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@@4014741 Section : Features Scientists hope new methods of biocontrol can stop the advance of this imported pest <p> For more than 50 years , this foreign invader has preyed on anyone or anything that dares to get in its way . It looks like a native , making it difficult to recognize . But its painful sting makes it hard to forget . The Brazilian red fire ant , Solenopsis invicta , is out of control in the southeastern United States and Puerto Rico , state and federal sources say . It is threatening to other insects , wildlife , and people , because it arrived without the natural enemies that usually keep its populations under control . <p> Without successful control , the fire ant , which requires only a warm climate and moderate rainfall to flourish , could eventually cover one-quarter of the United States , according to a 1986 study by the Texas Department of Agriculture . It has already spread across 250 million acres from Georgia to Texas . Attempts to halt its spread with pesticides , which have been largely unsuccessful because control has been only temporary , have cost $200 million . Since @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fire ant has killed off as much as 40% of all native insect species in some areas . <p> Scientists , however , are finding ways to fight back . For example , they hope to release tiny flies of the family Phoridae , which control fire ant populations in Brazil . Researchers at the University of Texas have just brought the flies into the United States for further field study , after having received permission from the US Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . They plan to gather enough data on the flies ' parasitic specificity to obtain permission for its general release within the next year or two . <p> There are several native species of fire ants in the United States , including Solenopsis xyloni and Solenopsis geminata , and two imported species , S. invicta ( red ) and Solenopsis richteri ( black ) . The S. geminata and red imported fire ants look so similar that it can be difficult for even an entomologist to tell them apart , says Larry Gilbert , a professor of zoology and the director of the Brackenridge Field @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ propensity for colony growth <p> Unusual behavioral traits allow the fire ant to form large colonies and to dominate the territories it invades . The fire ant sometimes forms multiple-queen colonies , which are larger than single-queen colonies . No one knows why the fire ant developed this multiple-queen form , which occurs in both the United States and Brazil , but its cause could be genetic , developmental , or a combination of the two , says Sanford Porter , a USDA researcher in Gainesville , Florida . <p> Ants from these polygyne colonies appear less territorial than ants from colonies with a single queen . Because they can better tolerate ants of their species from other colonies , the imported fire ant 's territories overlap and are two to three times more densely populated . The greater density helps the fire ant to more effectively fight off other ant species competing for food . <p> Last year , Porter published a study in the Journal of Economic Entomology 86 : 1344 in which he examined whether multiple-queen colonies of S. invicta were spreading faster than single-queen colonies . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a rate of less than 4% . He learned that the ratio of single- to multiple-queen colonies depends on geography . In Texas , 50% of colonies have multiple queens , in Florida , 15-20% have them , and in Georgia , there are almost exclusively single-queen colonies . <p> Another contributor to the explosion of imported fire-ant growth was mass pesticide sprayings in the 1950s and 1960s , says Stan Temple , a wildlife ecologist from the University of Wisconsin in Madison . " Chemical warfare hastened the advance of the fire ant , " he says . Although imported fire ants were temporarily affected by the treatments , the pesticides more effectively weakened many native ant species in the area , which allowed the multiple-queen colonies of the imported fire ant to revive and flourish . The threat to wildlife and livestock <p> The red imported ant has ten times more colonies per area than any native ant species , and each colony contains more individual ants than do native ant colonies . In addition to the reduction of native S. geminata colonies , the black imported fire @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of S. invicta . It was originally a pest itself , when it was introduced to the United States from Brazil in the 1920s , but now occupies only a small area in northeastern Mississippi and northwestern Alabama . <p> Other ant species have suffered as well . In fact , up to 90% of total native ant populations , and 70% of all native species of ant have been wiped out in some areas , according to Gilbert . He says that seed-harvesting ants have completely disappeared in many areas of Texas . Other groups of arthropods that have lost habitat to the fire ant include ladybugs and many species of spiders , ticks , and cockroaches . <p> In addition to greatly reducing populations of arthropods , the fire ant has harmed other groups of animals . Although there has been anecdotal evidence about fire ant damage to vertebrate populations for years , only now are scientists beginning to do formal studies . A group of graduate students at Texas A &M; University in College Station , led by wildlife biologist Bill Grant , has studied how fire @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , whose small size , only 10-12 grams , makes them vulnerable to the ants . The researchers have found that the presence of the ants changes the mice 's foraging behavior and their use of habitats . The mice spend less time eating , and they keep their distance from areas where the ant is present , to avoid its painful sting . <p> Craig Allen and colleagues of Texas Tech University in Lubbock found that survival of the white-tailed deer fawn was twice as high in areas that were treated to temporarily remove the ant compared to areas inhabited by the ant . The fire ant attacks the fawn by stinging it repeatedly around its ears , eyes , nose , and mouth . The deer can be blinded or killed by toxins in the ant 's sting . <p> Temple 's group has linked the spread of fire ant colonies to the decline in population of the loggerhead shrike , a grassland bird that is endangered in nine states . The shrike breeds in the Midwest , spends its summers there , then migrates south in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 3.7% a year . This decline is faster than that of any other bird in the Midwest , Temple says . <p> Ecologists were long puzzled by the bird 's decline because the shrikes had a good breeding habitat and a high reproductive success rate . When Temple and his colleagues began banding the birds , they discovered that the shrike 's winter survival rates were lower than expected . The scientists looked at changes in the shrike 's winter habitat and found that , in addition to changes in land use , the shrike 's decline in particular counties directly correlated with an increase in fire ants in the same areas . Further investigation revealed that the shrike and fire ant are direct competitors for food sources . Both feed on invertebrates , reptiles , and small mammals . Temple says the fire ant creates a sterile habitat for the wintering shrike ; the migrating shrike settles into this habitat without enough food to support it through the winter . The wildlife biology group at Texas Tech also found loggerhead shrike populations significantly lower in imported fire ant territory @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ year-round have not had the same problems as those that migrate because they select habitats without ants and hold their territories against migrators . The migrating shrike is thus forced to take the leftovers . Evidence suggests that , like the shrike , other migrating grassland birds , including the meadowlark , bluebird , and grassland sparrow , are declining in numbers because of the fire ant , says Temple . <p> Ellen Petersen , a graduate student at Texas A &M,; found that other birds native to fire ant regions are also affected . Bobwhite quail chicks spend less time eating when fire ants are present , because they are trying to avoid being stung . The subsequent reduction in body weight can leave the young quail more vulnerable to predators . Other studies have reported reductions in bird populations due to fire ant predation of eggs that are just beginning to hatch . <p> The imported fire ant also poses a threat to livestock and pets . A February 1994 survey of Texas veterinarians reported money spent on treating fire ant injuries to animals was $750,000 a year @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ said fire ants were a serious threat to animal health , causing blindness , skin infections around sting areas , and sometimes death , especially to newborn or sick animals . <p> For people allergic to its sting , the fire ant can cause anaphylactic shock , or even death . When the fire ant stings , it grabs onto its prey with its mouth and attacks its victims with a stinger on its abdomen . Often , one fire ant stings several times , and the venom it injects causes painful pustules to form , which can leave permanent scars . Fire ants have been known to cause auto accidents , gathering under a car 's floor mats , and attacking the driver in traffic . They can invade homes , chew through electrical wiring , and destroy gardens . Their presence has been known to cause people to move out of their homes . Revenge of the phorid flies <p> Researchers at the University of Texas , along with colleagues Porter , Don Feener of the University of Utah , and Brazilian coworkers , hope that biocontrol methods @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are studying several of the 14 different phorid fly species of the genus Pseudacteon , which specialize in parasitism to S. invicta and related species in Brazil . They hope to determine which species will best control the imported fire ant and which will best thrive in US climate conditions . <p> There are native species of Pseudacteon that attack native fire ants in the southern United States , but they do not attack or control the Brazilian ant . Feener suspects that trail pheromones left by the native ants when they venture from their nest allow the native flies to locate them . The imported ant does not leave pheromones the native flies can recognize , so they do not enter the ant 's foraging areas . <p> " Imported fire ants arrived without a cadre of control agents , " says Gilbert . " Introducing the flies will help make the ants a regular member of the community . " In Brazil , when the fly is around , the fire ant runs for cover and acts less aggressively towards other ant species , giving them a chance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in North America , the imported phorid fly species are not expected to eradicate imported fire ant populations , rather they are expected to reduce the pest ant 's ability to compete . <p> The fire ant has good reason to avoid the phorid . Phorid flies lay their eggs on or into the ant 's thorax or head , depending on the species . After the eggs hatch , the larvae feast on the ant 's head tissue . When they have eaten enough , the ant 's head falls off and " the rest of the body just stands there quivering , " says Porter . The fly then pupates in the ant 's head capsule , which is lying in the bottom of the nest among the other ants . <p> Feener says there is no danger that releasing the imported phorid fly will cause problems for native ant species . He has studied interactions of phorid flies and fire ants , and he says the native and imported species groups evolved geographically separated from each other . <p> Gilbert has considered using the phorid fly in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1981 landmark report in Science ( 214 : 815 ) , which demonstrated the impact of phorid flies on ants . During recent trips to Brazil , studies by Gilbert , University of Texas colleague Matt Orr , and Brazilian scientists Woody Benson and Sergio Seike convinced Gilbert that this plan will work . In Brazil , Pseudacteon flies have a dramatic impact in specifically preventing fire ants from foraging for food , Gilbert says . <p> If the Brazilian Pseudacteon prove to be as host specific as indicated by all the observations in the field and laboratory thus far , Gilbert and his colleagues say they advocate experimental releases into isolated US S. invicta populations . The fly would be released on the edge of the imported ant 's range in Texas to evaluate the effectiveness of phorids in shifting populations back towards native ants . <p> Frank Howarth , an entomologist at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu and an outspoken opponent of biocontrol , says he is skeptical that the behavior of the phorid fly is well enough known to ensure that native ants will not be harmed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that there needs to be more thorough reviews of prerelease data and better postrelease monitoring than there have been in the past . If the imported phorid fly does switch over to native species of Solenopsis , the natives could be much more vulnerable to harm than is the imported fire ant because they have not evolved defenses against the flies , he says . <p> Gilbert agrees with Howarth about the need for care , but he points out that the Pseudacteon specific to the native fire ants have not shifted in 50 years of exposure . He says recent unpublished evidence shows that Pseudacteon have an " antibody-like specificity " to their host ant species . <p> Other researchers also have their doubts about the effectiveness of the phorid flies . Jerry Stimac , a researcher at the University of Florida , says he has little hope the flies will control imported fire ant populations . To get on top of the problem , he says , you have to get down into the nest . Because 50% of fire ants never leave the nest , the fly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Gilbert counters that phorid flies affect the ants indirectly . He says the idea of changing community dynamics as a means of biocontrol has not been fully explored . Other strategies for control <p> Those scientists working on the phorid fly project agree that releasing the fly will not completely eliminate the need for other control methods . Ed Vargo , an entomologist at the University of Texas Brackenridge Field Laboratory , is looking at new ways to wipe out Brazilian fire ant populations by treating the ant with its own pheromones instead of pesticides . Pheromones control how the queens reproduce ; they also control whether workers accept their queens . He hopes to identify these active chemicals and create a treatment that would cause the queens to halt egg production or induce worker ants to kill their queens . <p> Stimac is studying another type of biocontrol for the ant , a fungus called Beauveria bassiana . It is pathogenic to all ant species . He hopes to find a way to distribute the fungus in a bait around fire-ant nests so that it is preferentially foraged by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nests where it can kill the entire population . Howarth argues that the Beauveria could cause even more harm than the phorid fly , because certain strains have been known to attack not only ants , but termites , frogs , and fish . <p> However much effort it will take to develop acceptable methods of control , the need is critical . Gilbert says that in addition to the many problems the fire ant causes for people and livestock , the growing threat to biodiversity is another crucial reason to control the ant . He points out that in central Texas , 20 years ago , you could go out , lift up a rock , and see scorpions , spiders , centipedes , and millipedes . " Now all you see are ants , " he says , " fire ants . " <p> PHOTO ( BLACK AND WHITE ) : The phorid fly is a parasite of the fire ant . Photos : Sanford D. Porter . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK AND WHITE ) : S. invicta worker ants surround their queen . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ than 200,000 fire ants . <p> by Julie Grisham <p> <p> Julie Grisham is a graduate student in science journalism at Boston University and was an intern at BioScience . <p>

@@4014841 Section : ORIGINAL ARTICLES <p> Since plasma endothelin concentration increases with upright posture and decreases with volume expansion , a study was conducted to test whether activation of the baroreceptor reflex releases endothelin into plasma . <p> The effect of passive upright tilt on the plasma concentrations of endothelin and vasopressin was examined in : ( 1 ) normal subjects ; ( 2 ) patients with impaired baroreceptor reflex due to primary autonomic failure ; ( 3 ) patients with normal afferent baroreceptor function but acute inhibition of vasoconstrictor sympathetic outflow ( ie , with vasovagal syncope ) ; and ( 4 ) patients with hypophysial diabetes insipidus . In normal subjects upright tilt did not change arterial pressure and significantly increased the plasma concentrations of endothelin and vasopressin . In patients with autonomic failure , upright tilt induced a considerable fall in arterial pressure , no rise in plasma endothelin , and a slight increase in plasma vasopressin . In subjects with vasovagal syncope , arterial pressure dropped and the plasma concentrations of endothelin and vasopressin rose . In the subjects with diabetes insipidus , arterial pressure fell slightly , without change in plasma concentration of endothelin . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ induces the release of endothelin into plasma , probably from the neurohypophysis , and they raise the possibility that impaired endothelin release contributes to the orthostatic hypotension of patients with primary autonomic failure . Lancet 1991 ; 338 : 1542-45 . <p> Introduction <p> Endothelin-1 is a vasoconstrictor peptide synthesised by endothelial cells ( n1 ) and by neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. ( n2 ) The finding ( n3 ) that in normal subjects plasma concentration of endothelin increased with upright posture and decreased during volume expansion raises the possibility that endothelin is a circulating hormone involved in arterial pressure control . If so , plasma concentration of endothelin-1 ( referred to as endothelin in this article ) would be expected to change with activation of the baroreceptor reflex . To test this hypothesis , we examined the plasma concentration of this peptide before and during upright tilt in normal subjects , in patients with impaired baroreceptor reflex due to primary autonomic failure , ( n4 ) and in patients with vasovagal syncope . <p> Moreover , because endothelin is present in the neurohypophysis and seems @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to determine whether the increase in plasma endothelin during upright tilt is of neurohypophysial origin , we measured plasma vasopressin in our subjects and plasma endothelin in patients with diabetes insipidus due to hypothalamic lesions . Methods <p> The four groups of subjects , all free of diabetes mellitus or , by clinical criteria , of cardiovascular disease were : <p> Group I -- 5 normal subjects ( 2 males and 3 females , mean age 41 SD 14 years ) . <p> Group II -- 5 patients ( 3 males and 2 females , mean age 56 14 years ) with autonomic failure accompanied by central nervous system dysfunction ( ie , multiple system atrophy ) . Criteria for this diagnosis were as previously described. ( n4 , n5 ) All subjects had parkinsonism. 1 also had cerebellar and pyramidal deficits . All patients had severe orthostatic hypotension , abnormal blood pressure and heart rate responses to the Valsalva manoeuvre , and sphincter disturbances . The 3 men had impotence . <p> Group III -- 7 otherwise healthy subjects ( 6 females and 1 male , mean age 38 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a vasovagal episode during upright tilt . The criteria for vasovagal syncope have been described. ( n6 , n7 ) <p> Group IV -- 3 patients with diabetes insipidus due to hypothalamic lesions ( 1 female with eosinophilic granuloma and 2 males with craniopharyngioma , mean age 47 16 years ) . Diabetes insipidus was diagnosed by clinical criteria and all patients needed desmopressin ( desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin ) to maintain water balance . <p> Subjects were admitted to the General Clinical Research Center of the Mount Sinai Hospital . The protocol was approved by the hospital 's institutional review board , and informed consent was obtained from each subject . None of the normal subjects was taking any drugs . Patients with autonomic failure were asked to discontinue all medication at least 12 days before the study . In patients with diabetes insipidus , the last dose of desmopressin was taken the day before the test . <p> Upright tilt stimulation was done as previously described. ( n5 ) Briefly , at 8 am , after an overnight fast , the patient was transferred to a tilt table with foot @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ measured with an automatic sphygmomanometer and heart rate was continuously monitored . An intravenous catheter was pieced in the left arm . After 30 min a blood sample was taken ( supine value ) . Immediately thereafter the patient was tilted 60 degrees upright . Blood pressure was taken every 2 min and blood samples were again collected at about 10 , 20 , and 30 min in the upright position . Patients with hypotension were returned to the horizontal position if they had symptoms of cerebral hypoperfusion . <p> Plasma concentration of endothelin was determined by radioimmunoassay employing anti-endothelin-1 antiserum , 125 I-endothelin-1 , and endothelin-1 standards ( Peninsula Labs , Belmont , California , USA ) . Blood was collected in chilled polypropylene tubes containing aprotinin and edetic acid . The plasma was divided into portions and stored at -80 Celsius until assayed . Plasma ( 2-5ml ) was acidified with equal volumes of 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid ( TFA ) and loaded into Sep-Pak C-18 ' cartridges ( Waters , Milford , Massachusetts , USA ) pre-activated by washing with 60% acetonitrile in 0.1% trifluoroacetic and followed by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 0.1 % trifluoroacetic acid and the eluate was evaporated dry in a centrifugal vacuum concentrator . The residue was resuspended in assay buffer ( 0.1% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline with 1% Triton-X 100 ) . Mean recovery through the extraction process was 75% . Standards and samples were incubated at 4 Celcius for 24 h with a 1/26 400 dilution of rabbit anti-endothelin-1 antibody and again incubated at 4 Celcius for 40 h with 125 I-endothelin-1 . After 2 h incubation at room temperature with goat anti-rabbit IgG and normal rabbit serum , samples were centrifuged and pellets counted in a gamma counter . Vasopressin was determined by radioimmunoassay. ( n8 , n9 ) Noradrenaline was measured by high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection after alumina extraction . Plasma renin activity was measured by radioenzymatic assay . Student 's t-test for paired samples was used when appropriate . All data are shown as mean ( SE ) . Results <p> In normal subjects arterial pressure did not change during upright tilt and the plasma concentrations of both endothelin and vasopressin increased significantly , from 0.10 ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and from 1.32 ( 0.23 ) to 3.37 ( 0.42 ) pmol/l for vasopressin ; p < 0.05 for both variables ( fig 1 ) . In patients with autonomic failure , arterial pressure fell considerably during upright tilt , from 111 ( 6 ) to 66 ( 6 ) mm Hg , p < 0.005 , but plasma endothelin remained unchanged , at 0.17 ( 0.04 ) supine and 0.16 ( 0.05 ) pmol/l upright . There was a modest but significant increase in the plasma concentrations of vasopressin during upright tilt in patients with autonomic failure , from 1.02 ( 0.19 ) to 2.97 ( 0.52 ) pmol/l , p < 0.05 . However , as previously shown , ( n10 ) the rise in plasma vasopressin was clearly inappropriate for the fall in blood pressure in these patients . <p> In the subjects with syncope , arterial pressure fell from 86 ( 4 ) to 50 ( 2 ) mm Hg , p < 0.005 , the degree of change being similar to that in patients with autonomic failure . However , unlike patients with autonomic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the plasma concentration of endothelin from 0.36 ( 0.07 ) to 1.12 ( 0.2 ) pmol/l , p < 0.005 , and a striking increase in plasma vasopressin , from 0.99 ( 0.17 ) to 45.88 ( 21.94 ) pmol/l , p < 0.05 . <p> As expected , upright tilt in normal subjects induced a significant increase in plasma noradrenaline and renin activity ( table ) . In patients with autonomic failure , neither noradrenaline nor renin increased significantly during upright tilt . In subjects with vasovagal syncope , at first plasma noradrenaline increased with upright tilt , as in normal subjects , but it dropped when arterial pressure fell . <p> Because vasopressin and endothelin increased greatly and in parallel as the blood pressure dropped in patients with vasovagal syncope , and because hypotension in these patients is due to acute inhibition of vasoconstrictor sympathetic outflow , ( n11 , n12 ) we hypothesised that the endothelin entering plasma during upright tilt originates in the neurohypophysis rather than in the endothelial cells of the systemic circulation . To test this theory directly , we measured plasma endothelin in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ changed from the supine to the upright position -- and found that upright tilt in these patients lowered arterial pressure from 104 ( 9 ) to 77 ( 8 ) mm Hg but did not increase the plasma concentration of endothelin ( 0.33 0.03 supine and 0.37 0.07 pmol/l upright ) ( fig 2 ) . Discussion <p> Our results suggest that the increase in plasma endothelin induced by change from supine to upright position is mediated by the baroreceptor reflex because the concentration of this peptide increases during upright tilt in normal subjects but not in patients with impaired baroreceptor reflex due to primary autonomic failure . Needless to say , the possibility that patients with autonomic failure clear plasma endothelin more rapidly than do normal individuals can not be excluded from our data . <p> Several lines of evidence suggest that the increase in circulating endothelin induced by orthostasis is due to release of the peptide from the neurohypophysis rather than from endothelial cells in the systemic circulation ( see fig 3 ) . First , in normal subjects and in patients with vasovagal syncope , plasma vasopressin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ syncope there is inhibition of sympathetic flow to blood vessels ( n11 , n12 ) and a decrease in plasma noradrenaline . The afferent and central portions of the baroreceptor reflex arc , however , function normally during syncope , and vasopressin is secreted. ( n10 , n13 ) This finding suggests that , in patients with vasovagal syncope , the afferent connections of the baroreceptor reflex that induced vasopressin release also stimulated endothelin release from the neurohypophysis . Finally , because endothelin is synthesised in paraventricular nuclear neurons and it is stored in the posterior pituitary , ( n2 ) the observation that patients with diabetes insipidus did not release endothelin during upright tilt suggests that the neurohypophysis of these patients is depleted of endothelin as well as of vasopressin . <p> It is unlikely that the increase in plasma endothelin during upright tilt is due to endothelin release from endothelial cells by local haemodynamic factors such as changes in shear stress or pressure. ( n14 ) One would expect that these factors would have also released endothelin in patients with diabetes insipidus or in patients with autonomic failure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ during change from supine to upright position increases plasma endothelin by secretion of the peptide from the neurohypophysis . Supporting this conclusion is the finding that in rats water deprivation depletes the neurophypophysis of endothelin as well as of vasopressin. ( n2 ) <p> In a study with endothelial cells in culture , Emori et al ( n15 ) found that angiotensin II , vasopressin , calcium ionophore , and protein kinase C activation increased the amount of endothelin released . This raises the possibility that either angiotensin II or vasopressin , or both , could stimulate endothelin release from endothelial cells during upright tilt . Although this possibility can not be excluded , Emori et al ( n15 ) had to use vasopressin and angiotensin at the nanomolar range to induce endothelin release , whereas these peptides circulate in plasma at picomolar concentrations during upright tilt. ( n16 ) <p> Because specific inhibitors of endothelin action are not yet available , the physiological function of the endothelin released into plasma during baroreceptor activation remains to be defined . Plasma endothelin may contribute to the vasoconstriction that maintains blood pressure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ endothelin secreted by the neurohypophysis , like vasopressin , has a systemic vasoconstrictor action as well as specific effects on renal excretory function. ( n17 , n18 ) Whether the lack of increase in plasma endothelin in patients with autonomic failure contributes to their orthostatic hypotension remains to be defined . <p> This work was supported m part by NS-07245 from NINDS and RR-71 from the Division of Research Resources of the NIH . J. A. O. is an established investigator of the American Heart Association . <p> We thank the nurses and technical staff of the Clinical Research Center , Mrs Teresa Licholai , and Ms Arielle Hart for expert assistance ; Dr Melvin D. Yahr for encouragement and support ; and Dr Myron Miller , at whose laboratory the plasma vasopressin was measured . PLASMA NORADRENALINE ( NA ) AND PLASMA RENIN ACTIVITY ( PRA ) PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> GRAPHS : Fig 1 -- Mean arterial pressure ( BP ) and plasma concentrations of endothelin ( ET ) and vasopressin ( AVP ) in normal subjects and in patients with autonomic failure before and during upright tilt and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ after upright tilt . <p> GRAPHS : Fig 2 -- Mean arterial pressure ( BP ) and plasma concentration of endothelin ( ET ) before and during upright tilt in three patients with central diabetes insipidus . <p> DIAGRAM : Fig 3 -- Neuronal pathways of the baroreceptor reflex . <p>

