber Bridge – c. 1924, metal hinged solid ribbed spandrel braced deck arch bridge has been rehabilitated in 1980 and 2010 Other Avenue of the Islands bridge – on Toronto Islands Cherry Street Bridge over the Keating Shipping Channel Kingston Road over the Rouge River Mount Pleasant Road north of Blythwood Road over Blythwood Ravine Park Markham Road between Lawrence Avenue East and Eglinton Avenue East (West Highland Creek, part of the Highland Creek watershed) Bathurst Street over Cedarvale Park (Castle Frank Brook) Rouge River Bridge carrying Highway 401 over the Rouge River Bridge carrying Tywn Rivers Drive over the Rouge River Bridge carrying Kirkham Road over the Rouge River – built in 1955, it was closed and now demolished Bridges (2) carrying Meadowvale Road over the Rouge River Bridge carrying Steeles Avenue over the Rouge River Railway bridge and pedestrian bridge over the mouth of the Rouge River Sewells Road Suspension Bridge carries single lane of traffic over Rouge River Shoreham Drive over Black Creek Overpasses on Jane Street over Black Creek – north of Wilson Avenue and south of Highway 401 Overpass over Black Creek at Humber Boulevard and Weston Road Bridge over Black Creek at Alliance Avenue and Hilldale Road Bridge over Black Creek on Rockcliffe Boulevard Unwin Avenue Bridge – single lane bailey bridge (new replacing original) located in the Portlands area for vehicular traffic over outlet/slip for the former Hearn Generating Station out into Toronto Outer Harbour and now twinned with new bridge for pedestrians and cyclists (replacing small walkway built next to bailey bridge). Vale of Avoca Bridge over Yellow Creek, also known as St. Clair Viaduct Other roadway bridges Roadway overpasses List of bridges or overpasses over other roadways: Avenue Road over Highway 401 (rebuilding 2018–2019) Don Mills Road over Highway 401 (refurbished by City of Toronto) Lawrence Avenue East over the Don Valley Parkway Lawrence Avenue West over Allen Road Glencairn Avenue over Allen Road Finch Avenue East over the Highway 404 Sheppard Avenue East over the Highway 404 Steeles Avenue East over the Highway 404 Victoria Park Avenue over Highway 401 (rebuilt) Wynford Drive over the Don Valley Parkway Flemington Road over Allen Road Wilson Heights Boulevard over Transit Road Mount Pleasant Road over Rosedale Valley Road Glen Road over Reservation Park Drive Governor's Road over Mud Creek Bloor Street East over Rosedale Valley Road Queen Street East over Don Valley Parkway Gerrard Street East over Don Valley Parkway Dundas Street East over Don Valley Parkway Dundas Street West over Kipling Avenue Bloor Street West over Kipling Avenue Bloor Street West over Highway 427 Dundas Street West over Highway 427 Burnhamthorpe Road over Highway 427 Rathburn Road over Highway 427 Dixon Road over Highway 27 Highway 401 off ramp over Yonge Street (rebuilt) Highway 401 over Bathurst Street south of Wilson Avenue Highway 401 over Wilson Avenue east of Bathurst Street Albion Road over Weston Road Highway 401 over Warden Avenue (rebuilt 2012–2013) Highway 401 over Wendell Avenue Highway 400 over Wilson Avenue Highway 400 over Finch Avenue West Highway 401 over Keele Street – (rebuilt 2012–2013) Sheppard Avenue West over Ontario Highway 400 Highway 400 over Steeles Avenue West – c. 1961 with only four lanes of Steeles on the southside with north span crossing a dirt road and roughed in for future widening of Steeles Avenue West. Highway 400 over Jane Street Dufferin Street bridges over Gardiner Expressway Westbound Lake Shore Boulevard West over Gardiner Expressway Eastern Avenue west of Don Valley Parkway Finch Avenue West over Highway 427 Morningstar Drive over Highway 427 Rexdale Boulevard over Highway 427 Browns Line over Lake Shore Blvd West Spanbridge Road over Don Valley Parkway St. Dennis Drive over Don Valley Parkway Eglinton Avenue over Don Valley Parkway Van Horne Avenue over Highway 404 McNicoll Avenue over Highway 404 Jameson Avenue bridge over rail corridor north of Gardiner Expressway b. 2004 to replace earlier structure Railway overpasses List of bridges over railway lines (to avoid need for at grade level crossings): Highway 27 (Ontario) south of Steeles Avenue West over CN tracks Markham Road north of Sheppard Avenue East over CP tracks connecting to CP Agincourt Marshalling Yard Eglinton Avenue East between Midland Avenue and Kennedy Road over CN and TTC RT tracks Lawrence Avenue East between Midland Avenue and Kennedy Road over CN and TTC RT tracks Ellesmere Road between Midland Avenue and Kennedy Road over CN and TTC RT tracks Dowling Avenue Bridge carries CN freight and GO Transit commuter trains near Dowling Avenue Dunn Avenue Bridge carries CN freight and GO Transit commuter trains near Dunn Avenue Spadina Avenue over tracks north of Gardiner Expressway – replaced an earlier plate girder bridge that was replaced when the Spadina LRT route was rebuilt in the 1990s. Below are tracks for VIA, GO Transit commuter and Union Pearson Express trainsDufferin Street Truss Bridge a double span over the Gardiner Expressway (c.1958) and over the rail corridor (steel arch bridge c.1911–12); latter to be demolished for new structure after 2016. Below are tracks for VIA, GO Transit commuter and Union Pearson Express trains Yonge Street Railway Overpass near St. Clair Avenue Victoria Park Avenue north of Lawrence Avenue East over Canadian Pacific tracks Pharmacy Avenue between Lawrence Avenue East and Ellesmere Road over Canadian Pacific tracks Birchmount Road just south of 401 CP tracks Kingston Road at Guildwood over Tracks Pedestrian bridges See also Amsterdam Bridge – spans over Simcoe Street Slip from York Quay to Rees Street Slip Farr Avenue bridge over Finch Avenue West east of Kipling Avenue (connects broken sections of Farr Avenue) Finch Avenue East – Pedestrian Warren truss bridge over Finch Avenue East west of Leslie Street to provide access to GO Old Cummer station Flindon Road bridge over Humber – The bridge was formerly the old routing of Albion Road and two earlier bridges and replaced in 1990s when the new Albion overpass was widened Chorley Park Bridge – built 1911 for Chorley Park (old Government House) and now path in a city park Fort York Pedestrian and Cycle Bridge – Garrison crossing Glen Cedar Road Bridge – c. 1989 (restoration by Alan Seymour) is a replica of the 1912 bridge (by C.H. and P.H. Mitchell, Engineers) built by Sir Henry Pellatt to span over Cedarvale Ravine and Belt Line railway and now over Rosedale Valley Road Glen Manor Drive Bridge – Warren truss bridge connecting Pine Glen Road and Williamson Road over Glen Stewart Ravine in the Beaches neighbourhood) Heath Street East – spans over Mud Creek Ravine (Moore Park) connecting the broken section of Health Street between Brendan Road and Hudson Drive Humber Bay Arch Bridge – c.1996 span over the mouth of Humber River flowing out to Lake Ontario and carries pedestrian and bike traffic Innes Avenue (over CN railway line to Prescott Ave) Lake Shore Boulevard Bailey Bridge – crossing over Lake Shore Boulevard West from Exhibition Place to waterfront Ontario Place bridges – two pedestrian bridges crossing over Lake Shore Boulevard West from Exhibition Place MacLennan Avenue pedestrian bridge ("The Ramp", over railway tracks and Carstowe Road) Tara-Mooregate Pedestrian Bridge – A bridge that connects the Gatineau Hydro Trail, Tara Ave and Moorgate Ave over the GO Train Stouffville tracks and TTC's Scarborough RT Tracks Morley Callaghan Footbridge – spans Rosedale Valley Ravine was built in 1992 and restored in 2001 and 2015; major work 2022–2024 Mimico Creek Bridge (Santiago Calatrava) – similar to the Amsterdam cable footbridge Old Finch Avenue Bailey Bridge – crosses over Rouge River Pape Avenue – Pedestrian bridge over CN/GO Rail corridor – Pape Avenue north of Gerrard Street East is broken by railway tracks Puente de Luz (Bridge of Light) from CityPlace, Toronto over railway below to Front Street West Riverdale Park – pedestrian bridge connecting east and west sides of Riverdale Park Shoreham Drive – Pedestrian bridge over Shoreham Drive east of Jane Street to access Shoreham Public Sports and Wellness Academy on the south side of Shoreham Drive SkyWalk – connecting Union Station to the CN Tower Steeles Pedestrian Overpasses – two spans sandwiches rail overpass carrying GO Transit Stouffville line over Steeles Avenue East just east of Kennedy Road; completion 2022 Sunnyside bridge – from Roncesvalles Avenue to Lake Ontario shoreline Wallace Avenue Footbridge – c. 1907 is a series of Warren truss sections on trestle like support structure spanning over railway tracks below; staircases sections on both ends have been replaced Woodsworth Road -Pedestrian bridge over CN tracks south of Highway 401 from the path leading from Woodsworth Road (Woodsworth Parkette) to GO Oriole station on the south side of eastbound 401 collectors Weston GO Station Pedestrian Bridge spans Lawrence Avenue West on the west side of the railway tracks Railway bridges railway tracks over Bloor St W, east of Dundas St W. railway tracks over Bloor St W, east of Symington Transit train traffic* railway tracks over Wickett Creek south of Eglinton Avenue East and Leslie Street railway tracks over Wickett Creek east of Leslie Street on Eglinton Avenue East railway tracks over Baview Avenue at Don Valley Brick Works railway tracks over Rouge River at Lake Ontario railway tracks over Sheppard Avenue East between Brimley Road and Midland Avenue railway tracks over Rouge River at Morningside Heights railway tracks over Rouge River near Meadowvale Road and Plug Hat Road railway tracks over Humber River at Lambton Park railway tracks over Humber River between The Queensway and Gardiner Expressway railway tracks over Humber River at Old Mills Inn Weston CNR Bridge – c. 1856 box girder bridge for Grand Trunk Railway over Humber River at Weston Golf and Country Club railway tracks over Don Mills Road south of Barber Green Road steel box girder bridge carries CN freight and GO Transit commuter trains over Leslie Street south of Highway 401 concrete bridge carries CN and GO Transit railway tracks over Finch Avenue East west of Leslie Street Lambton Credit Valley Railway/CPR Bridge – c. 1874 steel plate girder bridge over Humber River Indian Line CNR Bridge – c.1959–1965 and spans over Humber River 2 bridges – steel plate bridge over Eglinton Avenue East at Leslie Street and a long steel trestle over Don River and E.T. Seton Park south of Eglinton Avenue East and just east of Leslie Street ending just north of Wicksteed Avenue 2 bridges at intersection of Warden Avenue and Ellesmere Road CP rail tracks heading to Agincourt Yards 2 bridges St Clair Avenue East and Midland Avenue CN and GO tracks site of infamous GO train and TTC bus accident CN tracks over Black Creek Drive north of Weston Road CN tracks over Queen Street West between Gladstone Avenue and Dufferin Street Lakeshore CNR Bridge/Western Railway Bridge abutments c 1911 and 1890 railway tracks over King Street Bridge c. 1888 railway tracks over Keele Street Bridge c. 1891 railway tracks over Lansdowne Avenue Bridge c. 1907 Old Mill TTC Subway Bridge – c. 1968 concrete bridge carries Bloor subway line over Humber and located just south of Bloor Humber Bridge Steeles Railway Overpasses – carrying GO Transit Stouffville line over Steeles Avenue East just east of Kennedy Road; completion 2022 Other bridges over waterways Numerous bridges on the Toronto Islands including: Algonquin Island bridge – c. 1938 trestle bridge made of timber used for pedestrian traffic and plans for the current bridge to be replaced with a replica Centre Island Bridge (on Avenue of the Islands) metal brace spandrel arch pedestrian bridge built before 1896 and altered since; used by parks service vehicles with weight limitation Olympic Island Bridge (2) – concrete spandrel deck arch pedestrian bridge built sometime before 1910 Chippewa Avenue Bridge -built around 1911 for Royal Canadian Yacht Club Buried bridges Crawford Street Bridge Harbord Street Bridge Lost bridges Lawrence Avenue Bridge – concrete bridge replaced by current overpass over DVP; bridge removed in conjunction with widening by 1963. East and west abutments are still present along Don River. Avenue Road Bridge – connecting Avenue Road to Yonge Street in 1929 was incorporated into Hogg's Hollow Bridge Yonge Street Bridge – steel truss bridge south of Hogg's Hollow (York Mills Road) carried Yonge Street traffic over West branch of the Don River and (North Yonge Railways ran on single track on the outer west side of bridge until 1948) until 1954 when it washed out during Hurricane Hazel. A temporary bailey bridge was built after November 1954 and now replaced by current overpass after May 1955. Raymore Park footbridge over Humber washed out by Hurricane Hazel and rebuilt. Since replaced by new bridge in 1995; old suspension bridge abutments are still present. Dowling Avenue Bridge and Dunn Avenue Bridge – 2 plate girder bridges built in 1911 crossed over railway tracks north of the Gardiner Expressway torn down in 2016 and being replaced with new structures (temporary pedestrian only bridges to built in the summer of 2016). Lakeshore Road Bridge – c. 1824 log bridge that spanned across Humber River replacing a ferry service c.1803 Shaw Street Bridge – a wood bridge over Sully Crescent and Garrison Creek. Bridge removed and was filled in by the 1920s See also List of oldest buildings and structures in Toronto == References ==

Kara Davud

Muhammad Kara Davud bin Kamal al-Izmiti (b. ?, Izmit- d. 948 AH/1541 CE, Bursa), was an Ottoman scholar of Islam known for his work on the exegesis of the Dala'il al-Khayrat: Tevfîk-i Muvaffık il-Hayrât li-Neyl'il-berekât fî Hidmet-i Menbâ'üs-sa'adât (Ottoman Turkish: توفیق موفق الحیرات لنیل البركات فی خدمة منباع السعادات), widely known as "Kara Davud".

Muhammad Kara Davud bin Kamal al-Izmiti (b. ?, Izmit- d. 948 AH/1541 CE, Bursa), was an Ottoman scholar of Islam known for his work on the exegesis of the Dala'il al-Khayrat: Tevfîk-i Muvaffık il-Hayrât li-Neyl'il-berekât fî Hidmet-i Menbâ'üs-sa'adât (Ottoman Turkish: توفیق موفق الحیرات لنیل البركات فی خدمة منباع السعادات), widely known as "Kara Davud". Works Talkhis-e Takrir-e Qawanin Sharh-e Kasida-e Nuniya Malumat (A work on aqida and kalam. The original copy is in the Manasdır Library) Mikdar-ul Qamus Risalat Isa-Gujy == References ==

Piaggio Aerospace

Piaggio Aerospace, formerly Piaggio Aero Industries, is a multinational aerospace manufacturing company headquartered in Villanova d'Albenga, Italy. The company designs, develops, manufactures and maintains aircraft, aero-engines, aerospace components and aerostructures. Established in 1884 as Rinaldo Piaggio S.p.A., it shares its ancestry with motor vehicle manufacturer Piaggio and is one of the world's oldest aircraft manufacturers, having produced its first aircraft during 1915. The company's facilities were rebuilt following the Second World War and several original designs, including the P.136 seaplane, the P.149 trainer aircraft, and the P.166 utility transport, were released during the first two decades of the postwar era. During the 1960s, Piaggio began manufacturing jet engines as well.

