push data

.gitattributes

@@ -53,3 +53,6 @@ saved_model/**/* filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
 *.jpg filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
 *.jpeg filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
 *.webp filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
+wikiser/ filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
+wikiser-small/ filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text
+wikiser-small/train.txt filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text

README.md

@@ -1,3 +1,55 @@
 ---
 license: apache-2.0
 ---
+# Software Entity Recognition
+
+## Description
+Data collected from our paper ["Software Entity Recognition with Noise-robust Learning"](https://arxiv.org/abs/2308.10564), ASE 2023.
+
+WikiSER corpus includes 1.7M sentences with named entity labels extracted from 79k Wikipedia articles.
+Relevant software named entities are labeled under 12 fine-grained categories:
+
+| Type             | Examples                                              |
+|------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
+| Algorithm        | Auction algorithm, Collaborative filtering            |
+| Application      | Adobe Acrobat, Microsoft Excel                       |
+| Architecture     | Graphics processing unit, Wishbone                   |
+| Data_Structure   | Array, Hash table, mXOR linked list                  |
+| Device           | Samsung Gear S2, iPad, Intel T5300                    |
+| Error Name       | Buffer overflow, Memory leak                         |
+| General_Concept  | Memory management, Nouvelle AI                       |
+| Language         | C++, Java, Python, Rust                               |
+| Library          | Beautiful Soup, FastAPI                               |
+| License          | Cryptix General License, MIT License                  |
+| Operating_System | Linux, Ubuntu, Red Hat OS, MorphOS                   |
+| Protocol         | TLS, FTPS, HTTP 404                                   |
+
+WikiSER is organized by the Wiki articles in which the data was scraped from.
+
+    |-- Adobe_Flash.txt
+    |-- Linux.txt
+    |-- Java_(programming_language).txt
+    |-- ...
+
+Each sentences are split by `<s>...</s>` and tokenized with [stokenizer](https://github.com/jeniyat/StackOverflowNER/blob/master/code/SOTokenizer/stokenizer.py).
+
+## Structure
+In the [folder](https://huggingface.co/datasets/taidng/WikiSER/tree/main/):
+
+`wikiser`: Full zipped data
+
+`wikiser-small`: Subset of the data used for training [`wikiser-bert-base`](https://huggingface.co/taidng/wikiser-bert-base) and [`wikiser-bert-large`](https://huggingface.co/taidng/wikiser-bert-large)
+
+`wikiser-sample`: A few examples
+
+
+## Citation
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{nguyen2023software,
+  title={Software Entity Recognition with Noise-Robust Learning},
+  author={Nguyen, Tai and Di, Yifeng and Lee, Joohan and Chen, Muhao and Zhang, Tianyi},
+  booktitle={Proceedings of the 38th IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software Engineering (ASE'23)},
+  year={2023},
+  organization={IEEE/ACM}
+}
+```

wikiser-samples/Blue_(queue_management_algorithm).txt

@@ -0,0 +1,244 @@
+<s>
+Blue	O
+is	O
+a	O
+scheduling	O
+discipline	O
+for	O
+the	O
+network	B-Application
+scheduler	I-Application
+developed	O
+by	O
+graduate	O
+student	O
+Wu-chang	O
+Feng	O
+for	O
+Professor	O
+Kang	O
+G	O
+.	O
+Shin	O
+at	O
+the	O
+University	O
+of	O
+Michigan	O
+and	O
+others	O
+at	O
+the	O
+Thomas	O
+J	O
+.	O
+Watson	O
+Research	O
+Center	O
+of	O
+IBM	O
+in	O
+1999	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Like	O
+random	B-Algorithm
+early	I-Algorithm
+detection	I-Algorithm
+(	O
+RED	O
+)	O
+,	O
+Blue	O
+operates	O
+by	O
+randomly	O
+dropping	O
+or	O
+marking	O
+packet	O
+with	O
+explicit	O
+congestion	O
+notification	O
+mark	O
+before	O
+the	O
+transmit	O
+buffer	O
+of	O
+the	O
+network	B-Protocol
+interface	I-Protocol
+controller	I-Protocol
+overflows	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+main	O
+flaw	O
+of	O
+Blue	O
+,	O
+which	O
+it	O
+shares	O
+with	O
+most	O
+single-queue	O
+queuing	B-Application
+disciplines	I-Application
+,	O
+is	O
+that	O
+it	O
+does	O
+not	O
+distinguish	O
+between	O
+traffic	B-Operating_System
+flows	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+but	O
+treats	O
+all	O
+flows	O
+as	O
+a	O
+single	O
+aggregate	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Stochastic	B-Protocol
+fair	I-Protocol
+Blue	I-Protocol
+(	O
+SFB	O
+)	O
+is	O
+a	O
+stochastically	O
+fair	O
+variant	O
+of	O
+Blue	O
+which	O
+hashes	O
+flows	O
+and	O
+maintains	O
+a	O
+different	O
+mark/drop	O
+probability	O
+for	O
+each	O
+hash	O
+value	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Unlike	O
+other	O
+stochastically	O
+fair	O
+queuing	B-Application
+disciplines	I-Application
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+SFQ	O
+(	O
+Stochastic	O
+Fairness	O
+Queuing	O
+)	O
+,	O
+SFB	O
+can	O
+be	O
+implemented	O
+using	O
+a	O
+bloom	B-Algorithm
+filter	I-Algorithm
+rather	O
+than	O
+a	O
+hash	B-Algorithm
+table	I-Algorithm
+,	O
+which	O
+dramatically	O
+reduces	O
+its	O
+storage	O
+requirements	O
+when	O
+the	O
+number	O
+of	O
+flows	O
+is	O
+large	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+resilient	O
+stochastic	B-Protocol
+fair	I-Protocol
+Blue	I-Protocol
+(	O
+RSFB	O
+)	O
+algorithm	O
+was	O
+proposed	O
+in	O
+2009	O
+against	O
+spoofing	O
+DDoS	O
+attacks	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+An	O
+implementation	O
+of	O
+Blue	O
+is	O
+part	O
+of	O
+ALTQ	B-Algorithm
+,	O
+the	O
+network	B-Application
+scheduler	I-Application
+for	O
+BSD	O
+Unix	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+An	O
+implementation	O
+of	O
+SFB	O
+for	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+included	O
+in	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+in	O
+version	O
+2.6.39	O
+.	O
+</s>

wikiser-samples/FIFA_Football_2005.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,446 @@
+<s>
+FIFA	B-Application
+Football	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+,	O
+also	O
+known	O
+as	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+Soccer	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+in	O
+North	O
+America	O
+or	O
+simply	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+2005	I-Application
+,	O
+is	O
+a	O
+football	O
+simulation	O
+video	O
+game	O
+released	O
+in	O
+2004	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+It	O
+was	O
+released	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+,	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+2	I-Device
+,	O
+Microsoft	B-Application
+Windows	I-Application
+,	O
+Xbox	B-Application
+,	O
+PlayStation	B-Operating_System
+Portable	I-Operating_System
+(	O
+as	O
+simply	O
+FIFA	O
+Soccer	O
+)	O
+,	O
+GameCube	B-Application
+,	O
+mobile	B-Application
+phone	I-Application
+,	O
+Gizmondo	B-Device
+,	O
+N-Gage	B-Device
+and	O
+the	O
+Game	B-Device
+Boy	I-Device
+Advance	I-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+FIFA	B-Application
+2005	I-Application
+is	O
+the	O
+twelfth	O
+game	O
+in	O
+the	O
+FIFA	O
+series	O
+,	O
+the	O
+ninth	O
+in	O
+3D	O
+and	O
+the	O
+final	O
+game	O
+in	O
+the	O
+series	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+FIFA	B-Application
+Football	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+marks	O
+the	O
+first	O
+time	O
+to	O
+include	O
+the	O
+seventh-generation	B-Application
+handheld	B-Application
+game	I-Application
+consoles	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+FIFA	B-Application
+Football	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+is	O
+the	O
+last	O
+licensed	O
+game	O
+to	O
+be	O
+released	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+in	O
+North	O
+America	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Improving	O
+the	O
+career	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+the	O
+game	O
+was	O
+extensively	O
+advertised	O
+and	O
+released	O
+much	O
+sooner	O
+than	O
+the	O
+usual	O
+late	O
+October	O
+dates	O
+to	O
+avoid	O
+proximity	O
+with	O
+the	O
+release	O
+of	O
+Pro	B-Application
+Evolution	I-Application
+Soccer	I-Application
+4	I-Application
+and	O
+the	O
+EA	O
+Big	O
+release	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+Street	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+most	O
+territories	O
+,	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+2005	I-Application
+was	O
+the	O
+last	O
+game	O
+to	O
+release	O
+on	O
+the	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+console	I-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+Electronic	O
+Arts	O
+,	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+Football	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+sold	O
+above	O
+4.5	O
+million	O
+units	O
+worldwide	O
+by	O
+the	O
+end	O
+of	O
+2004	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+2	I-Device
+version	O
+of	O
+FIFA	B-Application
+Football	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+received	O
+a	O
+"	O
+Double	O
+Platinum	O
+"	O
+sales	O
+award	O
+from	O
+the	O
+Entertainment	O
+and	O
+Leisure	O
+Software	O
+Publishers	O
+Association	O
+(	O
+ELSPA	O
+)	O
+,	O
+indicating	O
+sales	O
+of	O
+at	O
+least	O
+600,000	O
+copies	O
+in	O
+the	O
+United	O
+Kingdom	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+GameRankings	O
+and	O
+Metacritic	O
+gave	O
+it	O
+a	O
+score	O
+of	O
+85.33	O
+%	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Mobile	O
+version	O
+;	O
+82.07	O
+%	O
+and	O
+81	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Xbox	B-Application
+version	O
+;	O
+82%	O
+and	O
+75	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Game	B-Device
+Boy	I-Device
+Advance	I-Device
+version	O
+;	O
+81.46	O
+%	O
+and	O
+81	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PlayStation	B-Device
+2	I-Device
+version	O
+;	O
+80.99	O
+%	O
+and	O
+78	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+GameCube	B-Application
+version	O
+;	O
+78.25	O
+%	O
+and	O
+77	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PC	O
+version	O
+;	O
+77.90	O
+%	O
+and	O
+79	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+N-Gage	B-Device
+version	O
+;	O
+and	O
+74.36	O
+%	O
+and	O
+73	O
+out	O
+of	O
+100	O
+for	O
+the	O
+PSP	B-Operating_System
+version	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+GameSpot	O
+gave	O
+the	O
+Mobile	O
+version	O
+a	O
+score	O
+of	O
+8.4	O
+out	O
+of	O
+10	O
+and	O
+said	O
+,	O
+"	O
+It	O
+does	O
+n't	O
+supersede	O
+the	O
+console	O
+versions	O
+in	O
+any	O
+way	O
+,	O
+but	O
+the	O
+fact	O
+that	O
+it	O
+comes	O
+reasonably	O
+close	O
+says	O
+a	O
+lot	O
+about	O
+the	O
+quality	O
+of	O
+this	O
+game	O
+as	O
+well	O
+as	O
+about	O
+how	O
+far	O
+mobile	B-Application
+gaming	I-Application
+has	O
+come	O
+along.	O
+"	O
+</s>
+<s>
+It	O
+received	O
+a	O
+runner-up	O
+placement	O
+in	O
+GameSpots	O
+2004	O
+"	O
+Best	O
+N-Gage	B-Device
+Game	O
+"	O
+award	O
+category	O
+,	O
+losing	O
+to	O
+Colin	B-Application
+McRae	I-Application
+Rally	I-Application
+2005	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>

wikiser-samples/IPhone_11_Pro.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,1428 @@
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+are	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+designed	O
+,	O
+developed	O
+and	O
+marketed	O
+by	O
+Apple	O
+Inc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Serving	O
+as	O
+Apple	O
+'s	O
+flagship	O
+models	O
+of	O
+the	O
+13th	O
+generation	B-Application
+of	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+,	O
+they	O
+succeeded	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+respectively	O
+,	O
+upon	O
+their	O
+release	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Apple	O
+CEO	O
+Tim	O
+Cook	O
+unveiled	O
+the	O
+devices	O
+alongside	O
+the	O
+standard	O
+model	O
+,	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+on	O
+September	O
+10	O
+,	O
+2019	O
+at	O
+the	O
+Steve	O
+Jobs	O
+Theater	O
+at	O
+Apple	O
+Park	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+They	O
+were	O
+discontinued	O
+on	O
+October	O
+13	O
+,	O
+2020	O
+,	O
+following	O
+the	O
+announcement	O
+of	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+12	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+12	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Notable	O
+improvements	O
+over	O
+the	O
+previous	O
+devices	O
+include	O
+the	O
+triple-lens	O
+rear	O
+camera	O
+system	O
+and	O
+the	O
+A13	B-Device
+Bionic	I-Device
+chip	I-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	O
+are	O
+Apple	O
+'s	O
+first	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+to	O
+feature	O
+a	O
+"	O
+pro	O
+"	O
+designation	O
+,	O
+previously	O
+used	O
+only	O
+for	O
+larger	O
+Apple	O
+devices	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+iPad	B-Device
+Pro	I-Device
+and	O
+MacBook	B-Device
+Pro	I-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+They	O
+are	O
+also	O
+the	O
+first	O
+generation	B-Application
+of	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+which	O
+include	O
+a	O
+Lightning	B-Architecture
+to	O
+USB-C	O
+cable	O
+and	O
+that	O
+allows	O
+connection	O
+to	O
+the	O
+charger	O
+and	O
+to	O
+current	O
+Mac	B-Device
+computers	I-Device
+,	O
+in	O
+the	O
+box	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Details	O
+regarding	O
+the	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+were	O
+leaked	O
+widely	O
+starting	O
+several	O
+months	O
+before	O
+the	O
+official	O
+release	O
+,	O
+with	O
+complete	O
+specifications	O
+,	O
+renderings	O
+,	O
+and	O
+real-life	O
+images	O
+of	O
+the	O
+phone	O
+being	O
+publicized	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Substantial	O
+advancements	O
+in	O
+the	O
+camera	O
+and	O
+the	O
+continuation	O
+of	O
+the	O
+'	O
+notch	O
+ '	O
+design	O
+featured	O
+since	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+X	I-Operating_System
+were	O
+correctly	O
+predicted	O
+in	O
+leaks	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+were	O
+unveiled	O
+in	O
+a	O
+press	O
+event	O
+at	O
+the	O
+Steve	O
+Jobs	O
+Theater	O
+in	O
+Cupertino	O
+,	O
+California	O
+on	O
+September	O
+10	O
+,	O
+2019	O
+;	O
+the	O
+first	O
+Apple	O
+event	O
+live	O
+streamed	O
+on	O
+YouTube	B-General_Concept
+.	I-General_Concept
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+event	O
+featured	O
+various	O
+other	O
+products	O
+and	O
+services	O
+other	O
+than	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Device
+,	O
+including	O
+a	O
+new	O
+Apple	O
+Watch	O
+,	O
+a	O
+new	O
+iPad	O
+,	O
+Apple	O
+TV+	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Apple	O
+Arcade	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Pre-orders	O
+began	O
+on	O
+September	O
+13	O
+,	O
+with	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+starting	O
+from	O
+a	O
+base	O
+price	O
+of	O
+$999	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+larger	O
+screen	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+starting	O
+from	O
+$	O
+1,099	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+October	O
+13	O
+,	O
+2020	O
+,	O
+following	O
+the	O
+announcement	O
+of	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+12	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+12	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+,	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	O
+were	O
+removed	O
+from	O
+sale	O
+on	O
+Apple	O
+'s	O
+official	O
+website	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+February	O
+2021	O
+,	O
+Apple	O
+started	O
+selling	O
+refurbished	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+models	O
+starting	O
+at	O
+$849	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	O
+is	O
+available	O
+in	O
+Gold	O
+,	O
+Silver	O
+,	O
+Space	O
+Gray	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Midnight	O
+Green	O