@@4014941 Section : Science and practice <p> Hepatitis B virus ( HBV ) infection is a global challenge , there being an estimated 300 million chronic carriers worldwide. ( n1 ) <p> Physicians faced with a clinical suspicion of hepatitis B and those wishing to exclude HBV infection in blood donors or to determine susceptibility to such infection or to monitor responses to vaccination send samples of blood to the laboratory . Table l lists some of the tests likely to be done there and the viral elements that these assays exploit . The serological tests will be familiar , those based on molecular biology less so , but neither the clinical significance of the commercial assays for HBV serology nor more recent developments such as the branched-chain DNA assay for HBV DNA can be understood without delving deeply into the structure and organisation of the HBV genome . And the same applies to our comprehension of hepatitis B vaccines , the pathogenesis of HBV infection , the mechanism of HBV-associated hepatocarcinogenesis , and current and future approaches to treatment . Structure of HBV genome <p> HBV , a hepadnavirus , is the smallest DNA virus known , having only @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is partly double-stranded circular DNA . One strand known as " minus " is almost a complete circle and contains overlapping genes that encode both structural proteins ( pre-S , surface , core ) and replicative proteins ( polymerase , X ) ( figure . 1 ) . The other strand ( " plus " ) is short and variable in length . <p> Two enhancer elements have been identified . ENH I is tissue specific and functions efficiently only in hepatocytes . Binding proteins and liver-specific factors bind to it , and ENH I also has a retinoic-acid-responsive element , suggesting a role for retinoic acid in the liver-specific regulation of HBV gene expression . ENH II stimulates the transcriptional activity of the surface gene promoters . Other elements are summarised in the legend to figure 1 . The most conserved area is a 62 nucleotide domain in the pre-core/core region which shares considerable homology with a domain ( U5 ) in certain retroviruses , suggesting a common evolutionary origin. ( n3 ) Transcription and translation ( table 2 ) <p> Four mRNA transcripts of known function have been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ template both for genome replication and for the expression of pre-core/core and polymerase proteins . A 2.4 kb transcript encodes for pre-S1 , pre-S2 , and HBsAg while a 2.1 kb transcript encodes only for pre-S2 and HBsAg . The smallest transcript ( 0.7 kb ) encodes the X protein . <p> The core gene , which has a pre-core region , encodes for both core antigen ( HBcAg ) and a cleavage product , e antigen ( HBeAg ) . When pre-core is transcribed , HBcAg is targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum where it is cleaved and HBeAg is secreted. ( n4 , n5 ) HBcAg is important for viral packaging and is an integral part of the core particle of the whole virus . Even though the pre-core sequence is not essential for replication , HBeAg is a good marker of active HBV replication because the pre-core/core gene product is generated from the template that is also used for replication . <p> The surface/pre-S gene encodes for the virus envelope . Pre-S seems to be important for the attachment of HBV to hepatocytes . In vitro , one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in pre-S2. ( n6 ) The S1 site and one pre-S2 site can bind directly to a hepatoblastoma cell line . Pre-S1 also binds to liver plasma membrane yet it is not liver specific , for it also binds to mononuclear cells . HBV has been detected in mononuclear cells but it is not actively replicating , indicating another post-infection tissue-specific mechanism , such as ENH I. The other pre-S2 site also binds to albumin , suggesting an alternative way of viral entry . <p> In transgenic mice and in cell culture models , intracellular accumulation of pre-S1 inhibits secretion of HBsAg ( n7 , n8 ) but the role of the pre-S1/HBsAg ratio in the export of HBsAg in man remains to be established . Viral replication <p> Our understanding of hepadnavirus replication is largely derived from animal models . There are three characteristics . First , the DNA strands are synthesised ; the minus strand must be completed before synthesis of the other strand can proceed . Second , the virus polymerase also functions as a reverse transcriptase . Finally , minus strand is primed by terminal protein @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of plus is by an oligoribonucleotide derived from viral genomic RNA . <p> HBV binds to the cell surface and penetrates the cell ( figure 2 ) . The virus core is thought to be transported to the nucleus without processing . The relaxed circular virus DNA is then converted to a covalently closed circular DNA ( cccDNA ) which seems to function as the template for viral RNA synthesis . Integration of HBV DNA into the host genome does not occur during the normal course of replication , as it does with retroviruses . Transcription yields RNA of various sizes . The 3 5 kb genomic RNA serves as a template for reverse transcription . Minus strand DNA synthesis initiates at the 3 ' DRI with the terminal protein of the polymerase as a primer and , as synthesis progresses , the RNA template is simultaneously degraded by RNaseH ( figure 3 ) . Plus strand DNA synthesis initiates at the 3 ' end of DR2 and synthesis continues until the terminal protein at the 5 ' end of the minus strand is passed ( figure 3 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in mature HBV . Since most HBV particles contain open DNA circles with incomplete plus strands it has been postulated that the virus polymerase is somehow constrained at this point . The mature core particles are then packed into the HBsAg/pre-S in the endoplasmic reticulum and exported from the cell . A stable pool of cccDNA molecules is maintained in the nuclei by transporting the newly synthesised HBV DNA back into the nucleus . Because HBsAg can inhibit the formation of cccDNA , this may represent a negative feedback to HBV replication. ( n10 ) <p> Clinical relevance <p> The variable region between the core and surface gene has been used to study transmission of HBV . For example , DNA fingerprinting can reveal the route of transmission of the virus in families even in HBV endemic areas. ( n11 ) <p> 3% or so of babies born to HBsAg positive mothers and receiving both active and passive immunoprophylaxis at birth , will still become seropositive for HBsAg . Among the subtypes of HBV , the " a " determinant of HBsAg remains constant and the vaccine promotes antibodies against @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vaccination have an " escape mutant " of HBV lacking " a " . ( n12 ) In this mutant just one aminoacid ( an arginine ) is replaced by another ( glycine ) . This important finding confirms the need for seroepidemiological follow-up of vaccinees and for new vaccines with other protective epitopes such as pre-S1 , which has a role in viral binding to hepatocytes . <p> The commonest HBV mutation is in the pre-core region where a genomic instruction to stop translation of an mRNA to protein prevents production of HBeAg. ( n13 , n14 ) These patients have HBV DNA in their serum but have antibody to e , and most of them have active liver disease . This mutant has also been associated with fulminant hepatitis B. ( n15-n17 ) However , the hepatitis in babies who acquire this pre-core mutant from their mothers resolves promptly , so this mutant is not always associated with severe disease . Because the pre-core mutant takes many years to emerge from the " wild type " HBV , both wild type and pre-core mutant may well be transmitted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ probably selected by the host 's immune response and exogenous factors , including interferon-a ( IFN Alpha ) therapy . <p> Variations of the mid-core region of the HBV genome have been reported to be associated with the development of active liver disease in chronic HBV infection in Japan , ( n18 ) but we have not seen this in US whites . <p> Tumour necrosis factor-Alpha ( TNF Alpha ) and IFN Alpha and Gamma inhibit the HBV core/genomic and pre-S 1 promoters in cell culture , but in patients with chronic HBV infection TNF Alpha had either no effect or increased the amount of circulating HBV and HBsAg. ( n19 ) IFN Gamma has little inhibitory effect on circulating HBV. ( n20 ) <p> The information on viral replication is important for drug design . So far , however , agents which inhibit DNA synthesis and reduce HBV replication , once they are withdrawn , are followed by HBV recurrence . The cccDNA molecules in the nuclei of hepatocytes seem to be very stable . Non-hepatic sites of virus replication , such as peripheral blood lymphocytes and spleen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of viral persistence <p> Viral persistence is probably related to a specific failure of T cells to recognise HBV antigens . This assumption is supported by the clinical observation that patients with a relative deficit in T-cell function ( the young , the aged , and the immunosuppressed ) are more prone to develop chronic HBV infection . In-vitro peripheral blood T cell activation is impaired in patients with chronic HBV infection but this is not associated with clinical evidence of immune deficiency , suggesting a redistribution of primed T cells from the circulation to the liver . <p> The demonstration that IFN Alpha can eliminate active HBV replication raises the possibility that chronic HBV carriage may be secondary to IFN Alpha deficiency . IFN Alpha is rarely detected in the circulation in chronic hepatitis B and virus-stimulated production of IFN Alpha by circulating mononuclear cells is reduced. ( n21 ) Furthermore , the HBV core gene suppresses the IFN Beta gene in mouse fibroblasts. ( n22 ) Although these findings are attractive , HBV appears not to alter IFN Alpha production significantly in man . First , IFN Alpha @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mononuclear cells and liver levels of this enzyme are higher in patients with acute HBV infection and in HBV carriers than they are in healthy controls , and patients with HBV-related chronic active hepatitis have normal levels. ( n23 ) Second , both IFN Alpha protein and mRNA detected in the liver . Although the hepatic expression of IFN Alpha is lower than that of acute HBV , those with active liver disease had higher hepatic expression of IFN Alpha , suggesting that suboptimal production of IFN Alpha by circulating mononuclear cells may be related to a redistribution of the " primed " cells to the liver . Alternatively , the production of IFN Alpha by circulating cells may have been down-regulated during its passage through the liver. ( n24 ) <p> HBV can also reduce the cell 's sensitivity to IFN Alpha . When a vector containing HBV was transfected into an IFN Alpha-sensitive cell line , the response to exogenous IFN Alpha was reduced. ( n25 ) Subsequently it was found that the terminal protein of the HBV polymerase inhibited the response to IFN ( and to double-stranded @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ potential importance in relation to the mechanism of viral persistence . <p> The high incidence of chronic HBV carriage in babies born to HBeAg + mothers suggests that circulating e antigen in the mother induces immunotolerance in the baby . In newborn transgenic mice that produce HBeAg , both HBeAg and HBcAg are tolerant at the T-cell level. ( n27 ) These mice produce core but not e antibody . The maintenance of T-cell tolerance was broken only when HBeAg had been withdrawn for more than 16 weeks . The close resemblance in the chronology of immunological events in HBeAg-expressing transgenic mice and in human HBV infection suggests that one function of e antigen may be to induce immunotolerance in utero , favouring the persistence of HBV in infancy and childhood . Mechanism of hepatocellular damage <p> The existence of an HBV carrier state for many years without evidence of parenchymal liver damage suggests that HBV is not cytopathic in man and that an immune-mediated mechanism is operating . This assumption is supported by the absence of obvious disease in patients with impaired immune response ( Down 's syndrome , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the fact that the predominant cell-type at the site of piecemeal necrosis is the CD8 + T lymphocyte ; and by the enhanced liver cell necrosis found when the immune system is stimulated by levamisole or by corticosteroid withdrawal . <p> What is the specific target for immune attack ? It is not easy to study the mechanism of hepatocellular injury in acute HBV infection . In one attempt 5 individuals in the early **25;1584;TOOLONG phase of acute HBV infection were identified by contact tracing and their cellular immune response to HBV antigens was monitored. ( n28 ) Cellular immunity to pre-S developed 30 days before biochemical evidence of liver damage appeared , at a stage when the HBsAg titre was rising and when HBeAg was first detectable . A cellular response to HBcAg followed 10 days later , preceding the humoral response ( anti-HBc IgM ) . The cellular response to HBsAg correlated most closely with the onset of biochemical liver damage , suggesting HBsAg as the likely immune target . On the other hand , cytotoxic T lymphocytes ( CTL ) directed against HBcAg have been identified , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Studies with overlapping synthetic peptides have delineated some of the HLA restricted T-cell epitopes ( eg , an HLA-A2 restricted epitope has been mapped to aminoacid residue 18-27 of HBcAg ( n29 ) ) and , recently , aminoacid residues 141-151 to both HLA-A31 and HLA-Aw 68 . <p> The search for the immune target in chronic HBV infection is just as difficult but hepatocytes expressing HBcAg have come under suspicion . In cytotoxicity experiments T cells lysed hepatocytes that expressed HBcAg , and this cytotoxicity could be blocked by antibody to HBcAg or by HLA class I molecules. ( n30 , n31 ) There is some evidence that anti-HBe can also block cytotoxicity . No response to HBsAg was demonstrated . Immunohistochemical studies showed that cytoplasmic expression of core , but not surface , correlates with disease activity. ( n32 , n33 ) As T cell epitopes are usually 8-10 aminoacids in length , cytoplasmic accumulation of HBcAg may allow proteolytic processing to produce T-cell epitopes that are presented in conjunction with HLA class I molecules . <p> Study of T-helper cells ( T h ) has identified three @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and one of these partly overlaps the HLA-A2 restricted CTL epitope referred to above . These studies indicate that HBcAg can be a stimulus for both helper and cytotoxic T cells . <p> Non-T- lymphocytes also seem to take part in the mediation of hepatocellular damage in chronic infection . Non-T-cell cytotoxicity can be blocked by liver-specific membrane lipoprotein ( LSP ) , aggregated IgG , or the F ( ab ' ) 2 fragment of anti-human IgG , suggesting that non-T lymphocytes may direct an antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity against a component of LSP. ( n35 ) <p> Cytokines are also likely to be involved. ( n36 ) In patients with HBV-related active liver disease , IFN Alpha is produced locally in the liver , and production of interleukin-1 and TNF Alpha by peripheral blood mononuclear cells are also increased . The possibility that these are non-specific consequences of inflammation remains to be excluded . <p> Although the evidence strongly suggests that HBV causes hepatocellular damage through an immune-mediated mechanism , this may not be true in other models or clinical settings . High-level expression of HBsAg is associated with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) and overexpression of HBcAg in hepatoblastoma line induces cytopathic changes. ( n38 ) In patients transplanted for chronic hepatitis B , recurrence of infection is associated with a novel histological pattern ( fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis ) and fulminant clinical course . HBV may be directly cytopathic in this situation. ( n39 ) <p> Clinical relevance <p> Theoretically , immunosuppressive therapy should alleviate hepatocellular damage induced by immune-mediated mechanisms . However , corticosteroids also have a direct stimulatory effect on viral replication and this may be associated with an increased antigen expression and greater spread through the liver . Upon corticosteroid withdrawal , the immune rebound , coupled with the enhanced viral antigen ( immune target ) expression , may result in severe , even fulminant reactivation. ( n40 , n41 ) Rapid reintroduction of corticosteroids followed by gradual withdrawal may alleviate the severe life-threatening reactivation. ( n42 ) <p> The identification of the T-cell epitope for CTL in patients with HLA-A2.1 has led to the design of a " therapeutic vaccine " to stimulate the immune system to eliminate HBV-infected cells selectively . One approach , now close to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a Tsub h ) peptide from tetanus toxoid and two palmitic acid molecules . A potential risk is an overwhelming immune response , which could lead to massive destruction of infected hepatocytes . Viral Interactions <p> Hepatitis D virus ( HDV ) , a defective virus that requires HBV to supply the envelope proteins , only infects man in the presence of HBV , either as a coinfection or as a superinfection in HBV carriers . With coinfection , the clinical course is usually self-limiting because the HDV can not outlive the transient HBV infection , but with a superinfection , the attack can be very severe . In patients with chronic HBV and HDV coinfection the HDV suppresses HBV replication without significant effect on the expression of HBsAg. ( n43 ) This HBV-inhibitory mechanism of HDV , if identified , could provide a new treatment strategy for chronic HBV infection . <p> HBV and HIV coinfection is common because the risk factors for the two viruses are similar . The liver disease in such coinfections is usually mild , despite active HBV replication , and this may be related @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to impairment of T h cells ( CD4+ ) and monocytes , the main targets of HIV . HIV infection is also associated with a suboptimal production of IFN Alpha which may allow HBV persistence and reduce the immune-mediated attack on HBV-infected hepatocytes. ( n44 ) On the reverse side of the coin , HBV may enhance HIV replication . Production of IFN Alpha in the circulation is suboptimal in chronic HBV infection and this may permit HIV replication ; the HBVX protein can trans-activate HIV replication ; and the increased production of TNF Alpha in chronic HBV infection can stimulate the HIV enhancer and hence replication . Hepatocarcinogenesis <p> The strong association of persistent HBV infection and hepatocellular carcinoma ( HCC ) is intriguing , yet poorly understood . Although the relative risk of HCC developing in HBV carriers is as high as 100 times that in matched controls , it usually takes decades for HCC to emerge . Since HBV integration can occur early , this suggests that HBV does not have an oncogene in its genome . Integration of HBV adjacent to cellular oncogenes , followed by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ gene has come under suspicion because of its trans-activating activity . Various cellular oncogenes , such as c-myc and c-ras , have been implicated but none has been shown to be consistently activated in HCC . The strong association of cirrhosis with HCC suggests that the common pathway for hepatocarcinogenesis may be chronic hepatic injury and regeneration , which in some way promote the induction or selection of a malignant clone . <p> HCC may well be a heterogeneous disease with cellular oncogene and common pathway models both operating to varying extents . Further understanding of this heterogeneity may help in the establishment of the mechanisms involved in HCC -- as happened with our understanding of the pathobiology of lymphoma and leukaemia in the wake of the identification of subtypes by phenotypic markers . Other potential developments <p> The hepatotropism of HBV has led research workers to consider using the virus as an organ-targeting vector for gene delivery . However , the HBV genome is so small and compact that the molecular engineering is difficult . Table 1 . Commonly used assays for HBV PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 2 : HBV @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and organization of HBV genome - ( + ) and ( - ) denotes the plus and minus strands . Small solid arrows show the 5 ' ends of unspliced mRNA transcripts referred to in text . x protein has trans-activation activity on HBV enhancer and on other cellular genes. ( n9 ) HBV polymerase has at least three domains -- namely terminal protein in the amino terminus ( essential for HBV replication and packaging ) and reverse transcriptase and RNaseH ( both essential for replication ) . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 2 : Replication of virus <p> ( 1 ) Viral binding and entry ; ( 2 ) transcription of HBV into mRNAs ; ( 3 ) translation into HBV proteins ; ( 4 ) replication of genome ; ( 5 ) packaging and export . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 3 : Replication of genome <p>

@@4015041 Section : Articles Summary <p> Background Compulsory urine testing of prisoners for drugs , a control initiative , was introduced in eight prisons in England and Wales early in 1995 . Despite no evidence of effectiveness , testing was extended to all prisons in England and Wales by March 1996 . We consider the cost of testing . <p> Methods We combined the costs of refusals , confirmatory tests , punishment of confirmed positives for cannabis or for class A drugs to estimate the average costs of random compulsory drugs testing . These costs were then compared to : i ) the healthcare budget for a prison ; and ii ) the cost of putting in place a credible prisons ' drugs reduction programme . We then used Scottish data on incarceration and regional prevalence of injecting drug users to estimate the extent of the injecting drug use problem that prisons face . <p> Findings Costs per 28 days of the random mandatory drugs testing control initiative in an establishment for 500 inmates where refusal rate is a ) 10% or b ) nil ; and 35% of urine samples test positive , one tenth of them for class @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and b ) UK16000 per 28 days a ) $US35100 and b ) $US24600 . This cost was equivalent to twice the cost of running a credible drugs reduction and rehabilitation programme , and around half the total healthcare expenditure for a prison of 500 which averaged UK41114 per 28 days$US64860 . Major cost-generating events were the punishment of refusals -- over one third of cost a ) -- and testing positive for cannabis -- over 50% of cost a ) . In Scotland , around 5% of injecting drug users ( IDUs ) are incarcerated at any time : 5% of Lothian 's drugs care , treatment and prevention costs and 2.5% of its HIV/AIDS prevention budget in 1993-94 amounted to UK101300 per annum -- or UK7770 per 28 days ( $US11970 ) -- and about 35% of monthly MDT costs . <p> Interpretation We suggest that 5% of current resources for drugs prevention and treatment and for IDU-targetted HIV/AIDS prevention should be directed towards the prisons because in the prisons , where 5% of the clients are at any time , injectors have less access to harm reduction @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 348 : 1124-27 Introduction <p> Compulsory urine testing for drugs in prisoners was introduced in eight prisons in England and Wales -- including Holloway ( a women 's prison ) -- early in 1995 . Neither ethical and scientific arguments against compulsory tests as a means of gathering information ' ( 1 ) nor operational objections ( 2 ) dissuaded the Prison Service from extending its war on drugs ' to all prison establishments in England and Wales by March 1996 . <p> The 1994 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act permits both random and on suspicion ' selection of prisoners from whom a urine sample can be required and tested for drugs . During the pilot phase of mandatory testing , random sampling has been organised from Prison Service headquarters . Refusal to provide the required urine sample breaches prison rules and is punishable by 28 days ' loss of remission . Prisoners whose urine sample tests positive for cannabis only are liable to punishment of 14 days ' loss of remission , and 21 days if their sample is positive for class A drugs such as heroin . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mandatory ) drugs testing ( MDT ) to the healthcare budget for a prison and to the cost of putting in place a prisons ' drugs reduction programme . We compare average , not marginal , costs . The former will tend to the latter in the medium term , however , as additional prison places and staff are eventually required to avoid disorder in the prisons occasioned by overcrowding and undermanning . <p> We use data from Scotland to put in context the extent of the injecting drug use problem prisons face . Methods <p> Table 1 shows cost-generating events for MDT , unit costs , and applicable percentages from the MDT pilot study. ( 3 ) We assume that 10% of prisoners are required to provide a urine sample , as in the pilot study . Refusal rate of between 0 and 10% is assumed , and was quoted as 8% in a personal communication in May , 1995 from the then Director-General of the Prison Service . We estimated the cost of loss of remission from the Prison Service Annual Report and Accounts ( 4 ) for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are assumed to be positive on SYVA testing ( 5 ) and to remain positive on confirmation by gas chromatography -- mass spectrometry ( GC-MS ) . 20% urine samples negative on SYVA testing are assumed to be rechecked and confirmed as negative by GC-MS ( this simplification ignores false positive and false negative SYVA test results . ) <p> Cross-sectional Willing Anonymous Salivary HIV ( WASH ) surveillance studies and risk-factor elicitation in Scottish prisons6 and at Bullindon Prison near Oxford have shown that 20% or more ( 6 ) prisoners have injected drugs ; that 50% of injectors have injected in prison , probably currently7 as well as ever. ( 6 ) We therefore assume that 10% of all inmates inject class A drugs inside prison currently but the proportion who inject regularly , for example twice a week , has not been documented . A class A drug such as heroin remains detectable in urine for 3 days . <p> Answers to parliamentary questons in May 1995 , concerning the outcome since February 1995 , of MDT in pilot prisons , ( 8 ) revealed that 36 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and three for heroin/benzodiazepines . Our assumptions were based on these figures . Results <p> In accordance with the assumptions in table 1 , tables 2a and b give estimates of the cost per 28 days of the random mandatory drugs testing control initiative in an establishment for 500 inmates where the refusal rate is 10% ( table 2a ) or 0% ( table 2b ) ; and 35% of urine samples test positive , one tenth of these for class A drugs as reported in Parliament in May 1995. ( 8 ) Costs are estimated at between UK22 800 ( $US35 100 ) and UK16 000 ( $US24 600 ) per 28 days . Major cost-generating events are the punishment of refusals ( more than 33% of cost in table 2a ) and of testing positive for cannabis ( over 50% of cost in table 2a and over 80% of cost in table 2b ) . Costs decrease roughly in proportion to any decrease in penalty days , because the cost of testing is relatively minor in terms of overall cost . <p> The 1993-94 Report of the Director @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expenditure from April , 1993 , to March , 1994 , as UK58.215 million pounds ( at 1993-94 prices ) ; equivalent to UK4.4658 million per 28 days ( $US6.877 million ) . Since the average prison occupancy for the same period was 53020 , healthcare expenditure for an establishment with 500 prisoners averaged UK42114 per 28 days ( $US64860 ) . The cost of random MDT per 28 days is thus equivalent to about half the healthcare budget of such a prison . <p> Experts in treatment of drug abuse estimate that it costs UK100 000 per annum ( $US154 000 ) to run a drugs reduction and rehabilitation programme in a prison with 500 inmates ( personal communication , Mr Tony O'Regan , Co-ordinator of Drugs and Alcohol Services , Huntingdon , UK ) ; less than half the cost of random MDT . <p> Table 3 shows regional data on estimated number of injecting drug users by capture-recapture methods. ( 10-12 ) HIV prevalence in injectors from community HIV surveillance studies , ( 13-15 ) together with number of injector-inmates derived from cross-sectional WASH surveillance studies with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of HIV-infected injector-inmates . Data on the size of populations ( 20 ) were also required . The prevalence of injecting drug use varies geographically and prevalence in men may be almost twice that for women . HIV prevalence in current injecting drug users also varies geographically . It is , for example , much higher for injectors from Scotland 's east coast -- Lothian and Tayside regions -- than those from Greater Glasgow or Liverpool . Despite geographical variation in the prevalence of injecting drug use , consistently across the regions about 7% of male injectors are in prison at any time . The proportion is lower for women ; only 1% of Greater Glasgow 's female injectors were in Cornton Vale , Scotland 's only prison for female offenders. ( 6 , 19 ) We thus estimate that 5.4% ( table 3 , 469/8700 ) of Greater Glasgow 's injectors are in prison at any time ( this is the only region in the UK with all necessary data available for both sexes ) . <p> Corroboration comes from another source . The Scottish Affairs Committee , in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) estimated that there were 20 000 injecting drug users in Scotland , or some 11 300 outside Greater Glasgow . Two thirds of these , around 7500 , would be expected to be male . Cross-sectional WASH surveillance in 1991-95 covered some 40% of the Scottish male prison population and included 150 male drug injectors from outside Greater Glasgow ( table 3 ) . This leads to an estimate of 375 ( 150/0.4 ) non-Glasgow injectors in all prisons for men , or 5% of male injectors outside of Greater Glasgow being in prison at any time . <p> Thus , since 5% of a region 's injectors are incarcerated at any time , it would appear reasonable that around 5% of the region 's drugs prevention and treatment budget and an apportionment of its HIV/AIDS prevention budget should be assigned to its prisons . Lothian 's 1993-94 Drug Abuse Services cost UK138 473 for care and treatment , and UK1052 029 for prevention ; and the AIDS/HIV projects cost UK5079171 for care and treatment and 1670277 for prevention ( totals of UK1190 552 and 6749 488 , respectively @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ half Lothian 's HIV diagnoses have been in injecting drug users , ( 20 ) we assume that half the region 's HIV/AIDS prevention budget has targeted injectors . Five percent of Lothian 's drugs care , treatment and prevention costs and 2.5% of its HIV/AIDS prevention budget amounts to UK101 300 -- or UK7770 per 28 days ( $US11 970 ) -- and about 35% of monthly MDT costs . <p> After the parliamentary questions in May 1995 , further questions elicited the information that from February to May , 1995 , there were 1089 random MDT tests , of which 362 ( 33.2% ) were positive for cannabis and 44 ( 4.1% ) positive for opiates or benzodiazepines : but from June to December 1995 , when there were 2282 random tests , 663 ( 29.1% ) were positive for cannabis and 168 ( 7.4% ) for opiates or benzodiazepines . This is an 80% increase in the percentage of inmates testing positive for opiates or benzodiazepines . Since provisional assault figures for 1995 for the pilot prisons also show a 20% increase in assaults over 1993-94 figures @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , at best , MDT has zero effectiveness in countering addiction and disorder ; we do so implicitly hereafter . Discussion <p> Research has shown that starting to inject drugs inside prison is associated with longer sentences as well as with local and individual prison-related factors. ( 23 ) Certainly , the issue of drug use in prison can not be tackled in isolation . The World Health Organization ( 24 ) and the 1994/95 Report of the Director of Prison Healthcare ( 25 ) recommend that healthcare in prisons should , wherever possible , be equivalent to that outside . Because most injecting drug users enter the prison system ( 26 ) after remand for a drugs-related offence or for theft or prostitution to fund their habit , prisons provide a unique opportunity to target educational and drugs rehabilitation programmes towards them at a time of potential receptivity but also vulnerability from loss of self-esteem and inevitable stress . <p> A major part of the Prison Service 's strategy to reduce drug misuse in prison is the introduction of MDT to identify drug users , punish them and offer @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ apparently unresourced , ( 27 ) to Scotland from February , 1996 . Our analysis of average costs raises questions about a policy which apparently is ineffective in terms of reducing addiction and assaults. ( 3 ) <p> We estimate that at any one time about 5% of the UK 's injecting drug users are in prison . This would suggest that a similar proportion of education , rehabilitation , and support resources should be available to the prisons , a far larger figure than is identifiable in current budgets . However , this investment would represent only between 35% and 50% of the costs of MDT , over half of which is incurred as extra days in prison for cannabis takers . The control initiative of MDT has not produced anticipated benefits. ( 3 ) A supportive drug substitution and rehabilitation programme would introduce immediate and longer-term benefits both for the prison and for the outside community in reduced recidivism . It is possible that loss of remission as the result of positive urine tests or refusal may reinforce the very reason for taking drugs -- escape from the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the first place. ( 28 , 29 ) <p> Our costing of MDT does not include the hidden human cost of acquiring HIV or Hepatitis B or Hepatitis C infection by using contaminated injection equipment . We welcome , however , the recent availability of disinfection tablets in UK prisons . Existing drug rehabilitation schemes in prison are under-resourced , resulting in waiting lists in prisons with large numbers of injecting drug users , such as Saughton and Glenochil Prisons in Scotland. ( 30 ) Investment in , and priority for , MDT in England and Wales is unlikely to be matched immediately by parallel investment in drug rehabilitation programmes , despite the exhortation of a Parliamentary Select Committee . We argue that resources which are already available in the community outside should be redistributed on a direct apportionment basis to the prison medical services as part of a long-term initiative on prison healthcare , and we suggest a figure of 5% . The problem of drug use , and especially of injecting drug use , is a substantial and shared one for both the prison service and the populations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ both within and between these overlapping constituencies ; and should not overlook the long-term risks to health of even the shortest period of experimentation with shared injecting drug use . <p> The MDT programme alienates prisoners , ( 31 ) is prejudicial to voluntary anonymous studies ( 32 , 6 ) which , until now , have measured the prevalence and risks of injecting drug use in prisons and , as we show in this analysis , diverts scarce prison resources from preventive and rehabilitation programmes which are likely to benefit prisoners ' welfare , and the public 's health . There is no lack of willingness on part of prisons to tackle this issue sympathetically and professionally. ( 30 ) The strong geographical correlation between deprivation and injection drug use ( 11 ) can not be resolved by the prisons alone but concerns all society . <p>