Piaggio Aerospace, formerly Piaggio Aero Industries, is a multinational aerospace manufacturing company headquartered in Villanova d'Albenga, Italy. The company designs, develops, manufactures and maintains aircraft, aero-engines, aerospace components and aerostructures. Established in 1884 as Rinaldo Piaggio S.p.A., it shares its ancestry with motor vehicle manufacturer Piaggio and is one of the world's oldest aircraft manufacturers, having produced its first aircraft during 1915. The company's facilities were rebuilt following the Second World War and several original designs, including the P.136 seaplane, the P.149 trainer aircraft, and the P.166 utility transport, were released during the first two decades of the postwar era. During the 1960s, Piaggio began manufacturing jet engines as well. During 1966, the business was separated into the aviation-focused Piaggio Aero and the motor scooter manufacturer Vespa. During the 1980s, Piaggio developed a new generation business aircraft, the P.180 Avanti. During the late 1990s, Piaggio underwent drastic changes following its bankruptcy. The company was negatively impacted by the Great Recession and the downturn in the business aircraft market. During late 2018, the company entered into receivership after having declared itself insolvent. The firm owns a subsidiary in the United States, Piaggio America, located at West Palm Beach, Florida. In 2021, Piaggio America filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. History The Rinaldo Piaggio S.p.A. company was founded in Genoa, Italy in 1884. Originally, the company was involved in the outfitting of ocean liners and the manufacturing of rolling stock for the developing Italian railway infrastructure around the turn of the century. From the financial gains that it had garnered from these industries, Rinaldo Piaggio was able to construct a large factory based in Final Marina during 1906. In 1915, during the opening years of the First World War, the company produced its first Piaggio-branded aircraft.The 1920s was a particularly turbulent and influential period in the company's history; Piaggio Aero brought on two new aeronautical engineers, Giovanni Pegna and Giuseppe Gabrielli, who both played a major role in developing Piaggio's aeronautical sector. Penga and Gabrielli worked together to create numerous technical solutions to aviation problems; to support their aerodynamic research, in 1928, Piaggio completed a new wind tunnel. The firm eventually helped to bring forth the design and construction of the world's first helicopter.During 1938, Senator Rinaldo Piaggio died at 71 years old, thus ending the Rinaldo Piaggio era. That same year, the firm finished construction of the new Piaggio P.108 heavy bomber, its first four-engined aircraft. During the battles and widespread devastation of the Second World War, Piaggio's facilities were reduced to ruins. Rinaldo's sons Enrico, inventor of the Vespa motor scooter, and Armando, played key roles in the postwar rebuilding process.In 1948, Piaggio launched the Piaggio P.136, a twin-engine seaplane that was operated by the Italian Air Force and various other operators, often in liaison/sea transport capacity. The company also benefited from an increased demand for basic aircraft training; during 1953, the German Air Force ordered 265 Piaggio P.149 trainers. By 1957, Piaggio had also developed the Piaggio P.166, a twin-engine light transport aircraft, which was marketed and produced for military customers and civilian personnel worldwide.In 1960, Piaggio secured a production license for the Rolls-Royce Viper turbojet engine; shortly thereafter, the firm began manufacturing jet engines. Four years later, it built its first jet-powered aircraft, the Piaggio PD.808 business aircraft. The 1960s was a decade of considerable expansion for Piaggio, moving beyond its core business focus. During 1966, the company formally separated into two separate entities, one being the aviation-focused Piaggio Aero and the other becoming Vespa, a specialist company in the production of motor scooters. During the 1980s, Piaggio developed a new generation business aircraft, the P.180 Avanti; its unconventional appearance was reportedly designed to appeal to Fortune 500 clients. During 1990, the Avanti received type certification from multiple aviation authorities and entered service shortly thereafter.During the late 1990s, Piaggio's ownership went through multiple drastic changes following the firm's bankruptcy. During November 1998, it was announced that Turkish holding company Tushav had taken control of Piaggio; it was rebranded as Piaggio Aero Industries shortly thereafter. In the years that followed, an increasingly large stake in the company was acquired by a group of entrepreneurs headed by the Di Mase and Ferrari families. During 2000, Tushav decided to surrender its interest in Piaggio Aero Industries; the entity had once held a controlling 51% stake in the company, but this hold had reduced in favour of new Italian investors buying into Piaggio.Starting in 2006, Piaggio was developing a new twin-engined jet, commonly referred to as the Piaggio P1XX; however, during August 2010, the company announced that it had decided to postpone the production phase. This did not represent an absolute termination; for years following the project being put on hold, Piaggio publicly speculated on the possible launch of the programme.During 2006, the Mubadala Development Company acquired a 35% stake in Piaggio Aero Industries S.p.A.; Mubadala is a wholly owned investment vehicle of the Government of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, in the United Arab Emirates. Two years later, the Indian multinational conglomerate Tata Group acquired a one-third stake in Piaggio Aero Industries, becoming one of the primary shareholders alongside Piero Ferrari, the Di Mase family and the Mubadala Development Company. As part of the acquisition, Tata gained the right to appoint three of the nine seats on the board, and one of the three seats on the management committee.The company was negatively impacted by the Great Recession, the event having caused a downturn in the market for business aircraft; reportedly, deliveries of its P.180 Avanti declined drastically from 30 aircraft during 2008 to only four per year by 2018. Instead of focusing on this declining market, Piaggio decided to orientate itself towards the special missions sector, developing the Piaggio-Selex P.1HH Hammerhead, an unmanned long-endurance intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance derivative of its P.180 Avanti. The platform was also adapted into a maritime patrol aircraft, as well as for additional special purposes, around this same timeframe. In parallel with these programmes, the company continued to make improvements to the base P.180 Avanti, introducing an extended-range model during 2013.During 2013, Mubadala and Tata injecting an additional €190 million into Piaggio Aero Industries, increasing their combined stakes to 85.5%. During October 2014, Piaggio Aero changed its name to Piaggio Aerospace. During 2015, the Mubadla Development Company acquired 100% of the capital stock, assuming full control of Piaggio, after obtaining the final 1.95% of the stock from Piero Ferrari.On 3 December 2018, Piaggio Aerospace was admitted into receivership after having declared itself insolvent. The company's restructuring plan had failed less than a year after its owner, Mubadala, had injected €255 million and repurchased its bank debt. During February 2020, it was announced that Piaggio Aerospace had been put up for sale. Operations Facilities Piaggio Aero Industries has production facilities covering 120,000 square meters (1.3 million square feet) in the northwest Italian cities of Genoa Sestri and Finale Ligure, as well as a High Technology Center based in Pozzuoli, near Naples. The final aircraft assembly and flight testing of aircraft is located at main facility in Genoa, which includes the corporate headquarters. Also located here is the Company's new JAR 145 certified service center, which offers full service and support to Piaggio P.180 Avanti customers as well as other aircraft. Piaggio Aero also operates two additional service centers, one at Rome's Ciampino Airport and the other at the Pratica di Mare Air Base. These service centers provide support services to commercial, government and military customers.Aircraft and engine component manufacturing operations, general engineering, and engine maintenance and overhaul are all undertaken at Finale Ligure. Operations include a maintenance center and two production areas, one for engines and sheet metal parts, another for major aircraft sub-assemblies and aero structures. The High Technology Center is located in the Campania region of Italy, near Naples, focuses on aero structure design and systems research. It includes the Piaggio High Technology (PHT) division, a corporate research facility which focuses on aeronautical technologies. The PHT division is a joint partnership between Piaggio Aero Industries, the Italian Aerospace Research Centre (CIRA), and other European research centers. The goal is to establish the PHT as a Center of Excellence for aeronautic research and development.During the 2010s, Piaggio Aero constructed a new modern manufacturing facility in Villanova d'Albenga, about 70 kilometers west of Genoa. Designed around the principles of lean manufacturing technologies, this plant enabled increases in production efficiency via an optimised workflow, as well as production capacity.Piaggio Aero worked on the production of aerostructures on behalf of other companies. Aero engines A major portion of Piaggio's work has been in the aero engines sector; the company has claimed to be the only aircraft manufacturer that also builds and maintains aero engines. It has been involved in component manufacture, as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul operations on jet, turboshaft and turboprop engines, from various international major manufacturers, including Rolls-Royce and Honeywell. Piaggio has also held Long Term Agreements with several Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), including Pratt & Whitney, Pratt & Whitney Canada and Micro Turbo, whose engines power a wide range of civil and military aircraft and helicopters.In 2000, Piaggio Aero Industries signed a collaboration agreement with Rolls-Royce to join the RTM322 turboshaft engine program as a manufacturing partner. Accordingly, the company has been involved in the manufacture of a significant share of the RTM322 engine components. During 2003, the company was selected by Pratt & Whitney to supply the Low Pressure Turbine case and the bearing compartment housings for the F135 engine that powers the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft.In 2006, Piaggio Aero Industries signed an agreement with Pratt & Whitney Canada to acquire 25% of the share capital of P&WC Turbo Engines Corp., which is in charge of the production of the PW206 – PW207 helicopter engines which fits out many helicopter models such as the Agusta A109 Power', the Eurocopter EC135, the Bell 427, the MD Helicopters MD Explorer and the Kazan Ansat. Piaggio Aero has produced engine components and housed the final assembly line, as well as the maintenance and repair activities for the Pw206-207 engines.Piaggio Aero Industries also has experience in the area of infrared suppression systems (IRS) for helicopters; the Agusta A129, part of the Italian Army fleet, is currently equipped with an IRS, designed, tested and manufactured by the company. Aircraft models Piaggio FN.305A two-seat training variant of the Nardi FN.305 fighter Piaggio P.2 (single-engine low-wing single-seat monoplane fighter prototype) Piaggio P.3 (four-engine biplane night bomber prototype) Piaggio P.6 (reconnaissance floatplane) Piaggio P.7 (high-wing racing monoplane for the 1929 Schneider Trophy seaplane race; unflown) Piaggio P.8 (single-engine parasol wing single-seat reconnaissance floatplane) Piaggio P.9 (single-engine high-wing two-seat monoplane) Piaggio P.10 (single-engine three-seat biplane floatplane) Piaggio P.11 (single-engine single-seat lightweight biplane fighter; licensed copy of the Blackburn Lincock) Piaggio P.12 (twin-engine four-seat touring monoplane; licensed copy of the Blackburn Segrave) Piaggio P.16 (three-engine heavy bomber) Piaggio P.23M (four-engine commercial transport prototype) Piaggio P.23R (three-engine commercial transport prototype) Piaggio P.32 (twin-engine bomber) Piaggio P.50 (four-engine heavy bomber) Piaggio P.108 (four-engine heavy bomber) Piaggio P.111 (high-altitude research aircraft) Piaggio P.119 (single-engine single-seat fighter) Piaggio P.136 (amphibian flying boat) Piaggio P.148 (two-seat primary/aerobatic trainer) Piaggio P.149 (four/five-seat utility/liaison or two-seat trainer, also known as Focke-Wulf FWP-149D) Piaggio P.150 (two-seat trainer) Piaggio P.166 (utility light transport) Piaggio P.180 Avanti : business aircraft Piaggio PD-808 (twin-jet light utility transport) Piaggio P1XX (under development) References External links Official website Mubadala Development Companay

Rokumeikan

The Rokumeikan (鹿鳴館, "Banqueting House") was a large two-story building in Tokyo, completed in 1883, which became a controversial symbol of Westernisation in the Meiji period. Commissioned for the housing of foreign guests by the Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru, it was designed by British architect Josiah Conder, a prominent Western adviser working in Japan. Although the Rokumeikan's heyday was brief, it became famous for its parties and balls, which introduced many high-ranking Japanese to Western manners for the first time, and it is still a fixture in the cultural memory of Japan. It was, however, largely used for the accommodation of guests of the government, and for meetings between Japanese who had already lived abroad.

The Rokumeikan (鹿鳴館, "Banqueting House") was a large two-story building in Tokyo, completed in 1883, which became a controversial symbol of Westernisation in the Meiji period. Commissioned for the housing of foreign guests by the Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru, it was designed by British architect Josiah Conder, a prominent Western adviser working in Japan. Although the Rokumeikan's heyday was brief, it became famous for its parties and balls, which introduced many high-ranking Japanese to Western manners for the first time, and it is still a fixture in the cultural memory of Japan. It was, however, largely used for the accommodation of guests of the government, and for meetings between Japanese who had already lived abroad. History Background The site of the Rokumeikan was in Hibiya, near the Imperial Palace on land which had formerly been used as an arsenal for the Satsuma domain. After the Meiji restoration, in 1872 the land became the headquarters of the secretariat charged with preparations for the Vienna Exhibition of 1873. Between July 1875 and October 1881 the land was occupied by the colossal “Yamashita Monnai Museum”, a combined zoological and botanical garden, which was then moved to Ueno to make way for the new building and its grounds. Foreign visitors had previously been housed in the Enryōkan, a building originally erected by the Tokugawa shogunate as part of a training school for naval cadets. Despite attempts at modernization, the building was old and deemed no longer considered satisfactory for housing foreign dignitaries. Construction Conder received a commission to design a new structure: 245  in 1880, and building work started in 1881. Conder borrowed from the French Renaissance style, and used a Mansard roof in his design, which also incorporated an arched portico with columns. However, Conder's wish to put Japanese elements in the design was overruled, although he claimed to have included "pseudo-Saracenic" features. Only the garden, which used pine trees, stone lanterns and ponds, was in the Japanese style. Difficulties were encountered in construction which caused the original budget of 100,000 yen to expand to 180,000 yen before construction was completed. In contrast, the Foreign Ministry building cost only 40,000 yen to construct. The building was officially opened on 28 November 1883 with a gala to which 1200 guests were invited, including nobles, bureaucrats and foreign diplomats, presided over by Inoue and his wife Takeko. The Rokumeikan era Inoue commissioned the structure as a five-star hotel for European and American diplomats and travelers.: 245  He hoped that they would be more inclined to regard Japan as an equal in terms of “civilization” in European minds, which would facilitate renegotiation of the Unequal Treaties, abolition of extraterritoriality and would hasten Japan's entry as an equal in the ranks of the imperial powers. The Rokumeikan served elaborate banquets, with menus written in French. In the ballroom, Japanese gentlemen in evening dress imported from tailors in London danced the waltz, polka, quadrille, and mazurka with Japanese ladies dressed in the latest Parisian fashions to the latest European songs played by an Army or Navy band. Foreign residents of Tokyo were hired as dancing tutors.The results were mixed. Although the highly conspicuous Western building was praised by some visitors, its concept was deplored by many others as tasteless imitation. Pierre Loti, who arrived in Japan in 1886, compared the building (in Japoneries d'Automne, 1889), to a mediocre casino in a French spa town, and the European-style ball to a “monkey show”. Likewise, the noted French artist Georges Ferdinand Bigot published a cartoon depicting a stylishly dressed Japanese man and woman admiring themselves in a mirror, but the reflection was that of a pair of monkeys.Japanese conservatives were outraged by what they perceived to be the degeneration of traditional morals, especially by the close proximity between men and women during dances, linked rising taxes with the supposed dissipation and self-indulgence of the government. Reports and gossip of scandalous behavior by high-ranking officials (although the most notorious took place at private residences, not at the Rokumeikan), added to the controversy.The Autonomy and People's Rights Movement criticized the Rokumeikan as expensive, tax-funded deference to Europeans and Americans.: 245 The failure of "Rokumeikan diplomacy" to achieve its desired goal of treaties revised in Japan's favor led eventually to the discrediting of Inoue, who resigned in 1887. Later years In 1890, the Imperial Hotel opened near the Rokumeikan (again with the involvement of Inoue), and was on a grander scale. The opening of the hotel eliminated the need for the Rokumeikan as a residence for foreign visitors. The banquets and balls continued, and the nativist reaction did not slow the construction of Western-style buildings in Tokyo, but with the increasing westernization of Japan, a growing sense of cultural nationalism, and the eventual elimination of the Unequal Treaties in 1899, the Rokumeikan steadily diminished in importance.The Rokumeikan building was sold in 1890, to an association for kazoku peerage of Japan. The building was severely damaged in the 1894 Tokyo earthquake, the high cost of repairs contributing to a decline in use of the building. 1897, Conder was called in to repair the building and make additional alterations. It was used by the Peers' Club (Kazoku Kaikan) for the next few decades. The building was demolished in 1941.The destruction of the building disturbed the architect Taniguchi Yoshirō and eventually led him to create the Meiji Mura for the preservation of Meiji period buildings. Name The name “Rokumeikan” comes from a Chinese classic, the Shi Jing ("Book of Songs"), and refers to the benefits of hospitality. The 161st ode is entitled Lù Míng, 鹿鳴, which is read in Japanese as rokumei. It was chosen by Nakai Hiromu, the first husband of Inoue's wife Takeko. With pleased sounds the deer call to one another, eating the celery of the fields. [...] I have here admirable guests; whose virtuous fame is grandly brilliant. They show the people not to be mean; the officers have in them a pattern and model. The name is often translated as "Deer Cry Pavilion", and in older books the translation "Hall of the Baying Stag" is given. Once purchased by The Peer's Club (group), the building was renamed "The Peer's Club", but also went by the names Nobles' Club and Peerage Club. Allusions in literature The Rokumeikan is frequently mentioned in Japanese literature, for example Chijin no ai ("Naomi", 1924), a novel by Tanizaki Jun'ichirō Butokai ("The Ball", 1920), a short story by Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, retelling Loti's account Rokumeikan (1956), a play by Mishima Yukio, and based on it Rokumeikan (1986), a film Rokumeikan (2008), a television special starring Masakazu Tamura and Hitomi Kuroki Lady Snowblood, a manga written by Kazuo Koike (chapter 5 of the first volume: "Rokumeikan Murder Panorama") Aoi Hana, a manga written by Takako Shimura who the characters act out the play RokumeikanThe Roumeikan is mentioned in The Watchmaker of Filigree Street by Natasha Pulley. Location The site of the Rokumeikan is in Chiyoda-ku, Uchisaiwaichō 1-chome. There is a plaque in front of the NBF Hibiya Building (formerly the Yamato Life Insurance Company). References Finn, Dallas. "Reassessing the Rokumeikan." From Challenging past and present: the metamorphosis of nineteenth-century Japanese art, edited by Ellen P. Conant. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006. Watanabe Toshio. "Josiah Conder's Rokumeikan: architecture and national representation in Meiji Japan." Art Journal, 22 September 1996. Tomita Hitoshi. Rokumeikan: Giseiyoka no sekai ("Deer Cry Pavilion: The world of pseudo-Westernization") Tokyo: Hakusuisha, 1984. Mehl, Margaret. "Dancing at the Rokumeikan: a new role for women?" From Japanese women emerging from subservience, 1868-1945, edited by Hiroko Tomida and Gordon Daniels. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental, 2005. Barr, Pat (1989). The Deer Cry Pavilion: A Story of Westerners in Japan, 1868-1905. Penguin (non classic). ISBN 0-14-009578-0. Buruma, Ian (2004). Inventing Japan: 1853-1964. Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-7286-4. Keene, Donald (2005). Emperor Of Japan: Meiji And His World, 1852-1912. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12341-8. Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3756-9. Lebra, Takie Sugiyama (1995). Above the Clouds: Status Culture of the Modern Japanese Nobility. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07602-8. Notes External links National Diet Library website Before Rokumeikan Rokumeikan in 1894 Peers Club interior, 1911

Tuairisc.ie

Tuairisc.ie is an online Irish language newspaper. The company's offices are in Bearna, Co. Galway, in the west of Ireland.Tuairisc.ie receives state funding through Foras na Gaeilge.

Tuairisc.ie is an online Irish language newspaper. The company's offices are in Bearna, Co. Galway, in the west of Ireland.Tuairisc.ie receives state funding through Foras na Gaeilge. History Tuairisc Bheo Teoranta won a competition run by Foras na Gaeilge to provide an Irish language news-service on-line in 2014. The offices of the newspaper were set up in Bearna in County Galway because it was the only area in the Conamara Gaeltacht that had access to highspeed broadband. Tuairisc.ie was launched in the Oak Room of the Mansion House in Dublin on 9 October 2015. By June 2015 Tuairisc.ie had reached 1,000,000 page views. 70% of these were return visitors. Staff Seán Tadhg Ó Gairbhí is the editor of Tuairisc.ie and Ciarán Ó Súilleabháin is the website's manager. There are two full-time journalists employed by the site, Pádraic Ó Ciardha and Méabh Ní Thuathaláin, and several external contributors write regular articles, including Cathal Mac Coille and Dara Ó Cinnéide. Eoin Ó Murchú and Desmond Fennell are also contributors. See also Vicipéid List of Irish-language media References External links 'www.tuairisc.ie'

Interactive Mathematics Program

The Interactive Mathematics Program (IMP) is a four-year, problem-based mathematics curriculum for high schools. It was one of several curricula funded by the National Science Foundation and designed around the 1989 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards. The IMP books were authored by Dan Fendel and Diane Resek, professors of mathematics at San Francisco State University, and by Lynne Alper and Sherry Fraser. IMP was published by Key Curriculum Press in 1997 and sold in 2012 to It's About Time.