+,	O
+a	O
+new	O
+color	O
+previously	O
+not	O
+available	O
+on	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Similar	O
+to	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+XS	B-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+respectively	O
+,	O
+there	O
+is	O
+a	O
+display	O
+cutout	O
+at	O
+the	O
+front	O
+that	O
+includes	O
+the	O
+12	O
+MP	O
+TrueDepth	B-Algorithm
+camera	O
+system	O
+and	O
+speaker	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+is	O
+also	O
+a	O
+new	O
+rear	O
+camera	O
+design	O
+with	O
+three	O
+lenses	O
+and	O
+a	O
+flash	O
+in	O
+a	O
+larger	O
+,	O
+square-shaped	O
+bump	O
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+the	O
+most	O
+visible	O
+difference	O
+compared	O
+to	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Apple	O
+logo	O
+is	O
+now	O
+centered	O
+on	O
+the	O
+back	O
+of	O
+the	O
+device	O
+with	O
+no	O
+text	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+glass	O
+has	O
+a	O
+frosted	O
+matte	O
+finish	O
+,	O
+unlike	O
+the	O
+glossy	O
+finish	O
+found	O
+on	O
+other	O
+previous	O
+flagship	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+11	B-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	O
+both	O
+have	O
+an	O
+A13	B-Device
+Bionic	I-Device
+processor	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Continuing	O
+the	O
+trend	O
+set	O
+starting	O
+with	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Device
+7	O
+,	O
+neither	O
+phone	O
+includes	O
+a	O
+headphone	O
+jack	O
+,	O
+but	O
+came	O
+with	O
+wired	O
+EarPods	O
+with	O
+a	O
+Lightning	B-Architecture
+connector	I-Architecture
+prior	O
+to	O
+Apple	O
+'s	O
+decision	O
+to	O
+halt	O
+inclusion	O
+of	O
+them	O
+in	O
+October	O
+2020	O
+,	O
+citing	O
+environmental	O
+impact	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+are	O
+the	O
+first	O
+and	O
+only	O
+iPhones	B-Device
+to	O
+be	O
+sold	O
+with	O
+a	O
+USB-C	O
+18-watt	O
+fast	O
+charger	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+has	O
+a	O
+5.85	O
+inch	O
+(	O
+149mm	O
+)	O
+(	O
+marketed	O
+as	O
+)	O
+OLED	B-Device
+display	I-Device
+with	O
+a	O
+resolution	O
+of	O
+2436	O
+×	O
+1125	O
+pixels	O
+(	O
+2.7	O
+megapixels	O
+)	O
+,	O
+while	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+has	O
+a	O
+larger	O
+6.46	O
+inch	O
+(	O
+164mm	O
+)	O
+(	O
+marketed	O
+as	O
+)	O
+OLED	B-Device
+display	I-Device
+with	O
+a	O
+resolution	O
+of	O
+2688	O
+×	O
+1242	O
+pixels	O
+(	O
+3.3	O
+megapixels	O
+)	O
+which	O
+both	O
+have	O
+a	O
+pixel	B-Algorithm
+density	I-Algorithm
+of	O
+458	O
+PPI	B-Algorithm
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Both	O
+models	O
+feature	O
+a	O
+Super	B-Operating_System
+Retina	I-Operating_System
+XDR	I-Operating_System
+Display	I-Operating_System
+with	O
+a	O
+2,000,000	O
+:1	O
+contrast	O
+ratio	O
+and	O
+a	O
+notch	O
+at	O
+the	O
+top	O
+for	O
+the	O
+TrueDepth	B-Algorithm
+camera	O
+system	O
+and	O
+speaker	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Apple	O
+describes	O
+the	O
+display	O
+as	O
+having	O
+a	O
+"	O
+mini	O
+Apple	B-Device
+Pro	I-Device
+Display	I-Device
+XDR	I-Device
+"	O
+on	O
+a	O
+phone	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+They	O
+also	O
+have	O
+a	O
+True	O
+Tone	O
+and	O
+wide	O
+color	O
+display	O
+supporting	O
+HDR	B-General_Concept
+with	O
+800	O
+nits	O
+of	O
+standard	O
+brightness	O
+and	O
+1200	O
+nits	O
+peak	O
+brightness	O
+if	O
+necessary	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+display	O
+of	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+is	O
+made	O
+by	O
+Samsung	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+is	O
+supplied	O
+with	O
+a	O
+11.67	O
+Wh	O
+(	O
+3,046	O
+mAh	O
+)	O
+battery	O
+,	O
+a	O
+slight	O
+increase	O
+from	O
+the	O
+10.13	O
+Wh	O
+(	O
+2,658	O
+mAh	O
+)	O
+found	O
+in	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+while	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+has	O
+a	O
+15.04	O
+Wh	O
+(	O
+3,969	O
+mAh	O
+)	O
+battery	O
+,	O
+another	O
+slight	O
+increase	O
+from	O
+the	O
+12.08	O
+Wh	O
+(	O
+3,174	O
+mAh	O
+)	O
+found	O
+in	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+Max	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+both	O
+include	O
+a	O
+triple-lens	O
+12MP	O
+rear	O
+camera	O
+array	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+is	O
+a	O
+burst	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+image	O
+stabilization	O
+,	O
+HDR	B-General_Concept
+,	O
+and	O
+a	O
+Portrait	O
+Mode	O
+supporting	O
+depth	O
+control	O
+and	O
+an	O
+advanced	O
+bokeh	O
+effect	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+also	O
+has	O
+an	O
+automatic	O
+Night	O
+Mode	O
+allowing	O
+the	O
+camera	O
+to	O
+take	O
+brighter	O
+pictures	O
+with	O
+reduced	O
+noise	O
+in	O
+low	O
+light	O
+environments	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+supports	O
+4K	B-Architecture
+video	I-Architecture
+up	O
+to	O
+60	O
+fps	O
+and	O
+1080p	O
+slow	O
+motion	O
+at	O
+up	O
+to	O
+240	O
+fps	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+However	O
+,	O
+Apple	O
+limits	O
+the	O
+full	O
+range	O
+of	O
+zoom	O
+(	O
+0.5	O
+×	O
+-6	O
+×	O
+)	O
+while	O
+shooting	O
+in	O
+4K	B-Architecture
+@	O
+60fps	O
+to	O
+either	O
+0.5	O
+×	O
+–	O
+1.5	O
+×	O
+,	O
+1×	O
+,	O
+to	O
+2×	O
+depending	O
+which	O
+lens	O
+is	O
+selected	O
+upon	O
+recording	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Both	O
+models	O
+also	O
+have	O
+a	O
+12	O
+MP	O
+TrueDepth	B-Algorithm
+front	O
+camera	O
+with	O
+a	O
+ƒ/2.2	O
+aperture	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+front	O
+camera	O
+also	O
+supports	O
+stabilized	O
+4K	B-Architecture
+video	I-Architecture
+recording	O
+up	O
+to	O
+60fps	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Similar	O
+to	O
+previous	O
+iPhone	B-Device
+models	O
+,	O
+the	O
+TrueDepth	B-Algorithm
+system	O
+is	O
+also	O
+used	O
+for	O
+Face	O
+ID	O
+and	O
+Animoji	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+was	O
+initially	O
+supplied	O
+with	O
+iOS	B-Operating_System
+13	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+As	O
+of	O
+December	O
+2022	O
+,	O
+the	O
+phones	O
+support	O
+the	O
+latest	O
+version	O
+of	O
+iOS	O
+,	O
+iOS	B-Operating_System
+16	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+phones	O
+also	O
+come	O
+with	O
+Siri	B-Application
+,	O
+Face	O
+ID	O
+(	O
+through	O
+the	O
+TrueDepth	B-Algorithm
+camera	O
+)	O
+,	O
+Apple	B-Application
+Pay	I-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+they	O
+support	O
+Apple	O
+Card	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Upon	O
+release	O
+,	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+received	O
+generally	O
+positive	O
+reviews	O
+,	O
+with	O
+critics	O
+highlighting	O
+the	O
+improvements	O
+to	O
+the	O
+camera	O
+,	O
+display	O
+,	O
+and	O
+battery	O
+,	O
+although	O
+it	O
+was	O
+criticized	O
+for	O
+its	O
+similar	O
+design	O
+to	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+the	O
+large	O
+camera	O
+bump	O
+,	O
+as	O
+well	O
+as	O
+the	O
+lack	O
+of	O
+rumored	O
+features	O
+such	O
+as	O
+bilateral	O
+wireless	O
+charging	O
+and	O
+USB-C	O
+.	O
+TechRadar	O
+critics	O
+praised	O
+the	O
+improved	O
+camera	O
+array	O
+,	O
+calling	O
+it	O
+"	O
+clearly	O
+the	O
+big	O
+upgrade	O
+"	O
+,	O
+and	O
+also	O
+praised	O
+the	O
+faster	O
+A13	B-Device
+Bionic	I-Device
+processor	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+display	O
+,	O
+while	O
+criticizing	O
+the	O
+design	O
+similarities	O
+compared	O
+to	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+including	O
+the	O
+display	O
+cut-out	O
+for	O
+the	O
+sensor	O
+housing	O
+,	O
+commonly	O
+referred	O
+to	O
+as	O
+"	O
+the	O
+notch	O
+,	O
+"	O
+and	O
+also	O
+criticizing	O
+the	O
+cost	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+device	O
+received	O
+an	O
+overall	O
+score	O
+of	O
+117	O
+from	O
+DXOMARK	B-Algorithm
+,	O
+ranking	O
+it	O
+as	O
+the	O
+second-best	O
+smartphone	B-Application
+camera	O
+on	O
+the	O
+site	O
+tied	O
+with	O
+the	O
+Samsung	O
+Galaxy	O
+Note	O
+10+	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+has	O
+a	O
+carbon	O
+footprint	O
+of	O
+CO2e	O
+emissions	O
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+more	O
+than	O
+the	O
+preceding	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+XS	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+more	O
+than	O
+the	O
+iPhone	B-Device
+3G	B-Architecture
+in	O
+2008	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+iPhone	B-Operating_System
+11	I-Operating_System
+Pro	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+Pro	O
+Max	O
+continue	O
+the	O
+strategy	O
+of	O
+discouraging	O
+customers	O
+to	O
+seek	O
+third	O
+party	O
+repairs	O
+while	O
+rendering	O
+repairs	O
+with	O
+Apple	O
+more	O
+costly	O
+:	O
+repair	O
+with	O
+non-genuine	O
+Apple	O
+parts	O
+such	O
+as	O
+batteries	O
+or	O
+displays	O
+can	O
+trigger	O
+warning	O
+messages	O
+on	O
+the	O
+phone	O
+instigating	O
+the	O
+customer	O
+to	O
+visit	O
+a	O
+certified	O
+technician	O
+to	O
+replace	O
+the	O
+respective	O
+parts	O
+with	O
+genuine	O
+ones	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+At	O
+the	O
+same	O
+time	O
+battery	O
+replacement	O
+with	O
+original	O
+spare	O
+parts	O
+saw	O
+an	O
+increase	O
+in	O
+pricing	O
+:	O
+after	O
+initially	O
+discounting	O
+battery	O
+replacements	O
+to	O
+$29	O
+following	O
+the	O
+Batterygate	B-Algorithm
+Scandal	O
+,	O
+battery	O
+replacement	O
+prices	O
+for	O
+all	O
+flagship	O
+iPhone	B-Device
+models	O
+was	O
+reverted	O
+to	O
+US	O
+$69.00	O
+.	O
+</s>

wikiser-samples/Linux.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6506 @@
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+(	O
+or	O
+)	O
+is	O
+a	O
+family	O
+of	O
+open-source	B-Application
+Unix-like	B-Operating_System
+operating	I-Operating_System
+systems	I-Operating_System
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+an	O
+operating	B-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+first	O
+released	O
+on	O
+September	O
+17	O
+,	O
+1991	O
+,	O
+by	O
+Linus	O
+Torvalds	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+typically	O
+packaged	B-Application
+as	O
+a	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+includes	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+supporting	O
+system	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+and	O
+libraries	B-Library
+,	O
+many	O
+of	O
+which	O
+are	O
+provided	O
+by	O
+the	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+use	O
+the	O
+word	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+in	O
+their	O
+name	O
+,	O
+but	O
+the	B-Operating_System
+Free	I-Operating_System
+Software	I-Operating_System
+Foundation	I-Operating_System
+uses	O
+the	O
+name	O
+"	O
+GNU/Linux	B-Application
+"	O
+to	O
+emphasize	O
+the	O
+importance	O
+of	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+software	O
+,	O
+causing	B-Application
+some	I-Application
+controversy	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Popular	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+include	O
+Debian	O
+,	O
+Fedora	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+the	O
+latter	O
+of	O
+which	O
+itself	O
+consists	O
+of	O
+many	O
+different	O
+distributions	B-Application
+and	O
+modifications	O
+,	O
+including	O
+Lubuntu	B-Application
+and	O
+Xubuntu	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Commercial	O
+distributions	B-Application
+include	O
+Red	O
+Hat	O
+Enterprise	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+SUSE	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+Enterprise	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Desktop	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+include	O
+a	O
+windowing	B-Application
+system	I-Application
+such	O
+as	O
+X11	B-Operating_System
+or	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+a	O
+desktop	O
+environment	O
+such	O
+as	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+or	O
+KDE	B-Language
+Plasma	I-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Distributions	B-Application
+intended	O
+for	O
+servers	B-Application
+may	O
+omit	O
+graphics	O
+altogether	O
+,	O
+or	O
+include	O
+a	O
+solution	B-Application
+stack	I-Application
+such	O
+as	O
+LAMP	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Because	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+freely	O
+redistributable	O
+,	O
+anyone	O
+may	O
+create	O
+a	O
+distribution	O
+for	O
+any	O
+purpose	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+originally	O
+developed	O
+for	O
+personal	B-Device
+computers	I-Device
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Intel	B-Operating_System
+x86	I-Operating_System
+architecture	O
+,	O
+but	O
+has	O
+since	O
+been	O
+ported	O
+to	O
+more	O
+platforms	O
+than	O
+any	O
+other	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Because	O
+of	O
+the	O
+dominance	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux-based	O
+Android	B-Application
+on	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+,	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+including	O
+Android	B-Application
+,	O
+has	O
+the	O
+largest	B-Operating_System
+installed	B-Operating_System
+base	I-Operating_System
+of	O
+all	O
+general-purpose	B-General_Concept
+operating	I-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Although	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+,	O
+,	O
+used	O
+by	O
+only	O
+around	O
+2.6	O
+percent	O
+of	O
+desktop	B-Device
+computers	I-Device
+,	O
+the	O
+Chromebook	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+which	O
+runs	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel-based	O
+ChromeOS	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+dominates	O
+the	O
+US	O
+K	O
+–	O
+12	O
+education	O
+market	O
+and	O
+represents	O
+nearly	O
+20	O
+percent	O
+of	O
+sub-	O
+$300	O
+notebook	B-Device
+sales	O
+in	O
+the	O
+US	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+the	O
+leading	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+on	O
+servers	B-Application
+(	O
+over	O
+96.4	O
+%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+top	O
+1	O
+million	O
+web	O
+servers	B-Application
+ '	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+are	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+)	O
+,	O
+leads	O
+other	O
+big	B-Architecture
+iron	I-Architecture
+systems	O
+such	O
+as	O
+mainframe	B-Architecture
+computers	I-Architecture
+,	O
+and	O
+is	O
+used	O
+on	O
+all	O
+of	O
+the	O
+world	B-Operating_System
+'s	I-Operating_System
+500	I-Operating_System
+fastest	I-Operating_System
+supercomputers	I-Operating_System
+(	O
+since	O
+November	O
+2017	O
+,	O
+having	O
+gradually	O
+displaced	O
+all	O
+competitors	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+also	O
+runs	O
+on	O
+embedded	B-Architecture
+systems	I-Architecture
+,	O
+i.e.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+devices	O
+whose	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+is	O
+typically	O
+built	O
+into	O
+the	O
+firmware	B-Application
+and	O
+is	O
+highly	O
+tailored	O
+to	O
+the	O
+system	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+includes	O
+routers	B-Protocol
+,	O
+automation	B-Application
+controls	O
+,	O
+smart	O
+home	O
+devices	O
+,	O
+video	B-Device
+game	I-Device
+consoles	I-Device
+,	O
+televisions	O
+(	O
+Samsung	B-Application
+and	O
+LG	O
+Smart	B-Device
+TVs	I-Device
+)	O
+,	O
+automobiles	O
+(	O
+Tesla	O
+,	O
+Audi	O
+,	O
+Mercedes-Benz	O
+,	O
+Hyundai	O
+and	O
+Toyota	O
+)	O
+,	O
+and	O
+spacecraft	O
+(	O
+Falcon	O
+9	O
+rocket	O
+,	O
+Dragon	O
+crew	O
+capsule	O
+and	O
+the	O
+Perseverance	O
+rover	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+one	O
+of	O
+the	O
+most	O
+prominent	O
+examples	O
+of	O
+free	B-License
+and	I-License
+open-source	I-License
+software	I-License
+collaboration	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+source	O
+code	O
+may	O
+be	O
+used	O