@@4015141 Section : Articles Introduction <p> Background : Rotavirus infection is thought to be confined to the intestine . Reports of rotavirus RNA in the cerebral spinal fluid and serum of children infected with rotavirus suggest the possibility that rotavirus escapes the intestine into the circulatory system . We assessed whether rotavirus antigen , RNA , or both , were present in serum samples from immunocompetent rotavirus-infected children and animals . <p> Methods : We obtained sera from immunocompetent mice , rats , rabbits , and calves 1-10 days after inoculation with rotavirus or matched vehicle . We obtained sera retrospectively from immunocompetent children diagnosed with rotavirus diarrhoea ( n=33 ) , healthy children ( n=6 ) and adults ( n=12 ) , children convalescing from rotavirus ( n=6 ) , and children with non-rotavirus diarrhoea ( n=11 ) . Samples were analysed for the presence of rotavirus antigen or RNA by EIA or RT-PCR , respectively . <p> Findings : Rotavirus antigen was present in sera from rotavirus-infected animals , but not in sera from control animals . Infectious rotavirus or rotavirus RNA was detected in sera of mice and calves , respectively . Antigen was present in 22 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but in none of 35 samples from controls . Detection of serum antigen was inversely related to the number of days between symptom onset and sample collection , and directly related to stool antigen concentration . Rotavirus RNA was detected by RT-PCR in three of six rotavirus-positive sera . <p> Interpretation : Rotavirus can escape the gastrointestinal tract in children , resulting in antigenaemia and possible viraemia . This finding is important for the understanding of the pathogenesis , immunology , and clinical manifestations of rotavirus infection . <p> Rotavirus is a common pathogen that is the leading cause of gastroenteritis in young children worldwide. 1 Dehydration due to rotavirus-induced diarrhoea and vomiting results in high mortality rates in developing countries and a large economic burden in developed countries. 1 Rotavirus infection is thought to be localised to the gastrointestinal tract . However , there have been reports of rotavirus RNA in cerebral spinal fluid and serum of rotavirus-infected children. 2-7 Rotavirus non-structural proteins have also been reported in liver and kidney sections from rotavirus-infected immunocompromised children , suggesting that extraintestinal spread of rotavirus can occur during infection. 8 Work @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rotavirus infection is not contained within the gastrointestinal tract. 9 , 10 These findings suggest the possibility that rotavirus escapes the intestine into the circulatory system . We assessed whether rotavirus antigen can be identified in sera from immunocompetent , rotavirus-infected children and animals , with the aim of better understanding the pathogenesis of rotavirus infection . Methods <p> Immunocompetent suckling and adult mice , suckling rats , adult rabbits , and newborn colostrum-deprived calves were gastrically inoculated with rotaviruses derived from homologous or heterologous species ( table ) or with matched vehicle . Stool and serum samples were obtained 1-10 days after inoculation . Care was taken to ensure that serum samples were not contaminated with rotavirus from stools by using gloves and sterile supplies , and disinfecting and swabbing the site with ethanol during cardiac puncture ( mouse ) , ear bleed ( rabbit ) , tail bleed ( rat ) , and jugular vein puncture ( cow ) . Stool and serum samples were analysed with Pathfinder Rotavirus EIA ( BioRad , Hercules , CA , USA ) or in-house EIAs. 11 Three cow serum samples were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ VP7 outer capsid protein ) by use of consensus primers. 12 RNA was extracted using trizol ( Life Technologies , Frederick , MD , USA ) and negative controls ( water run through every four to five serum samples ) were included to detect contamination . <p> To test whether infectious virus was present in serum ( ie , could pass from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood ) , we inoculated 28 rotavirus-naive adult mice each with 100 mL of serum : 11 with sera from 11 rotavirus-infected adult mice ; three with sera from three different pools of rotavirus-infected infant mice serum ; 11 controls with sera from 11 adult mice inoculated with vehicle ; and three controls with pooled sera from three non-infected infant mice . Rotavirus infection was established by the excretion of high concentrations of faecal antigen ( measured by EIA ) . Samples from these animal models were assessed 4 days after viral inoculation . <p> Human serum samples were obtained retrospectively from Texas Children 's Hospital ( TCH ) in Houston , TX , USA ( five children ) and Royal Children 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ children ) . All serum samples were obtained from immunocompetent children , aged 1-36 months , presenting with acute gastroenteritis confirmed by EIA ( Rotazyme , Abbot Laboratories TCH and in-house serotyping RCH ) 13 of a 10% weight-for-volume stool sample to be rotavirus positive . Inclusion in the study was dependent on sufficient serum remaining from a blood sample . At RCH , samples were obtained within 7 days of onset of symptoms . Convalescent sera were also obtained from six of the rotavirus-positive children at RCH when they were asymptomatic , which was 29-42 days from presentation with rotavirus gastroenteritis . Control sera were obtained from : ( 1 ) six healthy children ( aged 2-21 months ) at RCH whose stool samples were rotavirus-antigen negative by EIA ; ( 2 ) 12 adult volunteers associated with the Enteric Virus Research Group , RCH ; ( 3 ) a child at TCH who was rotavirus-stool negative by EIA and electronmicroscopy and who presented with acute gastroenteritis due to a Norwalk virus infection confirmed by RT-PCR ; ( 4 ) and ten children ( aged 6-24 months ) who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with non-rotavirus pathogens ( eg , Salmonella spp , adenoviruses , and astrovirus ) . The study was approved by the institutional review boards of TCH and RCH . At TCH , parental informed consent was oral ( by telephone ) ; at RCH written consent was obtained . <p> Rotavirus antigen was detected in undiluted serum ( 50 mL ) by in-house EIA. 11 , 13 Rotavirus RNA was detected by RT-PCR 14 with consensus primers for full-length VP7 genomic sequence after isolation of RNA by use of the Qiagen Qiaamp minelute virus spin kit ( Valencia , CA , USA ) . <p> Groups were compared using Student 's t test or Wilcoxon two-sample test . <p> Role of the funding source : <p> The funding sources for this research had no role in study design ; in the collection , analysis , and interpretation of data ; in the writing of the report ; or in the decision to submit the paper for publication . Results <p> All serum and stool samples from rotavirus-inoculated animals were positive for rotavirus antigen by EIA 1-10 days after viral inoculation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with rhesus rotavirus ( table ) . All serum and stool samples were negative for rotavirus by EIA in vehicle-inoculated suckling mice ( n=3 , pooled samples from four individual animals ) , adult mice ( n=18 ) , calves ( n=3 ) , suckling rats ( n=3 ) , and adult rabbits ( n=4 ) ( data not shown ) . <p> The table shows results from rotavirus-inoculated animals on day 4 after inoculation . RT-PCR was done prospectively on serum samples from one , and retrospectively from two , EIA-rotavirus-positive newborn calves ; all three were positive for rotavirus RNA , suggesting that some or all of the antigen detected was derived from intact rotavirus virions . <p> Nine of the 11 mice ( 82% 95% CI 48-98 ) inoculated with sera from rotavirus-infected adult mice and all three mice inoculated from rotavirus-infected infant mice ( table ) became infected with rotavirus . Inoculation of mice with EIA-antigen-negative sera did not result in infection ( data not shown ) . <p> Sera from rotavirus-negative adult volunteers ( n=12 ; data not shown ) , healthy children ( n=6 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( n=11 ; figure 1 ) were rotavirus-antigen negative . 22 of 33 children ( 67% 48-82 ) with rotavirus-positive stool samples had detectable ( median optical density OD 0.863 ) serum rotavirus antigen ( table and figure 1 ) . Convalescent sera were negative for rotavirus antigen ( figure 2 ) . <p> Figure 1 : Rotavirus antigen in serum samples from healthy , stool-negative , and stool-positive children <p> Line at 0.100=cut-off for positive value . <p> Figure 2 : Serum antigen in paired acute and convalescent samples from six stool-positive and serum-positive children <p> Line at 0.100=cut-off for positive value . Acute serum samples obtained about 4 days after onset of symptoms ; convalescent serum samples obtained around 40 days after onset of symptoms . <p> Sufficient serum was available to test for viral RNA in **26;7937;TOOLONG sera from six children from RCH -- viral RNA was detected in three ( 50% ) of the samples , suggesting the presence of intact virions ( table ) . <p> 11 ( 39% ) of 28 serum samples from children at RCH with rotavirus-positive stool samples were EIA-negative for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1 ) , median stool antigen concentrations in 11 rotavirus serum-negative children were significantly lower than in the 17 serum-positive children ( 0.91 OD range 0.26-1.01 vs 1.42 OD 0.92-2.01 , respectively ; pvs 4 3-12 ; p=0.007 ; figure 3 ) . <p> Figure 3 : Stool antigen concentrations in stool-positive children ( A ) and number of days between onset of diarrhoea and collection of serum samples ( B ) Discussion <p> Our results show that rotavirus antigen and RNA are present in serum of children with diagnosed acute rotavirus infection , suggesting that rotavirus consistently escapes the intestinal tract in children resulting in antigenaemia and possible viraemia . We do not provide formal proof that rotavirus present in serum samples from infected children is infectious . However , animal data from this and other studies suggests that rotavirus antigen detected in serum of rotavirus-infected mice is infectious even in the presence of serum factors that might inhibit infectivity ( table ) . 15 Direct proof of infectious particles in serum from children was not possible since no small animal models are proven to be susceptible to infections @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ suggest that viraemia seems likely in children and could account for the association of rotavirus infection with extraintestinal clinical manifestations . <p> Previous reports of the extraintestinal presence of rotavirus in children and infants have been much debated . Most of these studies included only small numbers of children . Much scepticism has surrounded the RT-PCR detection of rotavirus RNA in cerebral spinal fluid , arising from the concern that these results could result from stool rotavirus contamination during lumbar-puncture sample collection. 2-7 However , many symptoms that would be consistent with the extraintestinal spread of rotavirus have been reported in case studies of rotavirus-infected children during the past 20 years : pneumonia , 17 exanthema , 17 disseminated intravascular coagulation , 18 haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis , 19 and neurological complications such as encephalitis or encephalopathy , 3 , 5 , 19 , 20 cerebellitis , 21 or convulsions or seizures. 2 , 4-6 With no proof of extraintestinal spread , these findings remain only associations , and although they suggest that rotavirus might be related to these symptoms , there is no direct proof that rotavirus infection causes symptoms other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have been only a few reports of the detection of rotavirus RNA in blood or other components of the circulatory system in children . Morrison and colleagues 22 used in-situ RT-PCR to analyse the tissues involved in fatal rotavirus infections in two children , and noted viral RNA in the heart and CNS , mainly localised to endothelial cells . Ushijima and colleagues 7 and Nishimura and colleagues 2 found rotavirus RNA using RT-PCR in two of seven serum samples from children with rotavirus diarrhoea. 2 , 7 Our findings ( three of six serum samples from rotavirus-infected children positive for rotavirus RNA ) are consistent with theirs and support the notion that intact rotavirus virions are present in serum during rotavirus infection . However , the design and sensitivity of RT-PCR approaches do not rule out possible stool rotavirus contamination of the serum samples . Because our sample size was small , definitive conclusions about the percentage of samples with rotavirus RNA can not be drawn from these data . However , based on results by Gouvea and colleagues , 14 RT-PCR detection of rotavirus doublestranded RNA has comparable @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the sensitivity of our EIA ( 10 4 particles ) 11 is about one log 10 lower than RT-PCR ( 10 5 particles ) , which accounts for the detection of RNA in only 50% of the antigen-positive serum samples . Other reasons for the inability to detect viral RNA in all samples could be virus breakdown in serum resulting from repeated freezing and thawing ( a difficulty mentioned by the manufacturers of the RNA extraction kit ) , or the presence of PCR inhibitors in serum . <p> Findings of rotavirus antigens in conjunction with rotavirus RNA in serum would have lent more credence to the presence of rotavirus viraemia . Previous reports have not noted rotavirus antigens in serum in conjunction with rotavirus RNA . Saulsbury and colleagues 23 did not detect rotavirus antigen using enzyme-linked fluorescent assay in 14 immunocompetent children admitted to hospital with rotavirus infection . However , three of four rotavirus-infected immunocompromised children did have rotavirus antigen in the blood. 23 Rotavirus proteins have also been detected by immunohistochemical techniques in immunocompromised children with rotavirus infections in extraintestinal sites such as the liver and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ immunocompetent children with fatal rotavirus infections. 8 , 22 The findings of Saulsbury and colleagues contrast with our findings that 22 of 33 immunocompetent children acutely infected with rotavirus infection had detectable rotavirus antigen in serum in the first few days after disease onset . Our results , and the fact that we did not detect rotavirus antigen in convalescent serum , serum from healthy children or adult volunteers , or serum from children with non-rotavirus-associated acute gastroenteritis , show the specificity of the EIA that we used . Differences in sensitivities between Saulsbury and colleagues 1 and our diagnostic approach could , in part , account for the differing results . We have shown that stool antigen concentrations and the number of days between onset of diarrhoea and serum collection affect the ability to detect serum antigen . Thus , the timing of sample collection could have adversely affected Saulsbury and colleagues 1 results . Additionally , rotavirus-specific antibodies or other factors in serum could have hindered detection of rotavirus antigen in serum in both studies . <p> Our work raises the question of how rotavirus escapes the intestine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the family that contains rotavirus , use transepithelial transport through M cells . These cells are a specialisation of the mucosal epithelium that overlies the Peyer 1s patches , which act as conduits to the immune , lymphatic , and circulatory systems. 24 Rotavirus antigens have been detected in M cells , and these cells could provide rotavirus with access to the bloodstream . <p> Further investigations are needed to establish the importance of our findings in understanding rotavirus pathogenesis , the relation between extraintestinal spread and the severity of disease and tissue damage , the role of viraemia in the immune response , and induction of protective immunity against reinfection . In light of our findings , further studies are needed to reassess the frequency and importance of extraintestinal symptoms associated with rotavirus infection . <p> Contributors : <p> S E Blutt designed and coordinated the study , collected data , and wrote the manuscript . C D Kirkwood analysed most of the patients 1 samples and helped edit and revise the manuscript . K L Warfield , M Ciarlet , K Bok , and V Parreo helped in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ analysed results . M E Conner , R F Bishop , and M K Estes provided the funding , reviewed the data and manuscript , and aided in experimental design . <p> Conflict of interest statement : <p> None declared . <p> Acknowledgments : <p> We thank Robert Atmar for manuscript critique , Charles Macias for assistance in writing the IRB protocol , and Claudia Kozinetz for help with statistical analysis . We also thank Prof K Grimwood and staff of the Department of Gastroenterology Royal Children 1s Hospital , Victoria , Australia , for their contributions during the rotavirus surveillance study and Sue Crawford for technical assistance and helpful discussions . This work was funded by an Individual National Research Service Award ( F32-AI10604 ) to SEB , by the Office of Research and Development , Medical Research Service , Department of Veterans Affairs ; and an R01 ( NIH AI24998 ) to MEC and support to KLW , MC , and MKE ; a Texas Gulf Coast Digestive Diseases Center grant ( NIDDK-DK56338 ) to MKE ; an Agencia Nacional de Promocion Cientifica y Tecnica , Argentina- BID @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fellowship from the Gastroenterological Society of Australia to CDK ; and the Murdoch Children 1s Research Institute grant to CDK and RFB . <p> Rotavirus antigen in serum samples obtained from children and animals during the acute stage of intestinal infection PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> ID=infectious dose . pfu=plaque forming units . ND=not determined . EDIM=epidemic diarrhoea of infant mice . EC=EDIM-Cambridge. wt=wildtype . RRV=rhesus rotavirus . ALA=Alabama . IND=Indiana. *6 samples tested . ( a ) Because of small blood volumes in infant mice , each of 3 samples consisted of a pool of serum from 4 animals . ( b ) 3 samples tested . ( c ) 11 samples tested . <p>

@@4015441 Section : FEATURES <p> The study reported here looked at the survival of microorganisms ( heterotrophic plate counts , total conforms . E. coli , and bacterial spores ) in a consumer-type microwave oven . Kitchen sponges , scrubbing pads , and syringes were experimentally contaminated with wastewater and subsequently exposed to microwave radiation . At 100 percent power level , it was found that the heterotrophic plate count ( i.e. , total bacterial count ) of the wastewater was reduced by more that 99 percent within 1 to 2 minutes , and the total coliform and E. coli were totally inactivated after 30 seconds of microwave radiation . Bacterial phage MS2 was totally inactivated within 1 to 2 minutes , Spores of Bacillus cereus were more resistant than the other microorganisms tested , and were completely eradicated only after 4-minute irradiation . Similar inactivation rates were obtained in wastewater-contaminated scrubbing pads , <p> Microorganisms attached to plastic syringes were more resistant to microwave irradiation than those associated with kitchen sponges or scrubbing pads . It took 10 minutes for total inactivation of the heterotrophic plate count and 4 minutes for total inactivation of total coliform and E. coli @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2 minutes ; 97.4 percent reduction was observed after 12 minutes . The authors also observed a higher inactivation of B. cereus spores in syringes placed in a ceramic container than of spores in syringes placed in a glass container . This finding could have some implications for the design of containers to be used in exposure of medical devices to microwave radiation . <p> The article discusses the implications of these findings for consumer safety in the home environment . Introduction <p> Food is a vehicle for the transmission of numerous infectious diseases caused by bacteria , viruses , protozoa , and helminth parasites . In the United States , it is estimated that foodborne illnesses affect some 6 to 80 million people per year , leading to approximately 9,000 deaths ( Altekruse , Cohen , &; Swerklow , 1997 ) . In the United States , the cost of foodborne diseases has been estimated at $4 - 6 billion . According to Roberts ( 1982 ) , the highest percentages of cases occur in the home environment . <p> The domestic kitchen represents an important source of contamination @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Gerba , 1997 ; Finch , Prince , &; Hawksworth , 1978 ; Scott &; Bloomfield , 1990 ; Scott , Bloomfield , &; Barlow , 1984 ; Rusin , Orosz-Coughlin , &; Gerba , 1998 ) . Cross-contamination of kitchen surfaces was found to be caused by contaminated eggshells ( Humphrey , Martin &; Whitehead , 1994 ) . Infectious microorganisms originating from raw meal , poultry , fruits , and vegetables contaminate sinks , countertops , sponges , dishcloths , utensils , and draining and cutting boards . An examination of cellulose sponges and cotton dishcloths showed that they harbored pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella ( 15.4 percent of samples for sponges and 13.8 percent for dishcloths ) and Staphylococcus aureus ( 20 percent of samples for sponges and 18.6 percent for dishcloths ) . Rusin and co-authors ( 1998 ) reported that sponges and dishcloths are the most problematic in terms of microbial contamination . <p> Sponges and dishcloths remain wet in the kitchen environment , a condition that helps in the survival of potential pathogens . Air drying can not be relied upon to inactivate microorganisms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have suggested the use of hypochlorite solutions to disinfect sponges and dishcloths ( Scott et al. , 1984 ; Rusin et al. , 1998 ) , the use of self-disinfecting sponges ( Enriquez et al. , 1997 ) . <p> The home health care industry has approximately 20,000 providers in the United States ( up from 1,100 in 1963 ) . It delivers home care services to about 7.6 million patients with chronic illnesses , disabilities , or terminal illnesses . In 2003 , the cost of home care was around $38 billion ( National Association for Home Care and Hospice , 2004 ) . Home care patients use a wide range of medical devices ( e.g. , catheters , tracheotomy tubes , nasogastric tubes , syringes ) , which may become contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms . The pathogens form biofilms on the surface of medical devices and become resistant to antibacterial and antifungal drugs , thus leading to urinary-tract infections and other problems ( Anwar &; Costerton , 1992 ; Donlan , 2002 ) . Medical instruments and equipment must be sterilized to protect the spread of pathogens from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ home care patients generate infectious wastes that are disposed of in household garbage . This circumstance leads to an increase of the pathogen and parasite load in municipal solid waste , with potential for public health problems . <p> Microwave radiation falls within the radio-frequency band of the electromagnetic spectrum . Most studies on microwave radiation have primarily addressed the effect of radiation on microorganisms associated with food ( Farber , Aoust , Diotte , Sewell , &; Daley , 1998 ; Spite , 1984 ) . Microbial suspensions were used in most of the studies dealing with microbial inactivation by microwave irradiation ( e.g. , Kakita el al. , 1995 ; Wang , Hu , &; Lin , 2003 ) . The research reported here also dealt with microorganisms associated with surfaces , especially those adsorbed to plastic-syringe surfaces . <p> The purpose of the research was to determine the effects of microwave radiation produced by a household microwave oven on the survival of bacterial indicators , phage , and bacterial endospores in wastewater-contaminated kitchen sponges and scrubbing pads , as well as medical devices such as syringes used @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Microwave irradiation was performed in a household microwave oven ( Sharp , Model R-630D ) with a rotating glass plate , a frequency of 2,450 MHz , and power of 1,100 watts . This microwave oven had 11 power levels ranging from 0 percent to 100 percent . Thermometers <p> Two types of thermometers were used . A digital . Type K thermocouple thermometer ( Omega , Model HH21 ) was used to measure temperatures inside liquids , kitchen sponges , and scrubbing pads . A noncontact infrared thermometer ( Raytekr ) was used to measure temperature on the surface of objects . Test Microorganisms <p> Total coliforms and E. coli were enumerated by the ColiPADT rapid detection method described by Billon , Koopman , and Jung ( 1995 ) . <p> Briefly , following serial dilutions of the samples , a 1-mL aliquot of each dilution was added to 1 mL of 2X Lauryl Tryptose BrothMUG ( LTB-MUG ) . The lubes were incubated for 22 hours at 35C . Following incubation , a 10-L aliquot from each tube was transferred to the ColiPAD assay pads . These @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) and 4-methylumbelliferone glucuronide ( MUG ) , for the rapid detection of total coliforms and E. coli , respectively ( Bitton et al. , 1995 ) . The pads were placed in locking empty petri dishes and incubated for 2 hours at 35C . Purple spots on assay pads indicate the presence of total coliforms in samples . To detect E. coli , a 10-L drop of the alkaline buffer **27;4797;TOOLONG ( Sigma Diagnostics ) was added to each spot . Fluorescence spots on assay pads indicate the presence of E. coli under a long-wave ultraviolet ( UV ) lamp in the dark . The method gave the most probable numbers of total coliforms and E. coli per 100 mL of sample . <p> Total bacteria colonies were detected on nutrient agar plates incubated for 48 hours at 30C <p> Bacillus cereus was used to determine the effect of microwave irradiation on bacterial spores in contaminated materials . The vegetative cells were routinely cultured in tryptic soy agar ( or broth ) ( Difco Laboratories ) . Spores were produced by cultivation of the bacteria at 37C in 1/10-strength @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from vegetative ceils by preincubation in a water bath at 37C followed by shaking of the spore suspension in a water bath at 60C for 15 minutes . The spores were plated on nutrient agar supplemented with 0.1 percent soluble starch and 0.015 g/L of trypan blue , and incubated at 37C for 24 hours ( Nieminski , 2002 ; Nieminski , Bellamy , &; Moss , 2000 ; Radziminski et al. , 2002 ) . <p> Bacterial endospores in wastewater from the University of Florida water reclamation plant were enumerated according to a slightly modified methodology proposed by Nieminski ( 2002 ) . <p> MS2 phage was obtained from Dr. Sam Farrah of the Department of Microbiology and Cell Science at the University of Florida . The host cell used was E. coli C3000 . The phage was assayed according to the double-layer technique of Adams ( 1959 ) . Kitchen Sponges <p> The kitchen sponges were 3.17 x 3.37 x 0.69 cm when dry . The average water-holding capacity of sponges was 64.3 g . To contaminate dry sponges , the authors soaked them in raw wastewater from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the contaminated sponges to microwave radiation , wastewater was squeezed from the exposed sponges . Serial dilutions of the squeezed wastewater were made and plated on the appropriate media ( see above ) to enumerate total bacteria , total coliforms , E. coli , and bacterial endospores . A similar protocol was used for MS2 phage and B. cereus spores . <p> Control sponges were also soaked in wastewater but were not exposed to microwave radiation . Kitchen Scrubbing Pads ( Nonmetallic ) <p> The scrubbing pads were 9.06 x 7.07 x 0.65 cm when dry . The size of the pads did not change significantly following soaking in liquids . The water-holding capacity of the pads was 10.94 g . The inactivation experiments were conducted according to the protocol described for kitchen sponges . Syringes <p> The goal of these experiments was to simulate the fate of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms in contaminated syringes following exposure to microwave radiation . The microorganisms under study are those that remain attached to the syringe walls . To simulate microbial contamination , 10-mL sterile plastic syringes were filled with 10 mL @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 90 minutes . Afterwards , the syringes were emptied and exposed to microwave irradiation . The adsorbed microorganisms were desorbed from the syringe walls with 10 mL of an eluent that contained 3 percent beef extract solution and 0.1 percent Tween 80 ( pH = 7 ) . The eluent solution was in contact with the syringe wails for 90 minutes . The eluate was diluted and plated to determine the number of survivors according to the methods described above . Statistical Analyses <p> Statistical Package for Social Science ( SPSS ) for Windows was used to determine the effects of microwave irradiation on various microorganisms . An a-level of .05 was used for each analysis to determine the statistical significance evaluated by paired t-test . Results Temperature Profile with Varying Microwave Power Level <p> 100 mL of deionized water was placed in a 250-mL Pyrex beaker at the center of the rotating plate in the microwave oven and exposed to microwave radiation at different power levels for one minute . Figure 1 shows the temperature profile with increasing power level . The temperature increased in 1 minute from 23.2C @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ level . Kakita and co-authors ( 1995 ) reported a similar increase in water temperature ( 26C to 90C ) following 1-minute irradiation . <p> The experiments discussed below were carried out at 100 percent power level . Microbial Inactivation in Kitchen Sponges <p> The mean surface temperature of the sponges ranged from 79.4C after 1 minute to 80.8C at 4 minutes , and the mean inside temperature ranged from 91.4C after 1 minute to 90.4C after 4 minutes ( Figure 2 ) . <p> The extent to which different microorganisms in contaminated sponges were inactivated after microwave radiation is shown in Table 1 . For total bacteria , inactivation was 99.1 0.2 percent and 99. 5 0.1 percent after 1- and 2-minute irradiation , respectively . The levels of total coliforms and E. coli in wastewater were 2.2 x 10 6 per 100 mL and 9 x 10 4 per 100 mL , respectively . Complete inactivation of these indicators was obtained following only 30 seconds of microwave treatment at 100 percent power level . Similarly , complete inactivation of phage MS2 was achieved following 1-minute microwave irradiation . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ x 10 9 per mL . <p> Kitchen sponges were soaked in a Bacillus cereus spore suspension . As expected , bacterial spores were hardier then the other microorganisms under study . A 2-minute microwave irradiation period was enough to inactivate 99.99 percent of bacterial spores , and no spore survived after 4 minutes of irradiation . Surface temperature of the sponges rose to 87.2C after 4 minutes ( Table 1 ) . <p> Wastewater from the UF water reclamation facility was found to harbor 5.7 x 10 4 bacterial spores per 100 mL . When exposed to microwave radiation , spore inactivation was 99.4 percent after 1 minute and 100 percent after 1.5 minutes ( Table 1 ) . Microbial Inactivation in Kitchen Scrubbing Pads <p> Microbial inactivation in scrubbing pads showed the same pattern as microbial inactivation in sponges ( Table 1 ) . A 2-minute irradiation time resulted in a 4-log reduction in total bacteria , and no bacteria were detected after 4-minute irradiation . Complete inactivation of total coliforms and E. coli was achieved following 1-minute irradiation . The temperature inside the scrubbing pads increased to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the rising costs of hospital care , home care of patients is becoming increasingly attractive . It was therefore important to study the effect of microwave irradiation on microorganisms associated with medical devices ( e.g. , syringes ) that are often disposed of in the patient 's home garbage . In syringes , the microbial pathogens are likely to adhere to the plastic and rubber surfaces . <p> Experiments were undertaken to study the fate of syringe-associated microorganisms following microwave irradiation . Sterile , 10-cc syringes were filled with wastewater and then emptied following 90 minutes of contact time at room temperature . The empty syringes with attached microorganisms were then exposed to microwave irradiation . <p> It was observed that microorganisms attached to syringe surfaces were generally more resistant than those associated with kitchen sponges or scrubbing pads . After a 10-minute exposure time , the surface temperature of syringes exposed to microwave radiation climbed to around 120C for the main polyethylene body and 130C for the rubber end of the syringe piston ( Figure 3 ) . For total coliforms and E. coli , a 2-minute exposure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ percent inactivation , respectively . No survivor organisms were detected after a 4-minute exposure , however ( Figure 4 , Figure 5 ) . The surface temperature of syringes rose to 86.4C in 4 minutes when syringes were exposed to microwave irradiation . It took 7 minutes , however , to achieve a 4-log reduction of total bacteria , and total inactivation was obtained only after 10-minute irradiation ( Table 2 ) . Exposure periods of 1 and 2 minutes resulted in 3- and 4-log inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage , respectively . <p> As shown for kitchen sponges and scrubbing pads , Bacillus cereus spores were hardier than vegetative bacteria . The average extent of inactivation was 86.5 4.6 percent after 7-minute exposure and 97.4 3.4 percent after 12-minute exposure . The surface temperature ranges after 7 minutes and 12 minutes were 86.4-105.2C and 107.2-123.6C , respectively . Effect of Container Type on Inactivation of B. cereus Spores Adhering to Syringe Surfaces <p> Syringes contaminated with B. cereus spores were placed either in a glass container or in a ceramic bowl ( i.e. , a household clay bowl ) and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . In the glass container , the surface temperature increased up to 76.8-89.2C , whereas in the ceramic container , the surface temperature was always above 100C ( 115.8-176.4C ) . This greater increase in temperature was probably responsible for the increase in average inactivation from 84.1 percent to 95.8 percent ( Figure 6 ) . Discussion and Conclusions <p> The study showed that total bacteria and indicator organisms are inactivated by microwave radiation within 1 to 2 minutes . A 5-log reduction of the viable count was also reported for E. coli suspension exposed to full power ( 600 waits ) in 80 seconds ( Woo , Rhee , &; Park , 2000 ) . Park and Cliver ( 1997 ) reported up to a 7-log reduction of pure cultures of E. coli in sponges subjected to microwave radiation ( at 800 watts ) within 30 to 60 seconds . <p> Sponges , pads , and dishcloths in kitchens retain moisture and are potential sources of pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria ( Enriquez , Enriquez-Gordillo , Kennedy , &; Gerba , 1997 ; Rusin et al. , 1998 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) have reported loofah sponges to be reservoirs and vehicles of Pseudomonas aeruginosa , which causes folliculitis . Sponges are generally left to dry on kitchen surfaces , but drying is not sufficient to significantly inactivate microbial pathogens , particularly microbial spores and protozoan cysts and oocysts ( Scott &; Bloomfield , 1990 ) . Placing the contaminated sponges in a microwave oven for a few minutes will significantly inactivate potential pathogens . <p> The study reported here also showed that microorganisms attached to syringe surfaces were generally more resistant than those associated with kitchen sponges or scrubbing pads . Total inactivation of the syringe-associated bacteria was achieved only after an exposure period of 4 to 10 minutes . Similarly , a 2-minute exposure of phage MS2 did not result in total inactivation . Phage MS2 appears to be more resistant than Phage PL-1 , for which a 5-log reduction was achieved in about 1 minute ( Kakita et al. , 1995 ) . Thus , wastewater microorganisms in liquid-saturated kitchen sponges and scrubbing pads are more sensitive to microwave treatment than are those attached to syringe surfaces , which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ appears to provide a protective effect . <p> As expected , the authors found that bacterial spores displayed a higher resistance to microwave radiation than did vegetative bacteria or bacterial phages , Because of their generally higher resistance to environmental stresses , it has been suggested that bacterial spores could be used as potential indicators for protozoan parasites such as Cryptosporidium ( Radziminski et al. , 2002 ) . Protozoan cysts and oocysts are generally more resistant than vegetative bacteria or even viruses to disinfection and adverse environmental factors ( Bitton , 2005 ) . Moreover , there are differences in the resistance of Bacillus spores ( B. licheniformis , B. cereus , B. coagulans , and B. subtilis ) to microwave radiation , with B. licheniformis spores having the highest resistance ( Wang et al. , 2003 ) . <p> Finally , the study reported here showed that the type of container used may have some effect on microbial inactivation in syringes . A higher degree of inactivation was observed when the contaminated syringes were placed in a clay container . An effect of container type on microbial inactivation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 2003 ) , who showed that the resistance of microbial spores to microwave radiation was lower in glass containers than in polypropylene containers or aluminum foil-enclosed pouches . These preliminary data suggest the possibility that open or closed ceramic containers could be used to increase the inactivation of microorganisms subjected to microwave radiation . <p> Microwave ovens have become common household appliances in developed countries and , to some extent , in developing countries . This relatively inexpensive technology is commonly used to cook or warm foods in homes , offices , and some restaurants . With respect to consumer safety , the research reported here shows that microwave radiation can also be used to control ( to reduce or sometimes to completely eliminate ) microbial potential pathogens in the kitchen environment by irradiation of sponges and scrubbing pads for a few minutes . Reports are conflicting as to whether microbial inactivation is due to heating or to the microwave energy itself ( Salvatorelli , Marchetti , Betti , Rosaspina , &; Finzi , 1996 ) . Celandroni and co-authors ( 2004 ) , however , attributed the killing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was found to lead to the release of DNA and proteins but not to cause cell lysing ( Woo et al. , 2000 ) . <p> Homebound patients can also use this technology to reduce microbial contamination by exposing nonmetallic medical wastes to microwave radiation . Examples of the successful application of this technology are its use in treatment of infectious hospital wastes , which are commonly subjected to incineration or irradiation with ultraviolet or ? -rays ( Pellerin , 1994 ; Tata &; Beone , 1995 ) ; industrial food processing ( Aziz , Mahrous , &; Youssef , 2002 ) ; decontamination of mildew-infected cotton ( Chen , 2001 ) , towels ( Tanaka el al. , 1998 ) , corks in wine bottling ( Murphy &; Curran , 2000 ) , and contact lenses ( Crabbe &; Thompson , 2001 ; Hiti , Walochnik , Faschinger , Haller-Schober , &; Aspock , 2001 ) ; dentures cleaning ( Goodson , Glass , Bullard , &; Conrad , 2003 ) ; air decontamination ( Hamid et al. , 2001 ) ; and pyrolysis of wastewater biosolids ( Menendez @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In conclusion , consumers and homebound patients can use microwave ovens to significantly reduce microbial pathogens in the home environment . Microwave irradiation is a cost-effective , practical , fast , easy , and safe method of disinfecting household and medical devices . <p> Acknowledgements : The authors thank the University of Florida Research Foundation for funding this research . TABLE 1 Effect of Microwave Radiation* on Microbial Inactivation in Kitchen Sponges and Scrubbing Pads Contaminated with Wastewater PREFORMATTED TABLE TABLE 2 Effect of Microwave Radiation* on Inactivation of Microorganisms Attached to Plastic Syringes Contaminated with Wastewater PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 1 Temperature Profile for I-Minute Irradiation at Various Power Levels <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 2 Surface- and Inside-Temperature Profile for Microwaved Kitchen Sponges <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 3 Surface-Temperature Profile of Syringes , Measured with a Noncontact Thermometer <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 4 Effect of Microwave Radiation on Total Coliforms Attached to Plastic Syringes <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 5 Effect of Microwave Radiation on E. coli Attached to Plastic Syringes <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 6 Effect of Microwave Radiation on Bacterial Spores in Syringes Placed in Glass @ @ @ @