The Interactive Mathematics Program (IMP) is a four-year, problem-based mathematics curriculum for high schools. It was one of several curricula funded by the National Science Foundation and designed around the 1989 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards. The IMP books were authored by Dan Fendel and Diane Resek, professors of mathematics at San Francisco State University, and by Lynne Alper and Sherry Fraser. IMP was published by Key Curriculum Press in 1997 and sold in 2012 to It's About Time. Curriculum Designed in response to national reports pointing to the need for a major overhaul in mathematics education, the IMP curriculum is markedly different in structure, content, and pedagogy from courses more typically found in the high school sequence. Each book of the curriculum is divided into five- to eight-week units, each having a central problem or theme. This larger problem is intended to serve as motivation for students to develop the underlying skills and concepts needed to solve it, through solving a variety of smaller related problems. There is an emphasis on asking students to work together in collaborative groups. It is hoped that communication skills will be developed; exercises aimed at this goal are embedded throughout the curriculum, through the use of group and whole class discussions, the use of writing to present and clarify mathematical solutions; in some IEP classes, formal oral presentations are required. The IMP curriculum expects students to make nearly daily use of a scientific graphing calculator. Controversy Nearly every one of these distinctive characteristics has generated controversy and placed the IMP curriculum right in the middle of the “math wars,” the conflict between those that favor more traditional curricula in mathematics education and the supporters of the reform curricula that were largely an outgrowth of the 1989 NCTM standards. IMP is among the reform curricula that have been heavily criticized by organizations such as Mathematically Correct. That organization's Internet site begins with a statement that “advocates of the new, fuzzy math” (focus) “on things like calculators, blocks, guesswork, and group activities and they shun things like algorithms and repeated practice. The new programs are shy on fundamentals and they also lack the mathematical depth and rigor that promotes greater achievement.” Former NCTM president Frank Allen states, “Trying to organize school mathematics around problem solving instead of using its own internal structure for that purpose … (is destroying) essential connections….”Criticism often includes anecdotal evidence including stories of school districts that have decided to discontinue or supplement use of the IMP curriculum and of students who did not feel they had been prepared adequately for college. "Regular math is much better, it makes much more sense," says Aimee Lynn Stearns, a student at Taos High School in Taos, New Mexico. On the other hand, some IMP students describe the program in positive terms. "It's fun, but it makes you really think," according to Ziouck Gonzalez, a student at Wells High School in Chicago, Illinois. Looking beyond student response, IMP was one of five mathematics education programs designated "exemplary" by the US Education Department in 1999, for "outstanding quality and demonstrated effectiveness." It's About Time, the publisher of IMP, points out “the IMP first edition was published after more than 10 years of research, pilot testing, evaluating, field testing, revising, and detailed reviewing.”Supporters point to statistical studies that compare the performance of students enrolled in IMP courses with their peers enrolled in traditional high school mathematics courses. Merlino and Wolff, two such researchers, report that in their several studies IMP students consistently outperformed traditionally taught students on both the math and verbal sections of the PSAT, as well as on the SAT-9. Kramer reported that grade 12 IMP students in his study performed better on all areas of mathematics tested by the NAEP test, and Webb and Dowling reported IMP students performed significantly better on statistics questions from the Second International Mathematics Study, on mathematical reasoning and problem solving tasks designed by the State of Wisconsin, and on a quantitative reasoning test developed by a university to administer to entering students. Taos High School began using the Interactive Math Program (IMP) in the 2006–07 school year. After three years of IMP classes, the initial cohort of 134 Taos High School juniors took the state mandated 11th grade Standards Based Assessment (SBA) in April, 2009. The SBA places students in one of four groups: Beginning Steps, Nearing Proficiency, Proficient and Advanced. The test results were compared with the SBA test scores of the previous two cohorts of juniors who had taken the SBA test after three years of traditional math instruction. The state test placed 53% of the 2009 IMP cohort in the proficient or advanced categories while the 2008 traditional math cohort's proficiency rating was 43% and the 2007 cohort's was 38%; roughly a combined 12% less than the IMP students (p < 0.025). The performance of the 2009 juniors was also analyzed over time. In 2006, the 2009 juniors were in 8th grade and 40% tested proficient or above in the 8th grade SBA. After three years of IMP, the percentage of these same students who now tested proficient or better had risen to 52% (p < .05). Students from the IMP cohort subsequently attended colleges and universities such as Stanford, Harvard, Carnegie Mellon, University of New Mexico and New Mexico State, among many others. See also The other four NSF funded high school curricula projects: Core-Plus Mathematics Project MATH Connections Mathematics: Modeling Our World SIMMS Integrated Mathematics References External links Official website Mathematically Correct website

Church of Saint John the Baptist, Borysławka

The Church of Saint John the Baptist was a lost religious building, a wooden Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in the former village of Borysławka, Przemyśl County, Lviv Voivodeship (now Gmina Fredropol, Przemyśl County, Podkarpackie Voivodeship, Poland).

The Church of Saint John the Baptist was a lost religious building, a wooden Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in the former village of Borysławka, Przemyśl County, Lviv Voivodeship (now Gmina Fredropol, Przemyśl County, Podkarpackie Voivodeship, Poland). History The parish church was first mentioned in 1510.The outer church was built in 1750. Until 1847, the parish and the church were independent, and since 1840 they became subsidiaries of the church of the village of Posada Rybotycka.Number of parishioners: 1840 — 569, 1879 — 540, 1926 — 745, 1859 — 538, 1899 — 660, 1938 — 785.The church was destroyed after the eviction of Ukrainians from Borysławka.Today, only the iron cross that crowned the church remains. Several tombstones have been preserved in the church cemetery. Priests vacant position ([1831—1835]) о. Mykhailo Hrynda (1836—1838) vacant position ([1838—1842]) о. Mykhailo Hrynda (1842—1844) о. Mykhailo Sozanskyi (1844—1845) о. Ivan Dolzhytskyi (1845—1847) о. Anun Bilynskyi (1886—1908+) о. Mykhailo Artemovych (1904—1908, assistant) о. Mykhailo Karpiak (1908—1909, administrator) о. Myroslav Lysiak (1909—1920) о. Mykhailo Tymchyshyn (1920—1927) о. Mykola Stsepanskyi (1927—1934) о. Semen Tymchuk (1935—1936, administrator) о. Pavlo Pavlis (1936—[1939]) Gallery References External links ""Musi istnieć jakieś rozwiązanie, które nie będzie starciem"". Gazeta.pl. Retrieved 2023-02-14.

Masahiko Amakasu

Masahiko Amakasu (甘粕 正彦, Amakasu Masahiko, January 26, 1891 – August 20, 1945) was an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army who was imprisoned for his involvement in the Amakasu Incident, the extrajudicial execution of anarchists after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, who later became head of the Manchukuo Film Association.

Masahiko Amakasu (甘粕 正彦, Amakasu Masahiko, January 26, 1891 – August 20, 1945) was an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army who was imprisoned for his involvement in the Amakasu Incident, the extrajudicial execution of anarchists after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, who later became head of the Manchukuo Film Association. Biography Amakasu was born in Miyagi Prefecture as the eldest son of a samurai of the Yonezawa Domain under the bakufu. The caste system in Japan where society was divided into merchants, artisans, peasants and samurai was abolished in 1871 as one of the Meiji era reforms, but long afterwards, caste distinctions persisted with those of the samurai caste being disproportionately over-represented in the officer corps of the Imperial Navy and Army right up to 1945. Amakasu was educated in military boarding schools in Mie Prefecture and Nagoya, and entered the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1912. After graduation, he served in the infantry and then the military police in various postings in Japan and in Korea. On September 16, 1923, when Amakasu was a lieutenant in charge of a detachment of the Kenpeitai military police during the chaos immediately following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake of September 1, he and his officers arrested the well-known anarchists Sakae Ōsugi and Noe Itō, along with Sakae's six-year-old nephew, Munekazu Tachibana. In what came to be known as the Amakasu Incident, the suspects were beaten to death and their bodies thrown into a well. The killing of such high-profile anarchists, along with a young child, sparked surprise and outrage throughout Japan. Nevertheless, thousands signed petitions requesting leniency on Amakasu's behalf. The murders also drew attention in the United States, since Munekazu Tachibana was a dual-national with American citizenship, having been born in Portland, Oregon. Efforts to get the American Embassy involved were unsuccessful. One embassy official made a brief statement on the case."In the case, even, of an unquestioned American citizen involved in trial in a foreign court, the law of that country must take its course, and we can only be interested in seeing that the trial is fair and the law impartially applied."Amakasu and four other Imperial Japanese Army soldiers were court-martialed for the murders. During the trial, Amakasu's lawyers tied the murder to soldierly duties, and the ideals of spontaneity, sincerity, and pure motives. They argued that Sakae and Noe were traitors, and Amakasu killed them out of an irresistible urge to protect the country. As for the murder of the child, they argued that this was still justifiable for the public good. Many in the courtroom sympathized with these arguments, with spectators loudly calling Amakasu a "kokushi" (hero). The judge did nothing to intervene. Even the military prosecutor, while unwilling to accept the defense's arguments as an excuse, was sympathetic. Believing that Amakasu had merely acted excessively, he said the officer's patriotism "brought tears into one's eyes". As such, he demanded only 15 years in prison with hard labour for Amakasu, and lesser punishments for the other defendants.The judge was even more lenient. Amakasu was sentenced to ten years in prison with hard labour, and IJA sergeant Keijiro Mori was sentenced to three years in prison with hard labour as an accomplice. The other three men were acquitted, two on the grounds of superior orders, and the other due to insufficient evidence.In August 1924, Amakasu's sentence was reduced to 7 years and six months. However, he was released from prison in October 1926, due to a general amnesty proclaimed in celebration of the ascension of Hirohito as Emperor of Japan. After his release, Amakasu was sent to France to study by the Japanese Army from July 1927. While in France, he became acquainted with the noted artist Tsuguharu Foujita. He returned to Japan in 1930, but almost immediately relocated to Mukden in Manchuria, where he worked under Japanese spymaster Kenji Doihara to manage the Japanese Army's increasing involvement in opium production and smuggling into China. After Manchurian Incident, he relocated to Harbin, where he was involved in the effort to smuggle ex-Qing emperor Puyi from the foreign concession in Tianjin into Manchuria, where he would become the puppet ruler of the new state of Manchukuo. When Puyi landed in Port Arthur in November 1931, it was Amakasu who greeted him at the dock and escorted him to the train that took him to the Yamato Hotel. While on the train, Amakasu boasted to Puyi about how he had killed Itō, Ōsugi and Tachibana because they were "enemies of the Emperor", and that he would gladly kill Puyi himself if he should prove to be an "enemy of the Emperor". In Manchukuo, Amakasu helped establish the civilian police force in the new capital of Xinjing, as the city of Changchun had been renamed. During his time in Manchukuo, Amakasu was notorious for his brutality, and the American historian Louise Young described Amakasu as a "sadistic" man who enjoyed torturing and killing people. In 1934, at Puyi's coronation as Emperor of Manchukuo, Amakasu again played the role of Puyi's minder under the guise of serving as the director of the film crew that recorded the coronation. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937, which marked the beginning of the war with China, Amakasu played a prominent role in undercover operations against China. In 1939, with the support of Nobusuke Kishi, he was named the head of Manchukuo Film Association, which was one of the main propaganda vehicles for the Kwantung Army to boost public support for Manchukuo and for the war effort against the Kuomintang government of China. Amakasu strove hard to improve the quality of the works produced, traveling to Germany to acquire the latest movie cameras and production techniques, and inviting noted Japanese movie stars, directors and conductors (such as Takashi Asahina) to visit Manchukuo and to participate in his productions. His efforts were instrumental in launching the career of Yoshiko Ōtaka, better known as "Ri Kōran" in Japanese.In 1940, Amakasu produced Shina no yoru (支那の夜, "China Nights"), which become the most popular Japanese film of that year. Starring Yoshiko Yamaguchi, a Japanese actress who had grown up in China and was fluent enough in Mandarin Chinese, the film told the story of a Chinese woman Kei Ran whose parents had been killed in the war by a Japanese bombing raid and was violently anti-Japanese as a result. A handsome and caring young Japanese naval officer Tetsuo Hase falls in love with her, but she resists his advance until he violently slaps her face, despite her tears and begging him to stop, and after which she declares her love for him. After being slapped into declaring her love, she apologizes for anti-Japanese statements, and in a true Pan-Asian union, the two are married and lived happily ever after. The film was and still is very controversial in China, with most Chinese feeling especially humiliated by the face slapping scene with its suggestion that all one has to do is slap around a Chinese woman to make her love one. The Japanese historian Hotta Eri argued the cultural nuances of Shina no yoru were lost on Chinese audiences. In Japan, as part of a ploy to infantize the population, the Emperor was always portrayed as a hermaphrodite figure, being both the mother and the father of nation at the same time, with his/her loving subjects as perpetual children unable to think very much for themselves, thus requiring the Emperor as the parent of the nation to do all the necessary thinking for his/her loving subjects. At the same time, the Emperor as a god had such awesome responsibilities to deal with that he had to delegate some of his power down to mere humans so he could focus on more important matters. In both the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy, officers routinely slapped the faces of the men under their command when giving orders, which was portrayed not as an exercise in petty humiliation, but as an act of love, with His Imperial Majesty's officers acting as the surrogates for the Emperor, who had to discipline his "children" by having their faces slapped all the time. Hotta wrote that the scene where the Japanese hero slaps the face of the Chinese woman until she declares her love for him was seen in Japan as a romantic gesture, as a sign he cared for her, just in the same way that officers of the Imperial Army and Navy showed the Emperor's "love" for his subjects serving in his Army and Navy by slapping their faces all the time. Yamaguchi herself in a 1987 interview stated she did not feel the controversial face-slapping scene was an exercise in humiliation for her character, calling it a very romantic and moving scene. However, Hotta observed that Amakasu did project a Pan-Asian message in the film, with its Chinese heroine marrying the Japanese hero, and moreover, it is clear that the Japanese hero is the dominant partner in their relationship, which was meant as a metaphor for the relationship Amakasu wanted to see between Japan and China.With the fall of Manchukuo to Soviet forces during the invasion of Manchuria in August 1945, Amakasu committed suicide by taking potassium cyanide. On the last day of his life, he wrote out a suicide note in his office and swallowed a cyanide pill. In popular culture Amakasu was portrayed by Japanese musician Ryuichi Sakamoto in the 1987 film The Last Emperor, although he was shown shooting himself to death in the movie. Amakasu is also a character in the historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari by Hiroshi Aramata. In the novel, he is involved with the freemasons. Amakasu was featured as a character in Ian Buruma's novel The China Lover, released in 2008. Amakasu is a main character in Christian Kracht's 2016 novel The Dead. See also Amakasu Incident Manchukuo Film Association Notes References Jansen, Marius B. (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674003347.ISBN 9780674003347; OCLC 44090600 Nornes, Abé Mark (1994). Japan/America Film Wars: WWII Propaganda and Its Cultural Contexts. Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 3-7186-0562-7. Young, Louise (1999). Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21934-1.

Li Yaowen

Li Yaowen (Chinese: 李耀文; pinyin: Lǐ Yàowén; 1 May 1918 – 10 April 2018), born Zhang Xishen (张锡绅), was an admiral in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.Born in Rongcheng, Shandong, Li participated in the revolution at the age of 16 and joined the Chinese Communist Party at the age of 19, and fought many battles as a senior military officer of the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War, Korean War and the Chinese Vietnamese Sea Battle. He was promoted to the rank of major general (shaojiang) by age 37 and general (jiang) in September 1988. He served as political commissar of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLA Navy) between 1980 and 1990, deputy political commissar of Jinan Military Region from 1965 to 1970, and director of the Political Department of Jinan Military Region from 1955 to 1968, when he was succeeded by Chen Jide. During the Cultural Revolution he entered diplomatic service and assumed various posts in the Ministry of Foreign Affair including vice-minister (1970–72), the Chinese Embassy to Tanzania (1972–75) and Chinese Embassy to Madagascar (1975–76).He was an alternate member of the 11th CCP Central Committee, a member of the 12th CCP Central Committee, and a member of the Central Advisory Commission.

Li Yaowen (Chinese: 李耀文; pinyin: Lǐ Yàowén; 1 May 1918 – 10 April 2018), born Zhang Xishen (张锡绅), was an admiral in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.Born in Rongcheng, Shandong, Li participated in the revolution at the age of 16 and joined the Chinese Communist Party at the age of 19, and fought many battles as a senior military officer of the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War, Korean War and the Chinese Vietnamese Sea Battle. He was promoted to the rank of major general (shaojiang) by age 37 and general (jiang) in September 1988. He served as political commissar of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLA Navy) between 1980 and 1990, deputy political commissar of Jinan Military Region from 1965 to 1970, and director of the Political Department of Jinan Military Region from 1955 to 1968, when he was succeeded by Chen Jide. During the Cultural Revolution he entered diplomatic service and assumed various posts in the Ministry of Foreign Affair including vice-minister (1970–72), the Chinese Embassy to Tanzania (1972–75) and Chinese Embassy to Madagascar (1975–76).He was an alternate member of the 11th CCP Central Committee, a member of the 12th CCP Central Committee, and a member of the Central Advisory Commission. Biography Early life and education Li was born Zhang Xishen in Chengshan Town of Rongcheng County, Shandong, on May 1, 1918. He attended the No. 1 School of Rongcheng County. Agrarian Revolution After school, he entered the workforce. He successively worked in the county's Education Bureau, Library and Education Museum. After the September 18th incident, he came under the influence of the Communist Cao Manzhi (曹漫之), and began to read Marxist books. In 1933, Li was transferred to the Education Museum as an administrator, at the same time, he worked as a member of the underground Party and gathered top secret information for the CCP Jiaodong County Committee. In 1934, Li Yaowen and Cao Manzhi used the Education Museum as a base for they propagating patriotism and communism. Second Sino-Japanese War In 1937, Li joined the Chinese Communist Party under the recommendation of Cao Manzhi. On July 7, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident broke out, Li served as the commissary in charge of publicity in the newly established CCP Rongcheng County Committee, and Cao Manzhi served as its secretary. At the end of 1937, Li Yaowen, Cao Manzhi and Lin Hujia launched armed insurrection and the troops joined the 3rd Army of the Counter-Japanese and National Salvation Army of the Shandong People (山东人民抗日救国军第三军). From January 1938 to August 1945, he organized the struggle against Japan in many areas of Shandong. After the surrender of Japan in December 1945, he was political commissar of the 9th Division of the Central Shandong Military District. Chinese Civil War In January 1947, he led his troops joined the Battle of South Shandong, and then participated in the Battle of Laiwu and the Battle of Menglianggu. In January 1948, he became the deputy director of the 8th Column of the East China Field Army, rising to director in May. In June, his troops joined the Battle of Kaifeng and the Battle of East Henan. In November, he participated in the Huaihai Campaign led by Liu Bocheng, Su Yu, Chen Yi and Deng Xiaoping in north China. In April 1949, he joined the Crossing River Campaign and then seized the city of Shanghai. People's Republic of China When the Korean War broke out, Li Yaowen received the order of the Central Military Commission and participated in the Korean War campaign led by Peng Dehuai. In July 1954, Li was appointed director of the Political Department of Shandong Military District, which was reorganized as Jinan Military Region, one of the thirteen military regions in China. In September, Li attained the rank of major general (shaojiang) and was decorated the Order of Independence and Freedom, 2nd Class and the Order of Liberation, 1st Class. He served as Jinan Military Region director until 1968, when he was succeeded by Chen Jide (zh:陈继德). In October 1965, Li was promoted to deputy political commissar of Jinan Military Region. In April 1970, Premier Zhou Enlai appointed Li as vice-minister of Foreign Affairs.On September 13, 1971, Lin Biao tried to flee the Soviet Union but he suffered an air crash and died in Ondorhaan, Mongolia. After receiving the valuable information provided by the Chinese Embassy in Mongolia, Li proved Lin's death.In April 1972, Mao Zedong appointed him to become the Chinese Ambassador to Tanzania. In 1975, he was appointed as the Chinese Ambassador to Madagascar, and held that office until February 1976.In 1976, Hua Guofeng and Ye Jianying overthrew the Gang of Four. In April 1977, he served as political commissar of the Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense, serving as an assistant of General Zhang Aiping. In August, he was elected an alternate member of the 11th CCP Central Committee.In October 1980, he was promoted to become political commissar of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLA Navy). In September 1982, he was elected a member of the 12th CCP Central Committee. In October 1987, he became a member of the Central Advisory Commission. On March 14, 1988, the Vietnam People's Navy invaded the Johnson South Reef, and killed some Chinese soldiers. In reprisal, Li commanded the army to fight back and won the war. In September, Li was awarded the military rank of Admiral (shangjiang). Li retired in July 1998, and that same year, the Chinese government bestowed its Red Star medal, 1st Class upon him. Death On April 10, 2018, Li died in Beijing, three weeks shy of becoming a centenarian. == References ==

Bobbie Cheema-Grubb

Dame Parmjit Kaur "Bobbie" Cheema-Grubb, (née Cheema; born 6 October 1966), styled Mrs Justice Cheema-Grubb, is a judge of the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. She is the first Asian woman to serve as a High Court judge in the United Kingdom.