+,	O
+modified	O
+and	O
+distributed	O
+commercially	O
+or	O
+non-commercially	O
+by	O
+anyone	O
+under	O
+the	O
+terms	O
+of	O
+its	O
+respective	O
+licenses	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+General	I-License
+Public	I-License
+License	I-License
+(	O
+GPL	B-License
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+for	O
+example	O
+,	O
+is	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GPLv2	O
+,	O
+with	O
+an	O
+exception	O
+for	O
+system	B-Operating_System
+calls	I-Operating_System
+that	O
+allows	O
+code	O
+that	O
+calls	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+via	O
+system	B-Operating_System
+calls	I-Operating_System
+not	O
+to	O
+be	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GPL	B-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Unix	B-Application
+operating	I-Application
+system	I-Application
+was	O
+conceived	O
+and	O
+implemented	O
+in	O
+1969	O
+,	O
+at	O
+T	O
+'s	O
+Bell	O
+Labs	O
+,	O
+in	O
+the	O
+United	O
+States	O
+by	O
+Ken	O
+Thompson	O
+,	O
+Dennis	O
+Ritchie	O
+,	O
+Douglas	O
+McIlroy	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Joe	O
+Ossanna	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+First	O
+released	O
+in	O
+1971	O
+,	O
+Unix	B-Application
+was	O
+written	O
+entirely	O
+in	O
+assembly	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+,	O
+as	O
+was	O
+common	O
+practice	O
+at	O
+the	O
+time	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+1973	O
+,	O
+in	O
+a	O
+key	O
+pioneering	O
+approach	O
+,	O
+it	O
+was	O
+rewritten	O
+in	O
+the	O
+C	B-Language
+programming	I-Language
+language	I-Language
+by	O
+Dennis	O
+Ritchie	O
+(	O
+with	O
+the	O
+exception	O
+of	O
+some	O
+hardware	O
+and	O
+I/O	O
+routines	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+availability	O
+of	O
+a	O
+high-level	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+implementation	O
+of	O
+Unix	B-Application
+made	O
+its	O
+porting	O
+to	O
+different	O
+computer	O
+platforms	O
+easier	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Due	O
+to	O
+an	O
+earlier	O
+antitrust	O
+case	O
+forbidding	O
+it	O
+from	O
+entering	O
+the	O
+computer	O
+business	O
+,	O
+AT&T	O
+licensed	B-License
+the	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+'s	O
+source	O
+code	O
+as	O
+a	O
+trade	O
+secret	O
+to	O
+anyone	O
+who	O
+asked	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+As	O
+a	O
+result	O
+,	O
+Unix	B-Application
+grew	O
+quickly	O
+and	O
+became	O
+widely	O
+adopted	O
+by	O
+academic	O
+institutions	O
+and	O
+businesses	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+1984	O
+,	O
+AT&T	O
+divested	O
+itself	O
+of	O
+its	O
+regional	O
+operating	O
+companies	O
+,	O
+and	O
+was	O
+released	O
+from	O
+its	O
+obligation	O
+not	O
+to	O
+enter	O
+the	O
+computer	O
+business	O
+;	O
+freed	O
+of	O
+that	O
+obligation	O
+,	O
+Bell	O
+Labs	O
+began	O
+selling	O
+Unix	B-Application
+as	O
+a	O
+proprietary	B-Application
+product	O
+,	O
+where	O
+users	O
+were	O
+not	O
+legally	O
+allowed	O
+to	O
+modify	O
+it	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Onyx	O
+Systems	O
+began	O
+selling	O
+early	O
+microcomputer-based	O
+Unix	B-Application
+workstations	O
+in	O
+1980	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Later	O
+,	O
+Sun	O
+Microsystems	O
+,	O
+founded	O
+as	O
+a	O
+spin-off	O
+of	O
+a	O
+student	O
+project	O
+at	O
+Stanford	O
+University	O
+,	O
+also	O
+began	O
+selling	O
+Unix-based	O
+desktop	O
+workstations	O
+in	O
+1982	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+While	O
+Sun	O
+workstations	O
+did	O
+n't	O
+utilize	O
+commodity	O
+PC	O
+hardware	O
+like	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+later	O
+developed	O
+for	O
+,	O
+it	O
+represented	O
+the	O
+first	O
+successful	O
+commercial	O
+attempt	O
+at	O
+distributing	O
+a	O
+primarily	O
+single-user	O
+microcomputer	O
+that	O
+ran	O
+a	O
+Unix	B-Application
+operating	I-Application
+system	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+With	O
+Unix	B-Application
+increasingly	O
+"	O
+locked	O
+in	O
+"	O
+as	O
+a	O
+proprietary	B-Application
+product	O
+,	O
+the	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+,	O
+started	O
+in	O
+1983	O
+by	O
+Richard	O
+Stallman	O
+,	O
+had	O
+the	O
+goal	O
+of	O
+creating	O
+a	O
+"	O
+complete	O
+Unix-compatible	O
+software	O
+system	O
+"	O
+composed	O
+entirely	O
+of	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Later	O
+,	O
+in	O
+1985	O
+,	O
+Stallman	O
+started	O
+the	B-Operating_System
+Free	I-Operating_System
+Software	I-Operating_System
+Foundation	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+wrote	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+General	I-License
+Public	I-License
+License	I-License
+(	O
+GNU	B-License
+GPL	I-License
+)	O
+in	O
+1989	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+By	O
+the	O
+early	O
+1990s	O
+,	O
+many	O
+of	O
+the	O
+programs	O
+required	O
+in	O
+an	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+(	O
+such	O
+as	O
+libraries	B-Library
+,	O
+compilers	B-Language
+,	O
+text	B-Application
+editors	I-Application
+,	O
+a	O
+command-line	B-Application
+shell	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+a	O
+windowing	B-Application
+system	I-Application
+)	O
+were	O
+completed	O
+,	O
+although	O
+low-level	O
+elements	O
+such	O
+as	O
+device	B-Application
+drivers	I-Application
+,	O
+daemons	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+called	O
+GNU	B-Application
+Hurd	I-Application
+,	O
+were	O
+stalled	O
+and	O
+incomplete	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+created	O
+by	O
+Andrew	O
+S	O
+.	O
+Tanenbaum	O
+,	O
+a	O
+computer	B-General_Concept
+science	I-General_Concept
+professor	O
+,	O
+and	O
+released	O
+in	O
+1987	O
+as	O
+a	O
+minimal	O
+Unix-like	B-Operating_System
+operating	I-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+targeted	O
+at	O
+students	O
+and	O
+others	O
+who	O
+wanted	O
+to	O
+learn	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+principles	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Although	O
+the	O
+complete	O
+source	O
+code	O
+of	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+freely	O
+available	O
+,	O
+the	O
+licensing	O
+terms	O
+prevented	O
+it	O
+from	O
+being	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+until	O
+the	O
+licensing	O
+changed	O
+in	O
+April	O
+2000	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Although	O
+not	O
+released	O
+until	O
+1992	O
+,	O
+due	O
+to	O
+legal	B-Operating_System
+complications	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+development	O
+of	O
+386BSD	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+from	O
+which	O
+NetBSD	B-Device
+,	O
+OpenBSD	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+FreeBSD	B-Operating_System
+descended	O
+,	O
+predated	O
+that	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linus	O
+Torvalds	O
+has	O
+stated	O
+on	O
+separate	O
+occasions	O
+that	O
+if	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Application
+kernel	I-Application
+or	O
+386BSD	B-Operating_System
+had	O
+been	O
+available	O
+at	O
+the	O
+time	O
+(	O
+1991	O
+)	O
+,	O
+he	O
+probably	O
+would	O
+not	O
+have	O
+created	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+While	O
+attending	O
+the	O
+University	O
+of	O
+Helsinki	O
+in	O
+the	O
+fall	O
+of	O
+1990	O
+,	O
+Torvalds	O
+enrolled	O
+in	O
+a	O
+Unix	B-Application
+course	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+course	O
+utilized	O
+a	O
+MicroVAX	B-Device
+minicomputer	O
+running	O
+Ultrix	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+one	O
+of	O
+the	O
+required	O
+texts	O
+was	O
+Operating	B-General_Concept
+Systems	I-General_Concept
+:	O
+Design	O
+and	O
+Implementation	O
+by	O
+Andrew	O
+S	O
+.	O
+Tanenbaum	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+textbook	O
+included	O
+a	O
+copy	O
+of	O
+Tanenbaum	O
+'s	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+It	O
+was	O
+with	O
+this	O
+course	O
+that	O
+Torvalds	O
+first	O
+became	O
+exposed	O
+to	O
+Unix	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+1991	O
+,	O
+he	O
+became	O
+curious	O
+about	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Frustrated	O
+by	O
+the	O
+licensing	O
+of	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+which	O
+at	O
+the	O
+time	O
+limited	O
+it	O
+to	O
+educational	O
+use	O
+only	O
+,	O
+he	O
+began	O
+to	O
+work	O
+on	O
+his	O
+own	O
+operating	B-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+which	O
+eventually	O
+became	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+July	O
+3	O
+,	O
+1991	O
+,	O
+in	O
+an	O
+effort	O
+to	O
+implement	O
+Unix	B-Application
+system	I-Application
+calls	O
+,	O
+Linus	O
+Torvalds	O
+attempted	O
+to	O
+obtain	O
+a	O
+digital	O
+copy	O
+of	O
+the	O
+POSIX	O
+standards	O
+documentation	O
+with	O
+a	O
+request	O
+to	O
+the	O
+comp.os.minix	O
+newsgroup	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+After	O
+unsuccessfully	O
+finding	O
+the	O
+POSIX	O
+documentation	O
+,	O
+Torvalds	O
+initially	O
+resorted	O
+to	O
+determining	O
+system	B-Operating_System
+calls	I-Operating_System
+from	O
+SunOS	B-Operating_System
+documentation	O
+owned	O
+by	O
+the	O
+university	O
+for	O
+use	O
+in	O
+operating	O
+its	O
+Sun	O
+Microsystems	O
+server	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+He	O
+also	O
+learned	O
+some	O
+system	B-Operating_System
+calls	I-Operating_System
+from	O
+Tenenbaum	O
+'s	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+text	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Torvalds	O
+began	O
+the	O
+development	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+on	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+applications	O
+written	O
+for	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+were	O
+also	O
+used	O
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Later	O
+,	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+matured	O
+and	O
+further	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+development	O
+took	O
+place	O
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+applications	O
+also	O
+replaced	O
+all	O
+MINIX	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+,	O
+because	O
+it	O
+was	O
+advantageous	O
+to	O
+use	O
+the	O
+freely	O
+available	O
+code	O
+from	O
+the	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+with	O
+the	O
+fledgling	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+;	O
+code	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+GPL	I-License
+can	O
+be	O
+reused	O
+in	O
+other	O
+computer	O
+programs	O
+as	O
+long	O
+as	O
+they	O
+also	O
+are	O
+released	O
+under	O
+the	O
+same	O
+or	O
+a	O
+compatible	O
+license	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Torvalds	O
+initiated	O
+a	O
+switch	O
+from	O
+his	O
+original	O
+license	O
+,	O
+which	O
+prohibited	O
+commercial	O
+redistribution	O
+,	O
+to	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+GPL	I-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Developers	O
+worked	O
+to	O
+integrate	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+with	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+creating	O
+a	O
+fully	O
+functional	B-Language
+and	O
+free	B-Application
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linus	O
+Torvalds	O
+had	O
+wanted	O
+to	O
+call	O
+his	O
+invention	O
+"	O
+Freax	O
+"	O
+,	O
+a	O
+portmanteau	O
+of	O
+"	O
+free	B-Application
+"	O
+,	O
+"	O
+freak	O
+"	O
+,	O
+and	O
+"	O
+x	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+(	O
+as	O
+an	O
+allusion	O
+to	O
+Unix	B-Application
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Initially	O
+,	O
+Torvalds	O
+considered	O
+the	O
+name	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+but	O
+dismissed	O
+it	O
+as	O
+too	O
+egotistical	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+To	O
+facilitate	O
+development	O
+,	O
+the	O
+files	O
+were	O
+uploaded	O
+to	O
+the	O
+FTP	B-Protocol
+server	I-Protocol
+(	O
+ftp.funet.fi	O
+)	O
+of	O
+FUNET	O
+in	O
+September	O
+1991	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Ari	O
+Lemmke	O
+,	O
+Torvalds	O
+ '	O
+coworker	O
+at	O
+the	O
+Helsinki	O
+University	O
+of	O
+Technology	O
+(	O
+HUT	O
+)	O
+who	O
+was	O
+one	O
+of	O
+the	O
+volunteer	O
+administrators	O
+for	O
+the	O
+FTP	B-Protocol
+server	I-Protocol
+at	O
+the	O
+time	O
+,	O
+did	O
+not	O
+think	O
+that	O
+"	O
+Freax	O
+"	O
+was	O
+a	O
+good	O
+name	O
+,	O
+so	O
+he	O
+named	O
+the	O
+project	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+on	O
+the	O
+server	B-Application
+without	O
+consulting	O
+Torvalds	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Later	O
+,	O
+however	O
+,	O
+Torvalds	O
+consented	O
+to	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+a	O
+newsgroup	B-Application
+post	O
+by	O
+Torvalds	O
+,	O
+the	O
+word	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+should	O
+be	O
+pronounced	O
+(	O
+)	O
+with	O
+a	O
+short	O
+'	O
+i	O
+ '	O
+as	O
+in	O
+'	O
+print	O
+ '	O
+and	O
+'	O
+u	O
+ '	O
+as	O
+in	O
+'	O
+put	O
+ '	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+To	O
+further	O
+demonstrate	O
+how	O
+the	O
+word	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+should	O
+be	O
+pronounced	O
+,	O
+he	O
+included	O
+an	O
+audio	O
+guide	O
+with	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+source	O
+code	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+However	O
+,	O
+in	O
+this	O
+recording	O
+,	O
+he	O
+pronounces	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+as	O
+(	O
+)	O
+with	O
+a	O
+short	O
+but	O
+close	O
+front	O
+unrounded	O
+vowel	O
+,	O
+instead	O
+of	O
+a	O
+near-close	O
+near-front	O
+unrounded	O
+vowel	O
+as	O
+in	O
+his	O
+newsgroup	B-Application
+post	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Adoption	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+in	O
+production	O
+environments	O
+,	O
+rather	O
+than	O
+being	O
+used	O
+only	O
+by	O
+hobbyists	O
+,	O
+started	O
+to	O
+take	O
+off	O
+first	O
+in	O
+the	O
+mid-1990s	O
+in	O
+the	O
+supercomputing	B-Architecture
+community	O
+,	O
+where	O
+organizations	O
+such	O
+as	O
+NASA	O
+started	O
+to	O
+replace	O
+their	O
+increasingly	O
+expensive	O
+machines	O
+with	O
+clusters	B-Architecture
+of	O
+inexpensive	O
+commodity	O
+computers	O
+running	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Commercial	O
+use	O
+began	O
+when	O
+Dell	O
+and	O
+IBM	O
+,	O
+followed	O
+by	O
+Hewlett-Packard	O
+,	O
+started	O
+offering	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+support	O
+to	O
+escape	O
+Microsoft	O
+'s	O
+monopoly	O
+in	O
+the	O
+desktop	B-General_Concept
+operating	I-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+market	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Today	O
+,	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+are	O
+used	O
+throughout	O
+computing	O
+,	O
+from	O
+embedded	B-Architecture
+systems	I-Architecture
+to	O
+virtually	O
+all	O
+supercomputers	B-Architecture
+,	O
+and	O
+have	O
+secured	O
+a	O
+place	O
+in	O
+server	B-Application
+installations	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+popular	O
+LAMP	B-Application
+application	O
+stack	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Use	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+in	O
+home	O
+and	O
+enterprise	O
+desktops	O
+has	O
+been	O
+growing	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+have	O
+also	O
+become	O
+popular	O
+in	O
+the	O
+netbook	B-Device
+market	O
+,	O
+with	O
+many	O
+devices	O
+shipping	O
+with	O
+customized	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+installed	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Google	B-Application
+releasing	O
+their	O
+own	O
+ChromeOS	B-Operating_System
+designed	O
+for	O
+netbooks	B-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+'s	O
+greatest	O
+success	O
+in	O
+the	O
+consumer	O
+market	O
+is	O
+perhaps	O