@@4015841 Abstract <p> We conducted a test of the efficacy of ciprofloxacin eardrops in 80 patients ( 95 ears ) with otorrhea due to chronic suppurative otitis media in two treatment settings . One group ( n=40 ; 47 ears ) received daily ciprofloxacin therapy plus aspiration in the clinic . The other group ( n=40 ; 48 ears ) self-administered ciprofloxacin at home . Overall , otorrhea resolved in 88% of all ears within 12 days of the initiation of treatment . The clinic-treated patients tended to respond more rapidly than did the self-treated patients , but there was no statistically significant difference in success rates between the two groups . Side effects were negligible . We conclude that empiric topical ciprofloxacin therapy is an effective , safe and relatively inexpensive treatment for otorrhea in patients with chronic otitis media . Introduction <p> Preoperative antimicrobial treatment for otorrhea in patients undergoing surgery for chronic suppurative otitis media ( SOM ) has been shown to prevent complications. ( n1 , n2 ) Topical therapy may be a better choice than systemic therapy because it produces fewer side effects ( especially ototoxicity ) , and it is less expensive. ( n3-n5 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as effective as , and often more effective than , systemic treatment. ( n6 , n7 ) <p> The ideal ototopical agent should demonstrate effective antimicrobial activity against the most common pathogens , and it should be non-ototoxic , especially in children. ( n8 ) Ciprofloxacin ( Cipro ) , a member of the fluoroquinolone class of antibacterials , is particularly effective against gram-negative organisms , especially Staphylococcus aureus , including methicillin-resistant S. aureus. ( n1 , n5 , n8 ) In children , use of the topical formulation is recommended in order to avert the side effects associated with the systemic drug. ( n1 ) Materials and Methods <p> We investigated the efficacy of topical ciprofloxacin in 80 patients ( 45 male and 35 female ) , aged 21 months to 70 years ( mean 26.5 years ) , who came to our clinic with otorrhea of at least six weeks ' duration between March and September of 1994 . In 15 patients , the otorrhea was bilateral . Otic fluid was obtained from each patient and sent for culture . Audiographic testing was performed on all patients before @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ two groups of 40 . One group ( 47 ears ) returned to the clinic on a daily basis to undergo external ear channel aspiration and to receive an application of ciprofloxacin lactate solution administered by clinic personnel ; treatment continued until the otorrhea resolved . The second group ( 48 ears ) underwent aspiration and topical ciprofloxacin treatment only during the first clinic visit , after which the patients self-administered the ciprofloxacin at home . The self-treated patients were asked to return to the clinic as soon as their otorrhea resolved . The dosage for both groups was 2 mg/ml : two administrations of three drops each for patients younger than 15 years , and two applications of five drops each for older patients . Clinic personnel and patients were instructed to wait five minutes between the two applications . Statistical results were analyzed using the q test . Results <p> Need for Surgery <p> During the course of the treatment regimen , four of the 95 ears ( 4% ) required radical mastoidectomy , and five ears ( 5% ) underwent polypectomy . One patient with bilateral otorrhea @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for an additional six weeks . <p> Causative Pathogens <p> The most common isolates on culture were S. aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus spp ( Table 1 ) . Cultures isolated a single type of microorganism in 76 of the 80 patients ( 95% ) ; there was mixed growth in the remainder . Two of the 15 patients with bilateral otorrhea had different pathogens in each ear . Bacteria isolated from 92 of the 95 ears were found to be susceptible to ciprofloxacin ; partial susceptibility was seen in the other three ears . No bacteria were completely resistant to ciprofloxacin . These findings suggest that in these cases , cultures are not necessary before initiating topical ciprofloxacin treatment . <p> Clinic-treated Patients <p> Otorrhea resolved in three to eight days in 43 of the 47 clinic-treated ears ( 91% ) ; treatment failed in the other four ears ( Table 2 ) . Two of the treatment failures occurred in the patients who underwent radical mastoidectomy and polypectomy after they were diagnosed with cholesteatoma . <p> Self-treated Patients <p> Topical ciprofloxacin was successful in 41 of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The difference in the success rates between the two groups was not statistically significant ( p <0.05 ) . The time to resolution for the self-treated patients who responded to therapy ranged from five to 12 days ( Table 2 ) . The seven patients in whom treatment failed had still not responded after 15 days of therapy ; microscopic examination revealed cholesteatomas in three ears and middle ear polypoid hypertrophy in one ear . The three patients with cholesteatoma underwent modified radical mastoidectomy . <p> Overall Assessment <p> Topical ciprofloxacin was successful in 84 of the 95 infected ears ( 88% ) . There were no differences in pre- and post-treatment audiographic results or bone conduction in either group . Otomycosis developed in four ears ( 4% ) between post-treatment days 15 and 20 . One self-treated patient complained of dizziness , which we attributed to the fact that the medication was stored in a refrigerator between uses . <p> Follow-up <p> Patients were followed for three to six months . Relapse occurred in six ears in the clinic-treated group ( 12.8% ) and in five ears in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ recovered after an additional course of ciprofloxacin . Discussion <p> Most studies have shown that the same types of microoorganisms are isolated from the ears of patients with chronic SOM . The most common bacteria are S. aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Proteus spp , Klebsiella spp and Escherichia coli. ( n3 , n10-n14 ) These findings were borne out in our study ( Table 1 ) . <p> Otorrhea in chronic SOM is often difficult to cure because of bacterial resistance and because of the failure of systemic antimicrobials to penetrate the chronically inflamed otic tissues. ( n3 , n9 , n10 ) The systemic aminoglycosides are highly effective in eradicating most gram-negative bacteria , but their ototoxic side effects discourage their use in patients with chronic SOM. ( n3-n5 ) As a result , clinicians have turned to topical agents , including neomycin , cortisone , gentamicin -- alone or in combination with acidic solutions such as boric acid. ( n9 , n15 ) <p> For all their benefits , some topical agents do have their drawbacks . For example , just as an acidic medium is an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n16 ) it has been proposed that local application of ototoxic drugs may have a similar effect. ( n3-n5 ) Moreover , some topical solutions are reported to cause some abnormal alterations in the middle ear mucosa and the tympanic membane . However , Barlow et al , in their study of the quinolone derivative oflaxacin , found that its effect on the middle ear mucosa and the tympanic membrane was no different from that of 0.9% isotonic sodium chloride solution. ( n8 ) <p> For pediatric patients with chronic SOM , Harvey et al report that topical drug therapy and aspiration is preferable to surgery. ( n17 ) While both systemic and topical ciprofloxacin are used in the treatment of chronic SOM , the systemic form of the drug is contraindicated in children because of its possible degenerative effects on cartilage. ( n3 , n5 , n6 , n9 , n13 , n18 ) Moreover , systemic therapy is five times more expensive than topical treatment. ( n1 ) <p> The safety of topical ciprofloxacin was demonstrated in two animal trials . Bagger-Sjoback et al treated guinea pigs with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ any complications in inner ear or vestibulary organs. ( n11 ) Brownlee et al treated guinea pigs with topical ciprofloxacin and found that it did not cause hair cell loss in their inner ears. ( n19 ) <p> In humans , both systemic and topical ciprofloxacin have been shown to be non-ototoxic. ( n17 , n20 ) Esposito et al found that ciprofloxacin is more effective than systemic aminoglycosides. ( n3 ) These researchers earlier suggested that the topical formulation of ciprofloxacin is more effective in treating chronic SOM than is the oral form , especially in malignant otitis externa caused by P. aeruginosa , which is most often seen in diabetic patients. ( n6 ) Lang et al used oral and intravenous ciprofloxacin in 21 children and reported that the drug caused no cartilage damage ; the only adverse effect they reported was one case of neutropenia. ( n13 ) Ganz reported an 84% success rate with topical ciprofloxacin , and concluded that it was more effective than Systemic therapy. ( n7 ) <p> In our study , we observed that topical treatment combined with local aspiration and cleansing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those of Aykut et al , who concluded that " aspiration and local purification is more important than the type of used drugs . " ( n9 ) In our study , immediate side effects were limited to one case of dizziness , which we believe was related to the between-use storage of the drug in a cold environment . Five patients developed otomycosis after drug therapy had been stopped for a minimum of two weeks . Although otomycosis is an important complication , it was easily managed with vinegar irrigation . Otomycosis secondary to topical ciprofloxacin has also been reported by Piccirillo and Pames. ( n5 ) These findings point to the need for careful follow-up monitoring during the weeks following the cessation of therapy . Our finding that there were no differences in audiographic results before and after treatment are consistent with those of other studies . <p> The relapse rate we observed during the three to six months of follow-up ( 11.5% ) was rather high , but we attribute much of this to insufficient protection of the ears by our patients , such as during swimming @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not necessary to culture fluid from every ear with otorrhea . Empiric therapy with topical ciprofloxacin is sufficient . Topical therapy is an effective , safe and relatively inexpensive treatment for chronic SOM . Culturing and microscopic examination of the ear is indicated only if otorrhea persists after 15 days of drug therapy . Table 1 . Microorganisms Isolated from 95 Ears with Chronic SOM . PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 2 . Time to Resolution of Otorrhea PREFORMATTED TABLE <p>

@@4016041 Section : ORIGINAL ARTICLE Abstract <p> The repair of surgical wounds of the external ear -- whether it be a primary skin closure , a skin flap , or a skin graft -- presents several challenges with respect to healing . One of these challenges is that it is not easy to fashion a wound dressing that has a smooth , moisture-containing surface , conforms to the shape of the auricle , and adheres to it while providing light pressure . An ear dressing that features these characteristics -- the malleable ear dressing -- is expected to become commercially available soon . In this article , the author describes his use of this dressing in 48 patients and reviews the results of follow-up questioning of 20 of these patients . Based on these findings , the author concludes that this dressing is effective , comfortable , aesthetically acceptable , and can be worn continuously for 7 consecutive days without complications . Introduction <p> The most common operative procedures of the auricle are small skin excisions and reconstructions . Other procedures include keloid excisions , drainage of auricular hematomas , and repair of other auricular traumas . The most common @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ flaps , and skin grafts . Each of these procedures presents the surgeon with a particular challenge with respect to wound healing . One such challenge involves the placement of a wound dressing . Because the variable contour of every patient 's external ear is unique , the application of a postoperative dressing can be difficult . <p> The first week of healing is critical because it is then that extravasation of blood and serum from the wound and neovascularization occur . For promoting optimal wound healing , the three primary functions of a dressing are to protect the wound from movement , to protect it from desiccation , and to keep it clean . For skin grafts , two additional functions are to provide a moist environment and to apply adequate pressure so that excessive blood and serum do not collect underneath the graft. ( n1 , n2 ) Moisture and pressure can also improve the healing of primary closures and rotation flaps . <p> The challenge in wound healing following the drainage of an auricular hematoma is that after the subcutaneous blood has been removed , the soft @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . During this period , constant pressure is required to prevent the formation of a space between the soft tissue and the external ear cartilage and to prevent the re-collection of blood and serum . Wrestlers and other athletes who undergo drainage of an auricular hematoma benefit from the use of a comfortable , thin dressing that easily fits underneath their protective headgear and allows them to return to their activities quickly . Historically , the primary dressings placed on the site of an auricular hematoma have included the tie-over dressing ( made of gauze , cotton , sponge , or another material ) , Aquaplast thermoplastic material , ( n3 , n4 ) transcartilaginous sutures , gauze with tape , and simple bandages . <p> The optimal conditions for the prevention of keloid formation and hypertrophic scarring are still unknown , but the placement of a silicone gel sheet over the wound surface and the application of light pressure are known to be advantageous. ( n5-n7 ) <p> An ideal external ear dressing ( 1 ) adheres tightly to skin but not to the wound , ( 2 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 3 ) is thin enough so that the patient can comfortably rest his or her head on it , ( 4 ) is aesthetic enough to be worn in public , ( 5 ) applies enough pressure to minimize blood and serum collection , ( 6 ) protects the wound from soiling , and ( 7 ) is malleable enough to conform to all the contours of the external ear . An ear dressing that features these characteristics -- the malleable ear dressing -- is expected to become commercially available soon . <p> In this article , the author describes his use of such a dressing in 48 patients and reviews the results of a follow-up questionnaire completed by 20 patients . Based on these findings , the author concludes that the malleable dressing is effective , comfortable , aesthetically acceptable , and can be worn for 7 days without complications . Materials and methods <p> The author retrospectively reviewed the records of 48 patients who had received the malleable ear dressing ( Invotec International ; Jacksonville , Fla. ) following ear surgery . This dressing is made up @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ layer of malleable metal , and a layer of cloth with adhesive ( figure 1 ) . The dressing is easy to apply to most wounds of the anterior and posterior surface of the external ear , the helical rim , and the earlobe . <p> Of the 48 patients in the study group , 20 consecutive patients completed a five-item follow-up questionnaire regarding their experience with the dressing . They were asked : <p> -- Was your ear dressing comfortable ? ( Patients were asked to quantify their answers to this question on a scale of 0 uncomfortable to 5 no discomfort . ) <p> -- Approximately how long were you able to wear the ear dressing ? <p> -- Was the appearance of the dressing acceptable ? <p> -- Did you prefer this dressing to a traditional Band-Aid ? <p> -- If so , why ? <p> After each surgical procedure , the site was routinely cleaned of blood with hydrogen peroxide and dried thoroughly . The dressing 's metal framework was bent to fit the contour of the wound site and then put into place . When @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the silicone surface of the dressing . For some dressings that needed to be in place for several days , Mastisolr liquid adhesive or compound tincture of benzoin was applied to the surrounding skin before the dressing was secured . <p> All skin grafts were full-thickness grafts harvested from postauricular skin . They were cut to the shape of the surgical defect and secured with a single-layer nylon suture . <p> During keloid excision , a portion of the skin from the side of the keloid was preserved to serve as a flap . Subtotal excision of the scar tissue was performed in a manner that left the shape and thickness of the ear as close to its original state as possible . The remaining scar tissue was injected with a corticosteroid solution . The skin flap was positioned with a single layer of nylon suture . <p> The method of treating auricular hematomas generally depended on the duration and size of the injury . Hematomas that had occurred during the preceding 1 to 3 days were usually drained with a large-bore needle . In those that had occurred @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subcutaneous blood tended to be clotted and fibrin had accumulated . Therefore , adequate cleaning of the subcutaneous space sometimes required elevation of a skin flap . For older injuries , the clot was usually replaced with scar tissue , which had to be dissected and removed under direct exposure . For hematomas larger than 1 cm in diameter , the dead space was collapsed with a 6-0 chromic suture placed in a quilt-stitch pattern . Results <p> The 48 cases included 19 skin grafts ( figure 2 ) , 14 primary closures , 10 skin flaps ( figure 3 ) , three wedge excisions ( figure 4 ) , and two wounds healed by secondary intention . These procedures had been performed for the treatment of 21 skin cancers , four auricular hematomas , and 23 benign skin lesions with 11 different pathologies , including six cases of chondrodermatitis nodularis chronica helicis and four cases of keloid . <p> Two of the skin grafts became ischemic and required a second treatment , as did two auricular hematomas . There were no reported wound infections . The most common problem @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when fixing the dressing in place sometimes caused blood to extravasate from the wound and soil the dressing . <p> Responses to the questionnaires indicated that the dressing was quite comfortable ( mean comfort score : 4.4 ) . Only two patients rated their comfort level as low as 3 . Seventeen patients wore the dressing for 5 to 7 consecutive days ; the other three patients either removed their dressing or had it fall off within 48 hours of placement . Eighteen patients characterized the appearance of their dressing as acceptable . All 20 patients preferred the malleable ear dressing to a traditional Band-Aid . Specific patients ' comments included , " The dressing provided support for the ear and protected it from bumps and brushes , " " It stayed on , even through a shower , " " It looked better than a Band-Aid , " " It provided protection from dirt and debris , " and " It was easy to remove . " Another described it as " low maintenance . " Discussion <p> The author 's review of cases and his sampling of patients @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as both a therapeutic tool and a comfortable , low-maintenance dressing . <p> Physicians will find the dressing easy to apply and that its clean , smooth , soft surface provides for optimal wound healing conditions . The dressing can be left alone for 5 to 7 days . For patients who undergo skin graft procedures , the malleable dressing can serve as a substitute for the placement of the tie-over bolster dressing , which is a time-consuming procedure . Another advantage of the malleable dressing is its capacity to exert light pressure and provide a silicone surface following removal of a keloid . Although the dressing alone might not provide sufficient pressure following treatment of an auricular hematoma , it can provide protection for the injury . The manufacturer might consider providing a clip or clamp that would exert additional pressure . <p> Patients appear to be quite receptive to the malleable ear dressing because it is lightweight , thin , comfortable , and tolerable in appearance . Moreover , unlike traditional gauze dressings , it does not require replacement for 7 days . <p> Use of this dressing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ This dressing is not appropriate for large wounds or for wounds that are located in the concha auricularis or the external acoustic meatus . <p> Reprint requests : Frederick A. Godley , MD , Alliance ENT , 845 N. Main St. , Providence , RI 02904 . Phone : ( 401 ) 331-9690 ; fax : ( 401 ) 331-9609 ; e-mail : rickgodley@cox.net <p> The author received no professional or personal financial support from Invotec International , the manufacturer of the malleable ear dressing . <p> Figure 1 . The malleable ear dressing is made of silicone sheeting , a metallic backbone , and adhesive fabric . <p> Figure 2 . Photographs show two small skin cancers on the external ear ( A ) , the excision sites covered with skin grafts ( B ) , the malleable ear dressing in place ( C ) , and the postoperative result at 6 weeks ( D ) . <p> Figure 3 . Photographs show a small hematoma ( A ) , an elevated skin flap ( B ) , the malleable dressing ( C ) , and the cosmetic result @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 4 . Photographs show a basal cell carcinoma ( A ) , the closed wound following a wedge excision ( B ) , the position of the malleable dressing ( C ) , and the postoperative result at 1 week ( D ) . <p>

@@4016141 Section : ORIGINAL ARTICLE <p> Cutaneous angiosarcoma of the head and neck is a rare vascular neoplasm . When it does occur , it is most common in elderly white men . Early diagnosis and treatment are essential for local control of this aggressive tumor , but recognition can be delayed because of its rarity or because of difficulty in making apathologic diagnosis . A combined-modality treatment approach is most often advocated . We report the case of a 77-year-old black man who presented with a 1-month history of two painless , violaceous , subcentimeter nodules of the upper lip . After a diagnosis of low-grade angiosarcoma was definitively established , the lesions were locally excised with good cosmetic and functional results . The patient subsequently was found to have probable metastatic disease , but he declined further intervention . We review the literature on cutaneous angiosarcoma , and we discuss its epidemiology , presentation , tissue diagnosis , treatment , and prognosis in an effort to increase awareness of this rare malignancy . Introduction <p> Angiosarcoma is a rare malignancy of the head and neck . It is usually seen in the elderly , and the prognosis is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the entity 's rarity or confounding tissue histology . Early detection and treatment are essential to control this highly malignant soft-tissue cancer . Case report <p> A 77-year-old black man presented to another subspecialty clinic with a 1-month history of two painless , violaceous , subcentimeter nodules of the upper lip . Initial histologic findings suggested that these lesions were pyogenic granulomas . After a few months , similar nodules developed on the skin of the midface ; they were biopsied and diagnosed as low-grade angiosarcomas . The initial pathologic specimens were reviewed and considered to be epithelioid hemangioendotheliomas . The patient was referred to our clinic for evaluation and management . <p> On clinical examination , the patient was generally fit and in no distress . Several nontender , violaceous , smooth , fleshy , nonblanching , pedunculated lesions measuring less than 1 cm each were scattered around the upper lip and nose ( figure 1 , A ) . No cervical lymphadenopathy was found . Findings on the remainder of his head and neck examination were unremarkable . <p> Figure 1 . Photographs show the patient 's lip @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> A metastatic workup was initiated . Results of the basic metabolic profile and liver function tests were within normal ranges . The complete blood count revealed normocytic anemia . A finding on chest plain film was suspicious for an ascending aortic aneurysm . Computed tomography of the chest and abdomen demonstrated a large , low-density left retroperitoneal mass with enhancing peripheral nodules and two similar masses in the right hepatic lobe . These lesions were radiologically consistent with metastasis of the angiosarcoma . <p> The patient refused further diagnostic procedures for the abdominal masses , but he did undergo local excision of the facial lesions . The postoperative cosmetic and functional results were good ( figure 1 , B ) . <p> Pathologic examination revealed an angiosarcoma of varied differentiation . The specimen was made up of pleomorphic spindle cells with an indistinct luminal formation ( figure 2 ) . These findings were in contrast with those of the patient 's previous biopsy specimens , which lacked nuclear pleomorphism . <p> Figure 2 . Low-power ( A ) and high-power ( B ) views show the pleomorphic spindle cells @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ x 10 and x 400 , respectively ) . Discussion <p> **25;4204;TOOLONG . In the United States , soft-tissue sarcomas account for less than 1% of all malignancies ; 5 to 15% of these tumors occur in the head and neck. ( n1 ) The most common soft-tissue sarcomas encountered in otolaryngology practice are rhabdomyosarcomas and malignant fibrous histiocytomas ; angiosarcomas represent less than 0.1% of all head and neck malignancies. ( n2 ) One-third to one-half of all cases of cutaneous angiosarcoma present in the head and neck. ( n2-n3 ) The most common subsites are the scalp and upper face. ( n4-n6 ) Angiosarcoma is seldom seen in the lower face . Large series reviews have demonstrated that angiosarcomas most often present in men in the seventh and eighth decades of life. ( n3 , n4 , n6-n8 ) Among the studies in which race was reported , the overwhelming majority of patients were white. ( n4 , n7 ) <p> Although the cause of angiosarcoma is unknown , sun exposure has been proposed as a risk factor in light of the low incidence of this tumor in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as a risk factor because affected patients have a low rate of skin carcinomas. ( n7 ) A history of trauma has also been associated with the diagnosis of angiosarcoma ; in one series , ( n8 ) trauma was involved in 27% of cases , although this relationship may be spurious. ( n3 , n5 ) The most commonly demonstrable risk factor for head and neck angiosarcoma is a history of irradiation. ( n6 , n7 , n9 ) Risk factors for developing angiosarcoma in other anatomic subsites -- such as exposure to vinyl chloride , pyothorax , and thorium oxide and the presence of lymphedema -- have not been clearly implicated in head and neck lesions . <p> Delays in diagnosis are common and may be attributable to a lack of clinical awareness and difficulty in making a histologic assessment. ( n5 , n6 ) Angiosarcoma may also be difficult to diagnose because of its protean clinical nature . Case reports of unusual presentations have described presenting signs that resembled alopecia , rhinophyma , and rosacea . Other initial presentations of angiosarcoma may be an asymptomatic bruise-like lesion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , or skin ulceration ; the latter was the most common presentation in one series. ( n7 ) Angiosarcoma may also present as multifocal disease , whether it is clinically obvious or not ; Mark et al reported multifocal disease in 9 of 28 patients ( 32.1% ) . ( n6 ) <p> Cervical metastasis is generally uncommon at presentation. ( n6 , n7 ) In a series of 18 patients , Lydiatt et al found no case of distant metastasis at presentation , although one-third of these patients did eventually develop metastasis , most often to the lung. ( n7 ) In contrast , Naka et al reported that 7 patients in a series of 29 ( 24.1% ) had a metastasis at the initial examination ; all 29 patients eventually developed distant disease. ( n3 ) Naka et al stressed the difficult nature of identifying early pulmonary metastasis . <p> Pathology . Angiosarcoma is a difficult diagnosis to make , even for experienced pathologists , because of its rarity and complex histology. ( n3 ) Cutaneous angiosarcomas may be grouped on the basis of gross or histologic features @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , or macular. ( n8 , n10 ) Histologically , tumors contain a proliferation of ramifying and anastomosing vascular channels that " dissect " through surrounding structures . Increased numbers of plump endothelial cells line the vascular channels ; these cells may be spindled , epithelioid , or polygonal . Tumors are classified as low-grade or high-grade , depending on their cellularity , pleomorphism , and mitotic activity . Necrosis is a common finding. ( n10 ) Although no immunohistochemical stain is pathognomonic , the diagnosis may be aided by a finding of positivity for factor-VIII-related antigen , Ulex europaeus , laminin , CD31 , and CD34 , ( n3 , n10 , n11 ) although a finding of factor-VIII -- related antigen positivity may not be reliable. ( n6 ) Electron microscopy will occasionally reveal rod-shaped , microtubulated Weibel-Palade bodies , ( n10 ) but again , this finding may not be particularly reliable , as only 1 of 13 specimens demonstrated this structure in one series. ( n11 ) <p> Treatment/prognosis . The optimal treatment has not been completely established . For advanced disease , radical excision has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ without chemotherapy may yield similarly dismal results . Mark et al reported that only 2 of 19 patients ( 10.5% ) who received a single-modality treatment were alive at the time of their review , and all 19 had a component of local failure. ( n6 ) <p> Surgical control is quite often poor because of the multifocality of angiosarcoma and the lack of clinical correlation with pathologic margins . In a small series , Bullen et al achieved good local control with Mohs ' surgery and punch-biopsy tumor mapping followed by electron-beam radiation. ( n12 ) <p> The failure of radiotherapy can often be attributed to an underestimation of the peripheral extension of disease . Therefore , some authors advocate total scalp irradiation. ( n4 , n6 ) Surgeons at the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston reported using limited surgical resection followed by wide-field irradiation for focal disease , and they were able to treat patients with advanced disease who would have otherwise required radical excision plus radiation with or without chemotherapy. ( n4 ) Although their overall results were poor , they did see a statistically significant @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ gross tumor resection was possible prior to radiation therapy ( 40 vs. 24% ) . ( n4 ) Therefore , many authors advocate postoperative radiation therapy despite negative surgical margins. ( n4 , n6 ) <p> Definite advances in systemic therapy have been slow to develop . Because of the low incidence of cervical metastasis , elective treatment of the cervical lymph nodes is not recommended. ( n7 ) Paclitaxel as a single agent appears to be useful for scalp and facial angiosarcomas. ( n13 ) Sasaki et al recommended curative radiation therapy combined with recombinant interleukin-2 ( rIL-2 ) immunotherapy for nodular lesions smaller than 5 cm , in part because high-dose rIL-2 administration may suppress the development of distant metastasis. ( n8 ) The current consensus is to use a combined-modality approach , including excision of disease with negative margins if possible with adjuvant radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy . <p> A clear correlation exists between the prognosis and the size or initial stage of an angiosarcoma. ( n2 , n5 , n6 ) The importance of early capture can not be understated . Bleeding , pain , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a poor outcome. ( n2 , n7 ) Lydiatt et al reported that all patients in their series whose initial tumor was surgically unresectable and/or larger than 10 cm died of disease. ( n7 ) The results of most series have indicated that neither the tumor 's clinical pattern nor its grade is predictive of local recurrence or survival. ( n5 , n7 ) However , one study indicated that long-term survival might be positively correlated with gross nodular morphology , while an endophytic presentation was uniformly fatal within 2 years. ( n8 ) Recurrent disease also confers a dismal prognosis. ( n6 , n8 ) <p>