Dame Parmjit Kaur "Bobbie" Cheema-Grubb, (née Cheema; born 6 October 1966), styled Mrs Justice Cheema-Grubb, is a judge of the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. She is the first Asian woman to serve as a High Court judge in the United Kingdom. Early life and education Parmjit-kaur Cheema was born to Indian Sikh Punjabi parents who came to the United Kingdom from India in the 1960s. She grew up in Leeds, and attended City of Leeds School before studying law at King's College London. Legal career Cheema-Grubb was called to the bar in 1989 by Gray's Inn. In 2006, she became the first Asian woman to be appointed a Junior Treasury Counsel. In 2007, she became a recorder. In 2013, she was appointed Queen's Counsel (QC). She served as a Senior Treasury Counsel and was authorised to sit as a deputy High Court judge. She chaired an Advocacy Training Council working group that produced the report "Raising the Bar: The Handling of Vulnerable Witnesses, Victims and Defendants in Court".Cheema-Grubb successfully acted for the prosecution against retired Church of England bishop Peter Ball for sexual abuse and against barrister and recorder Constance Briscoe for perverting the course of justice. Judiciary On 22 October 2015, Cheema-Grubb's appointment as a High Court judge was announced. She was sworn in on 25 November 2015. Personal life In 1990, she married Russell Grubb and they have three children. She is a practising Christian. See also David Fuller 2017 Finsbury Park attack == References ==

Gavampati (Buddha's disciple)

Gavāṃpati is a disciple of the Buddha, one of the first ten to be ordained and to have known the state of Arhat. In Southeastern Buddhism, Gavāṃpati has become a preeminent character. In Thailand amulet as Pidta, Laos, Cambodia, and the Shan states, the Mon cult of Gavampati has survived.

Gavāṃpati is a disciple of the Buddha, one of the first ten to be ordained and to have known the state of Arhat. In Southeastern Buddhism, Gavāṃpati has become a preeminent character. In Thailand amulet as Pidta, Laos, Cambodia, and the Shan states, the Mon cult of Gavampati has survived. Notes == References ==

Prataprao Govindrao Chikhalikar

Pratap Govindrao Chikhalikar Patil (born 2 August 1960) is an Indian politician and Bharatiya Janata Party leader from Nanded district. He is a member of the 13th Maharashtra Legislative Assembly. He represents the Loha Assembly Constituency.

Pratap Govindrao Chikhalikar Patil (born 2 August 1960) is an Indian politician and Bharatiya Janata Party leader from Nanded district. He is a member of the 13th Maharashtra Legislative Assembly. He represents the Loha Assembly Constituency. Career Chikhalikar has been described as close to Shankarrao Chavan, but later has become an opponent of his son Ashok Chavan becoming a close junior associate of former Maharashtra Chief Minister the late Vilasrao Deshmukh. He won assembly elections in 2004. In 2007, Chikhalikar, joins Lok Bharati Political outfit during municipality elections there, contesting elections against the Indian National Congress. In 2012 Chikhalikar joined the Nationalist Congress Party & in August 2014, Chikhalikar joined the Shiv Sena. Positions held 1999: Unsuccessfully contested Loha Vidhansabha on Congress ticket 2004: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly 2014: Re-elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from Shivsena Party 2015: Elected as Director of Nanded District Central Co-operative Bank 2019: MP- Nanded loksabha Constituency References External links Shivsena Home Page

Bluegrass Brewing Company

Bluegrass Brewing Company is a brewery and a chain of brewpubs based in Louisville, Kentucky, USA.

Bluegrass Brewing Company is a brewery and a chain of brewpubs based in Louisville, Kentucky, USA. History (production) Bluegrass Brewing Company was founded as a brewpub in Louisville, Kentucky in 1993 by chief brewer David Pierce and a small group of beer investors. In the late 1990s, Pipkin Brewing Company began contract brewing and bottling Bluegrass Brewing Company beers. In 2001, the Bluegrass Brewing Company acquired the Pipkin Brewing Company, which was then located at 636 East Main Street in Louisville. At that time, the brewpub and brewery separated into two distinct companies sharing a common name. The Main Street brewery focused on packaging and distributing their beers regionally, while the brewpub produced beer for its own establishment and a satellite location at 660 4th Street in Louisville. In 2015, the Main Street brewery rebranded itself as Goodwood Brewing, operating as a separate entity. Currently, the only active location of Bluegrass Brewing Company is situated at 300 West Main Street. Awards The brewery regularly competes in the Great American Beer Festival, and its beers have won a number of awards including multiple gold medals for the Bearded Pat's Barleywine, a gold medal in 2003 for its smoked beer "Black Silk" and a bronze medal, also in 2003, for its Dortmunder-style lager beer, and most recently in 2008 for Kick in the Baltic Porter. References External links Official Microbrewery Site Official Brewpub Site

Helladius of Auxerre

Helladius of Auxerre (died 387) was a Christian bishop of Auxerre. St. Amator (died 418) was ordained deacon and tonsured by Helladius, which provides the earliest example of ecclesiastical tonsure mentioned in the religious history of France. He is commemorated on May 8.

Helladius of Auxerre (died 387) was a Christian bishop of Auxerre. St. Amator (died 418) was ordained deacon and tonsured by Helladius, which provides the earliest example of ecclesiastical tonsure mentioned in the religious history of France. He is commemorated on May 8. References Sources Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. Diocese of Sens

Only God Knows

Only God Knows (Spanish: Sólo Dios sabe; Portuguese: Só Deus sabe) is a 2006 Mexican-Brazilian drama film directed by Carlos Bolado. It stars Alice Braga as Dolores, a Brazilian woman, who meets Dámian (Diego Luna), a Mexican who helps her to reach Mexico City after her passport is stolen. Co-produced between Brazil and Mexico after an agreement undersigned in Venezuela, it is the first film produced jointly by the two countries. Filming took place in 2004 in Tijuana, Mexico City, Salvador, São Paulo, and San Diego. Post-production was done in São Paulo in 2005 and sound effects were produced in Skywalker Sound.Its world premiere occurred on January 21 at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival, where it competed in the category Cinema Dramatic of the World Cinema section.

Only God Knows (Spanish: Sólo Dios sabe; Portuguese: Só Deus sabe) is a 2006 Mexican-Brazilian drama film directed by Carlos Bolado. It stars Alice Braga as Dolores, a Brazilian woman, who meets Dámian (Diego Luna), a Mexican who helps her to reach Mexico City after her passport is stolen. Co-produced between Brazil and Mexico after an agreement undersigned in Venezuela, it is the first film produced jointly by the two countries. Filming took place in 2004 in Tijuana, Mexico City, Salvador, São Paulo, and San Diego. Post-production was done in São Paulo in 2005 and sound effects were produced in Skywalker Sound.Its world premiere occurred on January 21 at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival, where it competed in the category Cinema Dramatic of the World Cinema section. It also entered the official selection of the Guadalajara International Film Festival and the Festival de Cine Iberoamericano de Huelva. Plot Dolores is a Brazilian working in the USA who goes on a night out with friends across the border in Mexico where her passport gets stolen and found by a Mexican freelance journalist Damian. He helps her get to Mexico city as she believes she needs to reach the Embassy to get new papers to leave the country. The two fall in love during the journey, however the discovery that Damian had her passport all along puts them at odds. Dolores goes back to Brazil as her grandmother has suddenly passed. Dolores discovers she is pregnant despite her thinking she is unable to conceive. Damian follows her to Brazil. When it seems that they may have found each other and have a chance at happiness, fate has other plans. Cast Alice Braga as Dolores Isabella Sass as young Dolores Diego Luna as Damián Mariana Muniz as Dolores' grandmother José María Yazpik as Jonathan Cecilia Suárez as Olivia Renata Zhaneta as Renata Damián Alcázar as Presagio Leigh Crow as Mrs Bailey See also List of media set in San Diego References External links Only God Knows at IMDb Only God Knows at Rotten Tomatoes

Bekasi Power

PT Bekasi Power is a power plant located in West Java, Indonesia. It is a subsidiary of PT Jababeka Tbk which was established in 2007. As a 130 megawatt (MW) power plant generated by steam and gas (PLTGU), it strengthens Bekasi – Karawang electricity system through Cibatu substation owned by PT Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This state-owned company can only meet the needs of about 60 percent. To meet the rest, private sector needs to get involved.

PT Bekasi Power is a power plant located in West Java, Indonesia. It is a subsidiary of PT Jababeka Tbk which was established in 2007. As a 130 megawatt (MW) power plant generated by steam and gas (PLTGU), it strengthens Bekasi – Karawang electricity system through Cibatu substation owned by PT Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This state-owned company can only meet the needs of about 60 percent. To meet the rest, private sector needs to get involved. A reliable and sustainable electricity supply with an international standard is a must for an industrial estate. Bekasi Power plant is therefore constructed to guarantee Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) for a total of seven industrial zones including Jababeka. By delivering reliable electricity at a competitive price, this plant supports Jababeka business as well as surrounding areas, boosting Indonesia's power capacity and industrial growth for the upcoming years. Government and private by collaboration The cooperation between Bekasi Power and PLN is considered as a contribution to government's program. Through the scheme of cooperation all electricity will be purchased by PT Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN) at a price of Rp 1,050 per kilowatt hour (kWh). The scheme lasts for 20 years. Later, the electricity will be redistributed to Jababeka Industrial Estate and its surroundings. PLTGU Bekasi Power, according to the Managing Director, is generated by gas supplied by state-owned companies i.e. PT Pertamina and PT Perusahaan Gas Negara (PGN). Each day, the supplied gas needed is 23 million BTU (British Thermal Units). A BTU is a measure of the energy content in fuel, and is used in the power, steam generation, heating and air conditioning industries. Natural gas is usually measured in BTUs. Increasing the capacity To anticipate the future demand, Jababeka as the holding company has anticipated that soon the capacity shall be increased. In order to build and double the capacity, a sufficient land has been prepared to accommodate the increased capacity from currently 130 MW to 2 x 130 MW.Future investors definitely need certainty to make sure their business works well. Therefore, industrial estate with complete infrastructure will surely interest them. And when the government has limited capacity and resources to provide, it is the turn of the private sector to engage. The cooperation between PLN and PLTGU Bekasi Power is a solution to overcome these obstacles.In term of manufacturing a power plant, private sector needs to see in broader scope. As the President Director's said: "We cannot solely rely on the sale of land, we need other income. One of them comes from the electricity sales to government." He also emphasized that the electricity sales turnover to PLN has resulted Rp. 1 trillion because 100% output will be absorbed by PLN. Expanding to other areas Realizing the good prospect, the company is eager to grow the same business. It will continue to develop the same PLTGU project in several other areas. The areas that are now being observed are: the Special Economic Zone Tanjung Lesung, Kendal Industrial Estate, Cilegon and Morotai. They will also follow suit. If the area requires additional power supply then the construction of power plant will also be built to meet the energy needs.In term of future development, Bekasi Power has a plan to double the capacity from currently 130 MW to 2 x 130 MW in 2020. Ten years later, in 2030, they plan to increase to 3 x130 MW as a Green & Sustainable Energy Power Plant. At that time they will support electricity for all aspects in Bekasi, Cikarang, and Karawang i.e. housing, traffic system, industrial park, International Trade Center, commercial area, etc. High demand from industrial estates The demand for electricity for industrial estate is inevitable. This is reflected in the efforts of the Ministry of Industry which in the next five years plans to develop 15 new industrial areas which will be supported by electricity supply up to 11,064 MW. The government believes that to meet these needs, developers of each industrial estate must build their own power plants. They should not only rely on government power project plans but also to build their own factories.A total of 11,064 megawatts will be allocated to 13 industrial estates outside Java as the government's priority programs for industrial acceleration. Two other areas are located in Java, namely in Gresik, East Java and in Demak, Central Java. The demand for electricity for each industrial estate is clearly different. As in Batulicin, for example. In an industrial area of 530 hectares in South Kalimantan province, electricity needs 2,650 MW. Compare it to Sayung Industrial Estate in Demak, Central Java which requires only 42 MW. Differences in electricity demand occur not only because of the condition of the region but also the allocation. For industrial zones that focus on processing and refining minerals clearly require more electricity than labor-intensive industries. Selling price When a power plant is to be built in an industrial estate, it should also take into account the issue of price. According to the Chairman of the Indonesian Industrial State Association the imbalance between energy availability and the price offered is not a new issue. In general, entrepreneurs in industrial areas are currently getting prices stun above expectations. Electricity price of US$0.12 per kWh in Bantaeng Industrial Park, according to him, is still too expensive. The ideal price range for the industry is supposed to be US$0.08 –0.10 per kWh. Therefore, entrepreneurs must be careful in choosing the source of power to obtain the economic price. Import tax Building a power plant by a private company will always be fully supported by the government of the Republic of Indonesia. One of its supports is to apply tax deductions when importing components from abroad. "Components of power plants that have not been produced domestically and must be imported, can be tax deductible to only 10%." References External links Jababeka

Manchukuo

Manchukuo was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostensibly founded as a republic, its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition, mostly from states aligned with the Axis powers, with its existence otherwise widely seen as illegitimate. The region now known as Manchuria had historically been the homeland of the Manchu people, though by the 20th century they had long since become a minority in the region, with Han Chinese constituting by far the largest ethnic group. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which had governed China since 17th century, was overthrown with the permanent abolition of the dynastic system in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, with Puyi, the final emperor of China, forced to abdicate at the age of six.