+the	O
+mobile	B-Application
+device	I-Application
+market	O
+,	O
+with	O
+Android	B-Application
+being	O
+the	O
+dominant	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+on	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+and	O
+very	O
+popular	O
+on	O
+tablets	B-Device
+and	O
+,	O
+more	O
+recently	O
+,	O
+on	O
+wearables	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+gaming	I-Application
+is	O
+also	O
+on	O
+the	O
+rise	O
+with	O
+Valve	O
+showing	O
+its	O
+support	O
+for	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+rolling	O
+out	O
+SteamOS	B-Application
+,	O
+its	O
+own	O
+gaming-oriented	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+later	O
+the	O
+Steam	B-Device
+Deck	I-Device
+platform	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+have	O
+also	O
+gained	O
+popularity	O
+with	O
+various	O
+local	O
+and	O
+national	O
+governments	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+federal	O
+government	O
+of	O
+Brazil	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Greg	O
+Kroah-Hartman	O
+is	O
+the	O
+lead	O
+maintainer	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+guides	O
+its	O
+development	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+William	O
+John	O
+Sullivan	O
+is	O
+the	O
+executive	O
+director	O
+of	O
+the	B-Operating_System
+Free	I-Operating_System
+Software	I-Operating_System
+Foundation	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+which	O
+in	O
+turn	O
+supports	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Finally	O
+,	O
+individuals	O
+and	O
+corporations	O
+develop	O
+third-party	O
+non-GNU	O
+components	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+These	O
+third-party	O
+components	O
+comprise	O
+a	O
+vast	O
+body	O
+of	O
+work	O
+and	O
+may	O
+include	O
+both	O
+kernel	B-Application
+modules	I-Application
+and	O
+user	O
+applications	O
+and	O
+libraries	B-Library
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+vendors	O
+and	O
+communities	O
+combine	O
+and	O
+distribute	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+,	O
+and	O
+non-GNU	O
+components	O
+,	O
+with	O
+additional	O
+package	B-Application
+management	I-Application
+software	O
+in	O
+the	O
+form	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+open	B-License
+source	I-License
+developers	O
+agree	O
+that	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+was	O
+not	O
+designed	O
+but	O
+rather	O
+evolved	O
+through	O
+natural	B-Application
+selection	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Torvalds	O
+considers	O
+that	O
+although	O
+the	O
+design	O
+of	O
+Unix	B-Application
+served	O
+as	O
+a	O
+scaffolding	O
+,	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+grew	O
+with	O
+a	O
+lot	O
+of	O
+mutations	O
+–	O
+and	O
+because	O
+the	O
+mutations	O
+were	O
+less	O
+than	O
+random	O
+,	O
+they	O
+were	O
+faster	O
+and	O
+more	O
+directed	O
+than	O
+alpha-particles	O
+in	O
+DNA.	O
+"	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Eric	O
+S	O
+.	O
+Raymond	O
+considers	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+'s	O
+revolutionary	O
+aspects	O
+to	O
+be	O
+social	O
+,	O
+not	O
+technical	O
+:	O
+before	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+complex	O
+software	O
+was	O
+designed	O
+carefully	O
+by	O
+small	O
+groups	O
+,	O
+but	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+evolved	O
+in	O
+a	O
+completely	O
+different	O
+way	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Bryan	O
+Cantrill	O
+,	O
+an	O
+engineer	O
+of	O
+a	O
+competing	O
+OS	O
+,	O
+agrees	O
+that	O
+"	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+was	O
+n't	O
+designed	O
+,	O
+it	O
+evolved	O
+"	O
+,	O
+but	O
+considers	O
+this	O
+to	O
+be	O
+a	O
+limitation	O
+,	O
+proposing	O
+that	O
+some	O
+features	O
+,	O
+especially	O
+those	O
+related	O
+to	O
+security	O
+,	O
+cannot	O
+be	O
+evolved	O
+into	O
+,	O
+"	O
+this	O
+is	O
+not	O
+a	O
+biological	O
+system	O
+at	O
+the	O
+end	O
+of	O
+the	O
+day	O
+,	O
+it	O
+'s	O
+a	O
+software	O
+system.	O
+"	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+Linux-based	O
+system	O
+is	O
+a	O
+modular	O
+Unix-like	B-Operating_System
+operating	I-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+deriving	O
+much	O
+of	O
+its	O
+basic	O
+design	O
+from	O
+principles	O
+established	O
+in	O
+Unix	B-Application
+during	O
+the	O
+1970s	O
+and	O
+1980s	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Such	O
+a	O
+system	O
+uses	O
+a	O
+monolithic	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+which	O
+handles	O
+process	B-Operating_System
+control	O
+,	O
+networking	O
+,	O
+access	O
+to	O
+the	O
+peripherals	O
+,	O
+and	O
+file	B-Application
+systems	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Device	B-Application
+drivers	I-Application
+are	O
+either	O
+integrated	O
+directly	O
+with	O
+the	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+or	O
+added	O
+as	O
+modules	B-Application
+that	O
+are	O
+loaded	O
+while	O
+the	O
+system	O
+is	O
+running	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+userland	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+a	O
+key	O
+part	O
+of	O
+most	O
+systems	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+with	O
+Android	B-Application
+being	O
+the	O
+notable	O
+exception	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+GNU	B-Language
+C	I-Language
+library	I-Language
+,	O
+an	O
+implementation	O
+of	O
+the	B-Language
+C	I-Language
+standard	I-Language
+library	I-Language
+,	O
+works	O
+as	O
+a	O
+wrapper	O
+for	O
+the	O
+system	B-Operating_System
+calls	I-Operating_System
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+necessary	O
+to	O
+the	O
+kernel-userspace	O
+interface	O
+,	O
+the	O
+toolchain	B-Application
+is	O
+a	O
+broad	O
+collection	O
+of	O
+programming	O
+tools	O
+vital	O
+to	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+development	O
+(	O
+including	O
+the	O
+compilers	B-Language
+used	O
+to	O
+build	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+itself	O
+)	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+coreutils	B-Application
+implement	O
+many	O
+basic	O
+Unix	B-Application
+tools	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+also	O
+develops	O
+Bash	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+a	O
+popular	O
+CLI	B-Application
+shell	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+(	O
+or	O
+GUI	B-Application
+)	O
+used	O
+by	O
+most	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+is	O
+built	O
+on	O
+top	O
+of	O
+an	O
+implementation	O
+of	O
+the	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+Window	I-Operating_System
+System	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+More	O
+recently	O
+,	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Application
+community	I-Application
+seeks	O
+to	O
+advance	O
+to	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+as	O
+the	O
+new	O
+display	O
+server	B-Application
+protocol	O
+in	O
+place	O
+of	O
+X11	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+other	O
+open-source	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+projects	O
+contribute	O
+to	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Installed	O
+components	O
+of	O
+a	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+system	O
+include	O
+the	O
+following	O
+:	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+bootloader	B-Application
+,	O
+for	O
+example	O
+GNU	B-Application
+GRUB	I-Application
+,	O
+LILO	B-Application
+,	O
+SYSLINUX	B-Application
+or	O
+systemd-boot	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+is	O
+a	O
+program	O
+that	O
+loads	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+into	O
+the	O
+computer	O
+'s	O
+main	O
+memory	O
+,	O
+by	O
+being	O
+executed	O
+by	O
+the	O
+computer	O
+when	O
+it	O
+is	O
+turned	O
+on	O
+and	O
+after	O
+the	O
+firmware	B-Application
+initialization	O
+is	O
+performed	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+An	O
+init	B-Operating_System
+program	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+traditional	O
+sysvinit	O
+and	O
+the	O
+newer	O
+systemd	B-Application
+,	O
+OpenRC	B-Device
+and	O
+Upstart	B-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+is	O
+the	O
+first	O
+process	B-Operating_System
+launched	O
+by	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+is	O
+at	O
+the	O
+root	O
+of	O
+the	O
+process	B-Operating_System
+tree	O
+:	O
+in	O
+other	O
+terms	O
+,	O
+all	O
+processes	O
+are	O
+launched	O
+through	O
+init	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Software	B-Library
+libraries	I-Library
+,	O
+which	O
+contain	O
+code	O
+that	O
+can	O
+be	O
+used	O
+by	O
+running	O
+processes	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+using	O
+ELF-format	O
+executable	O
+files	O
+,	O
+the	O
+dynamic	B-Application
+linker	I-Application
+that	O
+manages	O
+the	O
+use	O
+of	O
+dynamic	B-Application
+libraries	I-Application
+is	O
+known	O
+as	O
+ld-linux.so	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+If	O
+the	O
+system	O
+is	O
+set	O
+up	O
+for	O
+the	O
+user	O
+to	O
+compile	B-Language
+software	O
+themselves	O
+,	O
+header	B-Language
+files	I-Language
+will	O
+also	O
+be	O
+included	O
+to	O
+describe	O
+the	O
+programming	B-General_Concept
+interface	I-General_Concept
+of	O
+installed	O
+libraries	B-Library
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Besides	O
+the	O
+most	O
+commonly	O
+used	O
+software	B-Library
+library	I-Library
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+,	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Language
+C	I-Language
+Library	I-Language
+(	O
+glibc	B-Language
+)	O
+,	O
+there	O
+are	O
+numerous	O
+other	O
+libraries	B-Library
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+SDL	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+Mesa	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+C	B-Language
+standard	I-Language
+library	I-Language
+is	O
+the	O
+library	O
+needed	O
+to	O
+run	O
+C	B-Language
+programs	I-Language
+on	O
+a	O
+computer	O
+system	O
+,	O
+with	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Language
+C	I-Language
+Library	I-Language
+being	O
+the	O
+standard	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+For	O
+embedded	B-Architecture
+systems	I-Architecture
+,	O
+alternatives	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+musl	B-Language
+,	O
+EGLIBC	B-Language
+(	O
+a	O
+glibc	B-Language
+fork	B-Application
+once	O
+used	O
+by	O
+Debian	O
+)	O
+and	O
+uClibc	B-Language
+(	O
+which	O
+was	O
+designed	O
+for	O
+uClinux	B-Application
+)	O
+have	O
+been	O
+developed	O
+,	O
+although	O
+the	O
+last	O
+two	O
+are	O
+no	O
+longer	O
+maintained	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Android	B-Application
+uses	O
+its	O
+own	O
+C	B-Language
+library	I-Language
+,	O
+Bionic	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Basic	O
+Unix	B-Application
+commands	I-Application
+,	O
+with	O
+GNU	B-Application
+coreutils	I-Application
+being	O
+the	O
+standard	O
+implementation	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Alternatives	O
+exist	O
+for	O
+embedded	B-Architecture
+systems	I-Architecture
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+the	O
+copyleft	B-License
+BusyBox	B-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+BSD-licensed	O
+Toybox	B-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Widget	B-Library
+toolkits	I-Library
+are	O
+the	O
+libraries	B-Library
+used	O
+to	O
+build	O
+graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interfaces	I-Application
+(	O
+GUIs	B-Application
+)	O
+for	O
+software	O
+applications	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Numerous	O
+widget	B-Library
+toolkits	I-Library
+are	O
+available	O
+,	O
+including	O
+GTK	B-Application
+and	O
+Clutter	B-Language
+developed	O
+by	O
+the	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+Project	O
+,	O
+Qt	B-Language
+developed	O
+by	O
+the	O
+Qt	B-Language
+Project	I-Language
+and	O
+led	O
+by	O
+The	O
+Qt	B-Language
+Company	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Enlightenment	B-Library
+Foundation	I-Library
+Libraries	I-Library
+(	O
+EFL	O
+)	O
+developed	O
+primarily	O
+by	O
+the	O
+Enlightenment	B-Application
+team	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+package	B-Application
+management	I-Application
+system	I-Application
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+dpkg	B-Language
+and	O
+RPM	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Alternatively	O
+packages	O
+can	O
+be	O
+compiled	B-Language
+from	O
+binary	O
+or	O
+source	O
+tarballs	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+User	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+programs	O
+such	O
+as	O
+command	B-Operating_System
+shells	I-Operating_System
+or	O
+windowing	B-Application
+environments	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+user	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+,	O
+also	O
+known	O
+as	O
+the	O
+shell	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+is	O
+either	O
+a	O
+command-line	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+(	O
+CLI	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+a	O
+graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+(	O
+GUI	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+or	O
+controls	O
+attached	O
+to	O
+the	O
+associated	O
+hardware	O
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+common	O
+for	O
+embedded	B-Architecture
+systems	I-Architecture
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+For	O
+desktop	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+the	O
+default	O
+user	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+is	O
+usually	O
+graphical	O
+,	O
+although	O
+the	O
+CLI	B-Application
+is	O
+commonly	O
+available	O
+through	O
+terminal	B-Application
+emulator	I-Application
+windows	O
+or	O
+on	O
+a	O
+separate	O
+virtual	B-Application
+console	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+CLI	B-Application
+shells	O
+are	O
+text-based	O
+user	B-Application
+interfaces	I-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+use	O
+text	O
+for	O
+both	O
+input	O
+and	O
+output	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+dominant	O
+shell	B-Operating_System
+used	O
+in	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+the	O
+Bourne-Again	B-Operating_System
+Shell	I-Operating_System
+(	O
+bash	B-Operating_System
+)	O
+,	O
+originally	O
+developed	O
+for	O
+the	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+low-level	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+,	O
+including	O
+various	O
+parts	O
+of	O
+the	O
+userland	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+use	O
+the	O
+CLI	B-Application
+exclusively	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+CLI	B-Application
+is	O
+particularly	O
+suited	O
+for	O
+automation	B-Application
+of	O
+repetitive	O
+or	O
+delayed	O
+tasks	O
+and	O
+provides	O
+very	O
+simple	O
+inter-process	B-Operating_System
+communication	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+desktop	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+the	O
+most	O
+popular	O
+user	B-Application
+interfaces	I-Application
+are	O
+the	O
+GUI	B-Application
+shells	O
+,	O
+packaged	B-Application
+together	O
+with	O
+extensive	O
+desktop	O
+environments	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+KDE	B-Language
+Plasma	I-Language
+,	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+,	O
+MATE	B-Language
+,	O
+Cinnamon	B-Language
+,	O
+LXDE	B-Language
+,	O
+Pantheon	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+Xfce	B-Language
+,	O
+though	O
+a	O
+variety	O
+of	O
+additional	O
+user	B-Application
+interfaces	I-Application
+exist	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+popular	O
+user	B-Application
+interfaces	I-Application
+are	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+Window	I-Operating_System