@@4016241 Abstract -- Two hundred and thirty subjects with various levels of upper and lower limb amputation were examined with regard to cardiac and respiratory functions . The subjects were examined at rest and in balanced wheelchair ergometer testing . Noncontinuous step-by-step increased loading was performed . The data given are for age-group 20-40 who sustained traumatic amputation and suffered no prior respiratory or circulatory disease . <p> Subjects after above-knee ( AK ) , bilateral AK or AK plus below-knee amputation ) showed a loss of the reaction of an adequate systolic output rise in wheelchair ergometer testing . In the adults with amputation , the increase of minute stroke volume occurred solely at the expense of heart rate . The contractile capacity of myocardium was decreased . Cardiac indicator value in subjects with AK or bilateral AK amputation in sub-maximal exercise training appeared to be lower than in the control group . <p> A reduced work capacity takes place in subjects after body mass loss . The maximal oxygen intake in subjects with bilateral lower limb amputation was less than in the control group . The breaking of correlation interrelationships between working capacity indicators was revealed in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with upper limb amputation showed a reduction in pulmonary ventilation . During exercise training , the capacity for adequate pulmonary ventilation was lost in the above-mentioned subjects . <p> This research demonstrates that movement capabilities in adults with amputation depend not on the level of amputation and residual . limb condition , but to a great extent upon the dynamic capabilities of the cardiac and respiratory muscular systems ' ability to adjust to the limb loss . <p> Key words : adults with limb amputation , cardiac and respiratory system , exercise training , medical supervision , movement capabilities , rehabilitation . INTRODUCTION <p> Limb amputation , reduction of body mass and vascular channel , hypokinesis , and marked disturbances in static-dynamic function of locomotory system influence the homeostasis drastically . Subjects with amputation show disturbances in blood circulation and metabolism , reduced physical working capacity , and reduced tolerance for workload ( 1-6 ) . Thus , prosthetic fitting and rehabilitation in subjects after limb amputation are complicated by the above-mentioned factors . <p> The efficiency of prosthetic rehabilitation in adults with lower limb amputation depends not only on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ amputated limb , and quality of the prosthetic appliances , but on cardiorespiratory function as well . In this connection , the motor activity is essential to the adults with limb amputation as a means of keeping up the body systems , providing a preventive treatment of hypokinetic state , and keeping up the vital tone . In this respect , exercise training and sports are considered to be of essential value ( 7-9 ) . However , it should be noted that most papers on physical aspects and estimates of physical fitness reveal problems in adults with spinal cord injuries having amputation ( 9-13 ) ; whereas , the problems of subjects with only amputation are revealed to a lesser extent ( 12 , 14-16 ) . The medical problems of regular exercise training and sports in subjects with limb amputation have not been adequately explored . The volume of exercise loading and estimates of physical fitness ( in the course of medical supervision ) are defined with methods and criteria developed for nondisabled subjects , the post-amputation changes in a subject are not taken into account . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ blood circulation system and external respiration to balanced exercise training in adults with amputation ( various levels of amputation ) ; 2 ) evaluate motor capabilities ; 3 ) evaluate allowable exercise training ; and , 4 ) evaluate physical fitness in adults with amputation . METHOD <p> Tests of cardiac and respiratory functions were performed at rest as well as in balanced wheelchair ergometer testing . As indicated earlier , lower limb subjects with amputation performed ergometer testing in the form of forearm pedaling while in a seated position ; upper limb subjects in the form of foot pedaling . A noncontinuous step-by-step-increased loading was performed . The duration of each loading was 3 minutes ( at 3-minute intervals ) . The loadings were selected by using the B.P. Prevarsky method ( 17 ) which provides an approach differentiated with respect to loadings . Weight , age , and sex of subjects tested were taken into consideration : the proper maximal oxygen intake ( PMOI ) was calculated for each subject by using a special method developed by B.P. Prevarsky . The power of exercise training loading corresponding to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PMOI was calculated ( light loading , two intensive loadings , and submaximal loading , respectively ) . The average values of power of exercise loadings for wheelchair ergometry are given in Table 1 . <p> All subjects with amputation who were examined were divided into five groups depending on the level of amputation : group I-subjects after unilateral amputation at shoulder level group II-subjects after bilateral amputation at shoulder level group III-subjects after unilateral below-knee ( BK ) amputation group IV-subjects after unilateral above-knee ( AK ) amputation group V-subjects after bilateral AK amputation or after bilateral AK plus BK amputation . <p> The examination of cardiac and respiratory functions was carried out by electrocardiography ( ECG ) , polycardiography ( PCG ) , tachooscillography ( TOG ) , and echocardiography ( EchoCG ) M-operating condition . The examination of external respiration was undertaken by spirography and pneumotachometry . Synchronous recording of PCG , TOG , and EchoCG was performed 1 ) during rest , 2 ) after each step of loading , and 3 ) in the post-exercise period after 3 , 6 , and 10 minutes . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ performed in a similar manner . The evaluation of maximal oxygen intake ( MOI ) was undertaken by Astrand nomogram , based on exercise value made and heart rate value during exercise , the pulse rate being measured during the above exercise ( 18 ) . <p> Statistical data processing was carried out by the method of analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) . PROCEDURES <p> A combined program of research of blood circulation and external respiration in 230 subjects ( various levels of amputation ) was performed . Male subjects aged 20 to 40 years were examined ( 159 subjects , 69.1 percent , aged 20-29 years ; 71 subjects , 30.9 percent , aged 30-40 years ) ; of which 147 had lower limb amputation ( 52 subjects with BK ; 56 subjects with AK ; 19 with bilateral BK and AK ; 20 with bilateral AK ) and 83 adults with upper limb amputation ( 49 with unilateral amputation at shoulder level and 34 with bilateral amputation at shoulder level ) . All subjects sustained traumatic amputations ( i.e. , caused by traumatic injury ) . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ traumatic injuries ( 55.8 percent ) , 2 ) injuries caused by explosive mines ( 27.8 percent ) , and 3 ) gunshot injuries ( 6.8 percent ) , in that order . The most common causes of upper limb amputation were 1 ) traumatic injuries of mechanical character ( 53.0 percent ) , 2 ) injuries caused by electric devices ( 32.5 percent ) , and 3 ) gunshot injuries ( 13.2 percent ) . Among the traumatic injuries of mechanical character were injuries caused by railway accidents and road transport accidents . In most cases , the injuries were inflicted during the Afghan war . <p> The study was done during various post-amputation periods : after 4 months and later , when the after-effects of the acute period had passed . The post-amputation periods are shown in Table 2 which shows that the majority of subjects were examined long after amputation and thus had already adapted to changed homeostasis . Ninety-five subjects were in their post-amputation period ( no prosthesis ) and 135 had prior use of prostheses . None of the subjects with disabilities had a prior @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ received were compared to the results in the control group ( nondisabled ) of 30 males , aged 20-40 years , who had no prior history of respiratory or circulatory disease . It should be noted that all subjects with lower limb disability performed wheelchair ergometry testing . In this connection , the control group was divided into two parts : group I , subjects who performed ergometry with their legs ( 15 men ) and group II , subjects who performed ergometry with their arms ( 15 men ) . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION <p> Examination of the results of exercise training reveals that the most marked peculiarities in blood circulation can be observed in the subjects with lower limb amputation . The dynamics of intra-arterial pressure in wheelchair ergometry exercise testing shows practically the same response in both the subjects with BK amputation and in the nondisabled in control group II . The subjects with AK amputation demonstrated a trend of a more marked rise in intra-arterial pressure . The diastolic intra-arterial pressure in the subjects with AK amputation ( the loading being submaximal ) exceeds the corresponding values @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; the systolic inter-arterial pressure in control group II by 6.5 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; and the average hemodynamic pressure in control group II by 9.2 percent ( P<0.01 ) . More marked difference in the above response is shown in the **35;710;TOOLONG group ( AK , AK+BK ) and in the control group : the diastolic inter-arterial pressure response exceeds the corresponding values in control group II by 14.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; average hemodynamic pressure value by 8.4 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; and systolic inter-arterial pressure by 9.8 percent ( P< 0.01 ) as seen in Figure 1 . <p> Table 3 gives the dynamics of blood circulation responses to wheelchair ergometry exercise training . <p> A marked increase of heart rate in all groups with disabilities ( regardless of the level of amputation ) compared to control group II is demonstrated , the loading being submaximal , it amounts to 10.8 percent ( P<0.05 ) in the subjects with BK amputation , 15.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) in the subjects with AK amputation , and 16.9 percent ( P<0.01 ) in the subjects with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ marked inter-arterial pressure response ( as well as a higher pulse ) in subjects after maximal body mass loss , in cases where the recovery period was prolonged ( compared to nondisabled ) , is estimated as a marked reaction of a hypertonic type that is considered as a decrease in dynamic capabilities of blood circulation . <p> Figure 2 gives the dynamics of heart rate , minute circulation volume , and stroke volume . The subjects with AK amputation and bilateral lower limb amputation demonstrated some regular decrease in minute circulation volume rise at the loading peak as well as a marked stroke volume decrease compared to the nondisabled . In all exercise training by the subjects with amputation in the above-mentioned group , the increase of minute stroke volume was solely at the expense of heart rate . In this connection , the examination of varying stroke indicator deserves more attention . The stroke indicator in the subjects with AK amputation was drastically lower than in the control group , the difference being 31.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) and 26.7 percent ( P<0.001 ) after the third exercise @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the subjects with bilateral lower limb amputation was 46.1 percent ( P<0.001 ) after submaximal exercise loading , which caused a depression of the " pumping " heart function in all groups of subjects with amputation . All of the above were markedly shown in subjects after maximal body mass loss . The dynamics of stroke indicator are shown in Figure 3 . The data obtained allow a definite conclusion about direct relationship between myocardium status and body mass reduction . <p> Examination of aortic ( left ) ventricle indicators ' dynamics in subjects with high-level lower limb amputation revealed a qualitative distinction from that in control group II . An increased intensity of blood circulation in nondisabled during exercise training is accompanied by an increase of end diastolic volume of the aortic ( left ) ventricle ( ED ) , an adequate diastolic filling , and some decrease of end systolic volume ( ES ) , all of the above provided a rise in systolic output . Subjects with BK amputation showed an increase of EDV after the first , second , and third exercise training , while the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ difference in control group II was 29.4 percent ( P<0.05 ) . Subjects with AK amputation showed an increase of EDV after the first and second exercise training ; however , this was less than in the nondisabled . The difference in control group II was 22.6 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; 28.1 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; 36.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; and 53.4 percent ( P<0.001 ) after the first , second , third , and submaximal exercise loading , respectively . A marked difference was shown after a recovery period . The difference in subjects with bilateral amputation was 25.0 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; 33.1 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; 37.4 percent ( P<0.01 ) ; and 54.1 percent ( P<0.001 ) , respectively . Furthermore , a decrease of EDV was accompanied by a decrease of ESV . The difference in ESV between the subjects with AK amputation and control group II was 32.8 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; 38.9 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; and 52.4 percent ( P<0.01 ) after the second , third , and submaximal exercise loadings , respectively . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ P<0.05 ) ; 42.6 percent ( P<0.05 ) ; and 55.0 percent ( P<0.02 ) , respectively . The dynamics of EDV and ESV of the aortic ( left ) ventricle in the subjects with amputation compared to the nondisabled is shown in Figure 4 . <p> Thus , cardiac function can adapt to a reduced venous inflow ( when coupled with a distinct body mass reduction ) , vascular channel decrease , reduction in blood flow volume , and venous recurrence ; all of the above appear as both EDV and ESV decrease at rest . The capability for an adequate increase in venous recurrence and diastolic filling of the aortic ( left ) ventricle ceases , which appears as both EDV and ESV decrease and the lack of physiological increase of stroke volume . <p> An increased intensity of blood circulation in the nondisabled during exercise training was accompanied by a regular increase in indicators showing contractile function of myocardium : output fraction and the rate of regular shortening of myocardium fibers ( Vcf ) , which achieve maximal values at sub-maximal exercise loading . The above variations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ highest change in output fraction was observed in the nondisabled subjects after the third exercise loading , while a decrease was observed after submaximal exercise loading . The subjects with a high level of amputation showed further regular decrease of output fraction as the intensity of blood circulation increased , a discrepancy ( gap ) between the responses in the subjects with amputation and the nondisabled grew . A similar picture was observed in Vcf examination . The dynamics of output fraction and Vcf showed a regular decrease in contractile properties of myocardium in the subjects with amputation , depending upon the amputation defect . The change of contractile function of myocardium in the subjects with amputation in exercise training influenced the cardiac indicator value which appears lower than in control group II . The above difference in the subjects with AK amputation or bilateral AK amputation was 36.3 percent ( P<0.001 ) and 40.9 percent ( P<0.001 ) , respectively . <p> The reduced dynamics in blood circulation and reduced tolerance to exercise loading is considered to reduce working capacity . A direct relationship between working capacity and body @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was revealed to be reduced at submaximal loading . However , maximal oxygen intake calculated in reference to reduced surface of the body was observed as remaining normal . The breaking of correlation interrelationships between working capacity indicators was revealed in the subjects with bilateral lower limb amputation , which differentiates this group from other groups . The interrelationship between PWC 150 and MOI in the nondisabled in control group II is defined by the correlation factor ( R ) = 0.981 , between PWC 170 and MOI = 0.962 . In the subjects with amputation , it was -0.010 and -0.393 , respectively . Thus , it is believed that at a marked body mass loss the oxygen intake does not occur with a work capacity increase . <p> The reduction in respiratory capabilities in lower limb disabled ( maximal body mass loss ) was revealed at peak exercise loading alone , being demonstrated as a stabilized breathing capacity . The dynamics of breathing rate , breathing capacity , and minute respiratory volume are shown in Figure 5 . As indicated , the performance of submaximal exercise loading in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ certain decline in breathing capacity , as well as a slight increase of minute respiratory volume ( compared to the third loading ) . Thus , the increase of minute respiratory volume in submaximal exercise loading ( compared to the third loading ) was observed to be 46.6 percent ( P<0.001 ) , 30.3 percent ( P<0.001 ) , 21.6 percent ( P<0.001 ) , and 5.9 percent in the nondisabled , subjects with AK amputation , BK amputation , and bilateral amputation , respectively . Moreover , the slowing-down in the recovery processes after exercise training was revealed in the subjects with lower limb amputation . The respiratory indicators were observed to be completely normalized at 15 to 18 minutes into the recovery period . <p> The dynamic condition of the respiratory system is known to show a direct relationship to the blood circulation system , the latter system being an essential limiting factor in oxygen transport during muscular work . Cardiac capacity , in particular , is the main limiting factor , since cardiac output value is considered to be the main determinant value of oxygen transport in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ considered as an integral indicator characterizing the transporting capacities of the cardiac and respiratory systems in relation to the presence of gases in blood ( 19 ) . Homeostasis changes ( changes in the central hemodynamics in subjects with amputation ) influence the respiratory system condition . Body mass reduction , vascular channel reduction , blood flow volume reduction , reduction in contractile myocardium capacity , energy ( and oxygen ) demand reduction result in pulmonary ventilation and respiratory capacity decline . <p> Changes in blood circulation in subjects with upper limb amputation ( shoulder level ) are observed to be less . All of the subjects with upper limb amputation demonstrated adequate responses in intra-arterial pressure and volume values of hemodynamics , no essential changes being observed from corresponding values in control group I. No evidence of disturbances in contractile capacity of myocardium was observed in the subjects with upper limb amputation . Also , in the subjects with lower limb amputation decline in working capacity was revealed to show a direct relationship to amputation defect . Correlation relationships between working capacity 's functions were not upset . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the subjects with upper limb amputation . A decline in breathing capacity in the rest ( and in other values characterizing respiratory function ) was revealed . The breathing capacity was observed to be lower by 23.4 percent ( P<0.01 ) and 30.1 percent ( P<0.001 ) than in control group I , and in the subjects with amputation at shoulder level or bilateral amputation at shoulder level ) , respectively ; the decline in breathing capacity influenced the minute respiratory volume value which was lower by 17.6 percent ( P<0.05 ) and 21.5 percent ( P<0.02 ) , respectively , at a practically invariant breathing rate . Maximal ventilation was also observed to be reduced by 31.1 percent ( P<0.001 ) and 29.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) in subjects with amputation at shoulder level and in subjects with bilateral amputation at shoulder level , respectively . The relationship between the actual maximal ventilation and the proper value was 65.7+/-5.1 percent and 72.1+/-8.5 percent , respectively . Lung capacity was revealed to be lower by 24.4 percent ( P<0.001 ) and 20.2 percent ( P<0.01 ) in subjects with upper @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ control group I. Reserve inhale volume was observed to be less by 22.6 percent ( P<0.01 ) and 19.3 percent ( P<0.05 ) in subjects with upper limb unilateral and bilateral amputation , respectively , while reserve exhale volume was less by 46.0 percent ( P<0.01 ) and 52.5 percent ( P<0.01 ) , respectively , compared to control group I. A marked decline of expiratory flow rate also was observed . A decline of volume expiratory flow rate is thought to be mostly at the expense of initial portions of exhaled air . <p> No interrelationships were revealed between any indicator change and the extent of amputation defect ( i.e. , unilateral or bilateral upper limb amputation ) . The increase of breathing capacity was observed to be less marked in exercise training ( compared to control group I ) ; the capacity for adequate increase of maximal ventilation was lost , the latter being rather important . The above result in a decline in pulmonary ventilation rate and a decline in indicators of pulmonary capacity , as well as a slow-down in the recovery period . Changes in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The dynamics of maximal ventilation are shown in Figure 6 . <p> Anatomic , dynamic , and biomechanical disturbances and dystrophic processes ( associated with the shoulder girdle and thorax ) occur after upper limb amputation . Muscular system examination ( by electromyography and reovasography methods ) demonstrates atrophy occurring both in arm and shoulder muscles . The higher the level of upper limb amputation , the more the degenerative and dystrophic processes develop . A decline in blood filling in humerus muscles is observed ( 20 , 21 ) . <p> After amputation at shoulder level ( AE amputation ) or after exarticulation of the shoulder girdle shoulder disarticulation ( SD amputation ) , many of the muscles ( i.e. , pectoralis major , pectoralis minor , latissimus dorsi , and serratus anterior ) lose their fixation points ; all influence respiration . <p> Thus , the sum total of anatomic and bio-mechanical disturbances and dystrophic processes progressing as a result of amputation is responsible for the decline in thorax mobility as well as lack of mobility increase in exercise training . It is our opinion that decrease @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ capacity enhance the risk of respiratory deficiency . <p> Based on research carried out , the recommended balanced physical activities were calculated , as well as allowable conditioning exercises , for the subjects with amputation at various levels . The subjects with unilateral amputation ( AK , BK , or at the level of shoulder ) were determined as having average locomotory capabilities . The exercise training -- the allowable level ranging from 40 to 60 percent of PMOI ( i.e. , 4.1-6.0 kcal/min ) are recommended for the above group . The subjects with bilateral amputation ( AK , BK , or at the level of shoulder ) were determined as having reduced locomotory capabilities , and a fair exercise training was recommended -- the allowable level ranging from 25 to 40 percent of PMOI ( i.e. , 2.6-4.0 kcal/min ) . <p> The maintenance of functional capabilities on a high level is known to be based upon the optimization of motor activity with an emphasis on aerobic exercise . It is shown ( 22 ) that the harmless value of exercise training is determined by MOI = 42 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . As to wheelchair ergometry , the maximal allowable exercise loading was determined as being 1.7 W/kg/min and 1.0 W/kg/min in the subjects with unilateral or bilateral amputations , respectively . <p> The criteria of movement capabilities of persons with amputation were developed by the author based on the sum total of morphological and dynamic indicators , such as 1 ) changes in ECG and arterial pressure versus exercise loading ; 2 ) heart rate at rest ; 3 ) dystrophical myocardium changes ; 4 ) maximal oxygen intake ; and , 5 ) maximal pulmonary ventilation , etc . The implementation of these criteria provided the definition of an adequate set of conditioning exercises and the determination of a justified level of physical loadings . <p> The indicators in hemodynamics and external respiration ( heart rate , diastolic and systolic arterial pressure , " double product , " respiration rate ) are defined for estimating physical capacity in persons with amputation . The values obtained in wheelchair ergometry testing in the subjects with unilateral amputation and corresponding to 50 percent of PMOI , as well as the values obtained @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lower limb amputation and corresponding to 35 percent of PMOI , were taken by the author as the criteria . The above results are listed in Table 5 . The indicators given are available for routine work , the correction of exercise loadings is provided ; furthermore , the indicators can be used by the persons with disabilities for a self-checkup . <p> At the St. Petersburg Scientific Research Institute of Prosthetics , the necessary facilities are provided for physical rehabilitation of persons who sustained an amputation ( i.e. , swimming pool , gymnastic hall , and a hall equipped with exercise machines ) . A complete program for medical and social rehabilitation of persons with disabilities is provided as well . <p> It is our opinion that exercise equipment provides the most efficient rehabilitation . It provides physical fitness by 1 ) strengthening the upper limb muscles , humeral girdle , and muscles of the back and muscles of the abdomen in persons with lower limb amputation , and 2 ) strengthening the lower limb muscles of the back and abdomen in those with upper limb amputation . Exercise @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the cardiac and vascular systems . The total duration of exercise therapy ranged from 4 weeks to 2 months . Continuous medical supervision was provided . The examination of hemodynamics by means of echocardiography was carried out in 10 subjects with lower limb amputation during wheelchair ergometry exercise testing at the initial and final stages of training . <p> In the course of exercise training with the equipment , the average heart rate was 131.0+/-2.8 sts/min ; the average diastolic intra-arterial pressure was 76.5+/-2.5 mm merc col ; the average systolic pressure was 137.5+/-3.1 mm merc col ; " double product " was 182.0+/-7.5 arbitrary units . The use of exercise training equipment by the subjects with upper limb/lower limb amputation is shown in Figure 7 . <p> The examination of hemodynamics values , compared to the corresponding values for the initial period , obtained in submaximal wheelchair ergometer loading after a 2-month training period revealed the reduction of heart rate by 5.7 percent , the increase of stroke volume by 26.6 percent , and the increase of minute circulation volume by 27.7 percent . The rise of systolic output @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that is , diastolic volume of the aortic ( left ) ventricle . The rise of values characterizing contractile function in myocardium ( output fraction by 11.9 percent , Vcf by 30.8 percent ) was observed , which resulted in a rise in working capacity . Judging by the test PWC 170 , working capacity increased by 5.4 percent and maximal oxygen intake by 6.2 percent . <p> Games are considered to be an efficient means for developing motor coordination capabilities . Subjects with amputation took part in volleyball , table tennis , badminton , running , and swimming . The sport was adapted depending on the level and the nature of amputation , age , and general physical fitness of each subject : the subjects with lower limb amputation preferred swimming , seated volleyball , and basketball ; the subjects with upper limb amputation participated in table tennis , swimming , and running . <p> The physiological examinations demonstrated a decrease in tolerance for exercise training as a consequence of the decrease of dynamic capabilities of cardiac and respiratory systems , and the disturbances in contractile function of myocardium @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ motor capabilities in the subjects with amputation . CONCLUSION <p> We can conclude that motor capabilities in persons with amputation depend not only on the level of amputation and the anatomical and functional condition of the residual limb , but to a large extent on the dynamic capabilities of their cardiac and respiratory systems . The results obtained allow us 1 ) to reveal the special feature of responses of cardiac and respiratory systems to balanced exercise training and 2 ) to find a valid approach to assess the criteria for the motor capabilities of persons with amputation , as well as the criteria for exercise-training endurance . Adequate tools of exercise training are considered to improve physical fitness and general working capacity in persons with amputation . The implementation in medical institutions of the sum total of amputee rehabilitation prepares adults with an amputation for their return to life in the community as able-bodied persons . <p> Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to Sergey F. Kurdibaylo , MD , The St. Petersburg Scientific Research Institute of Prosthetics , Bestuzhevskaya av. 50 , St.Petersburg , 195067 , Russia @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> In submaximal exercise training the subjects with amputations were not usually able to perform the whole exercise because of fatigue . Exercise periods : Control group II = 2.05 +/- 0 . 11 min ; BK amp = 1.89+/-0.12 min ; AK amp = 1.79+/-0.13 min ; bilat AK and AK + BK amp = 1.13+/-0.15 min . PMOI = proper maximal oxygen intake ; unilat = unilateral ; bilat = bilateral ; amp = amputation ; AK = above knee ; BK = below knee <p> Table 2 . <p> Average values of power of exercise loadings for wheelchair ergometry . PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 3 . <p> Hemodynamic responses in subjects with lower limb amputation to wheelchair ergometer exercise testing ( M +/- m ) <p> Information is presented in the following order : indexes , 1 ; unit of measure , 2 ; group , 3 ; rest , 4 ; after 1st exercise , 5 ; P 4-5 , 6 ; after 2nd exercise , 7 ; P 4-7 , 8 ; after 3rd exercise , 9 ; P 4-9 , 10 ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; after 10 minutes recovery , 13 ; P 4-13 , 14 . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Amp . = Amputation Bilat. = Bilateral Min. = Minute <p> Table 4 . <p> Responses of external respiration in subjects with upper limb amputation to ergometer exercise testing ( M +/- m ) <p> Information is presented in the following order : indexes , 1 ; unit of measure , 2 ; group , 3 ; rest , 4 ; after 1st exercise , 5 ; P 4-5 , 6 ; after 2nd exercise , 7 ; P 4-7 , 8 ; after 3rd exercise , 9 ; P 4-9 , 10 ; after 4th exercise , 11 ; P 4-11 , 12 ; after 10 minutes recovery , 13 ; P 4-13 , 14 . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Amp . = Amputation Max. = Maximal Min. = Minute Vol. = Volume Bilat. = Bilateral Unilat. = Unilateral Vent . = Ventilation Resp. = Respiratory <p> Table 5 . <p> Allowable values for certain hemodynamic/external respiration responses to exercise training in subjects with various levels of amputation ( M +/- m ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; unilat amp shoulder ; bilat amp shoulder ; unilat amp BK ; unilat amp AK ; bilat amp AK &; AK + BK . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> To our knowledge no suitable noninvasive method for blood pressure measurement is available . Amp = amputation ; Bilat = bilateral ; Unilat = unilateral ; AK = above knee ; BK = below knee ; BP = blood pressure ; arb = arbitrary units ; Resp = respiration . <p> <p> GRAPH : Figure 1 . The dynamics of the intra-arterial pressure in lower limb amputees during exercise training . <p> GRAPH : Figure 2 . The dynamics of heart rate , minute circulation volume , and stroke volume in lower limb amputees during exercise training . Designations : solid line = minute circulation volume ; dot and dash line = heart rate ; and , dash line = stroke volume . <p> GRAPH : Figure 3 . The dynamics of stroke indicator in lower limb amputees during exercise training . Designations : solid bar = control group II ; vertically lined bar = below-knee ; hatched bar = above-knee ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ GRAPH : Figure 4 . The dynamics of end diastolic volume and end systolic volume of aortic ( left ) ventricle in lower limb amputees during exercise training . <p> GRAPH : Figure 5 . The dynamics of breathing rate , breathing capacity , and minute respiratory volume in lower limb amputees during exercise training . Designations : solid line = minute respiratory volume ; dashed line = breathing capacity ; dotted line = breathing rate . <p> GRAPH : Figure 6 . The dynamics of maximal ventilation in subjects with upper limb ampation during exercise training . Designations : 1 = control group I ; 2 = unilateral amp . at shoulder level ; 3 = bilateral amp . at shoulder level . <p> PHOTOS : Figure 7 . Training at an exercise training machine . Subjects in A , B , and C have upper limb amputation ; Subjects in D , E , and F have lower limb amputation . <p>