Manchukuo was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostensibly founded as a republic, its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition, mostly from states aligned with the Axis powers, with its existence otherwise widely seen as illegitimate. The region now known as Manchuria had historically been the homeland of the Manchu people, though by the 20th century they had long since become a minority in the region, with Han Chinese constituting by far the largest ethnic group. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which had governed China since 17th century, was overthrown with the permanent abolition of the dynastic system in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, with Puyi, the final emperor of China, forced to abdicate at the age of six. In 1931, Manchuria was invaded and occupied by the Empire of Japan following the Mukden incident. A puppet government was set up the following year, with Puyi brought in by the Japanese to serve as its nominal regent, though he himself had no actual political power. Japanese officials ultimately made all pertinent decisions, and exercised total control over Puyi's court and personal safety. Upon the nominal transition from republic to empire, Puyi was proclaimed as the emperor of Manchukuo.The Japanese population of Manchuria increased dramatically during this period, largely due to Japan's efforts to resettle young, land-poor farmers from the inner islands. By 1945, more than a million Japanese people had settled within Manchukuo. The region's Korean population also increased during this period. Regions in the western part of the country with large Mongolian populations were ruled under a slightly different system, reflecting the distinct traditions extant there. The southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, now the city of Dalian, continued to be ruled directly by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory until the end of the war. The state was ultimately toppled at the end of World War II with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945; its government was formally dissolved following the Japanese surrender in September. The territory was transferred to Chinese administration the following year. Names The name of the state is written with the same Han characters sharing the same meaning in both Japanese and Chinese, allowing for the use of the simplified and variant characters that exist in both languages. In Chinese, the name of Manchukuo has often been prefixed with 偽; wěi; 'so-called' to stress its perceived illegitimacy.In English, 'Manchukuo' derives from the Wade–Giles romanization Man-chou-kuo, incorporating the anglicized demonym 'Manchu'. Other European languages used equivalent terms: Manchukuo was known to its Axis allies as Manciukuò in Italian and Mandschukuo or Mandschureich in German. Manchukuo was often referred to in English simply as 'Manchuria', itself an unfamiliar term within China; its use had previously been widely encouraged by the Japanese in order to connote a level of separation from the rest of China. This was in stark contrast to the position held by the Qing, that Manchus were one of several integral Chinese peoples, with their homeland being an integral part of China. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "the term 'Manchuria' is controversial". Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi remarked that she would "use the term in quotation marks". Herbert Giles wrote that the name was unknown to the Manchu people themselves as a geographical designation. In 2012, Professor Chad D. Garcia noted that usage of the term was out of favor in "current scholarly practice", instead preferring "the northeast [of China]".The name of the country was changed to the 'Empire of Manchuria' in 1934 upon the coronation of Puyi as the Kangde Emperor. The name in Chinese and Japanese literal translates to 'Empire of Great Manchuria', with the prefixed 大; dà; 'great' suggestive of official names for previous Chinese dynasties, such as 'Great Ming' and 'Great Qing', though this went largely unreflected in English translations. History Background The Qing dynasty was founded in the 17th century by Manchus hailing from northeastern China, conquering the ethnically Han Shun and Ming dynasties. Upon establishing themselves, the Qing referred to their state as 中國; Zhōngguó; 'central country' in Chinese and equivalently as ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Dulimbai gurun in Manchu. The name was used in official documents and treaties, and while conducting foreign affairs. The Qing equated the territory of their state, which among other regions included present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet, with the idea of 'China' itself, rejecting notions that only Han areas were core parts of China. The Qing thought of China as fundamentally multi-ethnic: the term 'Chinese people' referred to all the Han, Manchu and Mongol subjects within the empire; likewise, the term 'Chinese language' was used to refer to the Manchu and Mongolian languages in addition to those language varieties that descended from Old Chinese. Moreover, the Qing stated explicitly in various edicts, as well as within the Treaty of Nerchinsk, that the Manchu home provinces belonged to China.The Manchu homeland was referred to as the 三東省; Sān dōngshěng; 'three eastern provinces' during the Qing, those provinces being Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Liaoning. These regions were first delineated in 1683, but would not become actual provinces until 1907. Jilin and Heilongjiang, considered primarily Manchu, were separated from Han Liaoning along the Willow Palisade, with internal movement and migration regulated by ethnicity. These policies continued until after the end of the Second Opium War in the late 19th century, when the government started to encourage massive waves of Han migration to the northeast, collectively known as the Chuang Guandong, in order to prevent the Russian Empire from seizing more of the area. In 1907, the three provinces constituting Manchuria were officially constituted, and the Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces position was established to govern them. Qing decline and rising nationalism As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many of the empire's outlying areas either broke free (such as Kashgar) or fell under the control of the Western imperialist powers. The Russian Empire had set its sights on Qing's northern territories, and through unequal treaties signed in 1858 and 1860 ultimately annexed huge tracts of territory adjoining the Amur River outright, now known collectively as Outer Manchuria As the Qing continued to weaken, Russia made further efforts to take control of the rest of Manchuria. By the 1890s, the region was under strong Russian influence, symbolized by the Russian-built Chinese Eastern Railway that ran from Harbin to Vladivostok.The Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society initially supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Qing state, hoping that an overthrow of the Qing would enable a Japanese takeover of the Manchu homeland, with the belief that Han Chinese would not oppose it. Tōyama Mitsuru, who was the Society's leader as well as a member of the pan-Asian secret society Gen'yōsha, additionally believed that the anti-Qing revolutionaries would even aid the Japanese in taking over, as well as helping them to enlarge the opium trade that the Qing were currently trying to destroy. The Society would support Sun and other anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing ultimately collapsed. In Japan, many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered in exile, where they founded and operated the Tongmenghui resistance movement, whose first meeting was hosted by the Black Dragon Society. The Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun specifically, cultivating an intimate relationship with him. Sun often promoted pan-Asianism, and sometimes even passed himself off as Japanese. In the wake of the Xinhai Revolution, the Black Dragons began infiltrating China, making inroads selling opium and spreading anti-Communist sentiment. Eventually, they also began directly agitating for a Japanese takeover of Manchuria.With the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese influence largely replaced that of Russia in Manchuria. Japan had mobilized one million soldiers to fight the Russians in Manchuria, one for every eight Japanese families. Despite shocking success, the Japanese military underwent heavy losses, ultimately incurring about 500,000 casualties. The war caused many Japanese people to develop a more possessive attitude towards Manchuria, with Japan having sacrificed so much while fighting in Manchurian territory. From 1905 on, Japanese publications often described Manchuria as a "sacred" and "holy" land where many Japanese had died as martyrs. The war had almost bankrupted Japan, forcing the Japanese to accept the compromise Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States, under which Japan made gains, but nowhere to the extent that the Japanese public had been expecting. The Treaty of Portsmouth set off an anti-American riot in Tokyo between 5–7 September 1905 as the general viewpoint in Japan was that the Japanese had won the war but lost the peace. The perception in Japan was the Treaty of Portsmouth was a humiliating diplomatic disaster that did not place all of Manchuria into the Japanese sphere of influence as widely expected, and the question of Manchuria was still "unfinished business" that would one day be resolved by the Imperial Army. In 1906, Japan established the South Manchurian Railway on the southern half of the former Chinese Eastern Railway built by Russia from Manzhouli to Vladivostok via Harbin with a branch line from Harbin to Port Arthur, now known as Dalian. Under the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Kwantung Army had the right to occupy southern Manchuria while the region fell into the Japanese economic sphere of influence. The Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railroad company had a market capitalization of 200 million yen, making it Asia's largest corporation, which went beyond just running the former Russian railroad network in southern Manchuria to owning the ports, mines, hotels, telephone lines, and sundry other businesses, dominating the economy of Manchuria. With the growth of the South Manchuria Railroad company (Mantetsu) came a growth in number of Japanese people living in Manchuria, from a Japanese population of 16,612 in 1906 to one of 233,749 in 1930. The majority of blue-collar employees for Mantetsu were Chinese, and the Japanese employees were mostly white-collar, meaning most of the Japanese living in Manchuria were middle-class people who saw themselves as an elite. In Japan, Manchuria was widely seen as analogous to the Wild West: a dangerous frontier region full of bandits, revolutionaries, and warlords, but also a land of boundless wealth and promise, where it was possible for ordinary people to become very well-off. During the interwar period, Manchuria once again became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Imperial Japan moved into Russia's far eastern territories, taking advantage of internal chaos following the Russian Revolution. However, in the years following the establishment of the Soviet Union, a combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced the Japanese to withdraw from the area, and Outer Manchuria would be under Soviet control by 1925. Japanese invasion and establishment of Manchukuo During the Warlord Era, Marshal Zhang Zuolin established himself in Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later, the Japanese Kwantung Army found him too independent, so he was assassinated in 1928. In assassinating Marshal Zhang, the 'Old Marshal' the Kwantung Army generals expected Manchuria to descend into anarchy, providing the pretext for seizing the region. Marshal Zhang was killed when the bridge his train was riding across was blown up while three Chinese men were murdered and explosive equipment placed on their corpses to make it appear that they were the killers, but the plot was foiled when Zhang's son Zhang Xueliang, the 'Young Marshal', succeeded him without incident while Tokyo refused to send additional troops to Manchuria. Given that the Kwantung Army had assassinated his father, the "Young Marshal"—who unlike his father was a Chinese nationalist—had strong reasons to dislike Japan's privileged position in Manchuria. Marshal Zhang knew his forces were too weak to expel the Kwantung Army, but his relations with the Japanese were unfriendly right from the start. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists moved forward to separate the region from Chinese control and to create a Japanese-aligned puppet state. To create an air of legitimacy, the last Emperor of China, Puyi, was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria. One of his faithful companions was Zheng Xiaoxu, a Qing reformist and loyalist.The "Northeast Supreme Administrative Council" was established as a Japanese puppet organization in Manchuria following the Mukden Incident. On 16 February 1932, the Imperial Army hosted the "Founding Conference" or "Big Four Conference" with Liaoning governor Zang Shiyi, Heilongjiang governor Zhang Jinghui, commander of the Kirin Provincial Army Xi Qia, and general Ma Zhanshan, in order to establish the Northeast Administrative Committee. On the committee's second meeting, the aforementioned four plus Tang Yulin, Ling Sheng, and Qimote Semupilei were appointed as chairmen. On 18 February, the Council issued a statement announcing that "the Northeast provinces are completely independent".On 18 February 1932 Manchukuo was proclaimed by the Northeast Supreme Administrative Council nominally in control of the region. On February 25, the Council decided that the name of the new country name (Manchukuo), the national flag, era name, and more. Manchukuo was formally established on 1 March in Xinjing, and the council was abolished. It received formal recognition from Japan on 15 September 1932 through the Japan–Manchukuo Protocol, after the assassination of Japanese Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. The city of Changchun—renamed 新京; Xīnjīng; 'new capital'—became the capital of Manchukuo. The local Chinese organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required a war lasting several years to pacify the country. Nominal transition to monarchy Manchukuo was proclaimed a monarchy on 1 March 1934, with Puyi assuming the throne with the era name of Kangde. He was nominally assisted in his executive duties by a Privy Council and a General Affairs State Council. This State Council was the center of political power, and consisted of several cabinet ministers, each assisted by a Japanese vice-minister. The commander-in-chief of the Kwantung Army also served as the official Japanese ambassador to the state. He functioned in a manner similar to resident officers in European colonial empires, with the added ability to veto decisions by the emperor. The Kwantung Army leadership placed Japanese vice ministers in his cabinet, while all Chinese advisors gradually resigned or were dismissed. Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. An imperial palace was specially built for the emperor. The Manchu ministers all served as frontmen for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions.In this manner, Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China over the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. Manchukuo had its own issued banknotes and postage stamps. Several independent banks were founded as well.The conquest of Manchuria proved to be extremely popular with the Japanese people who saw the conquest as providing a much-needed economic "lifeline" to their economy which had been badly hurt by the Great Depression. The very image of a "lifeline" suggested that Manchuria—which was rich in natural resources—was essential for Japan to recover from the Great Depression, which explains why the conquest was so popular at the time and later why the Japanese people were so completely hostile towards any suggestion of letting Manchuria go. At the time, censorship in Japan was nowhere near as stringent as it would later become, and the American historian Louise Young noted: "Had they wished, it would have been possible in 1931 and 1932 for journalists and editors to express anti-war sentiments". The popularity of the conquest meant that newspapers such as the Asahi Shimbun that had initially opposed the war swiftly pivoted to support the war as the best way of improving sales. The conquest of Manchuria was also presented as resolving the "unfinished business" left over the Russo-Japanese war that finally undid one of the key terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. The most popular song in Japan in 1932 was the Manchuria March whose verses proclaimed that the seizing of Manchuria in 1931–32 was a continuation of what Japan had fought for against Russia in 1904–05, and the ghosts of the Japanese soldiers killed in the Russo-Japanese war could now rest at ease as their sacrifices had not been in vain.In 1935, Manchukuo purchased the Chinese Eastern Railway from the Soviet Union. Second Sino-Japanese War During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese used Manchukuo as a base to conduct their invasion of the rest of China. The Manchu general Tong Linge was killed in action by the Japanese in the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin, which marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the summer of 1939, a border dispute between Manchukuo and the Mongolian People's Republic resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. During this battle, a combined Soviet–Mongolian force defeated a Kwantung Army with limited Manchukuoan support. Soviet invasion, dissolution, and aftermath On 8 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from Outer Manchuria and Outer Mongolia. During the Soviet offensive, the Manchukuo Imperial Army, on paper a 200,000-man force, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Puyi abdicated on 17 August and had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the government of China, when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949, where the authorities had him imprisoned on charges of war crimes, along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria served as a base of operations for the People's Liberation Army against the National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the final Nationalist retreat to Taiwan in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantōgun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces. Most of the 1.5 million Japanese who had been left in Manchukuo at the end of World War II were sent back to their homeland in 1946–1948 by U.S. Navy ships in the operation now known as the Japanese repatriation from Huludao. Politics Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state of Imperial Japan due to the Japanese military's continued occupation of the country and its direct control over the government. Some historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building a glorified Japanese state in mainland Asia that deteriorated due to the pressures of war.The Legislative Council was largely a ceremonial body, existing to rubber-stamp decisions issued by the State Council. The only authorized political party was the government-sponsored Concordia Association, although various émigré groups were permitted their own political associations such as the White Russian Russian Fascist Party.The American historian Louise Young noted that one of the most striking aspects of Manchukuo was that many of the young Japanese civil servants who went to work in Manchukuo were on the left, or at least had once been. In the 1920s, much of the younger intelligentsia in Japan had rejected their parents' values and had become active in various left-wing movements. Starting with the Peace Preservation Law of 1925, which made the very act of thinking about 'altering the kokutai' a crime, the government had embarked on a sustained campaign to stomp out all left-wing thought in Japan. However, many of the bright young university graduates active in left-wing movements in Japan were needed to serve as civil servants in Manchukuo, which Young noted led the Japanese state to embark upon a contradictory policy of recruiting the same people active in the movements that it was seeking to crush." To rule Manchukuo, which right from the start had a very statist economy, the Japanese state needed university graduates who were fluent in Mandarin Chinese, and the 1920s–30s, many of the university graduates in Japan who knew Mandarin were "progressives" involved in left-wing causes. The fact that young Japanese civil servants in Manchukuo with their degrees in economics, sociology, etc., who had once been active in left-wing movements helps explain the decidedly leftist thrust of social and economic policies in Manchukuo with the state playing an increasingly large role in society. Likewise, much of the debate between Japanese civil servants about the sort of social-economic policies Japan should follow in Manchukuo in the 1930s was framed in Marxist terms, with the civil servants arguing over whether Manchuria prior to September 1931 had a "feudal" or a "capitalist" economy. The American historian Joshua Fogel wrote about the young servants of Manchukuo: "Tremendous debates transpired on such things as the nature of the Chinese economy, and the lingua franca of these debates was always Marxism". To resolve this debate, various research teams of five or six young civil servants, guarded by detachments from the Kwantung Army of about 20 or 30 men, went out to do field research in Manchukuo, gathering material about the life of ordinary people, to determine Manchukuo was in the "feudal" or "capitalist" stage of development. Starting in 1936, the Manchukuo state launched Five Year Plans for economic development, which were closely modeled after the Five Year Plans in the Soviet Union. In theory, the Japanese were creating an entirely new, independent state, and that this allowed for a considerable level of experimentation regarding the policies that the new state would be carrying out. Many university graduates in Japan who were ostensibly opposed to the social system within Japan itself, instead went to Manchukuo with the belief that they could implement reforms that might later inspire policy within Japan itself. This was especially the case since it was impossible to effect any reforms in Japan itself as the very act of thinking about "altering the kokutai" was a crime, which led many leftist Japanese university graduates to go work in Manchukuo, where they believed they could achieve the sort of social revolution that was impossible in Japan. By 1933, the Japanese state had essentially destroyed both the Japanese Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party via mass arrests and Tenkō with both parties reduced down to mere rumps, which caused many Japanese student leftists to draw the conclusion that change was impossible in Japan, but still possible in Manchukuo, where paradoxically the Kwantung Army was sponsoring the sort of policies that were unacceptable in Japan. Moreover, the Great Depression had made it very difficult for university graduates in Japan to find work, which made the prospect of a well-paying job in Manchukuo very attractive to otherwise underemployed Japanese university graduates. In Manchukuo, the Japanese state was creating an entire state anew, which meant that Manchukuo had a desperate need for university graduates to work in its newly founded civil service. In addition, the Pan-Asian rhetoric of Manchukuo and the prospect of Japan helping ordinary people in Manchuria greatly appealed to the idealistic youth of Japan. Young wrote about the young Japanese people who went to work in Manchukuo: "The men, and in some cases, the women, who answered the call of this land of opportunity, brought with them tremendous drive and ambition. In their efforts to remake their own lives, they remade an empire. They invested it with their preoccupations of modernity and their dreams of a Utopian future. They pushed it to embrace idealist rhetoric of social reform and justified itself in terms of Chinese nationalist aspiration. They turned it to architectural ostentation and the heady luxury of colonial consumption. They made it into a project of radical change, experimentation and possibility". The Kwantung Army for its part tolerated the talk of social revolution in Manchukuo as the best way of gaining support from the Han majority of Manchukuo, who did not want Manchuria to be severed from China. Even more active in going to Manchukuo were the products of Tenkō ('changing directions'), a process of brainwashing by the police of left-wing activists to make them accept that the Emperor was a god after all, whom they were best to serve. Tenko was a very successful process that turned young Japanese who once had been ardent liberals or leftists who rejected the idea that the Emperor was a god into fanatical rightists, who made up for their previous doubts about the divinity of the Emperor with militant enthusiasm. One tenkosha was Tachibana Shiraki, who once been a Marxist Sinologist who after his arrest and undergoing tenko became a fanatical right-winger. Tachibana went to Manchukuo in 1932, proclaiming that the theory of the "five races" working together was the best solution to Asia's problems and argued in his writings that only Japan could save China from itself, which was a complete change from his previous policies, where he criticized Japan for exploiting China. Other left-wing activists like Ohgami Suehiro did not undergo tenko, but still went to work in Manchukuo, believing it was possible to effect social reforms that would end the "semi-feudal" condition of the Chinese peasants of Manchukuo, and that he could use the Kwantung Army to effect left-wing reforms in Manchukuo. Ohgami went to work in the "agricultural economy" desk of the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad company, writing up reports about the rural economy of Manchukuo that were used by the Kwantung Army and the Manchukuo state. Ohgami believed that his studies helped ordinary people, citing one study he did about water use in rural Manchukuo, where he noted a correlation between villages that were deprived of water and "banditry" (the codeword for anti-Japanese guerrillas), believing that the policy of improving water supply in villages was due to his study. The outbreak of the war with China in 1937 caused the state in Manchukuo to grow even bigger as a policy of "total war" came in, which meant there was a pressing demand for people with university degrees trained to think "scientifically". Fogel wrote that almost all of the university graduates from Japan who arrived in Manchukuo in the late 1930s were "largely left-wing Socialists and Communists. This was precisely at the time when Marxism had been all but banned in Japan, when (as Yamada Gōichi put) "if the expression shakai [social] appeared in the title of a book, it was usually confiscated".Young also noted—with reference to Lord Acton's dictum that "Absolute power corrupts absolutely"—that for many of the idealistic young Japanese civil servants, who believed that they could affect a "revolution from above" that would make the lives of ordinary people better, that the absolute power that they enjoyed over millions of people "went to their heads", causing them to behave with abusive arrogance towards the very people that they had gone to Manchukuo to help. Young wrote that it was a "monumental conceit" of the part of the young idealists to believe that they could use the Kwantung Army to achieve a "revolution from above" when it was the Kwantung Army that was using them. The ambitious plans for land reform in Manchukuo were vetoed by the Kwantung Army for precisely the reason that it might inspire similar reforms in Japan. The landlords in Japan tended to come from families who once belonged to the samurai caste, and almost all of the officers in the Imperial Japanese Army came from samurai families, which made the Kwantung Army very hostile towards any sort of land reform which might serve as an example for Japanese peasants. In October 1941, the Soviet spy ring headed by Richard Sorge was uncovered in Tokyo, which caused the authorities to become paranoid about Soviet espionage, and led to a new crackdown on the left. In November 1941, the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad Company, which was well known as a hotbed of Marxism since the early 1930s, was raided by the Kenpeitai, who arrested 50 of those working in the Social Research Unit. At least 44 of those working in the Social Research Unit were convicted of violating the Peace Preservation Law, which made thinking about "altering the kokutai" a crime in 1942–43 and were given long prison sentences, of whom four died due to the harsh conditions of prisons in Manchukuo. As the men working in the Social Research Unit had played important roles in Manchukuo's economic policy and were university graduates from good families, the Japanese historian Hotta Eri wrote that the Kenpeitai was ordered to "handle them with care", meaning no torture of the sort that the Kenpeitai normally employed in its investigations. When the Japanese surrender was announced on 15 August 1945, Puyi agreed to abdicate. Head of state Prime Minister Administrative divisions Manchukuo was initially divided into three provinces. This number increased to five in 1934 when Sanjiang and Heihe were split off from Longjiang Province. A special ward of Beiman (Chinese: 北滿特別區) existed between 1 July 1933 and 1 January 1936. In 1941, Manchukuo was reorganized into 19 provinces, with the two special cities of Xinjing and Harbin. Each province was in turn divided in four (Xing'an dong) and 24 (Fengtian) prefectures. Harbin was later incorporated into Binjiang province. Andong and Jinzhou provinces separated themselves from Fengtian while Binjiang and Jiandao separated themselves from Jilin in the same year. Economy Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. During the 1920s, the Japanese Army under the influence of the Wehrstaat (Defense State) theories popular with the Reichswehr had started to advocate their own version of the Wehrstaat, the totalitarian "national defense state" which would mobilize an entire society for war in peacetime. An additional influence on the Japanese "total war" school who tended to be very anti-capitalist was the First Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union, which provided an example of rapid industrial growth achieved without capitalism. At least part of the reason why the Kwantung Army seized Manchuria in 1931 was to use it as a laboratory for creating an economic system geared towards the "national defense state"; colonial Manchuria offered up possibilities for the army carrying out drastic economic changes that were not possible in Japan. From the beginning, the Army intended to turn Manchukuo into the industrial heartland of the empire, and starting in 1932, the Army sponsored a policy of forced industrialization that was closely modeled after the Five-Year Plan in the Soviet Union. Reflecting a dislike of capitalism, the Zaibatsu were excluded from Manchukuo and all of the heavy industrial factories were built and owned by Army-owned corporations. In 1935, there was a change when the "reform bureaucrat" Nobusuke Kishi was appointed Deputy Minister of Industrial Development. Kishi persuaded the Army to allow the zaibatsu to invest in Manchukuo, arguing that having the state carry out the entire industrialization of Manchukuo was costing too much money. Kishi pioneered an elitist system where bureaucrats such as himself developed economic plans, which the zaibatsu had to then carry out. Kishi succeeded in marshaling private capital in a very strongly state-directed economy to achieve his goal of vastly increased industrial production while at the same time displaying utter indifference to the exploited Chinese workers toiling in Manchukuo's factories; the American historian Mark Driscoll described Kishi's system as a "necropolitical" system where the Chinese workers were literally treated as dehumanized cogs within a vast industrial machine. The system that Kishi pioneered in Manchuria of a state-guided economy where corporations made their investments on government orders later served as the model for Japan's post-1945 development, albeit not with same level of brutal exploitation as in Manchukuo. By the 1930s, Manchukuo's industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production exceeded Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernized during the Manchukuo era. However, much of the country's economy was often subordinated to Japanese interests and, during the war, raw material flowed into Japan to support the war effort. Traditional lands were taken and redistributed to Japanese farmers with local farmers relocated and forced into collective farming units over smaller areas of land. Transportation When Manchukuo was founded as a Japanese puppet state, it inherited the railroad network of Manchuria that was built originally during an economic and military struggle between Russia and Japan over Chinese territory and became a focal point before and after the Russo-Japanese War. Chinese warlords had also aimed to build local lines when possible. Manchukuo's railroad system would consist mainly of the South Manchuria Railway, a Japanese concession in the Republic of China, and the Chinese Eastern Railway, a Russian concession which was still owned by the Soviet Union inside Manchukuo. The Soviet Union sold the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japanese Manchukuo in 1935, giving Japan and Manchukuo full control over the railroads of Manchuria.The Japanese built an efficient railway system that still functions well today. Known as the South Manchuria Railway or Mantetsu, this large corporation came to own large stakes in many industrial projects throughout the region. Mantetsu personnel were involved in the economic exploitation of occupied China during World War II, and colonial planning at the behest of the Imperial Japanese Army. Many railway lines in Manchukuo were owned by the Manchukuo National Railway. After 1933, the Manchukuo National Railway was fully owned by the South Manchuria Railway/Mantetsu. Mantetsu had close to monopoly status and its properties were guarded by the Kwantung Army.By the end of World War II, the South Manchuria Railway owned 70 companies and employed about 340,000 people in Manchukuo and occupied China. Demographics In 1908, the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000. In early 1934, the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese (96%, which should have included the Manchu people), 590,760 Japanese (2%), 680,000 Koreans (2%), and 98,431 (<1%) of other nationality: White Russians, Mongols, etc. Around 80% of the population was rural. During the existence of Manchukuo, the ethnic balance did not change significantly, except that Japan increased the Korean population in China. From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Longjiang, Rehe, Jilin, Fengtian, and Xing'an provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period estimated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. The majority of Han Chinese in Manchukuo believed that Manchuria was rightfully part of China, who both passively and violently resisted Japan's propaganda that Manchukuo was a "multinational state".After the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), thousands of Russians fled to Manchuria to join the Russian community already there. The Russians living in Manchuria were stateless and as whites had an ambiguous status in Manchukuo, which was meant to be a Pan-Asian state, whose official "five races" were the Chinese, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, and Japanese. At various times, the Japanese suggested that the Russians might be a "sixth race" of Manchukuo, but this was never officially declared. In 1936, the Manchukuo Almanac reported that were 33,592 Russians living in the city of Harbin—the "Moscow of the Orient"—and of whom only 5,580 had been granted Manchukuo citizenship. Japanese imperialism was to a certain extent based on racism with the Japanese as the "great Yamato race", but there was always a certain dichotomy in Japanese thinking between an ideology based on racial differences based on bloodlines versus the idea of Pan-Asianism with Japan as the natural leader of all the Asian peoples. In 1940, ethnic Russians were included among the other nationalities of Manchukuo as candidates for conscription into the Manchukuo military.The British writer Peter Fleming visited Manchukuo in 1935, and while riding a train through the countryside of Manchukuo, a group of Japanese colonists mistook his Swiss traveling companion Kini for a Russian refugee, and began to beat her up. It was only after Fleming was able to prove to the Japanese that she was Swiss, not Russian, that the Japanese stopped and apologized, saying that they would never had beaten her up if they had known she was Swiss, saying that they sincerely believed she was a Russian when they assaulted her. Fleming observed that in Manchukuo: "you can beat White Russians up till you are blue in the face, because they are people without status in the world, citizens of nowhere". Fleming further noted that the Japanese in Manchukuo had a strong dislike of all European people, and because the Russians in Manchukuo were stateless without an embassy to issue protests if they were victimized, the Japanese liked to victimize them. Until World War II, the Japanese tended to leave alone those travelling to Manchukuo with a passport as they did not like to deal with protests from embassies in Tokyo about the mistreatment of their citizens. The Kwantung Army operated a secret biological-chemical warfare unit based in Pinfang, Unit 731, that performed gruesome experiments on people involving much visceration of the subjects to see the effects of chemicals and germs on the human body. In the late 1930s, the doctors of Unit 731 demanded more European subjects to experiment upon in order to test the efficiency the strains of anthrax and plague that they were developing leading to a great many of the Russians living in Manchukuo becoming the unwilling human guinea pigs of Unit 731. The Russian Fascist Party, which worked with the Japanese was used to kidnap various "unreliable" Russians living in Manchukuo for Unit 731 to experiment upon.The children of the Russian exiles often married Han Chinese, and the resulting children were always known in Manchukuo as "mixed water" people, who were shunned by both the Russian and Chinese communities. Chinese accounts, both at the time and later, tended to portray the Russians living in Manchuria as all prostitutes and thieves, and almost always ignored the contributions made by middle-class Russians to community life. Mindful of the way that Americans and most Europeans enjoyed extraterritorial rights in China at the time, accounts in Chinese literature about the Russians living in Manchukuo and their "mixed water" children often display a certain schadenfreude recounting how the Russians in Manchukuo usually lived in poverty on the margins of Manchukuo society with the local Chinese more economically successful. The South Korean historian Bong Inyoung noted when it came to writing about the "mixed water" people, Chinese writers tended to treat them as not entirely Chinese, but on the other hand were willing to accept these people as Chinese provided that would totally embrace Chinese culture by renouncing their Russian heritage, thus making Chineseness as much a matter of culture as of race.Around the same time the Soviet Union was advocating the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials investigated a plan (known as the Fugu Plan) to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation efforts which was never adopted as official policy. The Jewish community in Manchukuo was not subjected to the official persecution that Jews experienced under Japan's ally Nazi Germany, and Japanese authorities were involved in closing down local anti-Semitic publications such as the Russian Fascist Party's newspaper Nash Put. However, Jews in Manchukuo were victims of harassment by antisemitic elements among the White Russian population, one notable incident being the murder of Simon Kaspé. In 1937 the Far Eastern Jewish Council was created, chaired by the Harbin Jewish community leader Dr. Abraham Kaufman. Between 1937 and 1939 the city of Harbin in Manchukuo was the location of the Conference of Jewish Communities in the Far East. Following the Russian Red Army's invasion of Manchuria in 1945, Dr. Kaufman and several other Jewish community leaders were arrested by the Soviets and charged with anti-Soviet activities, resulting in Kaufman's imprisonment for ten years in a Soviet labor camp. The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria as "Manchus", including Han Chinese, despite the fact that most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese written, "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942 the Japanese wrote "Ten Year History of the Construction of Manchukuo" which attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchu's claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing period and only returned later. Population of main cities Niuzhuang (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940) Mukden (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940) Xinjing (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940) Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940) Andong (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940) Kirin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940) Tsitsihar (75,000 in 1940)Source: Beal, Edwin G (1945). "The 1940 Census of Manchuria". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 4 (3): 243–262. doi:10.2307/2049515. JSTOR 2049515. S2CID 166016710. Japanese population In 1931–2, there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 Japanese inhabitants. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Xinjing, they made up 25% of the population. Accordingly, to the census of 1936, of the Japanese population of Manchukuo, 22% were civil servants and their families; 18% were working for the South Manchurian Railroad company; 25% had come to Manchukuo to establish a business, and 21% had come to work in industry. The Japanese working in the fields of transportation, the government, and in business tended to be middle class, white-collar people such as executives, engineers, and managers, and those Japanese who working in Manchukuo as blue-collar employees tended to be skilled workers. In 1934, it was reported that a Japanese carpenter working in Manchukuo with its growing economy could earn twice as much as he could in Japan. With its gleaming modernist office buildings, state of the art transport networks like the famous Asia Express railroad line, and modern infrastructure that was going up all over Manchukuo, Japan's newest colony become a popular tourist destination for middle-class Japanese, who wanted to see the "Brave New Empire" that was going up in the mainland of Asia. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a batch of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. Of the Japanese settlers in Manchukuo, almost half came from the rural areas of Kyushu. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea in 1943–44, this migration stopped.About 2% of the Japanese population worked in agriculture. Many had been young, land-poor farmers in Japan that were recruited by the Patriotic Youth Brigade to colonize new settlements in Manchukuo. The Manchukuo government had seized great portions of these land through "price manipulation, coerced sales and forced evictions". Some Japanese settlers gained so much land that they could not farm it themselves and had to hire Chinese or Korean laborers for help, or even lease some of it back to its former Chinese owners, leading to uneasy, sometimes hostile relations between the groups.When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946–7. Many Japanese orphans in China were left behind in the confusion by the Japanese government and were adopted by Chinese families. Many, however, integrated well into Chinese society. In the 1980s Japan began to organize a repatriation program for them but not all chose to go back to Japan.The majority of Japanese left behind in China were women, and these Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin). Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan, so most of them stayed. Japanese law allowed children fathered only by Japanese to become Japanese citizens. Legal system Although the League of Nations ruled that Japan had broken international law by seizing Manchuria, the Japanese invested much effort into giving Manchukuo a legal system, believing that this was the fastest way for international recognition of Manchukuo. A particular problem for the Japanese was that Manchukuo was always presented as a new type of state: a multi-ethnic Pan-Asian state comprising Japanese, Koreans, Manchus, Mongols and Chinese to mark the birth of the "New Order in Asia". Typical of the rhetoric surrounding Manchukuo was always portrayed as the birth of a glorious new civilization was the press release issued by the Japanese Information Service on 1 March 1932 announcing the "glorious advent" of Manchukuo with the "eyes of the world turned on it" proclaimed that the birth of Manchukuo was an "epochal event of far-reaching consequences in world history, marking the birth of a new era in government, racial relations, and other affairs of general interest. Never in the chronicles of the human species was any State born with such high ideals, and never has any State accomplished so much in such a brief space of its existence as Manchukuo".The Japanese went out of their way to try to ensure that Manchukuo was the embodiment of modernity in all of its aspects, as it was intended to prove to the world what the Asian peoples could accomplish if they worked together. Manchukuo's legal system was based upon the Organic Law of 1932, which featured a 12 article Human Rights Protection Law and a supposedly independent judiciary to enforce the law. The official ideology of Manchukuo was the wangdao ("Kingly Way") devised by a former mandarin under the Qing turned Prime Minister of Manchukuo Zheng Xiaoxu calling for an ordered Confucian society that would promote justice and harmony that was billed at the time as the beginning of a new era in world history. The purpose of the law in Manchukuo was not the protection of the rights of the individual, as the wangdao ideology was expressly hostile towards individualism, which was seen as a decadent European concept inimical to Asia, but rather the interests of the state by ensuring that subjects fulfilled their duties to the emperor. The wangdao favored the collective over the individual, as the wangdao called for all people to put the needs of society ahead of their own needs. Zheng together with the Japanese legal scholar Ishiwara Kanji in a joint statement attacked the European legal tradition for promoting individualism, which they claimed led to selfishness, greed and materialism, and argued that the wangdao with its disregard for the individual was a morally superior system. The seemingly idealistic Human Rights Protection Law counterbalanced the "rights" of the subjects with their "responsibilities" to the state with a greater emphasis on the latter, just as was the case in Japan. The wangdao promoted Confucian morality and spirituality, which was seen as coming down from Emperor Puyi, and as such, the legal system existed to serve the needs of the state headed by Emperor Puyi, who could change the laws as he saw fit. In this regard it is noteworthy that Legislative Yuan had only the power of assisting the Emperor with making laws, being endowed with far fewer powers than even the Imperial Diet in Japan had, which had the power to reject or approve laws. It was often suggested at the time that the Legislative Yuan of Manchukuo was a model for the Imperial Diet in Japan, an idea Hirohito, the Japanese emperor, was sympathetic to, but never took up. Hirohito in the end preferred the Meiji constitution passed by his grandfather in 1889 as it gave the Emperor of Japan ultimate power, while at the same time the fictitious nature of the Imperial Diet together with a Prime Minister and his cabinet governing Japan gave the Emperor a scapegoat when things went wrong.Initially, the judges who had served the Zhangs were retained, but in 1934, the Judicial Law College headed by the Japanese judge Furuta Masatake was opened in Changchun, to be replaced by a larger Law University in 1937. Right from the start, the new applicants vastly exceeded the number of openings as the first class of the Law College numbered only 100, but 1,210 students had applied. The legal system that the students were trained was closely modeled after the Japanese legal system, which in its turn was modeled after the French legal system, but there were a number of particularities unique to Manchukuo. Law students were trained to write essays on such topics as the "theory of the harmony of the five races [of Manchukuo]", the "political theory of the Kingly Way", "practical differences between consular jurisdiction and extraterritoriality", and how best to "realize the governance of the Kingly Way". The Japanese professors were "astonished" by the "enthusiasm" which the students wrote their essays on these subjects as the students expressed the hope that the wangdao was a uniquely Asian solution to the problems of the modern world, and that Manchukuo represented nothing less than the beginning of a new civilization that would lead to a utopian society in the near future. The Japanese professors were greatly impressed with the Confucian idealism of their students, but noted that their students all used stock phrases to the extent it was hard to tell their essays apart, cited examples of wise judges from ancient China while ignoring more recent legal developments, and were long on expressing idealistic statements about how the wangdao would lead to a perfect society, but were short on how explaining just how this was to be done in practice.An example of the extent of Japanese influence on the legal system of Manchukuo was that every issue of the Manchukuo Legal Advisory Journal always contained a summary of the most recent rulings by the Supreme Court of Japan, and the reasons why the Japanese Supreme Court had ruled in these cases. However, there were some differences between the Manchukuo and Japanese legal systems. In Japan itself, corporal punishment had been abolished as part of the successful effort to end the extraterritorial rights enjoyed by citizens of the European powers but retained for the Japanese colonies of Korea and Taiwan. However, corporal punishment, especially flogging, was a major part of the Manchukuo legal system with judges being very much inclined to impose floggings on low-income Chinese men convicted of minor offenses that would normally merit only a fine or a short prison sentence in Japan. Writing in a legal journal in 1936, Ono Jitsuo, a Japanese judge serving in Manchukuo, regretted having to impose floggings as a punishment for relatively minor crimes but argued that it was necessary of Manchukuo's 30 million people "more than half are ignorant and completely illiterate barbarians" who were too poor to pay fines and too numerous to imprison. In Taiwan and Korea, Japanese law was supreme, but judges in both colonies had to respect "local customs" in regard to family law. In the case of Manchukuo, a place with a Han majority, but that ideology proclaimed the "five races" of Japanese, Chinese, Koreans, Manchus, and Mongols as all equal, this led in effect to several family laws for each of the "five races" respecting their "local customs" plus the Russian and Hui Muslim minorities. Policing The Manchukuo police had the power to arrest without charge anyone who was engaged in the vaguely defined crime of "undermining the state". Manchukuo had an extensive system of courts at four levels staffed by a mixture of Chinese and Japanese judges. All of the courts had both two Japanese and two Chinese judges with the Chinese serving as the nominal superior judges and the Japanese the junior judges, but in practice the Japanese judges were the masters and the Chinese judges puppets. Despite the claims that the legal system of Manchukuo was a great improvement over the legal system presided over by Marshal Zhang Xueliang the "Young Marshal", the courts in Manchukuo were inefficient and slow, and ignored by the authorities whenever it suited them. In Asia, the rule of law and an advanced legal system are commonly seen as one of the marks of "civilization", which is why the chaotic and corrupt legal system run by Marshal Zhang was denigrated so much by the Japanese and Manchukuo media. In the early 1930s, Manchukuo attracted much legal talent from Japan as Japanese Pan-Asian idealists went to Manchuria with the goal of establishing a world-class legal system. As the Kwantung Army had the ultimate power in Manchukuo, the best Japanese judges by the late 1930s preferred not to go to Manchukuo where their decisions could be constantly second-guessed, and instead only the second-rate judges went to Manchukuo. By 1937 the Japanese judges and lawyers in Manchukuo were either disillusioned Pan-Asian idealists or more commonly cynical opportunists and mediocre hacks who lacked the talent to get ahead in Japan. By contrast, the best of the ethnic Chinese law schools' graduates in Manchukuo chose to work as part of Manchukuo's judicial system, suggesting many middle-class Chinese families were prepared to accept Manchukuo. White Russian emigres were recruited into the mountain forest police and the border police forces in the early 1930s.Starting with the Religions Law of May 1938, a cult of Emperor-worship closely modeled after the Imperial cult in Japan where Hirohito was worshiped as a living god, began in Manchukuo. Just as in Japan, schoolchildren