+System	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+often	O
+simply	O
+called	O
+"	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+It	O
+provides	O
+network	B-General_Concept
+transparency	I-General_Concept
+and	O
+permits	O
+a	O
+graphical	O
+application	O
+running	O
+on	O
+one	O
+system	O
+to	O
+be	O
+displayed	O
+on	O
+another	O
+where	O
+a	O
+user	O
+may	O
+interact	O
+with	O
+the	O
+application	O
+;	O
+however	O
+,	O
+certain	O
+extensions	O
+of	O
+the	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+Window	I-Operating_System
+System	I-Operating_System
+are	O
+not	O
+capable	O
+of	O
+working	O
+over	O
+the	O
+network	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Several	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+display	I-Operating_System
+servers	I-Operating_System
+exist	O
+,	O
+with	O
+the	O
+reference	O
+implementation	O
+,	O
+X.Org	B-Operating_System
+Server	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+being	O
+the	O
+most	O
+popular	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Server	B-Application
+distributions	B-Application
+might	O
+provide	O
+a	O
+command-line	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+for	O
+developers	O
+and	O
+administrators	O
+,	O
+but	O
+provide	O
+a	O
+custom	O
+interface	O
+towards	O
+end-users	O
+,	O
+designed	O
+for	O
+the	O
+use-case	O
+of	O
+the	O
+system	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+custom	O
+interface	O
+is	O
+accessed	O
+through	O
+a	O
+client	O
+that	O
+resides	O
+on	O
+another	O
+system	O
+,	O
+not	O
+necessarily	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+based	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Several	O
+types	O
+of	O
+window	B-Application
+managers	I-Application
+exist	O
+for	O
+X11	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+including	O
+tiling	O
+,	O
+dynamic	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+stacking	B-Device
+and	O
+compositing	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Window	B-Application
+managers	I-Application
+provide	O
+means	O
+to	O
+control	O
+the	O
+placement	O
+and	O
+appearance	O
+of	O
+individual	O
+application	O
+windows	O
+,	O
+and	O
+interact	O
+with	O
+the	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+Window	I-Operating_System
+System	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Simpler	O
+X	B-Application
+window	I-Application
+managers	I-Application
+such	O
+as	O
+dwm	B-Language
+,	O
+ratpoison	B-Language
+,	O
+i3wm	B-Language
+,	O
+or	O
+herbstluftwm	O
+provide	O
+a	O
+minimalist	B-Device
+functionality	O
+,	O
+while	O
+more	O
+elaborate	O
+window	B-Application
+managers	I-Application
+such	O
+as	O
+FVWM	B-Device
+,	O
+Enlightenment	B-Application
+or	O
+Window	B-Application
+Maker	I-Application
+provide	O
+more	O
+features	O
+such	O
+as	O
+a	O
+built-in	O
+taskbar	O
+and	O
+themes	B-Application
+,	O
+but	O
+are	O
+still	O
+lightweight	O
+when	O
+compared	O
+to	O
+desktop	O
+environments	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Desktop	O
+environments	O
+include	O
+window	B-Application
+managers	I-Application
+as	O
+part	O
+of	O
+their	O
+standard	O
+installations	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+Mutter	B-Language
+(	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+KWin	B-Language
+(	O
+KDE	B-Application
+)	O
+or	O
+Xfwm	B-Device
+(	O
+xfce	B-Language
+)	O
+,	O
+although	O
+users	O
+may	O
+choose	O
+to	O
+use	O
+a	O
+different	O
+window	B-Application
+manager	I-Application
+if	O
+preferred	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Wayland	B-Language
+is	O
+a	O
+display	O
+server	B-Application
+protocol	O
+intended	O
+as	O
+a	O
+replacement	O
+for	O
+the	O
+X11	B-Operating_System
+protocol	O
+;	O
+,	O
+it	O
+has	O
+received	O
+relatively	O
+wide	O
+adoption	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Unlike	O
+X11	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+does	O
+not	O
+need	O
+an	O
+external	O
+window	B-Application
+manager	I-Application
+and	O
+compositing	B-Operating_System
+manager	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Therefore	O
+,	O
+a	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+compositor	O
+takes	O
+the	O
+role	O
+of	O
+the	O
+display	O
+server	B-Application
+,	O
+window	B-Application
+manager	I-Application
+and	O
+compositing	B-Operating_System
+manager	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Weston	O
+is	O
+the	O
+reference	O
+implementation	O
+of	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+,	O
+while	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+'s	O
+Mutter	B-Language
+and	O
+KDE	B-Application
+'s	O
+KWin	B-Language
+are	O
+being	O
+ported	O
+to	O
+Wayland	B-Language
+as	O
+standalone	O
+display	O
+servers	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Enlightenment	B-Application
+has	O
+already	O
+been	O
+successfully	O
+ported	O
+since	O
+version	O
+19	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+currently	O
+has	O
+two	O
+modern	O
+kernel-userspace	O
+APIs	B-General_Concept
+for	O
+handling	O
+video	O
+input	O
+devices	O
+:	O
+V4L2	B-Application
+API	B-General_Concept
+for	O
+video	O
+streams	O
+and	O
+radio	O
+,	O
+and	O
+DVB	B-Application
+API	B-General_Concept
+for	O
+digital	O
+TV	O
+reception	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Due	O
+to	O
+the	O
+complexity	O
+and	O
+diversity	O
+of	O
+different	O
+devices	O
+,	O
+and	O
+due	O
+to	O
+the	O
+large	O
+number	O
+of	O
+formats	O
+and	O
+standards	O
+handled	O
+by	O
+those	O
+APIs	B-General_Concept
+,	O
+this	O
+infrastructure	O
+needs	O
+to	O
+evolve	O
+to	O
+better	O
+fit	O
+other	O
+devices	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Also	O
+,	O
+a	O
+good	O
+userspace	B-Operating_System
+device	O
+library	O
+is	O
+the	O
+key	O
+of	O
+the	O
+success	O
+for	O
+having	O
+userspace	B-Operating_System
+applications	O
+to	O
+be	O
+able	O
+to	O
+work	O
+with	O
+all	O
+formats	O
+supported	O
+by	O
+those	O
+devices	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+primary	O
+difference	O
+between	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+many	O
+other	O
+popular	O
+contemporary	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+is	O
+that	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+other	O
+components	O
+are	O
+free	B-License
+and	I-License
+open-source	I-License
+software	I-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+not	O
+the	O
+only	O
+such	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+although	O
+it	O
+is	O
+by	O
+far	O
+the	O
+most	O
+widely	O
+used	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Some	O
+free	B-License
+and	I-License
+open-source	I-License
+software	I-License
+licenses	O
+are	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+principle	O
+of	O
+copyleft	B-License
+,	O
+a	O
+kind	O
+of	O
+reciprocity	O
+:	O
+any	O
+work	O
+derived	O
+from	O
+a	O
+copyleft	B-License
+piece	O
+of	O
+software	O
+must	O
+also	O
+be	O
+copyleft	B-License
+itself	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+most	O
+common	O
+free	B-License
+software	I-License
+license	I-License
+,	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+General	I-License
+Public	I-License
+License	I-License
+(	O
+GPL	B-License
+)	O
+,	O
+is	O
+a	O
+form	O
+of	O
+copyleft	B-License
+,	O
+and	O
+is	O
+used	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+many	O
+of	O
+the	O
+components	O
+from	O
+the	B-Application
+GNU	I-Application
+Project	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux-based	O
+distributions	B-Application
+are	O
+intended	O
+by	O
+developers	O
+for	O
+interoperability	O
+with	O
+other	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+and	O
+established	O
+computing	O
+standards	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+systems	O
+adhere	O
+to	O
+POSIX	O
+,	O
+SUS	O
+,	O
+LSB	B-Application
+,	O
+ISO	O
+,	O
+and	O
+ANSI	O
+standards	O
+where	O
+possible	O
+,	O
+although	O
+to	O
+date	O
+only	O
+one	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+has	O
+been	O
+POSIX.1	O
+certified	O
+,	O
+Linux-FT	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+projects	O
+,	O
+although	O
+developed	O
+through	O
+collaboration	O
+,	O
+are	O
+often	O
+produced	O
+independently	O
+of	O
+each	O
+other	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+fact	O
+that	O
+the	O
+software	B-License
+licenses	I-License
+explicitly	O
+permit	O
+redistribution	O
+,	O
+however	O
+,	O
+provides	O
+a	O
+basis	O
+for	O
+larger-scale	O
+projects	O
+that	O
+collect	O
+the	O
+software	O
+produced	O
+by	O
+stand-alone	O
+projects	O
+and	O
+make	B-Application
+it	O
+available	O
+all	O
+at	O
+once	O
+in	O
+the	O
+form	O
+of	O
+a	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+manage	O
+a	O
+remote	O
+collection	O
+of	O
+system	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+and	O
+application	O
+software	B-Application
+packages	I-Application
+available	O
+for	O
+download	O
+and	O
+installation	O
+through	O
+a	O
+network	O
+connection	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+allows	O
+users	O
+to	O
+adapt	O
+the	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+to	O
+their	O
+specific	O
+needs	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Distributions	B-Application
+are	O
+maintained	O
+by	O
+individuals	O
+,	O
+loose-knit	O
+teams	O
+,	O
+volunteer	O
+organizations	O
+,	O
+and	O
+commercial	O
+entities	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+distribution	O
+is	O
+responsible	O
+for	O
+the	O
+default	O
+configuration	O
+of	O
+the	O
+installed	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+general	O
+system	O
+security	O
+,	O
+and	O
+more	O
+generally	O
+integration	O
+of	O
+the	O
+different	O
+software	B-Application
+packages	I-Application
+into	O
+a	O
+coherent	O
+whole	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Distributions	B-Application
+typically	O
+use	O
+a	O
+package	B-Application
+manager	I-Application
+such	O
+as	O
+apt	B-Application
+,	O
+yum	B-Application
+,	O
+zypper	O
+,	O
+pacman	O
+or	O
+portage	B-Application
+to	O
+install	O
+,	O
+remove	O
+,	O
+and	O
+update	O
+all	O
+of	O
+a	O
+system	O
+'s	O
+software	O
+from	O
+one	O
+central	O
+location	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Some	O
+vendors	O
+develop	O
+and	O
+fund	O
+their	O
+distributions	B-Application
+on	O
+a	O
+volunteer	O
+basis	O
+,	O
+Debian	O
+being	O
+a	O
+well-known	O
+example	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Others	O
+maintain	O
+a	O
+community	O
+version	O
+of	O
+their	O
+commercial	O
+distributions	B-Application
+,	O
+as	O
+Red	O
+Hat	O
+does	O
+with	O
+Fedora	O
+,	O
+and	O
+SUSE	O
+does	O
+with	O
+openSUSE	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+many	O
+cities	O
+and	O
+regions	O
+,	O
+local	O
+associations	O
+known	O
+as	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+User	O
+Groups	O
+(	O
+LUGs	O
+)	O
+seek	O
+to	O
+promote	O
+their	O
+preferred	O
+distribution	O
+and	O
+by	O
+extension	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+They	O
+hold	O
+meetings	O
+and	O
+provide	O
+free	B-Application
+demonstrations	O
+,	O
+training	O
+,	O
+technical	O
+support	O
+,	O
+and	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+installation	O
+to	O
+new	O
+users	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+Internet	O
+communities	O
+also	O
+provide	O
+support	O
+to	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+users	O
+and	O
+developers	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+distributions	B-Application
+and	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+/	O
+open-source	B-Application
+projects	O
+have	O
+IRC	B-Protocol
+chatrooms	O
+or	O
+newsgroups	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Online	B-Application
+forums	I-Application
+are	O
+another	O
+means	O
+for	O
+support	O
+,	O
+with	O
+notable	O
+examples	O
+being	O
+LinuxQuestions.org	O
+and	O
+the	O
+various	O
+distribution	O
+specific	O
+support	O
+and	O
+community	O
+forums	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+ones	O
+for	O
+Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+Fedora	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Gentoo	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+host	O
+mailing	O
+lists	O
+;	O
+commonly	O
+there	O
+will	O
+be	O
+a	O
+specific	O
+topic	O
+such	O
+as	O
+usage	O
+or	O
+development	O
+for	O
+a	O
+given	O
+list	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+are	O
+several	O
+technology	O
+websites	O
+with	O
+a	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+focus	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Print	O
+magazines	O
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+often	O
+bundle	O
+cover	O
+disks	O
+that	O
+carry	O
+software	O
+or	O
+even	O
+complete	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Although	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+are	O
+generally	O
+available	O
+without	O
+charge	O
+,	O
+several	O
+large	O
+corporations	O
+sell	O
+,	O
+support	O
+,	O
+and	O
+contribute	O
+to	O
+the	O
+development	O
+of	O
+the	O
+components	O
+of	O
+the	O
+system	O
+and	O
+of	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+An	O
+analysis	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+in	O
+2017	O
+showed	O
+that	O
+well	O
+over	O
+85%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+code	O
+developed	O
+by	O
+programmers	O
+who	O
+are	O
+being	O
+paid	O
+for	O
+their	O
+work	O
+,	O
+leaving	O
+about	O
+8.2	O
+%	O
+to	O
+unpaid	O
+developers	O
+and	O
+4.1	O
+%	O
+unclassified	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Some	O
+of	O
+the	O
+major	O
+corporations	O
+that	O
+provide	O
+contributions	O
+include	O
+Intel	O
+,	O
+Samsung	B-Application
+,	O
+Google	B-Application
+,	O
+AMD	O
+,	O
+Oracle	B-Application
+and	O
+Facebook	B-Application
+.	I-Application
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+number	O
+of	O
+corporations	O
+,	O
+notably	O
+Red	O
+Hat	O
+,	O
+Canonical	O
+and	O
+SUSE	O
+,	O
+have	O
+built	O
+a	O
+significant	O
+business	O
+around	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+free	B-License
+software	I-License
+licenses	I-License
+,	O
+on	O
+which	O
+the	O
+various	O
+software	B-Application
+packages	I-Application
+of	O
+a	O
+distribution	O
+built	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+are	O
+based	O
+,	O
+explicitly	O
+accommodate	O
+and	O
+encourage	O
+commercialization	O
+;	O
+the	O
+relationship	O
+between	O
+a	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+as	O
+a	O
+whole	O
+and	O
+individual	O
+vendors	O
+may	O
+be	O
+seen	O
+as	O
+symbiotic	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+number	O
+of	O
+companies	O
+also	O
+offer	O
+a	O
+specialized	O
+business	O
+version	O
+of	O
+their	O
+distribution	O
+,	O
+which	O
+adds	O
+proprietary	B-Application
+support	O
+packages	O
+and	O
+tools	O
+to	O
+administer	O
+higher	O
+numbers	O
+of	O
+installations	O
+or	O
+to	O
+simplify	O
+administrative	O
+tasks	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+This	O
+used	O
+to	O
+be	O
+the	O
+norm	O
+in	O
+the	O
+computer	O
+industry	O
+,	O
+with	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+such	O
+as	O
+CP/M	B-Application
+,	O
+Apple	B-Operating_System
+DOS	I-Operating_System
+and	O
+versions	O
+of	O
+the	O
+classic	B-Application
+Mac	I-Application
+OS	I-Application
+prior	O
+to	O
+7.6	O
+freely	O
+copyable	O
+(	O
+but	O
+not	O
+modifiable	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+programming	O
+languages	O
+support	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+either	O
+directly	O
+or	O
+through	O
+third-party	O
+community	O
+based	O
+ports	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+original	O
+development	O
+tools	O
+used	O
+for	O
+building	O
+both	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+applications	O
+and	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+programs	O
+are	O