@@4016441 In this article , we examine the predictive power of selected social and academic variables regarding arrest frequency for 11th-grade boys who 7 years earlier had been judged to be at risk for developing antisocial behavior patterns . Multiple regression analyses indicated that ( a ) measures of academic and social skills that reflected more skilled and positive profiles were associated with participants ' exhibiting less frequent and less severe forms of antisocial behavior , as shown by arrest records at 11th grade , and ( b ) antisocial measures on which participants scored higher were associated with more frequent arrests for more serious offenses in Grade 11 . We also conducted an analysis of the residuals to study those persons and their characteristics who were misclassified by the predictive model . Implications of these results for future research and intervention , particularly within the context of schooling , are discussed . <p> In the field of emotional and behavioral disorders , one of the most important -- and difficult -- research issues concerns the accurate prediction of individuals ' future antisocial acts based on past and current knowledge of those persons and their behavioral characteristics ( Fartington &; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is arrest status , which is routinely used as a proxy variable for antisocial risk status in spite of the vagaries and inconsistencies inherent within the legal system and its accommodation of at risk youth ( e.g. , Henggler , 1989 ; Hindelang , Hirschi , &; Weis , 1979 ; Patterson , 1982 ) . The general public and governing officials place considerable weight on the importance of arrest status as a social status indicator ( Farrington &; Tarling , 1985 ) . The ability to accurately predict if an individual will be arrested in the future is an important outcome of research efforts . If a stable set of predictor variables that account for antisocial behavior at some later point in time could be isolated , it theoretically would be possible to ( a ) identify at an early stage those individuals who are likely to engage in severe antisocial acts in the future and ( b ) prevent these acts by applying comprehensive supports and services that addressed the at-risk persons ' unique needs ( Kazdin , 1987 ) . <p> Such a research emphasis is critical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ collective impact on the processes and outcomes of schooling . In recent years , the general public has expressed great concern over the escalating incidence of arrests among U.S. adolescents . A recent national survey ( Elam , Rose , &; Gallup , 1994 ) suggested that citizens in our country are very concerned about ( a ) the perpetration of antisocial , aggressive acts toward other students and school professionals and ( b ) the capacity of schools to address these growing problems ( Walker &; Gresham , 1997 ) . School violence has emerged as a major societal concern in recent years due to the egregious violent acts that have been committed on school grounds and the public 's emerging awareness of just how vulnerable school settings are to criminal activity by students and others ( Flannery , 1997 ; Gottfredson , 1997 ; Walker , Colvin , &; Ramsey , 1995 ) . <p> Currently , the public school systems are being required to expand the range and number of services to an ever-increasing spectrum of adolescents who manifest , or are at risk for , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Kauffman , Lloyd , Baker , &; Riedel , 1995 ) . Numerous studies documented the importance of family and societal risk factors associated with the development of antisocial behavior patterns among adolescents ( Kazdin , 1987 ; Loeber , 1982 ; Loeber &; Stouthamer-Loeber , 1998 ; Patterson , Reid , &; Dishion , 1992 ; Robins , &; Rutter , 1990 ) . One notable characteristic of promising intervention programs for this population is location within the school setting where at-risk children and youth are accessible and intervention resources can be concentrated to address their needs ( Dryfoos , 1990 , 1993 ) . For many young people , school is one of the most stable experiences in their lives , with the potential to provide important academic and social services ( Walker &; Bullis , 1995 ) . Given the dismal record of the great majority of interventions for at-risk adolescents ( Kazdin , 1987 ; Reid , 1993 ) , it seems clear that programs for this population must address family , social , and school-related variables if they are to demonstrate positive effects . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ addressing the problems of antisocial behavior , delinquency , and violence among at-risk youth ; however , because these social problems are now impinging intensely upon school settings , such detachment is no longer tenable . One of our long-term goals is to assist schools and educators in taking a leadership role in addressing these problems and using the context of schooling to divert at-risk children and youth from paths that too often inexorably lead to unfortunate outcomes . The school setting , for example , provides an ideal environment for hosting and coordinating comprehensive intervention approaches -- such as partnerships among the school staff , families , and community agencies -- that can be effective with this population . <p> The purpose of this article is to describe a longitudinal study focused on predicting the arrest status of a selected subsample of adolescents judged to be at risk for engaging in antisocial behavior from data gathered primarily within the school setting . In collaboration with Patterson and his associates at the Oregon Social Learning Center ( OSLC ; Patterson , 1983 ; Patterson &; Bank , 1986 , 1989 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , we have been involved in a long-term longitudinal study of two samples of adolescent males who displayed differing levels of risk status ( severe versus mild ) for antisocial behavior patterns at the point of their selection into the study , which was elementary-school age ( Walker , Shinn , O'Neill , &; Ramsey , 1987 ) . Both groups were drawn from a larger study conducted by Patterson ( 1983 ) and his associates as part of a long-term ( from age 8 to adulthood ) investigation into the correlates and longitudinal stability of antisocial behavior patterns ( the Patterson Oregon Youth Study OYS ) . From this point forward , we refer to these participants as the Walker subsample . <p> In this article , we discuss the testing of the power of a model composed of selected variables in predicting the arrest status over a 7-year follow-up period of the Walker subsample participants . The predicted criterion was a scalar outcome variable of antisocial behavior -- ranging from the complete absence of antisocial behavior to differing levels of antisocial behavior -- as reflected by the frequency @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ We also examined cases in which persons were misclassified ( i.e. , an individual was predicted to have an antisocial profile at 11th grade but did not have such a profile ) to increase our knowledge of the intricacies and dynamics of the prediction model . METHOD <p> In this section we describe the ( a ) sample recruitment and selection procedures used for the Patterson ( 1983 ) OYS at-risk sample ( N = 206 ) and for the Walker subsample ( n = 80 ) , ( b ) longitudinal design , ( c ) data collection procedures , and ( d ) subgroups of the Walker subsample that were compared on the outcome constructs and the analyses used for this purpose . Sample Recruitment and Selection Procedures for the OYS <p> A cohort-sequential design ( Baltes , 1968 ) was used to structure the longitudinal tracking and data collection procedures for the Patterson OYS . At the present time , the OYS longitudinal investigation is continuing with funding from the National Institute of Mental Health . Participants are now entering adulthood , and the community adjustment experiences @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ e.g. , Patterson et al. , 1992 ) . <p> Three school districts in the metropolitan area of Eugene-Springfield , Oregon , a medium-size suburban community with a population of approximately 250,000 , agreed to participate in the OYS . The purpose of the initial recruitment effort was to identify and include boys with elevated risk factors for antisocial behavior who therefore theoretically were at risk for developing antisocial behavior patterns . This sample thus was not representative of the community at large ; however , in terms of demographics such as race , ethnicity , and SES levels , the sample did appear to be representative . <p> Juvenile court data were used to establish the frequency of delinquent episodes reported by the police for the community , and the incidence of juvenile crime was calculated for the neighborhoods serving each of the 43 elementary schools within the three school districts . The 15 schools located in the areas with the highest incidence of crime were chosen as target schools for recruitment into the Patterson OYS study . In the first year of the study , 14 schools agreed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ then randomly ordered , and the first 6 schools were recruited . ( Only 6 of the 15 schools were needed because the recruitment rate was higher than expected ) . In the second year of the study , this selection process was repeated and 7 targeted schools were recruited . <p> In each of the 2 years in which we recruited participants , all families with boys in fourth grade at the selected schools were invited to participate in the OYS study . Of these , 31 families were deemed ineligible because they spoke a language other than English or were planning to move out of state within the next 6 months . Of the remaining 277 families in the pool , 206 ( 74.4% ) agreed to participate in the study . The first cohort ( n - 102 ) was recruited in the 1983-1984 school year ; the second cohort ( n = 104 ) was recruited in the 19841985 school year . Statistical analysis revealed similarity between the cohorts on all demographic variables : the families were primarily lower income ( more than 20% of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ families received welfare ) and almost all were White , which reflects the community 's demographics . Walker Subsample Recruitment and Selection <p> Since 1984 , we have studied a subsample of 80 participants drawn from the larger OYS sample . The purpose was to focus on the educational performance of at-risk males in conjunction with the rich data set provided by the OYS sample . Because limited resources precluded inclusion of the entire OYS sample in this research effort , we chose a subsample representing two levels of risk for developing antisocial behavior patterns : mild and severe ( Walker , 1984 ) . Participants were selected from each of the two OYS cohorts and divided into either antisocial or at-risk control groups based upon their scores on ( a ) an antisocial construct developed by the Oregon Social Learning Center that was composed of a weighted combination of measures constructed from home observations , child and teacher interviews , and peer nominations , and ( b ) aggression subscale scores from the Child Behavior Checklist ( CBCL ; Achenbach &; Edelbrock , 1991 ) and the Teacher Report @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ CBCL assigned by parents and teachers . <p> Parent and teacher ratings were critical in determining the antisocial and at-risk control groups in the subsample and also were key components of the antisocial construct scores used in the participant selection process . The CBCL and TRF are well-researched instruments demonstrating ( a ) more than adequate test-retest reliabilities , ( b ) highly statistically significant correlations with observational ratings of child problem behavior , and ( c ) powerful discriminant validity , with the ability to discriminate between children with and without emotional disorders , diagnostic subgroups of children who have emotional or behavioral disturbances , and students in general education classes from those in special education classes ( Edelbrock , 1988 ) . <p> The antisocial group within the Walker subsample consisted of 39 individuals . Out of the total sample of 206 , members of this group ranked highest on the antisocial construct score , and their parent and teacher aggression subscale scores from the CBCL were 1 standard deviation or more above the mean of the national standardization sample for this instrument . A table of random @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( n = 41 ) from the remaining pool of approximately 160 subjects . Extensive descriptions of the backgrounds and characteristics of these study participants can be found in Walker et al . ( 1987 ) . No consistent differences were evident in the demographic data for ethnicity and parental income for the two subsamples ( Walker et al. , 1987 ) . The current sample size of 76 represents 95% of the original sample . The four participants no longer in the study either moved or declined further participation . Longitudinal Design and Data Collection Schedule <p> OYS study participants are assessed repeatedly over time on an array of variables measuring ( a ) personal adjustment and attitudes , ( b ) family dynamics , ( c ) parenting practices , and ( d ) outcomes such as drug use , arrests , school performance , and affiliation with antisocial peers . Measures are recorded annually . Complete assessments are done every other year , and partial assessments are done during the intervening years . Each year 's assessments and resulting data are referred to as a " data @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; Patterson et al. , 1992 ) . The data for this study were drawn from these procedures and measures . Constructs and Measures <p> Seminal work on the development and validation of global construct scores for assessing the status of antisocial populations has been carried out by Patterson and his associates ( see Capaldi &; Patterson , 1989 ; Patterson &; Bank , 1986 , 1989 ) . As part of their ongoing research , Patterson and his colleagues developed a series of highly sensitive construct scores to describe the OYS study participants and their caregivers . These construct scores ( a ) are multi-agent , multi-method , and/or multi-setting in nature ; ( b ) have excellent psychometric characteristics ; and ( c ) are highly predictive of important outcomes in child and youth development over a number of years ( Walker , Irvin , Noell , &; Singer , 1992 ) . Descriptions of the construct scores used in this study -- as well as in the OYS project -- and their development and validation are described and illustrated in Capaldi and Patterson ( 1989 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and also evidence considerable validity in predicting long-term outcomes of social importance ( e.g. , arrest status , drug use , school dropout ) . Capaldi and Patterson standardized all constructs to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one . <p> Six construct scores measured at different data collection waves in the OYS longitudinal study , and a social skills rating by teachers , were considered in the initial pool of predictor variables for this study . The means , standard deviations , and sample sizes for these variables at different data collection waves -- and their correlations with the criterion variable -- are presented in Table 1 . Brief descriptions of the constructs used in the current study and of the social skills rating scale follow . <p> Child Antisocial Construct . This construct was based on numerous scales ( including Morn , Dad , Teacher , Parent , and Child Reports on the Child Overt and Covert Antisocial measures ) , a single score indicator from the Parent Report , and two single-item indicators : " How often child exerts negative influence on friends @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . " Items with an item-total correlation of less than .2 were excluded . Many of the items had low variance , which was expected , given the nature of the Antisocial construct . Items with variance less than .2 were not excluded for this reason . Variables were computed for the scale by taking the mean , given that 60% or more of the items in that scale were present . <p> Academic Skills . Four indicators were developed to assess the Academic Skills construct . These were CBCLs completed by the teacher and parent(s) , the Wide Range Achievement Test ( WRAT-3 ; Wilkinson , 1983 ) and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test ( PPVT ; Dunn &; Dunn , 1981 ) administered at OSLC , and standardized scholastic tests administered once a year at the student 's school . These indicators focused mainly on the student 's skills in math , reading , spelling , and language arts . The Academic Skills construct has high internal validity , with all indicators loading on a single factor . <p> Examples of items from the CBCL-Parent included in this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) Is child in a special class ? and ( #7:4 ) Has child ever repeated a grade ? Items from the CBCL-Teacher included ( #5 ) Has child been referred for special class ? and ( #6 ) Has child repeated a grade ? The WRAT ( reading achievement test ) and PPVT were administered at the child interview . Scholastic achievement tests included Reading , Spelling , Language Arts , and Math . <p> Item analyses were computed on each of these measures . Items with an item-total correlation of less than .2 were excluded . Items with a variance of less than 20% were also excluded . Variables were computed for the scale by taking the mean whenever 60% or more of the items in that scale were not missing . The PPVT was dropped from the analysis because it is not an academic achievement test , but rather an IQ test . The child skill items were also eliminated so that they might be used as an indicator of child self-esteem . <p> Antisocial Behavior . A diverse array of variables was included and analyzed in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the CBCL , telephone interviews , and teachers ' self-reports about the student 's behavior patterns . Examples of representative items are as follows : CBCL-Parent : Overt Antisocial ( #3 ) Argues a lot ( #22 ) Disobedient at home ( #90 ) Swearing or obscene language CBCL-Parent : Covert Antisocial ( #20 ) Destroys his own things ( #81 ) Steals at home ( #101 ) Truancy , skips school CBCL-Teacher : Overt Antisocial ( #3 ) Argues a lot ( #23 ) Disobedient at school CBCL-Teacher : Covert Antisocial ( #20 ) Destroys his own things ( #82 ) Steals ( #101 ) Unexplained absences Child Telephone Interview : Overt Antisocial ( e.g. , In the last 24 hours , did you : ) ( #15 ) Argue with an adult ? ( #20 ) Tease anyone ? ( #22 ) Hit siblings ? Child Telephone Interview : Covert Antisocial ( e.g. , In the last 3 days did you : ) ( #24 ) Tell a lie ? ( #25 ) Get in trouble at school ? Teacher ( #11 ) How often does he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( #21 ) How likely is it that the student will have future police trouble ? ( #22 ) Target child has tattoos <p> Delinquency . Variables used in deriving this construct score included both the Major Index Scale ( Giordano &; Cernkovich , 1979 ) and the Elliott Self-Report Delinquency Scale ( Elliott , 1983 ) . Sample items included Major Offenses Scale ( #5 ) Stole motor vehicle ( #20 ) Sexual assault ( #27 ) Sold hard drugs Minor Offenses Scale ( #1 ) Damaged family property ( #8 ) Arson ( #41 ) Obscene calls Number of Arrests During the Wave <p> Substance Use . Sample items from variables used in this construct included Boy 's Substance Use ( #1 ) Has he used tobacco ( #3 ) Has he used beer or wine ( #316 ) Behavior suggests he is trying drugs Peer Task Coder Impressions ( #34 ) TC referred to alcohol use ( #36 ) TC referred to marijuana use Child Interview : Substance Consumption ( #36 ) When drinking , do you usually get high ? ( #37 ) How high ? @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) Child uses drugs , alcohol CBCL-Parent ( #105 ) Child uses drugs , alcohol Parent Telephone Interview Child Telephone Interview <p> Items with an item-total correlation of less than .2 were excluded . Due to the nature of this particular construct , inclusion of low base-rate items was considered important . Items with a variance of less than 20% were not excluded for that reason . As before , variables were computed for the scale by taking the mean whenever 60% or more of the items in that scale were present . <p> Deviant Peer . The role of deviant peer affiliations in relation to boys ' antisocial behavior is of critical importance and has been discussed in detail elsewhere ( Dishion , 1987 ; Patterson , et al. , 1992 ) . The Deviant Peer construct assessed peer-related behavior such as drug use and stealing , and it was defined by three indicators . Two of the indicators -- Parent Reports of Overt/ Covert Child Behavior and Peer Nominations -- consisted of a single item . The third indicator was the child 's report of friends ' substance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this construct , with the indicators correlating in the .10 to .28 range . It was hypothesized that deviant peer groups are not strong for the 9- to 10-year-old age groups , but that the internal validity of the deviant peer construct increases as the boys enter adolescence . <p> Examples of variables used included CBCL-Parent ( #39 ) Hangs around with children who get in trouble CBCL-Teacher ( #39 ) Hangs around with others who get in trouble Parent OCA questionnaire ( #29 ) Does he hang out with kids who steal ? Child Interview : Substance Use ( #16 ) Do you have friends your age who drink alcohol ? ( #16A ) What do they drink ? ( #16B ) Do they ever get drunk ? ( #16C ) How often do your friends drink ? Child Interview : Peer Behavior ( e.g. , During the last year , how many of your friends have : ) ( #1 ) Cheated on school tests ? ( #2 ) Ruined or damaged something on purpose that was n't theirs ? Peer Nominations ( #17 ) Kids who belong @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Social Competence and School Adjustment . In addition to the measures administered and completed under the auspices of Patterson and his colleagues at OSLC , the Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment ( Walker &; McConnell , 1995 ) was completed on the Walker subsample by participants ' teachers in the fall of the fifth grade . The elementary-age version of the Walker-McConnell scale consists of 43 items relating to the social adjustment of children ( Grades K-6 ) in school settings , which load on one of three factors . Factor 1 , Teacher-Preferred Social Behavior , consists of 16 items relating to interacting with teachers ( e.g. , shows sympathy for others ) . Factor 2 , Peer-Preferred Social Behavior , consists of 17 items relating to peer interactions ( e.g. , makes friends easily with other children ) . Factor 3 , School Adjustment Behavior , consists of 10 items relating to teacher management of the classroom ( e.g. , attends to assigned task ) . All items are scored on a 5-point scale of frequency of occurrence , with total scores on each factor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> The Walker-McConnell scale was developed over a five-year period and initially standardized with a sample of 762 cases ; the final standardization sample consisted of 1,800 cases . The scale has excellent internal consistency and interjudge reliability ( indexes above .90 for all three factors ) and discriminates powerfully between clinical and nonclinical samples across multiple validation studies . Prediction Model <p> Correlations and significance levels between the constructs and the criterion variable were highly statistically significant , and all but one of the correlations were in the " moderate " to " large " statistical effect sizes ( Cohen , 1988 ) . The directions of the associations were consistent with our initial theoretical suppositions , with constructs measuring antisocial behavior being correlated positively with the outcome variable and constructs measuring academic performance and social skills ratings being associated negatively with the outcome variable . That is , persons who scored high on the antisocial constructs tended to score higher on the outcome variable and persons who scored high on the Academic Skills constructs and Social Skills scale tended to score lower on the outcome variable . Outcome @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subsample was used as the major criterion variable in this study . Data for this variable were derived from the official databases of police or court reports . Each report listed the date of the offense or court proceeding , date of disposition , the actual disposition , date of final disposition , and the final disposition . The possibility existed that multiple offenses had been listed from the same police or court report , thereby sharing the same dispositions and disposition dates . Also , multiple reports having different dispositions and disposition dates could have been made on the same date . A trained data collector assigned each offense a unique four-digit code based on the definition of offense codes used in the state court system . This assignment was direct and required little inference , thereby minimizing error . Additional offense variables were required when there were multiple charges stemming from one report . For example , if the date of offense , disposition date , and disposition were the same , the offense most often resulted in a different code for these multiple charges . A comprehensive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ records . <p> We established six levels for the outcome variable : 0 = no dispositions , 1= one minor disposition , 2 = one serious disposition , 3 = two serious dispositions , 4 = three serious dispositions , and 5 = four or more serious dispositions . However , dispositions were counted only if their severity score was greater than zero for purposes of compiling the outcome variable . Examples of typical minor dispositions include traffic offenses and minor found to be in possession of alcoholic beverage who was given probation . Examples of serious dispositions include resisting arrest , burglary , unauthorized use of motor vehicle , assault , and theft . A typical record for a participant from this database is provided in Table 2 . Analyses <p> As noted previously , a total of 76 participants from the original Walker subsample of 80 subjects were included in the analyses for this study . We first computed a series of univariate Pearson product-moment correlations between the construct scores at the different data collection waves and the scalar criterion . We then used a stepwise multiple-regression procedure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of their association with the outcome variable to create a predictor model ( Cohen &; Cohen , 1983 ) . That is , the predictor variable that had the strongest statistical association with the outcome variable was selected into the prediction model first ; the second strongest predictor variable was then added into the model , and so forth . Variables that were not added to the model were those variables where the explanatory variance on the outcome criterion ceased to be statistically significant at the .05 alpha level , as determined by an F test for the multiple-regression procedure . <p> Following the recommendations of Cohen and Cohen ( 1983 ) , we identified " outliers " -- participants who scored roughly 3 or more standard deviations above or below the standardized mean of the outcome variable . We did this to gain a greater understanding of the nuances of the predictor model and to pinpoint where in the prediction process the model failed . We correlated the residuals with the variables included in the predictor model and the criterion variable , and we then examined each outlier case @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are presented in Table 3 . The final model contained five predictor variables that exhibited an R2 value of .803 and a multiple R value of .896 . This result is considered to be a large statistical effect , according to Cohen 's magnitude criteria ( Cohen , 1988 ) . To adjust the initial R2 value for chance fluctuations in the analysis , we applied a shrinkage formula suggested by Cohen and Cohen ( 1983 ) . This formula yielded a " shrunken " R2 value of .786 and a shrunken R of .887 . Even with the application of this conservative statistical procedure , the resulting relationship would be considered a large statistical effect ( Cohen , 1988 ) . <p> The first , and strongest , variable in the model was the Deviant Peer construct as measured at Data Collection Wave 4 , which was roughly 3 years after the inception of the study . The next two variables included in the model were the Delinquency construct and the Antisocial Behavior construct , both collected at Data Collection Wave 6 , which was approximately 5 years after @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ entered into the model were the Peer and School subscale scores from the Walker-McConnell measure , which were collected at a single timepoint during the fifth-grade year for participants . Residual Analysis <p> The mean standardized predicted criterion score was .22 ( SD = 1.12 , range = -2.11-3.73 ) , and the mean standardized residual score was .09 ( SD = 1.36 , range = -3.49-3.12 ) . The correlations between the residual scores and the predictor variables are presented in Table 4 . <p> Residual scores for the entire study sample are correlated with the five variables selected for the final prediction model . The residual scores were relatively uncorrelated with the predictor variables , confirming the close relationship of the final prediction model to the outcome criterion . The seven individuals who were identified as outliers are profiled in Table 5 . Each individual 's scores on the variables included in the final prediction model are presented . <p> Three cases were overpredicted by the final regression model ( i.e. , it was thought that these persons would have more serious arrest records than they actually did @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 49 would have a score of 2.9 on the outcome variable , but his score was 0 , because he had no formal arrests on his record at the 11th grade . For this participant , the most important result was his relatively high scores ( above the sample means for each factor ) on the two Walker-McConnell subscales . For Case 56 , the model predicted an extremely high level of antisocial behavior on the outcome variable ( 7.4 ) . Even though the model overpredicted this participant 's actual status ( 5 ) , this status represents the most extreme end of the outcome variable ; thus , the overprediction discrepancy may be attributed to a ceiling effect . Case 56 had exceptionally high scores on the antisocial variables in the model , a relatively high score on the Walker-McConnell Peer subscale ( above the sample mean ) , and a low score on the Walker-McConnell School subscale ( below the sample mean ) . The model predicted that Case 66 would score 4.3 on the outcome variable , but his actual score was 2 . He had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ score on the Walker-McConnell School subscale ( almost 3 standard deviations below the sample mean ) but relatively high scores on the Walker-McConnell Peer subscale ( above the sample mean ) . <p> The final regression model under predicted four cases ( i.e. , it was anticipated that these participants would present less extreme arrest records than they actually did ) . For Case 62 , the model predicted a score of-.6 on the outcome variable ( his actual score was 2 ) . In this person 's profile the component that stands out is his relatively high score on the Antisocial Behavior construct at Data Collection Wave 6 . Case 60 was predicted to score -.5 on the outcome variable but scored 2 . His profile shows low scores on the three peer and antisocial factors and scores lower than the sample averages on the two Walker-McConnell subscales . Case 25 was predicted to score 2.6 and exhibited an actual score of 5 . His performance on the Walker-McConnell Peer subscale was lower than the sample mean , and his score on the Walker-McConnell School subscale was much lower @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ below the sample mean ) . Finally , the model predicted a score of 2.7 on the outcome variable for Case 4 , but his actual score was 5 . This participant had an elevated score on the Antisocial Behavior construct and a low score on the Walker-McConnell School subscale ( 1 standard deviation below the sample mean ) . DISCUSSION <p> This study was conducted in the Pacific Northwest with a small group of predominantly White participants ; thus , the external validity of the results may be limited to this geographic area and this population . Two other points also should be noted : The study was correlational in design , and the results should not be construed as causal in nature ; The outcome variable was based on formal arrest records , which may underestimate the actual rate of antisocial and/or criminal acts within this sample because only a small number of acts for which an individual could be arrested actually come to the attention of the authorities and are formally addressed by the legal system ( Hindelang et al. , 1979 ) . <p> Clearly , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ regarding generalization of its results to other settings and populations . On the other hand , the care taken in choosing the sample , the comprehensive and carefully constructed measures used , and the high response rates evident in the longitudinal data-collection process provide ample support for the internal validity of the findings ( Capaldi &; Patterson , 1989 ; Patterson et al. , 1992 ) . Findings <p> The predictive power of the first variable in the model , association with deviant peers in Grade 8 , is somewhat startling and by itself accounts for almost 57% of the variance in the outcome variable of arrest status at Grade 11 . This relationship is even more impressive given that data for the outcome variable were collected 3 years after this particular predictor variable was assessed . The strong relationship existing between an individual 's having friends who engage in antisocial behavioral acts and that individual 's performance of similar acts has been well-documented through correlational procedures ( Dishion , Loeber , Stouthamer-Loeber , &; Patterson , 1984 ) and is fully consistent with folk-wisdom handed down by generations of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prediction model were Delinquency and Antisocial Behavior at Data Collection Wave 6 . The inclusion of these constructs in the prediction model provided support for the interrelationship of different forms of antisocial behaviors ( e.g. , petty crime ) and at-risk behaviors ( e.g. , use of obscene language , noncompliance with instructions of parent and authority figures ; Donovan &; Jessor , 1985 ) with more extreme forms of antisocial behavior , as reflected in formal arrest records . As these data were gathered at roughly the 8th-grade level , their relationship with more extreme forms of antisocial behavior in the 11th grade is indicative of a progressive , escalating pattern of deviant behavior occurring over the developmental continuum . This form of developmental psychopathology ( from age-specific forms of aberrant behavior to socially unacceptable and/or dangerous actions ) has been well documented in the literature as a way of conceptualizing and understanding these at-risk behaviors ( e.g. , Lewis &; Miller , 1990 ) . <p> Finally , the last two variables in the model , the Walker-McConnell Peer and School subscale scores gathered during the fifth grade @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the outcome variable ) , suggest the importance of peer relationships and school performance in accounting for arrest status in the adolescent years . These findings are consistent with other findings in the literature regarding the correlation of social skills and peer acceptance during childhood with adjustment in later life ( Parker &; Asher , 1987 ) and with the often-cited connection between academic skills and antisocial/criminal behavior exhibited in later life ( Cornwall &; Bawden , 1992 ) . <p> The descriptive profiles of the seven outlier cases provide an interesting profile of participants who did not perform as predicted . The extreme nature of the study sample , coupled with the absence of a comparison sample of persons who were not judged to be at risk , limits our ability to interpret these cases . Interpretation is also hampered by a lack of personal , in-depth knowledge of these persons . Rutter ( 1988 ) recommended that in order to truly understand and make sense of antisocial behavior in individuals , empirical data derived from group studies must be combined with individual clinical observations and awareness . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for future research . First , the replication of this study in other settings and with samples composed of a higher percentage of persons representing cultural/ethnic minorities is essential for confirming the external validity of the results . Further , including comparison samples of peers judged not to be at risk for developing antisocial behavior patterns may help clarify interpretation of the profiles of the current at-risk participants . It would be interesting to examine association of the variables we selected as predictors with self-reports of antisocial behavior instead of formal arrest records . As mentioned earlier , these records reflect only a relatively small percentage of the antisocial acts performed by at-risk persons ( Hindelang et al. , 1979 ) . It may well be that self-report of antisocial behavior could change the ordering of at-risk participants on a summary antisocial behavior variable ( e.g. , youth with less extreme arrest records may self-report more frequent episodes of antisocial behavior and of a more serious form ) and lead to different associations of the predictor variables with such an outcome variable . Given the relative power of Peer and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ variable in this study , it would have been useful to have included these same measures , or similar school-based measures , in order to provide a more complete profile of the sample in the same way as their community and antisocial behaviors were described . If schools are to serve as sites for effective interventions with these types of students , the students ' school-based performance must be assessed and longitudinal data for them must be gathered and carefully studied ( Rutter , 1988 ) . <p> The impact of the timing of school-based delivery of interventions for antisocial students should also be studied . There is a common belief among practitioners and academicians that interventions for at-risk populations should begin as early as possible and continue over a number of years in order to demonstrate positive results ( Zigler , Taussig , &; Black , 1992 ) . However , most interventions for these groups , especially within school contexts , begin only when the individual " steps over " some legal , social , or educational line by exhibiting behavior beyond the accepted standard(s) of the organization(s) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as during middle or high school years ) , after these forms of behavior have become entrenched in cognitive and performance patterns , would have less powerful effects than interventions offered earlier in the developmental progression ( Walker &; Bullis , 1995 ) . Other evidence suggests that adolescence can be an appropriate point to intervene with at-risk individuals , however , because this is a time when many youth are ready and able to change ( Albee , 1982 ; Hobbs &; Robinson , 1982 ; Kazdin , 1993 ) . <p> We believe that interventions for the at-risk population often suffer from a lack of treatment fidelity , particularly when administered within school settings . That is , proven interventions are provided in ways that deviate from the manner in which they were originally developed and result in weaker applications ( Kazdin , 1987 ) . Any experimental study of these interventions should address treatment fidelity directly in a comprehensive measurement system in order to document implementation procedures when applied in " scaled up " versions of the intervention . <p> The association between antisocial peers and arrest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ points to the importance of pairing at-risk youth with peers who can model appropriate social behavior and , hopefully , shape and support them . Such mentoring/ affiliation programs could be focused on either school or peer-controlled contexts ( Dryfoos , 1990 ) and , whenever possible , should include the family in monitoring the child 's associations with other children ( Patterson , 1982 ) . <p> As school is a primary socialization environment for children and youth , the impact of offering socializing experiences with typically developing peers through intensive learning experiences should be explored as well ( Coie &; Krebiehl , 1984 ; Coie , Underwood , &; Lochman , 1991 ) . Many well-designed and carefully developed interventions exist and would have substantial applicability for meeting both the social-behavioral and academic instructional needs of this population ( e.g. , Carnine &; Kameenui , 1992 ; Deshler &; Schumaker , 1986 ) . In addition , at-risk students who are likely to become juvenile offenders are often in desperate need of ( a ) social skills training relative to the school context ( Hazel , Schumaker , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , &; Greenwood , 1981 ) and ( b ) exposure to wraparound services provided by community agencies based in the school setting ( e.g. , Dryfoos , 1993 ; Epstein et al. , 1993 ) . The exact timing of these services , the way in which they are offered , the combination of services yielding the most positive effects , and their differential impact on subgroups of students ( e.g. , English speaking vs . English as a second language ) should also be examined through research . <p> Greenwood , Model , Rydell , and Chiesa ( 1996 ) analyzed the cost-effectiveness of different strategies in diverting at-risk youth from a life of crime . Their comparisons of ( a ) home visits and daycare , ( b ) parent training , ( c ) graduation incentives , ( d ) delinquent supervision , and ( e ) incarceration indicated that providing graduation incentives is clearly the most cost-effective in terms of preventing the commission of serious crimes by these youth . This finding highlights one of the key roles schools can play in responding effectively to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the relatively dismal record of intervention outcomes achieved so far with this population , it seems clear that comprehensive school-based interventions should be coupled with family-oriented interventions and community-based wraparound programs in order to maximize the impact of such efforts ( Kazdin , 1987 ; Reid , 1993 ) . Just as school-based interventions alone will not have maximum positive impact for atrisk children and youth , interventions focused and delivered outside the school setting are likely to have a similar result . Interventions for this population must be as comprehensive and long-term as possible to achieve socially valid outcomes . Authors ' Note <p> The authors are deeply indebted to the Oregon Social Learning Center for the support and cooperation provided in making this study possible . TABLE I Means , Standard Deviations , and Number of Cases for Pool of Predictor Variables , with the Correlation Between Predictor and Criterion PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Note . Walker-McConnell = Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment ( Walker &; McConnell , 1995 ) . TABLE 2 Judicial/Police System Transaction Profile for EI35 PREFORMATTED TABLE TABLE 3 Stepwise Regression Results @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the predictor variable name is the wave number . WMC = Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment ( Walker &; McConnell , 1995 ) . TABLE 4 Correlation Between Residuals and Predictor Variables PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Note . The number in parentheses following variable name is the wave number . WMC = Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment ( Walker &; McConnell , 1995 ) . a Significance level for a two-tailed test . TABLE 5 Characteristics of Outlier Cases in Terms of Participant Scores on Predictor and Outcome Variables PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Note . Number following predictors in parentheses is the wave number . WMC = Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment ( Walker &; McConnell , 1995 ) . WMC scores were gathered in the spring of Grade 5 . <p>