began their classes by praying to a portrait of the emperor while imperial rescripts, and the imperial regalia become sacred relics imbued with magical powers by being associated with the god-emperor. As the Emperor Puyi was considered to be a living god, his will could not be limited by any law, and the purpose of the law was starkly reduced down to serving the will of the emperor rather than upholding values and rules. As in Japan, the idea governing the legal philosophy in Manchukuo was the Emperor was a living god who was responsible to no-one and who delegated some of his powers down to mere human beings who had the duty of obeying the will of the god-emperors. In Japan and Manchukuo, the actions of the god-emperors were always just and moral because gods could never do wrong, rather than because the god-emperors were acting to uphold moral values that existed a priori.Again following the Japanese system, in 1937 a new category of "thought crime" was introduced declaring that certain thoughts were now illegal and those thinking these forbidden thoughts were "thought criminals". People were thus convicted not for their actions, but merely for their thoughts. After the war with China began in July 1937, an "emergency law" was declared in Manchukuo, placing it under a type of martial law that suspended the theoretical civil liberties that existed up to that point, ordered the mobilization of society for total war, and increased the tempo of repression with the law on "thought crimes" being merely the most dramatic example. In April 1938, a new type of Special Security Court was created for those charged with the five types of "thought crime". On 26 August 1941, a new security law ruled that those tried before the Special Security Courts had no right of appeal or to a defense lawyer. One Special Security Court in Jinzhou between 1942 and 1945 sentenced about 1,700 people to death and another 2,600 for life imprisonment for "thought crimes", a figure that appears to be typical of the special courts. The police frequently used torture to obtain confessions and those tried in the Special Security Courts had no right to examine the evidence against them. Starting in 1943 the number of those tried and convicted by the courts rose drastically, though the number of death sentences remained stable. The rise in the number of convictions was due to the need for slave labor for the factories and mines of Manchukuo as the traditional supplies of slave labor from northern China were disturbed by World War II as most of those convicted were sentenced to work in the factories and mines. The American historian Thomas David Dubois wrote the legal system of Manchukuo went through two phases: the first lasting from 1931 to 1937, when the Japanese wanted to show the world a state with an ultra-modern legal system that was meant to be a shining tribute to Asians working together in brotherhood; and the second from 1937 to 1945 when the legal system becomes more of a tool for the totalitarian mobilization of society for total war. Military The Manchukuo Imperial Army was the ground component of the Empire of Manchukuo's armed forces and consisted of as many as 170,000 to 220,000 troops at its peak in 1945 by some estimates, having formally been established by the Army and Navy Act of 15 April 1932. The majority of the soldiers were Manchurian-born Han Chinese, with smaller groups of Koreans, Mongols, and White Russian emigres, who were all trained and led by Japanese instructors and advisors. Despite the numerous attempts by the Japanese to improve the combat capability of the Imperial Army and instill a Manchukuoan patriotic spirit among its troops, most of its units were regarded as unreliable by Japanese officers. Their main role was to fight Nationalist and Communist insurgents who continued to resist the Japanese occupation of northeastern China, and occasionally the Manchukuo Imperial Army took part in operations against the Chinese National Revolutionary Army and the Soviet Red Army (in support of the Imperial Japanese Army). Initially its members were former soldiers of Marshal Zhang Xueliang's warlord army who had surrendered to Japan during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. But since the Young Marshal's former troops were not sufficiently loyal to the new regime and performed poorly against partisans, the new government of Manchukuo took efforts to recruit—and later draft—new soldiers. In 1934 a law was passed stating that only those that had been trained by the government of Manchukuo could serve as officers. The Military Supplies Requisition Law of 13 May 1937 allowed Japanese and Manchukuo authorities to draft forced laborers. The actual calling up of conscripts for the army did not begin until 1940, at which point all youths received a physical and 10% were to be selected for service. Between 1938 and 1940, several military academies were established to provide a new officer corps for the Imperial Army, including a specific school for ethnic Mongols and one for White Russians. After fighting against insurgents during the early to mid-1930s, the Manchukuo Imperial Army played mainly a supporting role during the actions in Inner Mongolia against Chinese forces, with news reports stating that some Manchukuoan units performed fairly well. Later it fought against the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts. A skirmish between Manchukuoan and Mongolian cavalry in May 1939 escalated as both sides brought in reinforcements and began the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. Although they did not perform well in the battle overall, the Japanese considered their actions useful enough to warrant expansion of the Manchukuo Army. Throughout the 1940s the only action it saw was against Communist guerrilla fighters and other insurgents, although the Japanese chose to rely only on the more elite units while the majority were used for garrison and security duty. Although Japan took the effort of equipping the Manchukuoan forces with some artillery (in addition to the wide variety it had inherited from Zhang Xueliang's army) along with some elderly tankettes and armored cars, the cavalry was the Imperial Army's most effective and developed branch. This was the force that confronted the 76 battle-hardened Red Army divisions transferred from the European front in August 1945 for the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The cavalry branch saw the most combat against the Red Army, but they and their depleted Japanese Kwantung Army allies were quickly swept aside by the Soviet offensive. While some units remained loyal to their Japanese allies and put up a resistance, many mutinied against their Japanese advisors while others simply melted away into the countryside. Many of these Manchukuo Army troops would later join the Communists since the Chinese Nationalists executed former collaborators with Japan, becoming an important source of manpower and equipment for the Communists in the region. The other two branches, the Manchukuo Imperial Air Force and the Manchukuo Imperial Navy, were small and underdeveloped, largely existing as token forces to give legitimacy to the Manchukuo regime. An Air Force was established in February 1937 with 30 men selected from the Manchukuo Imperial Army who were trained at the Japanese Kwantung Army aircraft arsenal in Harbin (initially the Kwantung Army did not trust the Manchukuoans enough to train a native air force for them). The Imperial Air Force's predecessor was the Manchukuo Air Transport Company, a paramilitary airline formed in 1931, which undertook transport and reconnaissance missions for the Japanese military. The first air unit was based in Xinjing and equipped with just one Nieuport-Delage NiD 29 and was later expanded with Nakajima Army Type 91 Fighters and Kawasaki Type 88 light bombers. Two more air units were established, but they suffered a setback when one hundred pilots took their aircraft and defected to insurgents after murdering their Japanese instructors. Nonetheless, three fighter squadrons were formed in 1942 from the first batch of cadets, being equipped with Nakajima Ki-27 fighters in addition to Tachikawa Ki-9s and Tachikawa Ki-55 trainers, along with some Mitsubishi Ki-57 transports. In 1945, because of American bombing raids, they were issued with Nakajima Ki-43 fighters to have a better chance of intercepting B-29 Superfortresses. Some pilots saw action against the American bombers and at least one Ki-27 pilot downed a B-29 by ramming it with his plane in a kamikaze attack. The air force practically ceased to exist by the Soviet invasion but there were isolated instances of Manchukuoan planes attacking Soviet forces.The Imperial Navy of Manchukuo existed mainly as a small river flotilla and consisted mainly of small gunboats and patrol boats, both captured Chinese ships and some Japanese additions. The elderly Japanese destroyer Kashi was lent to the Manchukuoan fleet from 1937 to 1942 as the Hai Wei before returning to the Imperial Japanese Navy. These ships were mostly crewed by Japanese sailors.Several specialized units which functioned outside of the main command structure of the military also existed. The Manchukuo Imperial Guard was formed out of soldiers of ethnic Manchu descent, charged with the protection of the Kangde Emperor and senior officials, as well as to function as an honor guard. Despite this it took part in combat and was considered to be an effective unit. Throughout the 1930s a "Mongolian Independence Army" was established out of about 6,000 ethnic Mongolian recruits and fought its own war against bandits with some success. It was expanded in 1938 but merged with the regular Imperial Army in 1940, although Mongol units continued to perform well. A special Korean detachment was founded in 1937 on the personal initiative of Lee Beom-ik, a collaborationist Korean governor of Gando Province. The unit was small but distinguished itself in combat against Communist guerrillas and was noted by the Japanese for its martial spirit, becoming one of the few puppet units to earn the respect of its Japanese superiors. Human rights abuses War crimes According to a joint study by historians Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo, and Mark Peattie, more than ten million Chinese civilians were used by the Kwantung Army for slave labor in Manchukuo under the supervision of the Kōa-in.The Chinese slave laborers often suffered illness due to high-intensity manual labor. Some badly ill workers were directly pushed into mass graves in order to avoid the medical expenditure and the world's most serious mine disaster, at Benxihu Colliery, happened in Manchukuo. Bacteriological weapons were experimented on humans by the infamous Unit 731 located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to vivisection, sometimes without anesthesia. Abuse of ethnic minorities The Oroqen suffered a significant population decline under Japanese rule. The Japanese distributed opium among them and subjected some members of the community to human experiments, and combined with incidents of epidemic diseases this caused their population to decline until only 1,000 remained. The Japanese banned Oroqen from communicating with other ethnicities, and forced them to hunt animals for them in exchange for rations and clothing which were sometimes insufficient for survival, which led to deaths from starvation and exposure. Opium was distributed to Oroqen adults older than 18 as a means of control. After 2 Japanese troops were killed in Alihe by an Oroqen hunter, the Japanese poisoned 40 Oroqen to death. The Japanese forced Oroqen to fight for them in the war which led to a population decrease of Oroqen people. Even those Oroqen who avoided direct control by the Japanese found themselves facing conflict from anti-Japanese forces of the Chinese Communists, which contributed to their population decline during this period.Between 1931 and 1945, the Hezhen population declined by 80% or 90%, due to heavy opium use and deaths from Japanese cruelty, such as slave labor and relocation by the Japanese. Drug trafficking In 2007, an article by Reiji Yoshida in The Japan Times argued that Japanese investments in Manchukuo were partly financed by selling drugs. According to the article, a document found by Yoshida shows that the Kōa-in was directly implicated in providing funds to drug dealers in China for the benefit of the puppet governments of Manchukuo, Nanjing and Mongolia. This document corroborates evidence analyzed earlier by the Tokyo tribunal which stated that: Japan's real purpose in engaging in drug traffic was far more sinister than even the debauchery of Chinese people. Japan, having signed and ratified the opium conventions, was bound not to engage in drug traffic, but she found in the alleged but false independence of Manchukuo a convenient opportunity to carry on a worldwide drug traffic and cast the guilt upon that puppet state ... In 1937, it was pointed out in the League of Nations that 90% of all illicit white drugs in the world were of Japanese origin ... International relations and recognition China did not recognize Manchukuo but the two sides established official ties for trade, communications, and transportation. In 1933, the League of Nations adopted the Lytton Report, declaring that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign its membership. The Manchukuo case persuaded the United States to articulate the so-called Stimson Doctrine, under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by the force of arms.In spite of the League's approach, the new state was diplomatically recognized by El Salvador (3 March 1934) and the Dominican Republic (1934), Costa Rica (23 September 1934), Italy (29 November 1937), Spain (2 December 1937), Germany (12 May 1938) and Hungary (9 January 1939). The Soviet Union extended de facto recognition on 23 March 1935, but explicitly noted that this did not mean de jure recognition. However, upon signing the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on 13 April 1941, the Soviet Union recognized Manchukuo de jure in exchange for Japan recognizing the integrity of neighboring Mongolia. The USSR did maintain five consulates-general in Manchukuo initially, although in 1936–37 these were reduced to just two: one in Harbin and another in Manzhouli. Manchukuo opened consulates in Blagoveshchensk (September 1932) and in Chita (February 1933).It is commonly believed that the Holy See established diplomatic relations with Manchukuo in 1934, but the Holy See never did so. This belief is partly due to the erroneous reference in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1987 film The Last Emperor that the Holy See diplomatically recognized Manchukuo. Bishop Auguste Ernest Pierre Gaspais was appointed as "representative ad tempus of the Holy See and of the Catholic missions of Manchukuo to the government of Manchukuo" by the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (a purely religious body responsible for missions) and not by the Secretariat of State responsible for diplomatic relations with states. In the 1940s the Vatican established full diplomatic relations with Japan, but it resisted Japanese and Italian pressure to recognize Manchukuo and the Nanking regime.After the outbreak of World War II, the state was recognized by Slovakia (1 June 1940), Vichy France (12 July 1940), Romania (1 December 1940), Bulgaria (10 May 1941), Finland (17 July 1941), Denmark (August 1941), Croatia (2 August 1941)—all controlled or influenced by Japan's ally Germany—as well as by Wang Jingwei's Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (30 November 1940), Thailand (5 August 1941) and the Philippines (1943)—all under the control or influence of Japan. Society and culture National symbols Aside from the national flag, the orchid, reportedly Puyi's favorite flower, became the royal flower of the country, similar to the chrysanthemum in Japan. The sorghum flower also became a national flower by decree in April 1933. "Five Races Under One Union" was used as a national motto. Education Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. The government established many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. Local Chinese children and Japanese children usually attended different schools, and the ones who did attend the same school were segregated by ethnicity, with the Japanese students assigned to better-equipped classes.Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, students were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on obedience to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. The regime used numerous festivals, sports events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese taught in Manchukuo schools. Film The Photographic Division, part of the public relations section of the South Manchurian Railway was created in 1928 to produce short documentary films about Manchuria to Japanese audiences. In 1937, the Manchukuo Film Association was established by the government and the South Manchurian Railway in a studio in Jilin province. It was founded by Masahiko Amakasu, who also helped the career of Yoshiko Ōtaka, also known as Ri Koran. He also tried to ensure that Manchukuo would have its own industry and would be catering mainly to Manchurian audiences. The films for the most part usually promote pro-Manchukuo and pro-Japanese views. General Amakasu shot various "documentaries" showing carefully choreographed scenes worthy of Hollywood of Emperor Puyi in his capital of Xinjing (modern Changchun) being cheered by thousands of subjects and reviewing his troops marching in parades that were intended to help legitimize Manchukuo's independence. After World War II, the archives and the equipment of the association were used by the Changchun Film Studio of the People's Republic of China. Dress The Changshan and the Qipao, both derived from traditional Manchu dress, were considered national dresses in Manchukuo.In a meeting with the Concordia Association, the organizers devised what was termed Concordia Costume, or the kyōwafuku, in 1936. Even Japanese such as Masahiko Amakasu and Kanji Ishiwara adopted it. It was gray and a civilianized version of the Imperial Japanese Army uniform. It was similar to the National Clothes (kokumin-fuku) worn by Japanese civilians in World War II as well as the Zhongshan suit. A pin of either a Manchukuo flag or a five-pointed, five colored star with the Manchukuo national colors were worn on the collars. Sport Manchukuo had a national football team, and football was considered the country's de facto national sport; the Football Association of Manchukuo was formed around it.Manchukuo hosted and participated in baseball matches with Japanese teams. Some of the games of the Intercity baseball tournament were held in the country, and played with local teams.Manchukuo was to compete in the 1932 Summer Olympics, but one of the athletes who intended to represent Manchukuo, Liu Changchun, refused to join the team and instead joined as the first Chinese representative in the Olympics. There were attempts by Japanese authorities to let Manchukuo join the 1936 games, but the Olympic Committee persisted in the policy of not allowing an unrecognized state to join the Olympics. Manchukuo had a chance to participate in the planned 1940 Helsinki Olympics, but the onset of World War II prevented the games from taking place. Manchukuo instead sent athletes to compete at the 1940 East Asian Games in Tokyo organised by the Japanese Empire, as a replacement for the cancelled 1940 Summer Olympics. Stamps and postal history Manchukuo issued postage stamps from 28 July 1932 until its dissolution following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in August 1945. The last issue of Manchukuo was on 2 May 1945. Notable people Local Administration: Puyi: Emperor of Manchukuo (1934–1945); formerly the last Emperor of China and the Qing dynasty Pujie: Head of the Manchukuo Imperial Guards (1933–1945), younger brother of Puyi, and former Qing prince Empress Wanrong: Empress of Manchukuo (1934–1945) and Empress Consort of Puyi Jin Yunying: Younger sister of Puyi and former Qing princess Yoshiko Kawashima: Spy for the Kwantung Army and Manchukuo and former Qing princess Zheng Xiaoxu: First Prime Minister of Manchukuo (1932–1935) and close advisor and tutor to Puyi Luo Zhenyu: Chairman of the Japan-Manchukuo Cultural Cooperation Society, tutor and advisor to Puyi, and Qing loyalist Zhang Jinghui: Second and last Prime Minister of Manchukuo (1935–1945), Foreign Minister (1937), and Minister of Defense (1932–1935) Ma Zhanshan: Minister of Defense (1932) and governor of Heilongjiang province (1931–1933); former Chinese general who was one of the main leaders against the Japanese during the invasion of Manchuria Xi Qia: Imperial Household Minister and Interior Minister (1935–1945) and later Minister of Finance (1932–1935) Zang Shiyi: Governor of Liaoning province, Speaker of the Senate (1935–1945), Vice Minister for Home Affairs, and ambassador to the Reorganized National Government of China Xie Jieshi: Foreign Minister (1932–1935), ambassador to Japan, and Minister of Industry Yu Zhishan: Minister of Defense (1935–1939), commander-in-chief of the 1st Army, and Army Minister Sun Qichang: Director of the Spirits and Tobacco State Monopoly, governor of Heilongjiang province, governor of Longjiang province, Minister of Finance, and Minister of Civil Affairs Liu Menggeng: Governor of Rehe province (1934–1937) Bao Guancheng: Mayor of Harbin and ambassador to Japan Zhang Yanqing: Foreign Minister (1935–1937), Industry Minister, and co-director of the Concordia Association Li Shaogeng: Foreign Minister (1942–1944), Minister of Transportation, and Special Envoy to the Reorganized National Government of China Ruan Zhenduo: Chief Secretary for Liaoning province, co-founder of the Concordia Association, Foreign Minister (1944–1945), Minister of Education (1935–1937), Minister of Transportation (1940–1942), and Minister of Finance (1942–1944) Ding Jianxiu: Minister of Transportation (1934–1935) and Minister of Enterprises (1935–1937) Lü Ronghuan: Mayor of Harbin, Governor of Harbin Special Municipality (1933–1935), Governor of Binjiang Province (1934–1935), Minister of Civil Affairs (1935–1937) (1940–1941), Minister of Enterprises (1937), Minister of Industries (1937–1940), and special envoy to the Reorganized National Government of China (1941–1944) Yuan Jinkai: Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Li Yuan: Co-founder of the East Hebei Autonomous Council Tong Jixu: Chief of Security to the Imperial Household Department Zhang Haipeng: Governor of Rehe province (1933–1934), Commander of the Taoliao Army, Commander of the Rehe Guard Army Li Jizhun: General and commander of the National Salvation Army (A Japanese puppet force) Liu Guitang: Manchukuo soldier and commander, involved in the actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936) Cui Xingwu: Officer in the 55th army of Rehe under Tang Yulin and commanded the 9th Cavalry brigade during the Battle of Rehe before subsequently defecting to the Japanese; later involved in the actions in Inner Mongolia Yangsanjab: Head of the Khorchin Left Wing Middle Banner and a Mongol prince from Southeastern MongoliaCulture: Jue Qing: Writer; later labeled as a "traitor to the Chinese nation"White Russian leaders: Vladimir Kislitsin: Former Imperial Russian Army officer and later a commander of the White movement Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov: Former Imperial Russian Army soldier and general of the White movement; employed by Puyi, the Emperor of Manchukuo Urzhin Garmaev: White movement general who served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army as a lieutenant general Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev: Former Imperial Russian Army officer and general of the White movement; lived in Manchukuo after its founding Konstantin Rodzaevsky: Leader of the Russian Fascist Party based in Manzhouli, ManchukuoNotable Koreans: Park Chung Hee: Enlisted and served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army during World War II as a lieutenant; later served in the Korean War and became a general in the Republic of Korea Army and the 3rd President of South Korea; assassinated in 1979 Chung Il-kwon: Served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army as a captain during World War II; later served in the Korean War and became a South Korean Army General and subsequently served as Foreign Minister and the 8th Prime Minister of South Korea Paik Sun-yup: Enlisted in the Manchukuo Imperial Army during World War II as a first lieutenant and served with the Gando Special Force; later joined the South Korean Army and served in the Korean War as a general; died on July 10, 2020 Kim Chang-ryong: Joined the Imperial Japanese Army in Manchukuo and served in the Military police as a detective to hunt down moles in the Kenpeitai and Communists; later joined the South Korean Army as a high-ranking officer and became the head of the National Intelligence Service; assassinated in 1956 by army colleagues In popular culture in Hergé's 1934 Tintin: The Blue Lotus, Tintin and Snowy are invited to China in the midst of the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, where he reveals the machinations of Japanese spies and uncovers a drug-smuggling ring. The 1944 Australia radio serial Forgotten Men was set in the country. In Masaki Kobayashi's The Human Condition (1959), Kaji, the main protagonist, is a labor supervisor assigned to a workforce consisting of Chinese prisoners in a large mining operation in Japanese-colonized Manchuria.Bernardo Bertolucci's 1987 film The Last Emperor presented a portrait of Manchukuo through the memories of Emperor Puyi, during his days as a political prisoner in the People's Republic of China.Haruki Murakami's 1995 novel The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle deals greatly with Manchukuo through the character of Lieutenant Mamiya. Mamiya recalls, in person and in correspondence, his time as an officer in the Kwantung Army in Manchukuo. While the period covered in these recollections extends over many years, the focus is on the final year of the war and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.The 2008 South Korean western The Good, the Bad, the Weird is set in the desert wilderness of 1930s Manchuria.Michael Chabon's 2007 novel The Yiddish Policemen's Union; in this alternative 2007 Manchukuo has broken off from the rest of China and is an independent nation in its own right, and has its own Space Programme. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Manchukuo Propaganda Posters & Bills Manchukuo Imperial Army Manchu Money Museum Education in Mongolia and Manchukuo Manchukuo Flags "On Macro-economic Statistics for Manchukuo" by Yuzo Yamamoto "Toshiro Matsumoto s research over Manchukuo" Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine "Vaticano-Manchukuo no sirve de mea culpa" by Gianni Valente "Manchukuo National Anthem" JAPAN-MANCHOUKUO PROTOCOL "References over Manchukuo" Zionism and the Japanese East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Japanese references to Mantetsu Railway Company Mukden Incident photos World War II database (1) World War II database (2)