+found	O
+within	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Application
+toolchain	I-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+includes	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Application
+Compiler	I-Application
+Collection	I-Application
+(	O
+GCC	B-Application
+)	O
+and	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Application
+Build	I-Application
+System	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Amongst	O
+others	O
+,	O
+GCC	B-Application
+provides	O
+compilers	B-Language
+for	O
+Ada	B-Language
+,	O
+C	B-Language
+,	O
+C++	B-Language
+,	O
+Go	B-Application
+and	O
+Fortran	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+programming	O
+languages	O
+have	O
+a	O
+cross-platform	O
+reference	O
+implementation	O
+that	O
+supports	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+for	O
+example	O
+PHP	B-Application
+,	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Ruby	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+,	O
+Java	B-Language
+,	O
+Go	B-Application
+,	O
+Rust	B-Application
+and	O
+Haskell	B-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+First	O
+released	O
+in	O
+2003	O
+,	O
+the	O
+LLVM	B-Application
+project	O
+provides	O
+an	O
+alternative	O
+cross-platform	O
+open-source	B-Application
+compiler	B-Language
+for	O
+many	O
+languages	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Proprietary	B-Application
+compilers	B-Language
+for	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+include	O
+the	O
+Intel	B-Language
+C++	I-Language
+Compiler	I-Language
+,	O
+Sun	B-Application
+Studio	I-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+IBM	B-Language
+XL	I-Language
+C/C	I-Language
+++	I-Language
+Compiler	I-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+BASIC	O
+in	O
+the	O
+form	O
+of	O
+Visual	B-Language
+Basic	I-Language
+is	O
+supported	O
+in	O
+such	O
+forms	O
+as	O
+Gambas	B-Language
+,	O
+FreeBASIC	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+XBasic	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+in	O
+terms	O
+of	O
+terminal	O
+programming	O
+or	O
+QuickBASIC	B-Language
+or	O
+Turbo	B-Language
+BASIC	I-Language
+programming	O
+in	O
+the	O
+form	O
+of	O
+QB64	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+common	O
+feature	O
+of	O
+Unix-like	B-Operating_System
+systems	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+includes	O
+traditional	O
+specific-purpose	O
+programming	O
+languages	O
+targeted	O
+at	O
+scripting	B-Language
+,	O
+text	O
+processing	O
+and	O
+system	O
+configuration	O
+and	O
+management	O
+in	O
+general	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+support	O
+shell	B-Language
+scripts	I-Language
+,	O
+awk	B-Application
+,	O
+sed	B-Application
+and	O
+make	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+For	O
+example	O
+,	O
+regular	B-Language
+expressions	I-Language
+are	O
+supported	O
+in	O
+programs	O
+like	O
+grep	B-Application
+and	O
+locate	B-Application
+,	O
+the	O
+traditional	B-Application
+Unix	I-Application
+MTA	B-Protocol
+Sendmail	B-Application
+contains	O
+its	O
+own	O
+Turing	B-Algorithm
+complete	I-Algorithm
+scripting	B-Language
+system	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+advanced	O
+text	B-Application
+editor	I-Application
+GNU	B-Application
+Emacs	I-Application
+is	O
+built	O
+around	O
+a	O
+general	O
+purpose	O
+Lisp	B-Language
+interpreter	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+distributions	B-Application
+also	O
+include	O
+support	O
+for	O
+PHP	B-Application
+,	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Ruby	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+and	O
+other	O
+dynamic	B-Language
+languages	I-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+While	O
+not	O
+as	O
+common	O
+,	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+also	O
+supports	O
+C#	B-Application
+(	O
+via	O
+Mono	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+Vala	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+Scheme	B-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Guile	O
+Scheme	B-Language
+acts	O
+as	O
+an	O
+extension	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+targeting	O
+the	B-Operating_System
+GNU	I-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+utilities	O
+,	O
+seeking	O
+to	O
+make	B-Application
+the	O
+conventionally	O
+small	O
+,	O
+static	O
+,	O
+compiled	B-Language
+C	B-Language
+programs	I-Language
+of	O
+Unix	B-Operating_System
+design	I-Operating_System
+rapidly	O
+and	O
+dynamically	O
+extensible	O
+via	O
+an	O
+elegant	O
+,	O
+functional	B-Language
+high-level	O
+scripting	B-Language
+system	O
+;	O
+many	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+programs	O
+can	O
+be	O
+compiled	B-Language
+with	O
+optional	O
+Guile	O
+bindings	B-Application
+to	O
+this	O
+end	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+number	O
+of	O
+Java	B-Language
+virtual	I-Language
+machines	I-Language
+and	O
+development	O
+kits	O
+run	O
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+including	O
+the	O
+original	O
+Sun	O
+Microsystems	O
+JVM	B-Language
+(	O
+HotSpot	B-Language
+)	O
+,	O
+and	O
+IBM	O
+'s	O
+J2SE	O
+RE	O
+,	O
+as	O
+well	O
+as	O
+many	O
+open-source	B-Application
+projects	O
+like	O
+Kaffe	B-Language
+and	O
+Jikes	B-Language
+RVM	I-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+GNOME	B-Application
+and	O
+KDE	B-Application
+are	O
+popular	O
+desktop	O
+environments	O
+and	O
+provide	O
+a	O
+framework	O
+for	O
+developing	O
+applications	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+These	O
+projects	O
+are	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+GTK	B-Application
+and	O
+Qt	B-Language
+widget	B-Library
+toolkits	I-Library
+,	O
+respectively	O
+,	O
+which	O
+can	O
+also	O
+be	O
+used	O
+independently	O
+of	O
+the	O
+larger	O
+framework	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+are	O
+a	O
+number	O
+of	O
+Integrated	B-Application
+development	I-Application
+environments	I-Application
+available	O
+including	O
+Anjuta	B-Language
+,	O
+Code::Blocks	B-Language
+,	O
+CodeLite	B-Language
+,	O
+Eclipse	B-Application
+,	O
+Geany	B-Language
+,	O
+ActiveState	B-Language
+Komodo	I-Language
+,	O
+KDevelop	B-Language
+,	O
+Lazarus	B-Language
+,	O
+MonoDevelop	B-Language
+,	O
+NetBeans	B-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+Qt	B-Language
+Creator	I-Language
+,	O
+while	O
+the	O
+long-established	O
+editors	O
+Vim	B-Application
+,	O
+nano	B-Application
+and	O
+Emacs	B-Application
+remain	O
+popular	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+is	O
+a	O
+widely	O
+ported	O
+operating	B-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+available	O
+for	O
+devices	O
+ranging	O
+from	O
+mobile	O
+phones	O
+to	O
+supercomputers	B-Architecture
+;	O
+it	O
+runs	O
+on	O
+a	O
+highly	O
+diverse	O
+range	O
+of	O
+computer	B-General_Concept
+architectures	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+including	O
+ARM-based	O
+Android	B-Application
+smartphones	B-Application
+and	O
+the	O
+IBM	B-Device
+Z	I-Device
+mainframes	B-Architecture
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Specialized	O
+distributions	B-Application
+and	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+forks	B-Application
+exist	O
+for	O
+less	O
+mainstream	O
+architectures	O
+;	O
+for	O
+example	O
+,	O
+the	O
+ELKS	B-Application
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+fork	B-Application
+can	O
+run	O
+on	O
+Intel	B-General_Concept
+8086	I-General_Concept
+or	O
+Intel	B-General_Concept
+80286	I-General_Concept
+16-bit	B-Device
+microprocessors	O
+,	O
+while	O
+the	O
+µClinux	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+fork	B-Application
+may	O
+run	O
+on	O
+systems	O
+without	O
+a	O
+memory	B-General_Concept
+management	I-General_Concept
+unit	I-General_Concept
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+kernel	B-Operating_System
+also	O
+runs	O
+on	O
+architectures	O
+that	O
+were	O
+only	O
+ever	O
+intended	O
+to	O
+use	O
+a	O
+manufacturer-created	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+Macintosh	B-Device
+computers	O
+(	O
+with	O
+PowerPC	B-Architecture
+,	O
+Intel	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Apple	B-Device
+silicon	I-Device
+processors	O
+)	O
+,	O
+PDAs	B-Application
+,	O
+video	B-Device
+game	I-Device
+consoles	I-Device
+,	O
+portable	O
+music	O
+players	O
+,	O
+and	O
+mobile	O
+phones	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+has	O
+a	O
+reputation	O
+of	O
+supporting	O
+old	O
+hardware	O
+very	O
+well	O
+by	O
+maintaining	O
+standardized	O
+drivers	O
+for	O
+a	O
+long	O
+time	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+are	O
+several	O
+industry	O
+associations	O
+and	O
+hardware	O
+conferences	O
+devoted	O
+to	O
+maintaining	O
+and	O
+improving	O
+support	O
+for	O
+diverse	O
+hardware	O
+under	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+FreedomHEC	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Over	O
+time	O
+,	O
+support	O
+for	O
+different	O
+hardware	O
+has	O
+improved	O
+in	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+resulting	O
+in	O
+any	O
+off-the-shelf	O
+purchase	O
+having	O
+a	O
+"	O
+good	O
+chance	O
+"	O
+of	O
+being	O
+compatible	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Many	O
+quantitative	O
+studies	O
+of	O
+free/open	B-License
+-source	I-License
+software	I-License
+focus	O
+on	O
+topics	O
+including	O
+market	O
+share	O
+and	O
+reliability	O
+,	O
+with	O
+numerous	O
+studies	O
+specifically	O
+examining	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+market	O
+is	O
+growing	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Application
+operating	I-Application
+system	I-Application
+market	O
+size	O
+is	O
+expected	O
+to	O
+see	O
+a	O
+growth	O
+of	O
+19.2	O
+%	O
+by	O
+2027	O
+,	O
+reaching	O
+$15.64	O
+billion	O
+,	O
+compared	O
+to	O
+$3.89	O
+billion	O
+in	O
+2019	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Analysts	O
+and	O
+proponents	O
+attribute	O
+the	O
+relative	O
+success	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+to	O
+its	O
+security	O
+,	O
+reliability	O
+,	O
+low	O
+cost	O
+,	O
+and	O
+freedom	O
+from	O
+vendor	O
+lock-in	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+web	O
+server	B-Application
+statistics	O
+(	O
+that	O
+is	O
+,	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+numbers	O
+recorded	O
+from	O
+visits	O
+to	O
+websites	O
+by	O
+client	O
+devices	O
+)	O
+,	O
+,	O
+the	O
+estimated	O
+market	O
+share	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+on	O
+desktop	B-Device
+computers	I-Device
+is	O
+around	O
+2.5	O
+%	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+comparison	O
+,	O
+Microsoft	B-Application
+Windows	I-Application
+has	O
+a	O
+market	O
+share	O
+of	O
+around	O
+75.5	O
+%	O
+,	O
+while	O
+macOS	B-Application
+covers	O
+around	O
+14.9	O
+%	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+W3Cook	O
+publishes	O
+stats	O
+that	O
+use	O
+the	O
+top	O
+1,000,000	O
+Alexa	O
+domains	O
+,	O
+which	O
+estimate	O
+that	O
+96.55	O
+%	O
+of	O
+web	O
+servers	B-Application
+run	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+1.73	O
+%	O
+run	O
+Windows	O
+,	O
+and	O
+1.72	O
+%	O
+run	O
+FreeBSD	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+W3Techs	O
+publishes	O
+stats	O
+that	O
+use	O
+the	O
+top	O
+10,000,000	O
+Alexa	O
+domains	O
+and	O
+the	O
+top	O
+1,000,000	O
+Tranco	O
+domains	O
+,	O
+updated	O
+monthly	O
+and	O
+as	O
+of	O
+November	O
+2020	O
+estimate	O
+that	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+used	O
+by	O
+39%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+web	O
+servers	B-Application
+,	O
+versus	O
+21.9	O
+%	O
+being	O
+used	O
+by	O
+Microsoft	B-Application
+Windows	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+40.1	O
+%	O
+used	O
+other	O
+types	O
+of	O
+Unix	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+IDC	O
+'s	O
+Q1	O
+2007	O
+report	O
+indicated	O
+that	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+held	O
+12.7	O
+%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+overall	O
+server	B-Application
+market	O
+at	O
+that	O
+time	O
+;	O
+this	O
+estimate	O
+was	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+number	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+servers	B-Application
+sold	O
+by	O
+various	O
+companies	O
+,	O
+and	O
+did	O
+not	O
+include	O
+server	B-Application
+hardware	O
+purchased	O
+separately	O
+that	O
+had	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+installed	O
+on	O
+it	O
+later	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Android	B-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+has	O
+become	O
+the	O
+dominant	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+for	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+July	O
+2022	O
+,	O
+71.9	O
+%	O
+of	O
+smartphones	B-Application
+accessing	O
+the	O
+internet	O
+worldwide	O
+used	O
+Android	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Android	B-Application
+is	O
+also	O
+a	O
+popular	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+for	O
+tablets	B-Device
+,	O
+being	O
+responsible	O
+for	O
+more	O
+than	O
+60%	O
+of	O
+tablet	B-Device
+sales	O
+as	O
+of	O
+2013	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+web	O
+server	B-Application
+statistics	O
+,	O
+Android	B-Application
+has	O
+a	O
+market	O
+share	O
+of	O
+about	O
+71%	O
+,	O
+with	O
+iOS	B-Application
+holding	O
+28%	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+remaining	O
+1%	O
+attributed	O
+to	O
+various	O
+niche	O
+platforms	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+For	O
+years	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+has	O
+been	O
+the	O
+platform	O
+of	O
+choice	O
+in	O
+the	O
+film	O
+industry	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+first	O
+major	O
+film	O
+produced	O
+on	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+servers	B-Application
+was	O
+1997	O
+'s	O
+Titanic	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Since	O
+then	O
+major	O
+studios	O
+including	O
+DreamWorks	O
+Animation	O
+,	O
+Pixar	O
+,	O
+Weta	O
+Digital	O
+,	O
+and	O
+Industrial	O
+Light	O
+&	O
+Magic	O
+have	O
+migrated	O
+to	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+Movies	O
+Group	O
+,	O
+more	O
+than	O
+95%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+servers	B-Application
+and	O
+desktops	O
+at	O
+large	O
+animation	O
+and	O
+visual	O
+effects	O
+companies	O
+use	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+have	O
+also	O
+gained	O
+popularity	O
+with	O
+various	O
+local	O
+and	O
+national	O
+governments	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+News	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Russian	O
+military	O
+creating	O
+its	O
+own	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+has	O
+also	O
+surfaced	O
+,	O
+and	O
+has	O
+come	O
+to	O
+fruition	O
+as	O
+the	O
+G.H.ost	O
+Project	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Indian	O
+state	O
+of	O
+Kerala	O
+has	O
+gone	O
+to	O
+the	O
+extent	O
+of	O
+mandating	O
+that	O
+all	O
+state	O
+high	O
+schools	O
+run	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+on	O
+their	O
+computers	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+China	O
+uses	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+exclusively	O
+as	O
+the	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+for	O
+its	O
+Loongson	B-Language
+processor	O
+family	O
+to	O
+achieve	O
+technology	O
+independence	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+Spain	O
+,	O
+some	O
+regions	O
+have	O
+developed	O
+their	O
+own	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+are	O
+widely	O
+used	O
+in	O
+education	O
+and	O
+official	O
+institutions	O
+,	O
+like	O
+gnuLinEx	O
+in	O
+Extremadura	O
+and	O
+Guadalinex	O
+in	O
+Andalusia	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+France	O