@@4016541 Since 1902 , scientists have been providing a research foundation for tropical agriculture , helping farmers more effectively grow bananas , plantains , sweetpotatoes , yams , cassava , beans , grain sorghum , and other foods , such as tanier , or taro root . <p> Mario Soler stands on his toes , reaching for a 100-pound banana bunch hanging from a plant on his farm at Salinas , in the southern coastal area of Puerto Rico . He cuts away the blue plastic bag that covers the bunch to minimize insect damage and increase yields . Then he pulls off five light-yellow bananas -- four for his visitors and one for himself . <p> We are standing in what seems like a banana tree forest , dried leaves crunching under our feet , thankful for the shade under the foot-wide banana plant leaves in the 90 degrees F air . The ground is dry , except where water has trickled from drip irrigation tubes , creating slippery puddles of mud . <p> It seems like a strange place to eat a banana ; the morning breakfast table is a more familiar setting . But here we are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tied to each other with orange twine to keep them from collapsing under their own weight . Here and there , a tree has toppled over nonetheless . <p> We each peel our bananas and take a bite as Soler awaits our opinion . The fruit is soft , sweet , and warm -- the same temperature as the tropical air . We nod our approval . <p> " All my life I 've been farming . I love it , " Soler says , standing amid his 100 acres of fruits and vegetables , an agricultural oasis in an otherwise brown landscape . <p> In this semiarid south coast region , the average rainfall is only 30 to 35 inches a year -- about half the average for Puerto Rico as a whole . Most of the rain in this area falls during a 3-month period from August through October . Now it is early June and the rain-fed riverbeds are dry . <p> That Soler and other farmers in Puerto Rico can grow a profitable crop in this dry region is largely due to their own hard work @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ credit to the man standing next to him . " Any problem I have , I call him and he helps me , " says Soler of Heber Irizarry , an Agricultural Research Service horticulturist . <p> Irizarry points to the rows of Soler 's Grande Naine banana plants , which he and his colleagues in Puerto Rico introduced from Honduras in 1982 . " You can see the uniformity of the bunches . It looks like a factory . " <p> On this day we are seeing some of the best of Puerto Rico 's food " factory , " whose production has been driven by people like Irizarry and his colleagues at ARS ' Tropical Agriculture Research Station in Mayaguez . <p> Since 1902 , scientists there have been providing a research foundation for tropical agriculture , helping farmers more effectively grow bananas , plantains , sweetpotatoes , yams , cassava , beans , grain sorghum , and other foods , such as tanier , or taro root . <p> They have introduced or developed improved varieties of these crops and have initiated and promoted efficient farming practices @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ bagging , and the management of banana plant shoots , called ratoons , that give growers an additional crop without replanting . <p> Scientists at the station have packaged these practices so that farmers like Mario Soler can produce a profitable crop . <p> " We try to give the farmer a crop and a system by which to grow it , " explains station director Antonio Sotomayor-Rios . <p> Grande Naine is one of these success stories . In dry areas like the one where Soler farms , drip-irrigated Grande Naine plants can yield 56 metric tons of bananas per hectare ( about 25 tons per acre ) . Growers are paid from $4.50 to $6.50 for a 40-pound box of high-quality bananas -- meaning an acre could yield up to 1,250 boxes , or from $5,625 to $8,255 in gross revenue . <p> " There 's no doubt that if they manage their crop carefully and irrigate , they can make a profit , even with the cost of installing a drip irrigation system , " Irizarry says . Plantains -- A Major Crop <p> We are on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with Sotomayor-Rios and agronomist Francisco " Paco " Vazquez , who leads the station 's germ-plasm project . In Puerto Rico , plantains are the second most important crop after coffee , with a farmgate value of just under $44 million . <p> Plantain fruits look like large bananas , but the pulp is not as soft . Green or ripe plantains can be fried , baked , or boiled , providing people on the island and other areas of the Tropics with a valuable source of carbohydrates and minerals . <p> A plantain called Maricongo accounts for about 90 percent of the crop grown in Puerto Rico . Although a high-quality plantain , Maricongo has inconsistent yields . By late 1995 , Irizarry plans to release Superplatano , a plantain that -- if managed properly -- can have at least a 20 percent higher yield than Maricongo . <p> " Superplatano has great potential for export markets because its yields are consistent , and the size of the fruit is uniform if some of the lower hands of the bunch are pruned , " he says . " It @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it ripens like a banana . " <p> We see our first fruiting Superplatano plants at Modesto Canabal 's farm near Yauco in the southwestern region of the island . Most of the area , once in sugarcane , is now covered with bananas and plantains . Canabal is the first farmer on the island to grow Superplatano in test plantings . He is now harvesting fruit on 3 acres . And in early 1995 , he plans to harvest an additional 12 acres that are under drip irrigation . <p> Irizarry believes the station 's plantain research has been instrumental in increasing crop yields in Puerto Rico from 20,000 fruits per acre in the early 1970 's to more than 40,000 today . <p> " In the 1970 's , we pioneered the use of clonal selection in plantains and proposed techniques to overcome the problem of yield instability , " he says . " From this program we released five superior clones after testing them all over the island , and these had an immediate impact on increasing yields and fruit quality . " <p> Another plantain , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ corn weevil , a major banana and plantain pest . <p> We reach the lab 's farm at Isabela and board a pickup truck that takes us into a field where workers are digging up sweetpotatoes . There are several piles of roots on top of the soil . Their colors range from cream to dark purple . " The purple variety , called Viola , averaged 38 metric tons per hectare ( 17 per acre ) after 135 days in the field -- a higher yield than any other sweetpotato tested -- before it was released in 1990 , " says station agronomist Edmundo Rivera . <p> Next to Viola is a pile of the cream-colored variety called Ivoire . <p> This is the final field trial of Ivoire before its release in 1995 . Rivera says that aside from its high yield -- comparable to Viola 's -- Ivoire has an unusual quality for a sweetpotato : It is n't sweet . It is suitable for anyone who does n't like the sweetness of a sweetpotato but wants a good source of fiber and carbohydrates . <p> Nearby @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like a backyard gardener would grow pole beans . Yams are tuberous vegetables , and the poles provide support for the heavy plant vines . But the trellises are also an added expense for farmers . <p> " Yams are usually grown on trellises in raised beds -- meaning higher labor and materials costs , " Vazquez says . " But our field experiments show that we can get 60 metric tons per hectare ( 27 per acre ) on hilly land without trellises , " he says . <p> Sotomayor-Rios says that " yams offer perhaps the greatest potential to offset food shortages in the Tropics , because some cultivars can be grown with no fertilizer . " The station now has 24 yam cultivars from Southeast Asia , including two outstanding ones -- Binugas and Gunung -- that have high yields and resistance to leaf spot diseases , soil nematodes , and the tuber weevil . <p> Two tropical root crops , cassava and tanier , have also gotten a boost from ARS research at Mayaguez . Vazquez says that in the last 5 years , the station @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ culinary quality . Three varieties that average 28 metric tons per hectare ( 12 per acre ) without fertilizer are slated for release in 1995 . <p> Tanier production is often plagued by disease , poor management , and other problems , according to plant physiologist Ricardo Goenaga . By properly managing soil , fertilizer , and drip irrigation , he says , growers can get 40 metric tons per hectare ( 18 per acre ) . One grower using Goenaga 's methods is Carlos Hernandez , who planted 30 acres of tanier on his farm in Santa Isabel . Goenaga says growers like Hernandez can have a gross income of about $10,000 an acre using these production methods . <p> Other crops that have benefited from ARS research at the Mayaguez station are : <p> -- Sorghum . One recent variety of forage sorghum released by the station is called Millo Blanco . It will grow up to 12 feet high and produce about 7 metric tons per hectare ( 3 per acre ) of high-quality dry forage over a 2-month period . This is twice the yield of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ growing during both short and long days . <p> In cooperation with Texas A &M; University , station researchers have released 533 converted sorghum lines through the Sorghum Conversion Program . Through breeding , researchers convert plants that are sensitive to day length into ones that produce high yields , even when shorter winter days mean less light . Beans . More than 40 dry edible bean lines have been released from the Mayaguez station , making a major impact on bean production in the Tropics , says Phillip Miklas , a plant geneticist . One variety , Arroyo-Loro , is the leading bean grown in Puerto Rico . It is also a parent of Mayflower , which is grown on about 80,000 acres in Michigan alone . Miklas is now using genetic marker technology to transfer disease-resistance genes in bean germplasm . Cacao . In a cooperative project with the American Cacao Research Institute , Irizarry is evaluating 40 grafted clones selected from 5 hybrid families . The initial goal is to obtain a three-to four-fold increase in yields . He says it may be possible to intercrop cacao @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ young cacao plants , providing temporary shade for them and additional revenue for the farmer . Tropical fruit . Jackfruit , mangosteen , mango , avocado , lychee , mamey sapote , and carambola are some of the tropical fruits that Vazquez says have potential as alternative crops in Puerto Rico and elsewhere in the Tropics . One of the most promising of these fruits , mangosteen , is known as " the most delicious fruit in the Tropics , " but can take from 8 to 15 years to bear fruit . Scientists at the station developed a way to graft it onto rootstock , allowing the tree to produce fruit within 3 to 5 years . <p> Antonio Sotomayor-Rios , Heber Irizarry , Edmundo Rivera , Ricardo Goenaga , Francisco Vazquez , and Phillip Miklas are at the USDA-ARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station , P.O. Box 70 , Mayaguez , PR 00681-0070 ; phone ( 809 ) 831-3435 , fax ( 809 ) 832-1025 . <p> PHOTO : A Manila dwarf coconut palm on the grounds of the Tropical Agriculture Research Station in Mayaguez , Puerto Rico . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shipment at a Puerto Rican packing shed . ( K5727-9 ) <p> PHOTO : At the Corozal University of Puerto Rico substation , horticulturist Heber Irizarry ( right ) and technician Nicolas Diaz measure the beans in these cacao pods . ( K5738-4 ) <p> PHOTO : Technician Ruth Ruberte examines a sweet potato tuber from the Tropical Agriculture Research Station germplasm collection maintained at the Isabela experiment farm . ( K5728-9 ) <p> PHOTO : Canistel . ( K5734-13 ) <p> PHOTO : Davis Haden mango . ( K5740-12 ) <p> PHOTO : Agronomist Francisco Vazquez cheeks immature jackfruit from the exotic fruits collection . ( K5735-13 ) <p> PHOTO : At the Isabela experiment farm , station director Antonio Sotomayor-Rios ( right ) and agronomist Salvio Torres-Cardona evaluate the growth of forage peanuts . ( K5743-4 ) <p> By Sean Adams , ARS <p>

@@4016641 The tarnished plant bug does n't have anything else to blame for its notorious reputation . This pest has been causing farmers trouble for a long time and does n't seem likely to clear its name . In fact , like its " partners in crime " -- tobacco budworm and cotton bollworm -- it was recently added to the list of cotton pests that are showing resistance to insecticides . This is n't good news for cotton growers . <p> " Cotton is a major cash crop in the Mississippi Delta region , and farmers simply ca n't afford to add another damaging pest to the list , " says entomologist Gordon L. Snodgrass . He is in ARS ' Southern Insect Management Research Unit at Stoneville , Mississippi . <p> In August 1993 , Snodgrass discovered that tarnished plant bugs , Lygus lineolaris , had become resistant to pyrethroids , a class of insecticides commonly used to control them . <p> Plant bugs are a particular problem , because there are more than 100 different weed species on which they can feed and reproduce , Snodgrass says . In winter , the bugs lie dormant in weeds @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , they emerge and begin laying eggs in the weeds . In late spring , when the weeds mature , the bugs move to cotton crops . <p> " This is a weak point in their life cycle , " Snodgrass says . " We want to stop population buildups by breaking their cycle early in the season , before they move into cotton . " <p> Not to be confused with the western tarnished plant bug -- a widespread pest west of the Rockies -- the eastern tarnished plant bug feeds on many vegetable , fruit , and ornamental crops throughout the United States and Canada . <p> Snodgrass says the pest could reverse the trend in areas where a boll weevil eradication program is in full swing . Farmers have been able to cut down on sprayings for boll weevils , but they would have to continue or resume spraying for plant bugs . <p> Concern about this cotton pest -- which cost $75 million last year in control measures alone -- has led to the ARS areawide tarnished plant bug project . <p> A 3- to 4-year @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of four 9-square-mile areas in the Mississippi Delta , with a possibility of future expansion . <p> The goal is to find if controlling weeds early in the season can prevent damaging numbers of plant bugs from invading cotton later on . Enlisting Grower Support <p> In the first test last summer , Snodgrass and entomologists William P. Scott and D.D . Hardee , who heads the insect management research unit , mowed or applied certain herbicides to control weeds . They reduced weed density in the treated areas , causing a sharp reduction in tarnished plant bugs compared to untreated areas . <p> " This project involves a major cooperative effort between ARS and Mississippi State University Delta Branch and Extension Center , " says Scott , who is also in the Stoneville unit . " Through USDA 's Farm Service Agency , we identified about 60 growers in the test areas and asked them to participate in the project . They were very cooperative , allowing us to spray herbicides and survey their fields . Farmers realize tarnished plant bugs are a serious pest , and they have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Another approach to helping growers protect their cotton from the bugs is integrated biological control , says biological control specialist Livy H. Williams , also in the Stoneville unit . His research focuses on improving the physiology and behavior of beneficial insects to make them more effective against pests . Strategies include developing better ways to rear and release beneficials and providing food sources and shelter to help them survive in the field . <p> Williams says applying pesticides makes it difficult to use natural enemies of pests , since " good guy " insects succumb to the same insecticides that kill bad ones . " Finding ways to manipulate a suitable environment for natural enemies to persist and survive is a major challenge , " says Williams . " One way of doing this is targeting our efforts when the tarnished plant bugs are on their spring weed hosts , before they move into cotton . " Parasitic Wasps and Other Insect Allies <p> Williams says they 've identified a tiny wasp parasitoid , Anaphes iole , which is widespread in North America and has been used in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tarnished plant bug eggs and lays its own egg inside -- killing the plant bug and regenerating its own population . It does n't bother other insects or animals . <p> " For the wasps to be abundant in the spring , " Williams says , " we need an alternate host for them in winter , when plant bugs are in the adult stage . The wasps attack only the eggs , and plant bug eggs are scarce until spring . Ideally , wasps should emerge in the spring before pesticides are sprayed . " <p> Williams and others at Stoneville have identified several plant bug predators , including minute pirate bugs , green lacewings , and big eyed bugs . With the help of ARS ' Biological Control and Mass Rearing Research Unit in Starkville , Mississippi , Williams is evaluating the effectiveness of the wasps and several plant bug predators . The unit is headed by entomologist Donald A. Nordlund . <p> Starkville scientists are working on artificial diets for the tarnished plant bug and some of its predators . <p> In another control strategy tried last @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ female attraction to sticky traps baited with either live males or females . To their surprise , they discovered that the males may produce a perfume-like pheromone that attracts both sexes -- probably to signal food sources . <p> " Male-baited traps caught both . We think there 's a pheromone , but we need to repeat the test this summer to make sure , " Snodgrass says . <p> Meanwhile , they 've been working with ARS ' Insect Chemical Ecology Laboratory in Beltsville , Maryland , to identify a female pheromone , so that a synthetic lure can be developed to bait traps . <p> " The tarnished plant bug is the only major cotton pest for which we do n't have a sex pheromone , " Snodgrass says . <p> Once the scientists develop one , they 'll be much closer to banishing the pest from U.S. cottonfields . <p> This research is part of Crop Production , Product Value , and Safety , an ARS National Program described on the World Wide Web at http : **41;1757;TOOLONG <p> Gordon L. Snodgrass , William P. Scott , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the USDA-ARS Southern Insect Management Research Unit , PO . Box 346 , Stoneville , MS 38776 ; phone ( 601 ) 686-5231 , fax ( 601 ) 686-5421 , e-mail gsnodgra@ag.gov wscott@ag.gov livy@ars.usda.gov dhardee@ag.gov . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Before applying herbicide to eliminate the weeds , entomologists Gordon Snodgrass ( left ) and Bill Scott monitor tarnished plant bug populations on their weed hosts . <p> Entomologist Gordon Snodgrass checks the growth of tarnished plant bugs in a rearing room at the USDA-ARS research facility in Stoneville , Mississippi . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : A tarnished plant bug , Lygus lineolaris , on clover . <p> By Tara Weaver-Missick , ARS <p>

@@4016741 When was the last time you snacked on crunchy potato chips , ordered a serving of golden fries , or sliced open a piping-hot baked potato ? If you 're like most Americans , you eat these or other potato products several times a week . <p> To satisfy our appetite for potatoes , ARS scientists breed and test promising new tubers for tomorrow . These potatoes not only please shoppers , but also meet growers ' needs for hardy , productive plants suitable for producing in the West . <p> ARS ' potato-breeding effort at Aberdeen , Idaho , about 200 miles southeast of Boise , is among the best-known in the nation . Since 1949 , the Aberdeen scientists and collaborators have offered superb new potato varieties uniquely suited to key potato-growing regions of Idaho , Oregon , Washington , California , and Colorado . In fact , if you live in any of the western states , chances are good that a premium potato you enjoyed at a restaurant or purchased at the supermarket was a graduate of the Aberdeen breeding program . The team 's Ranger Russet , for instance , is one of their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 1991 to breeders and potato-seed growers , Ranger Russet is now the third most widely planted potato in the United States . <p> What makes a potato perfect ? The qualities of the perfect potato mostly depend on its intended use , says plant pathologist Dennis L. Corsini . He recently retired from ARS at Aberdeen and is now a collaborator . <p> " For baking or processing into fries , " he says , " you want a potato that has relatively little water and more of what we call solids . These are compounds such as starch that give a potato its texture . High-solids potatoes tend to absorb less oil when fried . <p> " On the other hand , for boiling to make whipped potatoes or potato salad , " says Corsini , " you want a potato that has more water and comparatively fewer solids . " Sidestepping Storage Dilemmas <p> How a processing-type potato responds to long-term cold storage is critical . " Most potatoes grown for processing are harvested at about the same time all across the country , " Corsini says @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the same time , most end up in storage , often for as long as 10 months . <p> " Once you dig them up , " he explains , " all potatoes begin converting their starch into sugar . " The best potatoes for processing into fries or chips are those that convert starch into sugar very slowly . During frying , these lower-sugar potatoes are unlikely to darken and develop an unwanted burnt-sugar flavor . Higher-sugar potatoes are more likely to have those problems . <p> Cool storage temperatures inhibit rot and other potato diseases and thwart sprouting . But coolness enhances the problematical conversion of starch to sugar . <p> A technique called reconditioning has to be used for some potatoes that do n't do well in cold storage . After they are taken out of cold storage , and before they can be processed , these tubers are reconditioned , that is , warmed for several weeks to lower the levels of sugar that accumulated . <p> Besides needing little -- if any -- reconditioning , candidate potatoes also need to be free of defects like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ odd cavity that sometimes shows up in a potato 's center . Disease resistance is also key . " Some of the potato cultivars we 've recently released are moderately resistant to tuber rot caused by the late-blight fungus , " says ARS plant geneticist Richard G. Novy at Aberdeen . " Most are also resistant to an early death from diseases like Verticillium wilt . " Collaborations Speed Development and Testing <p> The process of breeding and testing potato varieties and making them available as seed can easily take 12 to 15 years . This work could take even longer if it were n't for the collaborations of ARS scientists and their university and industry colleagues . For example , the Aberdeen scientists are part of the unique Tri-State Potato Variety Development Program . It links their expertise with that of co-investigators at Oregon State University , Washington State University , and the University of Idaho . Varieties from the program are released jointly by ARS and the universities . <p> " This alliance , " says Novy , " has a big impact because growers in the three-state @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . " Since 1985 , when the program began , 17 Tri-State varieties have been released . <p> The ARS potato breeders also work closely with colleagues from the University of California at Davis , Colorado State University , North Dakota State University , and Texas A &M; University . <p> " These collaborations among scientists from different regions and disciplines , " says Novy , " save time and money by speeding the process and preventing duplication of effort . " Six Terrific New Tubers <p> Why do we need so many new and different potatoes ? To meet market demand for higher yield , improved quality , and better resistance to insects and diseases . Higher yields and better quality make producing and processing more efficient . " In turn , that helps keep consumer prices stable and may even lower them , " Novy points out . Enhanced insect and disease resistance can also reduce the need for pesticides . <p> In all , the potato breeders aim to provide new varieties that have a carefully developed selection of genes for traits that will score big with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , most of the research focuses on breeding and evaluating candidate potatoes that are dual purpose . As such , they can be processed into products like fries or dehydrated flakes for making mashed potatoes , yet can also be sold fresh in the produce section . <p> In the last several years , tubers offered to western growers have included several dual-purpose russet-type potatoes . They are known for their excellent texture ; long , attractive shape ; and the distinctive netting , or russeting , of their light-brown skin . <p> Following are highlights of recent and upcoming Tri-State potatoes : <p> -- Alturas is a very high-yielding potato that was originally developed for dehydrated products . It is now being evaluated for the fresh produce market and for processing into fries . <p> This potato did very well when taken out of cold storage and used immediately -- without reconditioning -- to make fries . What 's more , in 32 trials in Idaho , Oregon , and Washington , Alturas yielded 37 percent more than the industry standard , the venerable Russet Burbank . Alturas also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> -- Ivory Crisp is a round , white tuber ideal for processing into chips . " The biggest selling point of this potato , " Novy says , " is its ability to produce good-quality chips even if taken immediately from long-term cold storage . " North Dakota State University will participate in its release . <p> -- Klamath Russet , a fresh-market variety , " was identified by Oregon collaborators as well-suited for growing in the Klamath Basin of southern Oregon and northern California , " says Novy . It was released in 2001 . <p> -- Wallowa Russet , offered in 2002 , is a dual-purpose potato that produced more U.S. No. 1 tubers than Russet Burbank at many sites in Oregon , Washington , and Idaho . <p> ARS , Colorado State University , and the University of Idaho teamed up to launch two new cultivars in 2001 : <p> -- Silverton Russet , a dual-purpose potato , originated from Aberdeen and was selected and developed further in Colorado . It has strong potential for high yields from irrigated fields in the West and Midwest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ produced high yields in Colorado . <p> With the exception of Ivory Crisp , all these varieties originated from crosses made by Joseph J. Pavek . A long-time potato breeder with ARS at Aberdeen , he is now retired . <p> The scientists are now readying a potato that is remarkably resistant to the late-blight fungus . The tuber will be especially welcomed by growers whose fields have been hard-hit by this formidable pathogen . <p> This research is part of Plant , Microbial , and Insect Genetic Resources , Genomics , and Genetic Improvement , an ARS National Program ( #301 ) described on the World Wide Web at http : //www.nps.ars.usda.gov . <p> Richard G. Novy is with the USDA-ARS Small Grains and Potato Germplasm Research Unit , 1693 S. , 2700 W. , Aberdeen , ID 83210 ; phone ( 208 ) 397-4181 , ext. 111 , fax ( 208 ) 397-4311 , e-mail rnovy@uidaho.edu . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Geneticist Rich Novy ( background ) and plant pathologist Dennis Corsini harvest tubers of an experimental potato selection . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and Alturas potatoes ( background ) make great fries . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Preparing to unload harvested potatoes . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Postdoctoral geneticist Anne Gillen uses a digital image analyzer to see differences in DNA that could help determine whether a potato plant carries virus-resistance genes from a wild relative . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Corsini and Novy evaluate tubers of the red-skinned variety IdaRose during harvest . IdaRose originated from the Aberdeen breeding program and was named and released in 2000 . <p> By Marcia Wood , ARS <p>

@@4016841 Section : Bioremediation Advances COST-EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY <p> Innovative development in recent years have greatly expanded the use of compost and the potential to recover significant portions of municipal solid waste . <p> Use of compost is no longer limited to its role as a soil amendment ; compost technologies are rapidly emerging as valuable tools in pollution prevention and pollution control . For years , proponents of compost pointed to its direct benefit of avoiding the landfill-ing of organic material and often cited enhanced nutrient enrichment in soils that have compost added . Although these benefits are impressive , the ultimate value of compost may be fully realized in its ability to be used in a myriad of innovative applications . Compost can be used for erosion control on highways , clean up of contaminants in storm water runoff , and remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals or toxic organic compounds . <p> Concern for global warming adds yet an-other dimension to this discussion . The organic fraction of municipal solid waste ( MSW ) forms methane in the anaerobic environment of a landfill while it forms CO 2 in the aerobic environment of a compost facility . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ warming as carbon dioxide , reduced impact on global warming is yet another benefit of composting . <p> Nationally , there are now over 3,000 community/commercial yard trimmings compost facilities , in part because 27 states have banned yard trimmings from landfills . Compost can also be made from food waste , mixed organic MSW , organic industrial sludges , and biosolids ( wastewater sludges ) . As yard trimmings and food waste together comprise about 23 percent of MSW generation , composting these items alone can contribute substantially to meeting state waste reduction and recycling . goals . <p> Recent advances in compost research have made it possible to compost other organic wastes in about the same time as yard trimmings and food waste , improving already cost-effective compost technology . The potential feedstock for compost , then , can be increased to include any paper that has been soiled with liquid or food waste , or that is not being recovered to be made into new paper products . By including paper , yard materials , and food waste , between 40 to 50 percent of municipal solid @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ This article provides an overview of the innovative developments that have greatly expanded the use of compost and , with it , the potential to recover a significant portion of MSW . WHAT IS COMPOST ? <p> Compost is a recycled product made from the organic portion of MSW . Compost is often incorrectly confused with peat and mulch . Peat is partially decayed plant matter that is cut from marshes and wetlands and dried . Since formation of peat takes a long time , it can be classified as a nonrenewable , nonrecyclable resource . Mulch is either an organic or inorganic soil cover that is used to retard water evaporation and help maintain an even temperature . Organic mulch includes bark , wood chips and straw . Inorganic mulch includes plastic sheeting , pellets , gravel and stones . As organic wood mulch decays , it has a tendency to use the nitrogen already in the soil , reducing the amount available . This lack of available nitrogen can retard the growth of seedlings and young plants . Immature or incomplete compost is nothing more than an organic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cured compost . <p> Mature compost , on the other hand , is a humus product of microbiological degradation of plant or animal organic matter . In composting , temperatures of 130 to 150 degrees are reached by rapidly multiplying microorganism activity . At 150 degrees the moderate temperature or mesophilic microorganisms multiply with great rapidity . Unlike organic mulch , the chemical , physical and biological properties of mature , cured compost differ greatly from the raw materials used in the compost . Mature compost can degrade metals or totally eradicate many types of hydrocarbons and can permanently adsorb heavy metals making them unavailable to the metabolism of plants , man and animals . The same can not be said for mulch or peat . Different ingredients may be used to tailor the compost to satisfy specific demands for use in sandy soils , clay soils , steep slopes ( appropriate particle size ) , and for mechanical spreading ( small particle size and less than 40 percent moisture ) . This tailoring leads to the production of " designer compost . " WHAT ARE THE BENEFICIAL USES OF @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ environmental value to its raw materials and has beneficial uses in soil enrichment , pollution prevention , and pollution reduction . When added to soils , compost adds organic bulk , increased earthworm populations , humus , and cation exchange capacity . Compost slowly and continuously releases nutrients over time , which is compatible with plant uptake , and reduces fertilizer requirements by about 50 percent . Compost increases water retention in both sandy and clay soils which results in a savings in water use . Compost has been shown to suppress plant and grass diseases and reduce the use of pesticides . Even after natural soil microbes have been reduced by application of chemical fertilizer , compost restores soil structure and microbial populations . <p> Compost also contributes to pollution prevention in several ways . Organic matter which is composted and , therefore , not sent to the landfill , helps avoid the creation of organic acids which contribute to leachate formation . The use of organic matter for corn-posting also means that there is less of this material in the landfill , thereby , reducing the production of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ factor in global warming . Compost can also reduce both heavy metals and organic contaminants in stormwater runoff , preventing contamination of water resources . Compost reduces silting and erosion when applied to creek , lake , or river embankments or when used on roadsides and hillsides . <p> Compost contributes to pollution reduction of heavy metals as it binds heavy metals which are no longer bioavailable to humans or animals and can not migrate to water , or be taken up by plants . Compost contributes to pollution reduction of organic chemicals as it degrades or completely eliminates wood preservatives , petroleum products , pesticides and chlorinated and nonchlorinated hydrocarbons in soils . Compost also filters out odors and degrades volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) . TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES <p> The recent research of Dr. Francis Gouin ( 1995 ) at the University of Maryland found that the rate of compost formation in mixed organic MSW was dependent on the carbon/phosphorous ratio . An increase in phosphorous resulted in a faster composting rate and improved cost effectiveness . Gouin 's research indicates that the production time for compost could @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to three weeks when the amount of phosphorous is appropriately adjusted . When this research is completed , an analysis of comparative composting costs between MSW and other feedstocks should be made . If mixed organic MSW composting is shown to be competitive , it could become an additional solid waste management option for some communities . <p> Two important uses of high grade mature compost developed in the last few years ( Stewart ; 1994 ) are : 1 ) Removal of contaminants from the nonpoint source pollution of water at commercial , industrial , and federal installations and ; 2 ) A compost system to remove volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) . At one industrial site where this patented compost storm water filter system was installed , the materials removed were phosphorous , nutrients , solvents , pesticides , herbicides , silt , zinc , lead , cadmium and copper . The filter system cost was $17,300 while a similar industrial site on the same road was serviced by a holding pond which cost $45,000 . The same industrial research group developed a compost absorption and degradation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( See report on the filter system developed by William Stewart in this issue . ) <p> Dr. Michael Cole ( 1995 ) , from the University of Illinois , and others have used the hydrocarbon degrading microorganisms in mature compost to reduce or eliminate many toxic materials in contaminated soils . The four groups of contaminants treated were petroleum products , wood preservatives , chlorinated and non-chlorinated hydrocarbons , and pesticides ( fungicides , insecticides ) . Certainly a major goal of EPA activities is protection of human health , and reduction of pesticides is one important aspect . The National Academy of Sciences has stressed the danger of pesticides to young children since residues are not removed by washing organic compounds with water . <p> Dr. Rufus Chaney ( 1994 ) from the USDA Environmental Chemistry Laboratory and others were instrumental in providing data that eventually resulted in the removal of lead from gasoline . Lead toxicity was shown to affect the neurological development of young children . Recent work by Chaney showed that lead is adsorbed to iron-rich compost/soil and does not migrate to the water table @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when soil is ingested by children , lead bound by iron-rich compost/soil has significantly reduced bioavailability in the gut as reflected by lead in bones , blood or tissue . <p> Dr. William Sopper ( 1993 ) , Pennsylvania State University , demonstrated one of the most dramatic soil remediation successes with compost in Palmerton , Pennsylvania where a zinc smelter had been in operation since 1898 . The site had no viable plant life , but in only 15 months both grass seed and alder tree seedlings responded to composted sludge/fly ash remediation . In this demonstration , Dr. Sopper made clear that municipal biosolids when tested and applied according to proper guidelines can be used to revegetate mine-damaged land in an " environmentally safe manner with no adverse effects on the vegetation , soil , or groundwater quality , and do not pose any significant threat to animal or human health . " Dr. Sop-per 's and Dr. Chaney 's work could have far reaching implications since in 1994 , the Department of Interior reported 300,000 abandoned mine sites on federal land . <p> Dr. Harry Hoitink ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disease suppression from the use of mature compost . He stated that because of the use of compost , " Those truckloads of fumigants such as methyl bromide that all nursery crops ( and tobacco seedling plots ) used to need are all behind us now . " Also Dr. Herbert Bryan ( 1994 ) , University of Florida Tropical Research &; Education Center , reported , " In one of our more startling experiments , compost almost eliminated macrophomina fungus from a susceptible crop of beans ... untreated plot showed severe disease . " Dr. Bryan 's compost plot also required 50 percent less fertilizer . <p> The military ( Green &; Admire , 1995 ) is also using compost for a number of innovative applications . There is a major bioremediation effort using compost underway at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in North Carolina . An abandoned taxiway contaminated with petroleum compounds is being treated with a ratio of 20 percent mature compost and five percent turkey manure to 75 percent contaminated soil , successfully leading to the degradation of the petroleum products . The compost bioremediation costs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ incineration at $60 per ton , including $10 per ton for clean topsoil ; estimated savings at this Air Force Base is about $200,000 . In addition , the U.S. Army is doing extensive research on the composting of explosives contaminated washout lagoons at Umatilla Army Depot in Oregon . The U.S. Navy is experimenting with a closed vessel system , composting mixtures of explosives-contaminated soil and compost feedstock at Bangor , Washington . CONCLUSION <p> The role of compost is no longer limited to its use as a soil amendment . Developments over the past two decades have greatly expanded the use of compost as a cost-effective technology in pollution prevention/control and bioremediation , and with these developments comes the added potential to recover a significant portion of our municipal solid waste stream . Compost has been shown to be effective at treating nonpoint source pollution ; removing VOCs ; degrading hydrocarbons and pesticides , and binding metals in contaminated soils ; suppressing plant disease ; and revegetating barren lands . All this occurs at a fraction of the cost of conventional technologies . <p> Although the last two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ production and its use in pollution remediation of soil , some of those using higher cost traditional procedures have been reluctant to compare their methods with compost technology for a variety of reasons resistance to new ideas , loss of market share , and lack of knowledge of its capabilities . During these times of budget constraints , rather than postponing or ignoring compost bioremediation , decision-makers should give strong consideration to using compost technologies ( alone or in concert with other procedures ) to prevent pollution of air and water resources . <p> PHOTOS ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Composted municipal biosolids and lime are applied ( left ) on a stripmine in Somerset County , Pennsylvania at a rate of 90 dry tons per acre . Some site three months later ( right ) shows lush vegetation cover . <p>