Parameshvara Nambudiri

Vatasseri Parameshvara Nambudiri (c. 1380–1460) was a major Indian mathematician and astronomer of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama. He was also an astrologer. Parameshvara was a proponent of observational astronomy in medieval India and he himself had made a series of eclipse observations to verify the accuracy of the computational methods then in use. Based on his eclipse observations, Parameshvara proposed several corrections to the astronomical parameters which had been in use since the times of Aryabhata. The computational scheme based on the revised set of parameters has come to be known as the Drgganita or Drig system.

Vatasseri Parameshvara Nambudiri (c. 1380–1460) was a major Indian mathematician and astronomer of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama. He was also an astrologer. Parameshvara was a proponent of observational astronomy in medieval India and he himself had made a series of eclipse observations to verify the accuracy of the computational methods then in use. Based on his eclipse observations, Parameshvara proposed several corrections to the astronomical parameters which had been in use since the times of Aryabhata. The computational scheme based on the revised set of parameters has come to be known as the Drgganita or Drig system. Parameshvara was also a prolific writer on matters relating to astronomy. At least 25 manuscripts have been identified as being authored by Parameshvara. Biographical details Parameshvara was a Hindu of Bhrgugotra following the Ashvalayanasutra of the Rigveda. Parameshvara's family name (Illam) was Vatasseri and his family resided in the village of Alathiyur (Sanskritised as Asvatthagrama) in Tirur, Kerala. Alathiyur is situated on the northern bank of the river Nila (river Bharathappuzha) at its mouth in Kerala. He was a grandson of a disciple of Govinda Bhattathiri (1237–1295 CE), a legendary figure in the astrological traditions of Kerala. Parameshvara studied under teachers Rudra and Narayana, and also under Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1350 – c. 1425) the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. Damodara, another prominent member of the Kerala school, was his son and also his pupil. Parameshvara was also a teacher of Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544) the author of the celebrated Tantrasamgraha. Work Parameshvara wrote commentaries on many mathematical and astronomical works such as those by Bhāskara I and Aryabhata. He made a series of eclipse observations over a 55-year period. Constantly attempted to compare these with the theoretically computed positions of the planets. He revised planetary parameters based on his observations. One of Parameshvara's more significant contributions was his mean value type formula for the inverse interpolation of the sine.He was the first mathematician to give a formula for the radius of the circle circumscribing a cyclic quadrilateral. The expression is sometimes attributed to Lhuilier [1782], 350 years later. With the sides of the cyclic quadrilateral being a, b, c, and d, the radius R of the circumscribed circle is: R = ( a b + c d ) ( a c + b d ) ( a d + b c ) ( − a + b + c + d ) ( a − b + c + d ) ( a + b − c + d ) ( a + b + c − d ) . {\displaystyle R={\sqrt {\frac {(ab+cd)(ac+bd)(ad+bc)}{(-a+b+c+d)(a-b+c+d)(a+b-c+d)(a+b+c-d)}}}.} Works by Parameshvara The following works of Parameshvara are well-known. A complete list of all manuscripts attributed to Parameshvara is available in Pingree. Bhatadipika – Commentary on Āryabhaṭīya of Āryabhaṭa I Karmadipika – Commentary on Mahabhaskariya of Bhaskara I Paramesvari – Commentary on Laghubhaskariya of Bhaskara I Sidhantadipika – Commentary on Mahabhaskariyabhashya of Govindasvāmi Vivarana – Commentary on Surya Siddhanta and Lilāvati Drgganita – Description of the Drig system (composed in 1431 CE) Goladipika – Spherical geometry and astronomy (composed in 1443 CE) Grahanamandana – Computation of eclipses (Its epoch is 15 July 1411 CE.) Grahanavyakhyadipika – On the rationale of the theory of eclipses Vakyakarana – Methods for the derivation of several astronomical tables See also List of astronomers and mathematicians of the Kerala school References Further reading David Pingree, Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970–1990). Bhaskara, Laghubhaskariyam : With Parameshvara's commentary (Poona, 1946). Bhaskara, Mahabhaskariyam: With Parameshvara's commentary called Karmadipika (Poona, 1945). Munjala, Laghumanasam : with commentary by Parameshvara (Poona, 1944). T.A. Sarasvati Amma (1979) Geometry in ancient and medieval India, (Delhi). K. Shankar Shukla (1957) The Surya-siddhanta with the commentary of Parameshvara (Lucknow). K. V. Sarma (2008), "Paramesvara", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. Kim Plofker (1996) "An example of the secant method of iterative approximation in a fifteenth-century Sanskrit text", Historia Mathematica 23 (3): 246–256. K. K. Raja (1963) "Astronomy and mathematics in Kerala", Brahmavidya 27; 136–143. K. Chandra Hari (2003). "Eclipse observations of Parameshvara, the 14th–15th-century astronomer of Kerala" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 38 (1): 43–57. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2010. External links Achar, Narahari (2007). "Parameśvara of Vāṭaśśeri [Parmeśvara I]". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. p. 870. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version) O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Parameshvara Nambudiri", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews

List of airports in North Dakota

This is a list of airports in North Dakota (a U.S. state), grouped by type and sorted by location. It contains all public-use and military airports in the state of North Dakota. Some private-use and former airports may be included where notable, such as airports that were previously public-use, those with commercial enplanements recorded by the FAA or airports assigned an IATA airport code.

This is a list of airports in North Dakota (a U.S. state), grouped by type and sorted by location. It contains all public-use and military airports in the state of North Dakota. Some private-use and former airports may be included where notable, such as airports that were previously public-use, those with commercial enplanements recorded by the FAA or airports assigned an IATA airport code. Airports This list contains the following information: City served – The city generally associated with the airport, as per the airport's master record with the Federal Aviation Administration. This is not always the actual location since some airports are located in smaller towns outside of the city they serve. It is not meant to be a complete list of cities served, which can be found in or added to each airport's Wikipedia article. FAA – The location identifier assigned by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). These are linked to each airport's page at the North Dakota Aeronautics Commission Airport Directory. IATA – The airport code assigned by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). Those that do not match the FAA code are shown in bold. ICAO – The location indicator assigned by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Airport name – The official airport name. Those shown in bold indicate the airport has scheduled passenger service on commercial airlines. Role – One of four FAA airport categories, as per the 2023–2027 National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS) report released September 2022: P-s: Commercial service – primary are publicly owned airports that receive scheduled passenger service and have more than 10,000 passenger boardings (enplanements) each year. Each primary airport is sub-classified by the FAA as one of the following four "hub" types (s): L: Large hub that accounts for at least 1% of total U.S. passenger enplanements. M: Medium hub that accounts for between 0.25% and 1% of total U.S. passenger enplanements. S: Small hub that accounts for between 0.05% and 0.25% of total U.S. passenger enplanements. N: Nonhub that accounts for less than 0.05% of total U.S. passenger enplanements, but more than 10,000 annual enplanements. CS: Commercial service – nonprimary are publicly owned airports that receive scheduled passenger service and have at least 2,500 passenger boardings each year. R: Reliever airports are designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at a large commercial service airport and to provide more general aviation access to the overall community. GA: General aviation airports are the largest single group of airports in the U.S. airport system. Enplanements – The number of enplanements (commercial passenger boardings) that occurred at the airport in calendar year 2021, as per FAA records released October 2022. See also Essential Air Service North Dakota World War II Army Airfields Wikipedia:WikiProject Aviation/Airline destination lists: North America#North Dakota References Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): FAA Airport Data (Form 5010) from National Flight Data Center (NFDC), also available from AirportIQ 5010 National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, updated September 2016 Passenger Boarding (Enplanement) Data for CY 2016, updated October 2017State: North Dakota Aeronautics Commission: Airport DirectoryOther sites used as a reference when compiling and updating this list: Aviation Safety Network – used to check IATA airport codes Great Circle Mapper: Airports in North Dakota – used to check IATA and ICAO airport codes Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: North Dakota – used for information on former airports

Jiong Qiu

Jiong Qiu (邱炯) is a Chinese-born American astrophysicist who won the Karen Harvey Prize for her work in solar flares.

Jiong Qiu (邱炯) is a Chinese-born American astrophysicist who won the Karen Harvey Prize for her work in solar flares. Academic career Qiu completed her Bachelors of Science in Astronomy in 1993 at Nanjing University located in Jiangsu, China. Five years later she was awarded her PhD from the same university for her observational work in solar flares. Between acquiring her Bachelors and her PhD, between 1996–1997, she obtained a student fellowship that allowed her to work at Arcetri Astrophysics Observatory in Italy. Following her PhD, Qiu was accepted as a postdoc with the Big Bear Solar Observatory in California to further investigate solar flares, and to begin directly monitoring the Earth's atmosphere via measurements of Earthshine. In 2005, she accepted a position with Montana State University, in Bozeman, Montana, as an assistant professor in Physics and Astronomy. Scientific work Qiu has added contributed to the fields of Heliophysics, Heliodynamics, and the Atmospheric sciences. She currently works with the Solar Physics Group at Montana State University. Her current research interests are: Magnetic Reconnection and Energy Release in Solar Flares Large-scale solar magnetic reconfiguration Small-scale Active Region Energy Release Events Particle Acceleration in Flare Environment Dynamics of Solar Flares and Active Regions Earthshine Measurements of Global Atmospheric ChangeHer current research is centered on solar eruption events, and focused on understanding magnetic reconnection during these explosive events, using both ground-based telescopes and satellites. Awards In addition to receiving grants from the National Science Foundation and NASA, Qiu was the 2007 recipient of the Karen Harvey Prize for her major contributions to scientific understanding of the Sun, its effects on the atmosphere of the Earth, and its effects on Earth's climate. Publications Falchi, A.; Qiu, J.; Cauzzi, G. (1997). "Chromospheric Evidence for Magnetic Reconnection" (PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 328: 371. Bibcode:1997A&A...328..371F. Liu, W-J.; Qiu, J.; Longcope, D. W.; Caspi, A. (2013). "Determining Heating Rates in Reconnection Formed Flare Loops of the M8.0 Flare on 2005 May 13" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 770 (2): 111. arXiv:1304.4521. Bibcode:2013ApJ...770..111L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/111. S2CID 8441731. Qiu, J.; Wang, H.; Cheng, C.Z.; Gary, D.E. (2004). "Magnetic Reconnection and Mass Acceleration in Flare-Coronal Mass Ejection Events" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 604 (2): 900. Bibcode:2004ApJ...604..900Q. doi:10.1086/382122. S2CID 11772142. == References ==

Joseph Girouard

Joseph Girouard (April 8, 1854 – March 29, 1933) was a Quebec notary and political figure. He represented Two Mountains in the House of Commons of Canada as a Conservative member from 1892 to 1896. He was born at St-Benoît, Canada East in 1854, the son of Jean-Joseph Girouard, and studied at the Collège des Sulpiciens at Montreal. Girouard qualified to practice as a notary in 1877 and set up practice at St-Benoît. He also acted as seigneurial agent for the seigneury of Lac des Deux-Montagnes for the Sulpicians.

Joseph Girouard (April 8, 1854 – March 29, 1933) was a Quebec notary and political figure. He represented Two Mountains in the House of Commons of Canada as a Conservative member from 1892 to 1896. He was born at St-Benoît, Canada East in 1854, the son of Jean-Joseph Girouard, and studied at the Collège des Sulpiciens at Montreal. Girouard qualified to practice as a notary in 1877 and set up practice at St-Benoît. He also acted as seigneurial agent for the seigneury of Lac des Deux-Montagnes for the Sulpicians. In 1879, he married Célanire, the daughter of merchant Daniel-Adolphe Plessis-Belair. Girouard was elected to the House of Commons in an 1892 by-election held after the death of Jean-Baptiste Daoust. Electoral record References Joseph Girouard – Parliament of Canada biography Esquisses biographiques, 1795-1855 Jean-Joseph Girouard, l'ancien député du comté du Lac des Deux-Montagnes ..., GF Baillargé (1893)

Croatia Airlines

Croatia Airlines Ltd. is the flag carrier of Croatia. Its headquarters are in Buzin near Zagreb, the capital, and operates domestic and international services mainly to European destinations. Its main hub is Zagreb International Airport with focus cities being Dubrovnik, Split, and Zadar. Since November 2004, the airline has been a member of Star Alliance.

Croatia Airlines Ltd. is the flag carrier of Croatia. Its headquarters are in Buzin near Zagreb, the capital, and operates domestic and international services mainly to European destinations. Its main hub is Zagreb International Airport with focus cities being Dubrovnik, Split, and Zadar. Since November 2004, the airline has been a member of Star Alliance. History Early years The airline was established on June 1991 with no planes and already with poor economic prospects. Later in 1991, Croatia Airlines signed an agreement with Adria Airways which allowed it to lease a McDonnell Douglas MD-82 to commence domestic jet services between Zagreb and Split. Croatia Airlines acquired three Boeing 737s from Lufthansa and became a member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA). As the flag carrier of newly independent Croatia, the airline launched its first international service on 5 April 1992, from Zagreb to Frankfurt.In 1993, two new ATR 42s and two more 737s joined the fleet and representative offices were opened in several European cities and the company bought the travel agency Obzor to organize travel packages for groups and individuals. By 1994, Croatia Airlines had welcomed its millionth passenger. Later that year, Pope John Paul II flew the airline on a trip to Croatia. In 1995, another ATR 42 was welcomed, as was the two millionth passenger. In 1996, Croatia Airlines became the first airline to fly to Sarajevo after the Bosnian War. In 1997, the airline's first Airbus A320 arrived and was named Rijeka. In 1998, another first plane of a new type arrived when the airline's first Airbus A319 joined the fleet. This airplane was named Zadar. In the same year, Croatia Airlines became a member of the Association of European Airlines (AEA). By 1999, two more Airbus jets had arrived and Croatia Airlines started selling the Boeing part of their fleet. The airline flew its five millionth passenger. Development since 2000 In 2000, two more Airbus planes arrived and an automated ticketing system was inaugurated. In 2001, the airline received maintenance and technical performing certificates from the German aviation authority Luftfahrt-Bundesamt. On 18 November 2004, Croatia Airlines joined Star Alliance. Airbus and Croatia Airlines announced on 22 October 2008 the order of four additional 132-seat A319 aircraft, to be delivered from 2013. By March 2009, the airline also retired its fleet of three ATR 42 short-haul aircraft, after operating the type since 1993, and replaced it with a fleet of six Bombardier Dash 8 Q400s, the first of which was delivered in May 2008. The airline carried its 20,000,000th passenger in July 2009, and has carried well over 1 million passengers annually from 2000.Croatia Airlines and maintenance partner Lufthansa announced on 23 May 2011 the introduction of new slim-line Recaro economy seats to be retrofitted into certain A320 Family aircraft from summer 2012, increasing seating capacity by two rows.Losses have been made for several years; in November 2012, the government announced that it would provide HRK 800m ($ 136m) for Croatia Airline to become cost-effective from 2013 on. The government is seeking to restructure the airline, which includes plans to cut its workforce by ten percent within two years and it is also looking for a strategic investor.In February 2020, Croatia Airlines announced two new seasonal flights to Podgorica and Sofia operated by Bombardier Dash 8 Q400.In October 2022, Croatia Airlines announced plans to reduce their fleet and replace all current aircraft with six new Airbus A220-300 by 2026. The airline decided against the competing Embraer E2 as it was able to use downpayments for a former and since cancelled order for Airbus A319s nearly 15 years ago. In November 2022, it has been stated that the airline will operate up to 15 A220 with 9 additional aircraft to be leased. In January 2023, a lease was agreed for the first six aircraft of four A220-300 aircraft and two A220-100 aircraft. The lease was concluded with Air Lease Corporation Clover based in the Republic of Ireland as the lessor.In September 2023, Croatia Airlines sold and leased back its entire Airbus fleet from lessor World Star Aviation. Four Airbus A319 and one Airbus A320 were sold prior to the Airbus A220 delivery, starting in June 2024.In November 2023, Croatia Airlines has started retiring aircraft prior to Airbus A220 delivery. First to leave the fleet was Airbus A319 9A-CTI. Corporate affairs Ownership Croatia Airlines is a joint-stock company. Its share capital amounts to HRK 122.622 millions and is divided into 92.388 millions of ordinary shares. Business trends The key trends for Croatia Airlines group over recent years are shown below (as at year ending 31 December): Destinations As of September 2023, Croatia Airlines flies to the following destinations: Codeshare agreements Croatia Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: Fleet Current fleet As of October 2023, Croatia Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft: Former fleet References External links Official website Media related to Croatia Airlines at Wikimedia Commons

Gustav Dörr

Gustav Dörr (5 October 1887 – 11 December 1928) was a German World War I fighter pilot credited with 35 victories. He went on to become one of the world's first airline pilots.

Gustav Dörr (5 October 1887 – 11 December 1928) was a German World War I fighter pilot credited with 35 victories. He went on to become one of the world's first airline pilots. Early life and infantry service Gustav Dörr was born on 5 October 1887 in Blindgallen, East Prussia, the son of a building contractor. He completed trade school and began work at age 18 with Krupp AG. In 1908, he enlisted in Infanterie-Regiment 176, and was promoted to non-commissioned officer.In August 1914, with the start of World War I, he was recalled. On 20 August 1914, he was seriously wounded, taking until November to recover. Upon his return he fought in actions along the Rawka River near Warsaw. During an attack on 17 February 1915, he was bayoneted in his right hip. This wound put him in the garrison hospital at Naumburg. He was incapacitated for front line duty, and was recommended for service in the reserve battalion of his regiment. Aerial service Dörr saw a circular from the War Ministry asking for volunteers for pilot training. Dörr applied and was accepted despite his physical condition and relatively advanced age. He reported for training with Fliegerersatz-Abteilung 2 at Döberitz in July 1915 and later at Fliegerersatz-Abteilung 3 in Gotha.On 18 March 1916, he was posted as a Vizefeldwebel to Flieger-Abteilung 68; an artillery observation unit engaged in artillery spotting. One of his comrades there was future ace Ernst Udet.Dörr and his observer Oberleutnant Serger were transferred to Flieger-Abteilung 6 to help counter heavy Allied air pressure. He stayed with the unit through its redesignation as Flieger-Abteilung 257 in May 1916, and participated in air operations prior to the Battle of the Somme in July. Dörr earned an Iron Cross Second Class while assigned to Flieger-Abteilung 6; it was awarded on 7 April 1916. He would subsequently receive the First Class Iron Cross on 17 April 1917.In June 1917, the elevator on Dörr's plane failed in flight, and he crashed from an altitude of 1400 meters (4,600 feet). His observer, Leutnant Bohn, was killed; Dörr survived with his jaw broken in six places. This serious injury kept him out of action for three months. Upon recovery, he was trained as a fighter pilot.Dörr returned to duty at Fliegerersatz-Abteilung 1 as a test pilot from November 1917 until February 1918. He was then transferred from flying two seaters into Jagdstaffel 45, a fighter squadron. His first victory was in a dogfight that saw six Germans tackle 26 French and British machines. Dörr shot down a Sopwith 1½ Strutter on 17 March 1918.He downed a French Breguet 14 on 28 May, only to be shot down in flames by others in the formation. Fortunately, his altitude was only 400 meters (1,300 feet); he crash landed in no man's land between the French and German trenchworks with minor burns and made it back to German lines under heavy fire.Dörr claimed an unconfirmed victory only three days later and added three confirmed claims for the rest of June. In July, he logged eleven more victories, scoring consistently and increasingly often through the month. August added six more victories, bringing his total to 23. On 29 August, he was awarded the Gold Military Merit Cross; this was the enlisted man's equivalent of the better-known Pour le Merite or "Blue Max" given to officers.September saw seven confirmed victories—three Spad VIIs and four Spad XIs. Dörr's tally now stood at 30. He was also commissioned as a leutnant in September. The exact date is uncertain, but with his 24th and 25th victims falling on the 2nd, Dörr had at least 23 victories when he became an officer. Once commissioned, he was eligible for officer's decorations. At the time, the minimum requirement for an flier winning the Pour le Merite was 20 victories. Dörr was well past that total and capable of adding to his score.On 25 October, he was finally proposed for the Pour le Merite. Two days later, he scored his 34th victory and had another unconfirmed claim. Another probable came the next day. His last victory of the war, his 35th, came on 30 October 1918. On 4 November, he had a third indecisive bout.<ref>Franks,Bailey,Guest 1993, pp. 100-101</reOn Gustav Dörr would not receive the Blue Max. The Kaiser abdicated without approving his award. Victories After the war Gustav Dörr became one of the world's original commercial airline pilots after the war. He flew 580,000 kilometers (360,000 mi) for Deutsche Luft Hansa.On 11 December 1928, he was piloting a Junkers G 31 on a night flight from Cologne to Berlin. He attempted an emergency landing at Letzlinger Heide. His plane brushed a tree on final approach and crash landed. Spilled fuel caught fire and killed Dörr and his crew. Luft Hansa later commemorated him by naming one of its airliners after him. References Source Franks, Norman; Bailey, Frank W.; Guest, Russell (1993). Above the Lines: The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914-1918. Grub Street. ISBN 978-0-948817-73-1.