+and	O
+Germany	O
+have	O
+also	O
+taken	O
+steps	O
+toward	O
+the	O
+adoption	O
+of	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+North	O
+Korea	O
+'s	O
+Red	O
+Star	O
+OS	O
+,	O
+developed	O
+since	O
+2002	O
+,	O
+is	O
+based	O
+on	O
+a	O
+version	O
+of	O
+Fedora	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+is	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+General	I-License
+Public	I-License
+License	I-License
+(	O
+GPL	B-License
+)	O
+,	O
+version	O
+2	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+GPL	B-License
+requires	O
+that	O
+anyone	O
+who	O
+distributes	O
+software	O
+based	O
+on	O
+source	O
+code	O
+under	O
+this	O
+license	O
+must	O
+make	B-Application
+the	O
+originating	O
+source	O
+code	O
+(	O
+and	O
+any	O
+modifications	O
+)	O
+available	O
+to	O
+the	O
+recipient	O
+under	O
+the	O
+same	O
+terms	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Other	O
+key	O
+components	O
+of	O
+a	O
+typical	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+are	O
+also	O
+mainly	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GPL	B-License
+,	O
+but	O
+they	O
+may	O
+use	O
+other	O
+licenses	O
+;	O
+many	O
+libraries	B-Library
+use	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-Application
+Lesser	I-Application
+General	I-Application
+Public	I-Application
+License	I-Application
+(	O
+LGPL	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+a	O
+more	O
+permissive	O
+variant	O
+of	O
+the	O
+GPL	B-License
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+X.Org	B-Operating_System
+implementation	O
+of	O
+the	O
+X	B-Operating_System
+Window	I-Operating_System
+System	I-Operating_System
+uses	O
+the	B-License
+MIT	I-License
+License	I-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Torvalds	O
+states	O
+that	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+will	O
+not	O
+move	O
+from	O
+version	O
+2	O
+of	O
+the	O
+GPL	B-License
+to	O
+version	O
+3	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+2001	O
+study	O
+of	O
+Red	O
+Hat	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+7.1	O
+found	O
+that	O
+this	O
+distribution	O
+contained	O
+30	O
+million	O
+source	O
+lines	O
+of	O
+code	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+According	O
+to	O
+the	O
+study	O
+,	O
+if	O
+all	O
+this	O
+software	O
+had	O
+been	O
+developed	O
+by	O
+conventional	O
+proprietary	B-Application
+means	O
+,	O
+it	O
+would	O
+have	O
+cost	O
+about	O
+to	O
+develop	O
+in	O
+in	O
+the	O
+United	O
+States	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+of	O
+the	O
+source	O
+code	O
+(	O
+71%	O
+)	O
+was	O
+written	O
+in	O
+the	O
+C	B-Language
+programming	I-Language
+language	I-Language
+,	O
+but	O
+many	O
+other	O
+languages	O
+were	O
+used	O
+,	O
+including	O
+C++	B-Language
+,	O
+Lisp	B-Language
+,	O
+assembly	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+,	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+,	O
+Fortran	B-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+various	O
+shell	B-Language
+scripting	I-Language
+languages	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Slightly	O
+over	O
+half	O
+of	O
+all	O
+lines	O
+of	O
+code	O
+were	O
+licensed	B-License
+under	O
+the	O
+GPL	B-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+itself	O
+was	O
+2.4	O
+million	O
+lines	O
+of	O
+code	O
+,	O
+or	O
+8%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+total	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+the	O
+United	O
+States	O
+,	O
+the	O
+name	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+a	O
+trademark	O
+registered	O
+to	O
+Linus	O
+Torvalds	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Initially	O
+,	O
+nobody	O
+registered	O
+it	O
+,	O
+but	O
+on	O
+August	O
+15	O
+,	O
+1994	O
+,	O
+William	O
+R	O
+.	O
+Della	O
+Croce	O
+,	O
+Jr.	O
+filed	O
+for	O
+the	O
+trademark	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+then	O
+demanded	O
+royalties	O
+from	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributors	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+licensing	O
+of	O
+the	O
+trademark	O
+has	O
+since	O
+been	O
+handled	O
+by	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+Mark	O
+Institute	O
+(	O
+LMI	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+LMI	O
+originally	O
+charged	O
+a	O
+nominal	O
+sublicensing	O
+fee	O
+for	O
+use	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+name	O
+as	O
+part	O
+of	O
+trademarks	O
+,	O
+but	O
+later	O
+changed	O
+this	O
+in	O
+favor	O
+of	O
+offering	O
+a	O
+free	B-Application
+,	O
+perpetual	O
+worldwide	O
+sublicense	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	B-Operating_System
+Free	I-Operating_System
+Software	I-Operating_System
+Foundation	I-Operating_System
+(	O
+FSF	O
+)	O
+prefers	O
+GNU/Linux	B-Application
+as	O
+the	O
+name	O
+when	O
+referring	O
+to	O
+the	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+as	O
+a	O
+whole	O
+,	O
+because	O
+it	O
+considers	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+to	O
+be	O
+variants	B-Application
+of	O
+the	B-Operating_System
+GNU	I-Operating_System
+operating	I-Operating_System
+system	I-Operating_System
+initiated	O
+in	O
+1983	O
+by	O
+Richard	O
+Stallman	O
+,	O
+president	O
+of	O
+the	O
+FSF	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+They	O
+explicitly	O
+take	O
+no	O
+issue	O
+over	O
+the	O
+name	O
+Android	B-Application
+for	O
+the	O
+Android	B-Application
+OS	I-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+also	O
+an	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+as	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+is	O
+not	O
+a	O
+part	O
+of	O
+it	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+minority	O
+of	O
+public	O
+figures	O
+and	O
+software	O
+projects	O
+other	O
+than	O
+Stallman	O
+and	O
+the	O
+FSF	O
+,	O
+notably	O
+Debian	O
+(	O
+which	O
+had	O
+been	O
+sponsored	O
+by	O
+the	O
+FSF	O
+up	O
+to	O
+1996	O
+)	O
+,	O
+also	O
+use	O
+GNU/Linux	B-Application
+when	O
+referring	O
+to	O
+the	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+system	I-General_Concept
+as	O
+a	O
+whole	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Most	O
+media	O
+and	O
+common	O
+usage	O
+,	O
+however	O
+,	O
+refers	O
+to	O
+this	O
+family	O
+of	O
+operating	B-General_Concept
+systems	I-General_Concept
+simply	O
+as	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+as	O
+do	O
+many	O
+large	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+(	O
+for	O
+example	O
+,	O
+SUSE	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+Red	O
+Hat	O
+Enterprise	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+By	O
+contrast	O
+,	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distributions	I-Application
+containing	O
+only	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+use	O
+"	O
+GNU/Linux	B-Application
+"	O
+or	O
+simply	O
+"	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+"	O
+,	O
+such	O
+as	O
+Trisquel	B-Application
+GNU/Linux	I-Application
+,	O
+Parabola	O
+GNU/Linux	B-Application
+-libre	O
+,	O
+BLAG	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+and	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+gNewSense	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+,	O
+about	O
+8%	O
+to	O
+13%	O
+of	O
+the	O
+lines	O
+of	O
+code	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Application
+distribution	I-Application
+Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
+(	O
+version	O
+"	O
+Natty	O
+"	O
+)	O
+is	O
+made	O
+of	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+components	O
+(	O
+the	O
+range	O
+depending	O
+on	O
+whether	O
+GNOME	B-Application
+is	O
+considered	O
+part	O
+of	O
+GNU	B-Operating_System
+)	O
+;	O
+meanwhile	O
+,	O
+6%	O
+is	O
+taken	O
+by	O
+the	O
+Linux	B-Operating_System
+kernel	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+increased	O
+to	O
+9%	O
+when	O
+including	O
+its	O
+direct	O
+dependencies	O
+.	O
+</s>

wikiser-samples/Vim_(text_editor).txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2147 @@
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+(	O
+;	O
+a	O
+contraction	O
+of	O
+Vi	B-Application
+IMproved	I-Application
+)	O
+is	O
+a	O
+free	B-License
+and	I-License
+open-source	I-License
+,	O
+screen-based	O
+text	B-Application
+editor	I-Application
+program	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+It	O
+is	O
+an	O
+improved	O
+clone	O
+of	O
+Bill	O
+Joy	O
+'s	O
+vi	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+author	O
+,	O
+Bram	O
+Moolenaar	O
+,	O
+derived	O
+Vim	B-Application
+from	O
+a	O
+port	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+editor	O
+for	O
+Amiga	B-Device
+and	O
+released	O
+a	O
+version	O
+to	O
+the	O
+public	O
+in	O
+1991	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+is	O
+designed	O
+for	O
+use	O
+both	O
+from	O
+a	O
+command-line	B-Application
+interface	I-Application
+and	O
+as	O
+a	O
+standalone	O
+application	O
+in	O
+a	O
+graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Since	O
+its	O
+release	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Amiga	B-Device
+,	O
+cross-platform	B-Operating_System
+development	O
+has	O
+made	O
+it	O
+available	O
+on	O
+many	O
+other	O
+systems	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+2018	O
+,	O
+it	O
+was	O
+voted	O
+the	O
+most	O
+popular	O
+editor	O
+amongst	O
+Linux	B-Application
+Journal	O
+readers	O
+;	O
+in	O
+2015	O
+the	O
+Stack	B-Error_Name
+Overflow	I-Error_Name
+developer	O
+survey	O
+found	O
+it	O
+to	O
+be	O
+the	O
+third	O
+most	O
+popular	O
+text	B-Application
+editor	I-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+in	O
+2019	O
+the	O
+fifth	O
+most	O
+popular	O
+development	O
+environment	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+forerunner	O
+,	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+(	O
+ST	O
+Editor	O
+for	O
+VI	B-Application
+Enthusiasts	O
+)	O
+,	O
+was	O
+created	O
+by	O
+Tim	O
+Thompson	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Atari	B-Device
+ST	I-Device
+in	O
+1987	O
+and	O
+further	O
+developed	O
+by	O
+Tony	O
+Andrews	O
+and	O
+G.R.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Basing	O
+his	O
+work	O
+on	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+,	O
+Bram	O
+Moolenaar	O
+began	O
+working	O
+on	O
+Vim	B-Application
+for	O
+the	O
+Amiga	B-Device
+computer	I-Device
+in	O
+1988	O
+,	O
+with	O
+the	O
+first	O
+public	O
+release	O
+(	O
+Vim	B-Application
+v1.14	O
+)	O
+in	O
+1991	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+At	O
+the	O
+time	O
+of	O
+its	O
+first	O
+release	O
+,	O
+the	O
+name	O
+"	O
+Vim	B-Application
+"	O
+was	O
+an	O
+acronym	O
+for	O
+"	O
+Vi	B-Application
+IMitation	O
+"	O
+,	O
+but	O
+this	O
+changed	O
+to	O
+"	O
+ '	O
+Vi	B-Application
+IMproved	I-Application
+"	O
+late	O
+in	O
+1993	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Date	O
+Version	O
+Changes	O
+and	O
+additions	O
+June	O
+,	O
+1987	O
+N/A	O
+Tim	O
+Thompson	O
+releases	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+(	O
+ST	O
+editor	O
+for	O
+VI	B-Application
+enthusiasts	O
+)	O
+,	O
+a	O
+limited	O
+vi	B-Application
+clone	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Atari	B-Device
+ST	I-Device
+,	O
+posting	O
+the	O
+source	O
+on	O
+Usenet	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+June	O
+,	O
+1988	O
+N/A	O
+Tony	O
+Andrews	O
+improves	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+ports	O
+it	O
+to	O
+Unix	B-Application
+and	O
+OS/2	B-Application
+,	O
+releasing	O
+version	O
+3.10	O
+on	O
+Usenet	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+1988	O
+1.0	O
+Bram	O
+Moolenaar	O
+creates	O
+Vi	B-Application
+IMitation	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Amiga	B-Device
+,	O
+based	O
+on	O
+Stevie	B-Language
+,	O
+never	O
+publicly	O
+released	O
+November	O
+2	O
+,	O
+1991	O
+1.14	O
+First	O
+public	O
+release	O
+for	O
+the	O
+Amiga	B-Device
+on	O
+Fred	O
+Fish	O
+disk	O
+#591	O
+1992	O
+1.22	O
+Port	O
+to	O
+Unix	B-Application
+,	O
+never	O
+publicly	O
+released	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+now	O
+competes	O
+with	O
+vi	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+December	O
+14	O
+,	O
+1993	O
+2.0	O
+This	O
+is	O
+the	O
+first	O
+release	O
+using	O
+the	O
+name	O
+Vi	B-Application
+IMproved	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+August	O
+12	O
+,	O
+1994	O
+3.0	O
+Support	O
+for	O
+multiple	O
+windows	B-Application
+May	O
+29	O
+,	O
+1996	O
+4.0	O
+Graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+February	O
+19	O
+,	O
+1998	O
+5.0	O
+Syntax	O
+highlighting	O
+,	O
+basic	O
+scripting	B-Language
+(	O
+user	O
+defined	O
+functions	O
+,	O
+commands	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+)	O
+</s>
+<s>
+April	O
+6	O
+,	O
+1998	O
+5.1	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+various	O
+improvements	O
+April	O
+27	O
+,	O
+1998	O
+5.2	O
+Long	O
+line	O
+support	O
+,	O
+file	O
+browser	O
+,	O
+dialogs	O
+,	O
+popup	O
+menu	O
+,	O
+select	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+session	O
+files	O
+,	O
+user	O
+defined	O
+functions	O
+and	O
+commands	O
+,	O
+Tcl	B-Operating_System
+interface	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+August	O
+31	O
+,	O
+1998	O
+5.3	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+July	O
+25	O
+,	O
+1999	O
+5.4	O
+Basic	O
+file	O
+encryption	O
+,	O
+various	O
+improvements	O
+September	O
+19	O
+,	O
+1999	O
+5.5	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+various	O
+improvements	O
+January	O
+16	O
+,	O
+2000	O
+5.6	O
+New	O
+syntax	O
+files	O
+,	O
+bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+June	O
+24	O
+,	O
+2000	O
+5.7	O
+New	O
+syntax	O
+files	O
+,	O
+bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+May	O
+31	O
+,	O
+2001	O
+5.8	O
+New	O
+syntax	O
+files	O
+,	O
+bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+September	O
+26	O
+,	O
+2001	O
+6.0	O
+Folding	B-Application
+,	O
+plugins	B-Application
+,	O
+multi-language	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+March	O
+24	O
+,	O
+2002	O
+6.1	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+June	O
+1	O
+,	O
+2003	O
+6.2	O
+GTK2	O
+and	O
+libgnome2	O
+support	O
+,	O
+Arabic	O
+language	O
+support	O
+,	O
+:try	O
+command	O
+,	O
+minor	O
+features	O
+,	O
+bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+June	O
+7	O
+,	O
+2004	O
+6.3	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+translation	O
+updates	O
+,	O
+mark	O
+improvements	O
+October	O
+15	O
+,	O
+2005	O
+6.4	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+updates	O
+to	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+Ruby	B-Language
+support	O
+May	O
+7	O
+,	O
+2006	O
+7.0	O
+Spell	B-Application
+checking	I-Application
+,	O
+code	O
+completion	O
+,	O
+tab	O
+pages	O
+(	O
+multiple	O
+viewports/window	O
+layouts	O
+)	O
+,	O
+current	O
+line	O
+and	O
+column	O
+highlighting	O
+,	O
+undo	B-Application
+branches	O
+,	O
+and	O
+more	O
+May	O
+12	O
+,	O
+2007	O
+7.1	O
+Bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+new	O
+syntax	O
+and	O
+runtime	O
+files	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+August	O
+9	O
+,	O
+2008	O
+7.2	O
+Floating	O
+point	O
+support	O
+in	O
+scripts	O
+,	O
+refactored	O
+screen	O
+drawing	O
+code	O
+,	O
+bug	B-Error_Name
+fixes	O
+,	O
+new	O
+syntax	O
+files	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+August	O
+15	O
+,	O
+2010	O
+7.3	O
+Lua	B-Language
+support	O
+,	O
+Python3	B-Language
+support	O
+,	O
+Blowfish	B-Algorithm
+encryption	O
+,	O
+persistent	O
+undo/redo	B-Application
+August	O
+10	O
+,	O
+2013	O
+7.4Google	O
+Discussiegroepen	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+A	O
+new	O
+,	O
+faster	O
+regular	B-Language
+expression	I-Language
+engine	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+September	O
+12	O
+,	O
+2016	O
+8.0	O
+Asynchronous	B-Architecture
+I/O	I-Architecture
+support	O
+,	O
+jobs	O
+,	O
+lambdas	B-General_Concept
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+May	O
+18	O
+,	O
+2018	O
+8.1	O
+Terminal	B-Application
+window	I-Application
+support	O
+and	O
+terminal	O
+gdb	O
+plugin	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+December	O
+13	O
+,	O
+2019	O
+8.2	O
+Popup	O
+windows	B-Application
+,	O
+text	O
+properties	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+is	O
+released	O
+under	O
+the	O
+Vim	B-Application
+license	O
+,	O
+which	O
+includes	O
+some	O
+charityware	B-License
+clauses	O
+that	O
+encourage	O
+users	O
+who	O
+enjoy	O
+the	O
+software	O
+to	O
+consider	O
+donating	O
+to	O
+children	O
+in	O
+Uganda	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Vim	B-Application
+license	O
+is	O
+compatible	O
+with	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+General	I-License
+Public	I-License
+License	I-License
+through	O
+a	O
+special	O
+clause	O
+allowing	O
+distribution	O
+of	O
+modified	O
+copies	O
+under	O
+the	O
+GNU	B-License
+GPL	I-License
+version	I-License
+2.0	I-License
+or	I-License
+later	I-License
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Like	O
+vi	B-Application
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+interface	O
+is	O
+not	O
+based	O
+on	O
+menus	O
+or	O
+icons	O
+but	O
+on	O
+commands	O
+given	O
+in	O
+a	O
+text	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+;	O
+its	O
+GUI	B-Application
+mode	O
+,	O
+gVim	O
+,	O
+adds	O
+menus	O
+and	O
+toolbars	O
+for	O
+commonly	O
+used	O
+commands	O
+but	O
+the	O
+full	O
+functionality	O
+is	O
+still	O
+expressed	O
+through	O
+its	O
+command	B-Application
+line	I-Application
+mode	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vi	B-Application
+(	O
+and	O
+by	O
+extension	O
+Vim	B-Application
+)	O
+tends	O
+to	O
+allow	O
+a	O
+typist	O
+to	O
+keep	O
+their	O
+fingers	O
+on	O
+the	O
+home	O
+row	O
+,	O
+which	O
+can	O
+be	O
+an	O
+advantage	O
+for	O
+a	O
+touch	B-Device
+typist	I-Device
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+has	O
+a	O
+built-in	O
+tutorial	O
+for	O
+beginners	O
+called	O
+vimtutor	O
+,	O
+which	O
+is	O
+usually	O
+installed	O
+along	O
+with	O
+Vim	B-Application
+,	O
+but	O
+is	O
+a	O
+separate	O
+executable	O
+and	O
+can	O
+be	O
+run	O
+with	O
+a	O
+shell	O
+command	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Vim	B-Application
+Users	O
+ '	O
+Manual	O
+details	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+features	O
+and	O
+can	O
+be	O
+read	O
+from	O
+within	O
+Vim	B-Application
+,	O
+or	O
+found	O
+online	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+also	O
+has	O
+a	O
+built-in	O
+help	O
+facility	O
+(	O
+using	O
+the	O
+:help	O
+command	O
+)	O
+that	O
+allows	O
+users	O
+to	O
+query	O
+and	O
+navigate	O
+through	O
+commands	O
+and	O
+features	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+features	O
+various	O
+special	O
+memory	O
+entries	O
+called	O
+registers	O
+(	O
+not	O
+to	O
+be	O
+confused	O
+with	O
+hardware	O
+or	O
+processor	B-General_Concept
+registers	I-General_Concept
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Like	O
+vi	B-Application
+,	O
+vim	B-Application
+supports	O
+multiple	O
+editing	O
+modes	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+In	O
+Vim	B-Application
+there	O
+are	O
+12	O
+editing	O
+modes	O
+,	O
+6	O
+basic	O
+modes	O
+and	O
+6	O
+variants	O
+:	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Command-line	B-Application
+or	O
+Cmdline	O
+mode	O
+–	O
+provides	O
+a	O
+single	O
+line	O
+input	O
+at	O
+the	O
+bottom	O
+of	O
+the	O
+Vim	B-Application
+window	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+completion	O
+of	O
+the	O
+command	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+returns	O
+to	O
+the	O
+previous	O
+mode	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Ex	B-Device
+mode	I-Device
+mode	O
+–	O
+accepts	O
+a	O
+sequence	O
+of	O
+commands	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+is	O
+highly	O
+customizable	O
+and	O
+extensible	O
+,	O
+making	O
+it	O
+an	O
+attractive	O
+tool	O
+for	O
+users	O
+who	O
+demand	O
+a	O
+large	O
+amount	O
+of	O
+control	O
+and	O
+flexibility	O
+over	O
+their	O
+text	B-Application
+editing	I-Application
+environment	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+also	O
+features	O
+an	O
+"	O
+easy	O
+"	O
+mode	O
+for	O
+users	O
+looking	O
+for	O
+a	O
+simpler	O
+text	B-Application
+editing	I-Application
+solution	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+are	O
+many	O
+plugins	B-Application
+available	O
+that	O
+extend	O
+or	O
+add	O
+new	O
+functionality	O
+to	O
+Vim	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+These	O
+plugins	B-Application
+are	O
+usually	O
+written	O
+in	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+internal	O
+scripting	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+,	O
+vimscript	O
+(	O
+also	O
+known	O
+as	O
+VimL	O
+)	O
+,	O
+but	O
+can	O
+be	O
+written	O
+in	O
+other	O
+languages	O
+as	O
+well	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+There	O
+are	O
+projects	O
+bundling	O
+together	O
+complex	O
+scripts	O
+and	O
+customizations	O
+and	O
+aimed	O
+at	O
+turning	O
+Vim	B-Application
+into	O
+a	O
+tool	O
+for	O
+a	O
+specific	O
+task	O
+or	O
+adding	O
+a	O
+major	O
+flavour	O
+to	O
+its	O
+behaviour	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Examples	O
+include	O
+Cream	B-Application
+,	O
+which	O
+makes	O
+Vim	B-Application
+behave	O
+like	O
+a	O
+click-and-type	O
+editor	O
+,	O
+or	O
+VimOutliner	O
+,	O
+which	O
+provides	O
+a	O
+comfortable	O
+outliner	B-Application
+for	O
+users	O
+of	O
+Unix-like	B-Operating_System
+systems	I-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+has	O
+a	O
+vi	B-Application
+compatibility	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+but	O
+when	O
+that	O
+mode	O
+is	O
+not	O
+used	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+has	O
+many	O
+enhancements	O
+over	O
+vi	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+However	O
+,	O
+even	O
+in	O
+compatibility	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+is	O
+not	O
+entirely	O
+compatible	O
+with	O
+vi	B-Application
+as	O
+defined	O
+in	O
+the	O
+Single	O
+Unix	B-Application
+Specification	O
+and	O
+POSIX	O
+(	O
+e.g.	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+does	O
+not	O
+support	O
+vi	B-Application
+'s	O
+open	O
+mode	O
+,	O
+only	O
+visual	O
+mode	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+developers	O
+state	O
+that	O
+it	O
+is	O
+"	O
+very	O
+much	O
+compatible	O
+with	O
+Vi	B-Application
+"	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Some	O
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+enhancements	O
+include	O
+completion	O
+functions	O
+,	O
+comparison	B-Application
+and	O
+merging	B-General_Concept
+of	O
+files	O
+(	O
+known	O
+as	O
+vimdiff	O
+)	O
+,	O
+a	O
+comprehensive	O
+integrated	O
+help	O
+system	O
+,	O
+extended	O
+regular	B-Language
+expressions	I-Language
+,	O
+scripting	B-Language
+languages	I-Language
+(	O
+both	O
+native	O
+and	O
+through	O
+alternative	O
+scripting	B-Language
+interpreters	O
+such	O
+as	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+,	O
+Ruby	B-Language
+,	O
+Tcl	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+)	O
+</s>
+<s>
+including	O
+support	O
+for	O
+plugins	B-Application
+,	O
+a	O
+graphical	B-Application
+user	I-Application
+interface	I-Application
+(	O
+gvim	O
+)	O
+,	O
+limited	O
+integrated	O
+development	O
+environment-like	O
+features	O
+,	O
+mouse	B-Device
+interaction	O
+(	O
+both	O
+with	O
+and	O
+without	O
+the	O
+GUI	B-Application
+)	O
+,	O
+folding	B-Application
+,	O
+editing	O
+of	O
+compressed	O
+or	O
+archived	O
+files	O
+in	O
+gzip	B-Application
+,	O
+bzip2	B-Application
+,	O
+zip	B-General_Concept
+,	O
+and	O
+tar	B-Application
+format	O
+and	O
+files	O
+over	O
+network	O
+protocols	O
+such	O
+as	O
+SSH	B-Protocol
+,	O
+FTP	B-Protocol
+,	O
+and	O
+HTTP	B-Protocol
+,	O
+session	O
+state	O
+preservation	O
+,	O
+spell	B-Application
+checking	I-Application
+,	O
+split	O
+(	O
+horizontal	O
+and	O
+vertical	O
+)	O
+and	O
+tabbed	O
+windows	B-Application
+,	O
+Unicode	O
+and	O
+other	O
+multi-language	O
+support	O
+,	O
+syntax	O
+highlighting	O
+,	O
+trans-session	O
+command	O
+,	O
+search	O
+and	O
+cursor	O
+position	O
+histories	B-Application
+,	O
+multiple	O
+level	O
+and	O
+branching	O
+undo/redo	B-Application
+history	O
+which	O
+can	O
+persist	O
+across	O
+editing	O
+sessions	O
+,	O
+and	O
+visual	O
+mode	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+While	O
+running	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+saves	O
+the	O
+user	O
+'s	O
+changes	O
+in	O
+a	O
+swap	O
+file	O
+with	O
+the	O
+"	O
+.swp	O
+"	O
+extension	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+If	O
+a	O
+user	O
+tries	O
+to	O
+open	O
+a	O
+file	O
+and	O
+a	O
+swap	O
+file	O
+already	O
+exists	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+will	O
+warn	O
+the	O
+user	O
+,	O
+and	O
+if	O
+the	O
+user	O
+proceeds	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+will	O
+use	O
+a	O
+swap	O
+file	O
+with	O
+the	O
+extension	O
+"	O
+.swo	O
+"	O
+(	O
+or	O
+,	O
+if	O
+there	O
+is	O
+already	O
+more	O
+than	O
+one	O
+swap	O
+file	O
+,	O
+"	O
+.swn	O
+"	O
+,	O
+"	O
+.swm	O
+"	O
+,	O
+etc	O
+.	O
+)	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+(	O
+also	O
+called	O
+Vimscript	O
+or	O
+VimL	O
+)	O
+is	O
+the	O
+scripting	B-Language
+language	I-Language
+built	O
+into	O
+Vim	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Based	O
+on	O
+the	O
+ex	B-Device
+editor	O
+language	O
+of	O
+the	O
+original	O
+vi	B-Application
+editor	I-Application
+,	O
+early	O
+versions	O
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
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+commands	O
+for	O
+control	O
+flow	O
+and	O
+function	O
+definitions	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Since	O
+version	O
+7	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+also	O
+supports	O
+more	O
+advanced	O
+data	O
+types	O
+such	O
+as	O
+lists	O
+and	O
+dictionaries	B-Application
+and	O
+a	O
+simple	O
+form	O
+of	O
+object-oriented	B-Language
+programming	I-Language
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Built-in	O
+functions	O
+such	O
+as	O
+map( )	O
+and	O
+filter( )	O
+allow	O
+a	O
+basic	O
+form	O
+of	O
+functional	B-Language
+programming	I-Language
+,	O
+and	O
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+has	O
+lambda	B-General_Concept
+since	O
+version	O
+8.0	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+is	O
+mostly	O
+written	O
+in	O
+an	O
+imperative	B-Application
+programming	I-Application
+style	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+macros	O
+can	O
+contain	O
+a	O
+sequence	O
+of	O
+normal-mode	O
+commands	O
+,	O
+but	O
+can	O
+also	O
+invoke	O
+ex	B-Device
+commands	O
+or	O
+functions	O
+written	O
+in	O
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+for	O
+more	O
+complex	O
+tasks	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Almost	O
+all	O
+extensions	O
+(	O
+called	O
+plugins	B-Application
+or	O
+more	O
+commonly	O
+scripts	O
+)	O
+of	O
+the	O
+core	O
+Vim	B-Application
+functionality	O
+are	O
+written	O
+in	O
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+,	O
+but	O
+plugins	B-Application
+can	O
+also	O
+utilize	O
+other	O
+languages	O
+like	O
+Perl	B-Language
+,	O
+Python	B-Language
+,	O
+Lua	B-Language
+,	O
+Ruby	B-Language
+,	O
+Tcl	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+or	O
+Racket	B-Operating_System
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+These	O
+plugins	B-Application
+can	O
+be	O
+installed	O
+manually	O
+,	O
+or	O
+through	O
+a	O
+plugin	B-Application
+manager	O
+such	O
+as	O
+Vundle	O
+,	O
+Pathogen	O
+,	O
+or	O
+Vim-Plug	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Vim	B-Application
+script	I-Application
+files	O
+are	O
+stored	O
+as	O
+plain	O
+text	O
+,	O
+similarly	O
+to	O
+other	O
+code	O
+,	O
+and	O
+the	O
+filename	O
+extension	O
+is	O
+usually	O
+.vim	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+One	O
+notable	O
+exception	O
+to	O
+that	O
+is	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+config	B-Protocol
+file	I-Protocol
+,	O
+.vimrc	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Whereas	O
+vi	B-Application
+was	O
+originally	O
+available	O
+only	O
+on	O
+Unix	B-Application
+operating	I-Application
+systems	I-Application
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+has	O
+been	O
+ported	O
+to	O
+many	O
+operating	O
+systems	O
+including	O
+AmigaOS	B-Application
+(	O
+the	O
+initial	O
+target	O
+platform	O
+)	O
+,	O
+Atari	O
+MiNT	B-Application
+,	O
+BeOS	B-Application
+,	O
+DOS	B-Device
+,	O
+Windows	B-Application
+starting	O
+from	O
+Windows	B-Device
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+,	O
+OS/2	B-Application
+,	O
+OS/390	B-Application
+,	O
+MorphOS	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+OpenVMS	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+QNX	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+RISC	B-Operating_System
+OS	I-Operating_System
+,	O
+Linux	B-Application
+,	O
+BSD	B-Operating_System
+,	O
+and	O
+Classic	B-Application
+Mac	I-Application
+OS	I-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Also	O
+,	O
+Vim	B-Application
+is	O
+shipped	O
+with	O
+Apple	O
+macOS	B-Application
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+</s>
+<s>
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+ports	O
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
+are	O
+available	O
+for	O
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+and	O
+iOS	B-Application
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+Neovim	O
+is	O
+a	O
+fork	B-Application
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
+that	O
+strives	O
+to	O
+improve	O
+the	O
+extensibility	O
+and	O
+maintainability	O
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
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+</s>
+<s>
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+features	O
+of	O
+the	O
+fork	B-Application
+include	O
+built-in	O
+Language	O
+Server	O
+Protocol	O
+support	O
+,	O
+support	O
+for	O
+asynchronous	B-Architecture
+I/O	I-Architecture
+,	O
+and	O
+support	O
+for	O
+Lua	B-Language
+scripting	I-Language
+using	O
+luaJIT	B-Application
+language	O
+interpreter	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+Neovim	O
+has	O
+the	O
+same	O
+configuration	O
+syntax	O
+as	O
+Vim	B-Application
+(	O
+unless	O
+vim9script	O
+is	O
+used	O
+)	O
+;	O
+thus	O
+the	O
+same	O
+configuration	B-Protocol
+file	I-Protocol
+can	O
+be	O
+used	O
+with	O
+both	O
+editors	O
+,	O
+although	O
+there	O
+are	O
+minor	O
+differences	O
+in	O
+details	O
+of	O
+options	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+If	O
+the	O
+added	O
+features	O
+of	O
+Neovim	O
+are	O
+not	O
+used	O
+,	O
+Neovim	O
+is	O
+compatible	O
+with	O
+almost	O
+all	O
+of	O
+Vim	B-Application
+'s	O
+features	O
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+Neovim	O
+project	O
+was	O
+started	O
+in	O
+2014	O
+,	O
+with	O
+some	O
+Vim	B-Application
+community	O
+members	O
+offering	O
+early	O
+support	O
+of	O
+the	O
+high-level	O
+refactoring	O
+effort	O
+to	O
+provide	O
+better	O
+scripting	B-Language
+,	O
+plugins	B-Application
+,	O
+and	O
+integration	O
+with	O
+modern	O
+GUIs	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+The	O
+project	O
+is	O
+free	B-Application
+software	I-Application
+and	O
+its	O
+source	O
+code	O
+is	O
+available	O
+on	O
+GitHub	B-Application
+.	O
+</s>
+<s>
+On	O
+October	O
+27	O
+,	O
+2021	O
+,	O
+GitHub	B-Application
+released	O
+a	O
+GitHub	B-Application
+Copilot	I-Application
+(	O
+a	O
+cloud-based	O
+artificial	B-Application
+intelligence	I-Application
+tool	O
+for	O
+autocompleting	O
+code	O
+)	O
+plugin	B-Application
+for	O
+Neovim	O
+as	O
+a	O
+public	O
+repository	O
+.	O
+</s>

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