@@4016941 MAXIMIZING ORGANICS DIVERSION <p> A recent EPA report first estimates quantities of compostables in the MSW stream , then runs through various composting strategies to determine a cost/ton basis for diversion through each method . <p> The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's Office of Solid Waste released a report , Organic Materials Management Strategies ( OMMS ) , in May , 1998 . The OMMS explores the national potential for widespread implementation of composting strategies that have been used successfully throughout the United States . These include grasscycling , backyard home composting , on-site institutional composting , municipal yard trimmings composting , commercial composting , mixed waste composting , and residential source separated composting . For each strategy , the report uses information from EPA 's Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States : 1996 Update to estimate national quantities of organic materials available for composting . Estimates in this article use information from the recently released ' 97 Update . <p> The OMMS report addresses organic materials in the municipal solid waste stream that are recovered by existing composting operations . This focus was chosen for consistency with the EPA 's characterization studies , which only @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , commercial and institutional sources . Because of this focus , some organic residuals that may have important implications for composting -- such as biosolids and industrial food processing and agricultural residuals -- were not considered in the report . Information from existing composting programs was used to identify the types of organic MSW materials typically targeted by the compost strategies analyzed . The ' 97 Update indicates that over one-third of the U.S. waste stream consists of organic materials -- 28 million tons of yard trimmings , 21.9 million tons of food residuals , and 24.8 million tons of soiled or unrecyclable paper ( see Table 1 ) . Although about 11 million tons of these materials ( primarily yard trimmings ) were recovered for composting in 1996 , most of the remaining 63 million tons were discarded in disposal facilities . ASSESSING POTENTIAL FOR DIVERSION <p> For each of the seven strategies analyzed , a review of six to ten existing operations was conducted to develop the following information : <p> 1 ) Strategy description providing general design features along with illustrative examples from existing operations throughout the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ limitations of each strategy ; 3 ) Applicable portion of the national waste stream that could be targeted by the strategy ; and 4 ) Cost per ton diverted -- calculated by taking the capital and operating costs from existing programs to determine a high , low and mid-range cost per ton diverted for each strategy . <p> Table 2 provides a summary of the seven strategies analyzed . One can not get a sum of the tonnage values shown in the " available tons " column because more than one strategy may target the same materials . For example , grasscycling , home composting and municipal yard trimmings programs all target grass clippings and , thus , grass quantities are included in the applicable tons for each strategy . The Compost Strategy Savings Curve discussed in the final section of this article illustrates the most cost-effective combination of strategies that could be used to capture the nation 's compostable waste stream . GRASSCYCLING PROGRAMS <p> Of the 28 million tons of yard trimmings generated annually , approximately 50 percent are grass clippings . Therefore , the available portion of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is 14 million tons . <p> Staff time required for public education often represents the only cost associated with grasscycling . Some programs also offer rebates for mulching equipment . Cost per ton diverted through grasscycling programs can be calculated based on the program cost in the first year . However , once residents have been educated about grasscycling ( the start-up program cost ) , they probably will not need to be educated again each year . Therefore , Table 3 assumes that the cost of educating a given generator to grasscycle is incurred only one time , and that the program 's impact ( i.e. , the quantity of waste diverted ) lasts for five years before additional education or outreach is needed . This is a conservative estimate since most generators are likely to continue grasscycling after an initial training period . The first year average cost per ton diverted was amortized over five years to arrive at an estimated average cost of $1.03 . Of the seven programs analyzed , costs per ton ranged from a low of $0.26/ton in Montgomery County , Ohio to a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cost in Dubuque is likely due to the city 's residential rebate program for mulching blade attachments . HOME COMPOSTING <p> Of the 21.9 million tons of food scraps generated by the residential and commercial sectors , approximately 72 percent are compostable in backyard bins . This includes all food scraps except meat , fish , cheese , milk , and fats and oils . According to the ' 97 Update , about half of all food scraps are generated by the residential sector . Thus , the portion of food residuals generated by the residential sector that are available for backyard composting is about 7.9 million tons ( 21.9 million tons of food times 50 percent generated by residents times 72 percent available for backyard composting ) . Franklin Associates ' 1994 Update of the Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the U.S. ( the only update that attempted to split residential and commercial data ) indicated that about 90 percent of yard trimmings come from the residential sector . Making an allowance of 10 percent for large items ( e.g. tree trunks and large limbs ) that are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ trimmings are available for backyard composting ( 28 million tons ( total ) times 90 percent generated by residents times 90 percent available ) . Thus , a total of 30.6 million tons of organic materials could be targeted by backyard compost programs . This estimate probably is conservative since some areas also encourage home composting of select paper and other organic residuals . <p> Costs for municipally sponsored home composting can vary greatly . Some programs include significant start-up costs associated with bin subsidization and initial education and outreach . In these cases , the costs for initiating the program are high compared to the amount diverted in the first year . But since bins typically last for seven years ( and some now have warranties for up to 25 years ) and only minimal additional funding may be needed to sustain the program , costs decrease over time . Although bin prices vary depending on the type and quantity purchased , they generally range from $25 to $50 . <p> Backyard compost program costs are provided in Table 4 . Tonnage impacts and costs per ton diverted assume @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the bin . The programs are organized in Table 4 based on whether bin subsidies are provided . Subsidy programs tend to cost an average of $15.68/ton diverted over a bin 's useful life , while programs emphasizing education cost an average of $5/ton diverted . The average cost of all backyard compost programs is about $12.90/ton diverted . ON-SITE INSTITUTIONAL COMPOSTING <p> Institutions such as universities , schools , hospitals , correctional facilities and military installations are uniquely suited to composting because they typically generate large quantities of organic materials and have land available for composting . Institutional composting can reduce disposal costs or , as is the case at many universities , provide opportunities for research and development of new compost technologies . Data from existing institutional composting operations suggests that up to 2.4 million tons of food , paper and yard trimmings generated by this sector could be captured by compost programs . <p> Costs for five on-site institutional programs are shown in Table 5 . Low-tech options include open windrow systems that often rely on low-cost inmate labor . High-tech options include aerated , in-vessel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Weighted average costs of low technology and high technology operations are $49/ton diverted . YARD TRIMMINGS COMPOSTING PROGRAMS <p> Municipal yard trimmings composting programs represent the most widespread and well-established composting strategy . Municipalities collect yard trimmings in many ways , ranging from curbside operations to drop-off programs . These typically target leaves , grass and brush . As noted earlier , approximately 28 million tons of these materials are generated annually . <p> A variety of factors can influence the cost of yard trimmings programs , including the collection method used ( e.g. , drop-off , curbside ) , types of materials targeted ( e.g. , leaves , grass , brush , some combination , etc. ) , collection frequency , quantity of yard materials generated , technology used for turning compost windrows or grinding brush ( e.g. , dedicated equipment versus existing or shared resources ) , and numerous other factors . <p> To develop a mid-range national cost estimate for leaf and yard trimmings collection , it was necessary to consider the relative quantities and costs of drop-off versus curbside pick up . A study of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that curbside yard trimmings collection diverted approximately two times as much material as drop-off collection programs . Therefore , for the purposes of estimating a mid-range national yard trimmings collection cost , a 2:1 curbside to drop-off diversion ratio is used in conjunction with cost per ton collected by curbside versus drop-off programs . For drop-off , the cost of collection for the compost service provider is assumed to be zero since those that drop their yard trimmings off at the compost facility bear the cost of collection . For curbside collection , a cost of $66.56/ton collected is estimated -- based on a study by Barbara Stevens of Ecodata Inc. -- of 60 randomly selected cities that divert 10 to 19.9 percent of the waste stream through curbside yard trimmings programs . This estimate is conservative since the same study indicated that programs that divert larger quantities of the waste stream cost less per ton collected . Combining the curbside and drop-off costs at a 2:1 ratio to reflect the relative quantities of materials collected by each method yields a mid-range national cost estimate of $44.37/ton collected in yard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , further costs will be incurred at the facility as the material is turned into finished product . A BioCycle article ( " How Much Does It Cost To Compost Yard Trimmings , " September , 1996 ) presented the results of a survey of seven public composting facilities that process from 2,000 to 23,500 tons/year of feedstock . This survey revealed an average total cost ( capital plus operating ) of $PA.65/ton , as shown in Table 6 . <p> Among the municipal yard trimmings programs analyzed , costs ranged from a low of $21.65/ton diverted ( for programs that rely on drop-off collection ) to a high of $88.21/ton -- $66.56 for collection plus $21.65/ton for composting -- diverted ( for programs that use more extensive curbside collection and processing operations ) . The estimated national mid-range cost of yard trimmings composting is $66.02/ten diverted ( $44.37/ten for collection and $21.65/ton for composting ) . COMMERCIAL COMPOSTING <p> Commercial generators of organic materials , such as supermarkets , food processing companies and restaurants , have the potential for diverting large amounts of food , soiled and waxed cardboard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , organic residuals may represent 75 to 90 percent of the total waste stream . Data from existing commercial composting operations suggests that up to 24.6 million tons of food and soiled or unrecyclable paper generated by commercial establishments could be captured for composting . <p> The city of Seattle , the King County Solid Waste Division and the Washington Department of Ecology funded development of detailed ' cost models for collection and processing of commercial organics as part of the Seattle/King County Commercial Food Waste Demonstration Project . The collection models were based on several factors , including food residuals generation rates per employee for different types of generators , participation rates based on survey information , efficiency of organics separation by participating firms , collection frequency and container weight limits . The model indicated that the quantity of food generated at each commercial site and the distance between generators had the greatest impact on commercial organics collection costs . Collection and transport and processing cost ranges were calculated for several service areas . Model cost estimates are shown in Table 7 along with price estimates provided by other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are estimated at about $72/ton diverted . Cost per ton collected and composted ( based on averages ) range from a low of about $50 as reported by Shop-Rite , to a high of around $96 estimated by the Seattle cost model . MIXED WASTE COMPOSTING <p> Mixed waste composting refers to a centralized processing system that accepts mixed MSW and separates materials into component parts for composting , recycling and final disposal . In theory , this strategy could divert all organic materials currently available for composting -- approximately 74.7 million tons/year . To date , mixed waste composting operations have had an uneven track record in the United States . <p> Mixed waste composting facilities use much higher levels of technology than other organic material diversion strategies to sort recyclables and compostables from disposed waste . Facilities have dramatically different capital costs , depending on the level of technology employed and the extent of reliance upon low-skilled labor for sorting . Odor control technologies also incur associated design , construction and operating costs that vary widely from project to project . Operating costs include labor , operation and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ determines labor requirements . Residual disposal can be a very significant cost item , depending on the compost quality and the corresponding degree of contaminant removal needed , as well as the cost of disposal . One study reports estimated costs for capital debt service and operation ( see Table 8 ) at a number of mixed waste composting facilities around the country . The estimates do not generally include the costs for land or siting , as the facilities are all publicly owned and land was already available . ( For consistency , no land costs were included for any of the strategies . ) The resulting average cost per ton is $49.89 . <p> In addition to facility costs , mixed waste composting involves collection costs . However , unlike other organics management strategies , it does not necessarily require a separate collection system . Therefore , the cost of collection for this strategy is equivalent to the cost of garbage collection . Using information from a study conducted by Franklin Associates and Keep America Beautiful , average garbage collection costs are estimated at $63/ton . Combined with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ $102 to $126/ton diverted . The weighted average cost of diversion for this strategy is $113/ton diverted . RESIDENTIAL SOURCE SEPARATION <p> Increasing sensitivity about the poor quality of mixed waste compost in Europe started a wave of residential collection programs targeting the organic fraction of the solid waste stream . Several pilot programs in the Netherlands and Germany in the late 1980s demonstrated that compost produced from residentially source separated feedstock contained substantially lower levels of toxic heavy metals and physical contaminants , such as glass and plastic , than mixed waste compost . Like mixed waste composting , source separated organics composting has the potential to target a large portion of the residential organics stream , which is comprised of about 47.3 million tons of compostable MSW . <p> Costs for collection of source separated residential organics are not readily available because such programs have not been widely implemented in the United States . Average collection costs for a wet/dry pilot operation in DeKalb , Illinois ranged from $48 to $62/ton diverted , according to a report prepared by Waste Management Inc. and E &A; Environmental Consultants . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dual collection vehicle . Residents were supplied with cellulose lined bags , eight-gallon containers to hold the bags , and 20-gallon containers to-hold full wet waste bags for curbside collection . On one of the two pilot routes , recyclables were collected with wet and dry organic materials in blue bags . <p> There also is a general lack of complete cost information specific to source separation processing technologies . Swift County , Minnesota built a composting facility designed to receive bagged , source separated MSW as feedstock . The cost for source separated collection and processing at this facility was compared to the cost of mixed waste composting in neighboring counties . The source separated costs ranged between $63 to $86/ton whereas mixed waste composting ranged from $102 to $126/ton . THE COMPOST STRATEGY SAVINGS CURVE <p> The previous discussion focused on national average costs and potential for seven individual compost strategies . Clearly , some combination of the strategies analyzed would be needed to address the entire U.S. organics stream . The question is , which combination of strategies would be most cost-effective ? To address this question @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was developed . The curve identifies the most cost-effective combination of options available for composting the 74.7 million ton compostable waste stream shown in Table 1 . <p> The average cost per ton diverted for individual compost strategies is used as a starting point for constructing the curve . This information is combined with average avoided garbage collection and disposal costs , as well as average revenue for finished compost , to estimate a net cost or savings for each compost strategy as shown in Table 9 . ( Source separated composting was excluded from this analysis because complete cost information was not readily available . ) Avoided disposal costs are calculated using national average tip fees ( $38/ton based on adjusted BioCycle 's " State of Garbage in America " survey data from 1995-1996 ) . Average avoided garbage collection costs ( $23/ton using Franklin Associates 1994 data ) were applied to on-site institutional , municipal yard trimmings and commercial organics because these composting programs are assumed to result in an incremental reduction in garbage collection service . For mixed waste composting , the average cost of garbage collection @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ avoided cost ( assuming mixed waste composting collection replaces garbage collection ) . Average revenue per input ton is based on the reported market value for various kinds of finished compost . ( See the OMMS report for further explanation of avoided disposal costs and compost revenue assumptions . ) <p> To develop the Compost Strategies Savings Curve , savings from column four of Table 9 were plotted on the graph with applicable tonnage information shown in Table 2 . The curve shows the strategies analyzed from highest to lowest savings per ton , such that strategies resulting in the greatest savings per ton diverted appear first and are applied to the total quantity of organic material available for diversion through that strategy . Any overlap of targeted materials between options is simply removed from the contribution of each subsequent ( i.e. , more costly ) segment of the curve . Thus , for example , the tonnage attributed to home composting is net of the tonnage attributed to grasscycling and onsite institutional composting ; the three combined are equal to the diversion available through only doing municipal yard trimmings @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ because it results in a net cost of $9/ton . ( This strategy , however , could encompass the total quantity of organic materials in the MSW stream available for composting . ) <p> The curve indicates that 83 percent of the available compostable stream ( about 62 million tons ) could be composted at a net savings through a combination of grasscycling , home composting , on-site institutional composting , leaf and yard trimmings composting , and commercial organics composting . Composting the remaining 17 percent of the organic waste stream could be accomplished through more costly mixed waste composting programs or perhaps through source separation strategies once they become better established in the United States . <p> Table 10 illustrates the maximum savings to local governments from composting strategies . Grasscycling , on-site institutional and home composting programs -- three source reduction strategies -- could target 50 percent of the organic waste stream at a net savings to local governments of over $1 billion annually . Alternatively , yard trimmings composting programs could be employed to target many of the same materials at a savings of about $240 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ divert more of the organics stream ( because they also include food residuals ) at a savings of anywhere from about $25 to $37/ton versus municipal yard trimmings composting , which diverts less organics at a savings of roughly $11/ton . Commercial compost strategies could capture another third of the organic waste stream at net savings of about $211.5 million annually . The compost strategy curve underscores the major impact that a few proven strategies could have in achieving substantial and cost-effective incremental reduction in the U.S. waste stream . Table 1 . <p> Materials in U.S. MSW available for composting ( 1996 ) PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Organic Materials Management Strategies and Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States . ' 1997 Update Table 2 . <p> Summary of individual organic materials management strategies PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Organic Materials Management Strategies Table 3 . <p> Grasscycling costs for select programs PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Organic Materials Management Strategies Table 4 . <p> Home composting program costs PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Composting Council . Cost Benefit Analysis of Home Composting Programs , 1996 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and high tech on-site institutional composting operations PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Organic Materials Management Strategies Table 6 . <p> Select ( yard trimmings ) windrow composting facility throughput and costs PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Robert Steuteville , How Much Does it Cost to Compost Yard Trimming ? , BioCycle ; September . 1996 , p. 40 . Table 7 . <p> Estimated commercial organics cost per ton diverted PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Organic Materials Management Strategies Table 8 . <p> Mixed waste composting facility costs PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Source : Solid Waste Association of North America . 1995 . Cost Information Based on Municipal Solid Waste Composting -- A Status Report . Prepared by Gershman , Brickner &; Bratton , Inc . Table VI-4 Table 9 . <p> Maximum carings to local governments from composting strategies PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 10 . <p> Maximum savings to local governments from composting strategies1 PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> 1 Municipal yard trimmings composting is not included in this table because even though it results in savings , it is more expensive then source reduction approaches . <p> GRAPH : Figure 1 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The estimated mid-range cost of yard trimmings composting is $66.02/ton diverted -- $44.37/ton for collection and $21.65/ton for composting . <p> By Paul J. Ligon and George Garland <p> <p> Paul Ligon is a senior scientist at the Tellus Institute in Boston <p> George Garland is a policy analyst at EPA 's Office of Solid Waste . They are principal authors of the Organic Materials Management Strategies report , available from the EPA Office of Solid Waste ( EPA530-R-97-003 ) or its website ( www.epa.govcompost ) . <p>

@@4017041 Section : Environmental Management Systems COMPOST MARKETING ISSUES The U.S. Composting Council has developed a White Paper discussing use of Canadian heavy metal standards for fertilizer products in the United States -- and the potential impact on compost registered as fertilizers . <p> IN 1997 , the issue of the lack of heavy metal standards for fertilizer products was spotlighted when a newspaper account in the Seattle Times reported that a fertilizer contained high levels of some contaminants not normally considered acceptable . The concern over the safety of inorganic fertilizers culminated in Washington state adopting Canadian standards developed for fertilizers . <p> The situation in Washington led a national organization , the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials ( AAPFCO ) , to address the lack of standards for heavy metals in inorganic fertilizer products . In February , 1998 , AAPFCO passed a motion to recommend adoption of the Canadian standards ( Table 1 ) . <p> To better understand the impact of these heavy metal standards on compost products , the U.S. Composting Council put together a White Paper ( from which this article is adapted ) on the origin and tentative recommendation for use @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and the implications for composting and organics recycling activities . <p> In the United States , composters may register their compost products with a state department of agriculture either as a fertilizer or a soil amendment . The determining factors regarding how compost products are registered are based on the label claims a composter makes ( its marketing/sales strategy ) , and whether the state has enacted a Uniform Soil Amendment Bill , which enables a product to be registered as a soil amendment and thus claim those benefits ( e.g. improving the physical characteristics of soils ) on the bag or in sales literature . A compost that bears a nutrient claim is usually registered and regulated as a fertilizer . <p> " Manipulated " animal manures are considered to be fertilizers when marketed as such or if nutrient claims are made . Although AAPFCO defines manipulation as " processed or treated in any manner , including drying to a moisture content of less than 30 percent , " many states have not established a clear cut definition of the terms manipulated or manipulated manures . Manipulation also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ etc. by various regulatory entities . If the Canadian standards are approved by AAPFCO and enacted by states , compost facility operators would be directly affected if their product is registered as a fertilizer ( like they already are in Washington state ) . AAPFCO INITIATIVES ON FERTILIZER REGULATIONS <p> AAPFCO is comprised of officials from the United States , Canada and Puerto Rico who regulate commercial fertilizers as well as other products such as soil amendments , agricultural liming materials and horticultural growing media . AAPFCO develops and updates model legislation that governs the labeling and distribution of these products so that interstate commerce is less affected . Once approved , model bills , terms and definitions , and Statements of Uniform Interpretation and Policy ( SUIP ) may be enacted by the regulating authority ; however , the regulating authorities are not required to enact AAPFCO model documents . For example , most states have enacted some version of AAPFCO 's Uniform State Fertilizer Bill , but only 37 states have enacted the Uniform Soil Amendment Bill . <p> AAPFCO 's Canadian standards initiative began with a recommendation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ adopt scientifically sound standards for the acceptable cumulative levels of substances not generally recognized as plant nutrients when applied to the soil . The By-Products and Recycled Materials Subcommittee of AAPFCO 's Environmental Affairs Committee then presented a recommendation to the Board of Directors to adopt the Canadian standards for fertilizers into a Metals in Fertilizer SUIP . A goal of this action is to discourage other states from adopting standards on their own ( as Washington did ) , threatening the uniformity in fertilizer regulation . <p> AAPFCO officials are authorized under the Uniform State Fertilizer Bill to stop the sale of an adulterated fertilizer product . Until the new SUIP is adopted , an adulterated fertilizer product is defined as one that " contains any deleterious or harmful substance in sufficient amounts to render it injurious to beneficial plant life , animals , humans , aquatic life , soil or water when applied in accordance with directions for use . " The definition in the AAPFCO Metals in Fertilizers SUIP is more specific . It reads : " As an interim guide for implementation of Section 12(a) of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when they contain metals in amounts greater than the levels established by the Canadian standards . Biosolids shall be adulterated when they exceed the levels of metals permitted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Code of Federal Regulations , Section 503 . Note : These interim guidelines are intended for use until scientific risk based standards are established by ongoing studies which are expected to be completed within two years . " <p> The ongoing studies referred to by AAPFCO include a risk assessment done in California on arsenic , lead and cadmium in fertilizers and a recently completed study by The Fertilizer Institute ( TFI ) that is evaluating the risk associated with applying fertilizer in commercial applications ( formally titled " Applicator Risk Assessment Study " ) . The Canadian standards are not based on an actual risk assessment ( as are EPA 's Part 503 regulations ) . Instead , they were developed by a group of scientists who based them on long-term cumulative metal additions to soils . <p> While the heavy metal limits are still in evaluation stage , AAPFCO has more clarity on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The organization drafted an SUIP for Product Labels That Meet Metal Guidelines , which reads : " When applied as directed , this product meets the guidelines for metals adopted by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials . " Products that meet the Canadian standards for heavy metals in fertilizers will be required to include the above statement on their label , since all state officials have indicated they would accept this language on labels distributed in their state . UPCOMING VOTES ON ADOPTION <p> At the AAPFCO annual meeting in August , 1999 , members will vote on keeping the Metals in Fertilizer SUIP ( Canadian standards ) in tentative status for another year , and will vote to approve the SUIP for Product Labels That Meet Metal Guidelines as official . As noted , AAPFCO is still seeking additional scientific data ( risk based , peer reviewed ) to evaluate the risk from heavy metals in fertilizers distributed in the United States . Since these two SUIPs are in tentative status , any regulatory authority may adopt the SUIPs on an interim basis . Or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ if the political pressures in their state to do so are strong enough . <p> All chemical ( inorganic ) fertilizer products , both in bulk and bagged form , will be affected by these SUIPs , as will organic fertilizers , many animal manure products , and any other products registered and marketed as a fertilizer ( bearing nutrient claims on the label ) . The types of products affected in the United States will be dependent upon states ' fertilizer and soil amendment laws , as well as their interpretation of the laws and definitions within . The current SUIP for Metals in Fertilizers defines biosolids as adulterated only if the metal content is above those outlined in the US EPA Part 503 regulations . IMPLICATIONS FOR THE COMPOSTING INDUSTRY <p> Any state 's Department of Agriculture can adopt the Canadian standards for heavy metals in fertilizer , for use on an interim basis , as a means to define if a fertilizer product is adulterated . This would enable those states to order the stop sale of any adulterated products until they can meet the standards . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all products marketed as fertilizers ( making nutrient claims ) , or defined as fertilizers by the Uniform State Fertilizer Bill or a particular state 's Department of Agriculture , will be affected by this SUIP . This would have an immediate effect on composts registered as fertilizers and many manure products ( those in the category of manipulated animal manures ) . These products will be required to meet both the new metal standards and the labeling requirements . Under current interpretation , biosolids products would not be affected , unless they are marketed and registered as fertilizers . Biosolids that are directly land applied ( especially where nutrient data is provided along with the product ) have not been addressed thus far . <p> Since the term manipulated manure is open for interpretation in many states , it will be difficult to determine how states will categorize composted manure ( even if they do not make nutrient claims as fertilizers ) . These labeling requirements could be extremely problematic if not standardized on a national basis . <p> Companies that want to register their compost with a state @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't instituted the Uniform Soil Amendment Bill , will have to register it as a fertilizer , thus subjecting themselves to the Metals In Fertilizers SUIP . ( Conversely , some composters want to register their products as a fertilizer , automatically subjecting it to the SUIP . ) In these instances , the adoption of the Canadian standards could be a deterrence to registering composts . Companies marketing manure products , and those making nutrient claims for their products , may choose to change the product name to something other than manure , or may choose not to make nutrient claims . Not providing this nutrient data is problematic to end users who rely on that information to determine supplemental fertilizer requirements . <p> Based on the fertilizer survey completed in Washington state , most fertilizer products likely will meet the Canadian standards , because they are applied at relatively low application rates , and the heavy metals standards are based on cumulative loading rates . Under current interpretation , yard trimmings , biosolids , food residuals , municipal solid waste , and other composts should not be affected @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ registered as fertilizers . If , however , they are registered as a fertilizer ( or make nutrient claims ) , composts may not be able to be applied at recommended application rates for maximum efficacy as a soil amendment . Manure-based products in Washington state that are registered as a fertilizer or that make nutrient claims are feeling the most impact from the new fertilizer law . For example , a typical fertilizer application rate may be only 0.5 to one ton/acre , whereas a compost application rate could be five to 100 tons/acre . <p> There are several questions that exist regarding future interpretations of the Metals in Fertilizer SUIP by individual states . For instance , how will the SUIP affect the land application of biosolids , since testing and reporting of biosolids for nutrients , as well as heavy metal content , is required ? Will certain states choose to adopt the Canadian standards for soil amendment products , as Canada has ? California already has created a Heavy Metals Facilitated Rule-Making Committee to evaluate the heavy metal standards for biosolids and other organic products . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other than fertilizers is very possible , and could be done on a state by state basis ( not uniformly ) . <p> In a nutshell , the bottom line for composters is this : If you make a nutrient claim or register your product as a fertilizer -- and sell the product in a state that has adopted the Metals In Fertilizer SUIP -- you need to comply with the heavy metals limits in the Canadian standards . WHAT ARE THE CANADIAN STANDARDS ? <p> THE Canadian standards for heavy metals in fertilizers were developed in 1979 in a trade document , and are enforced under the authority of the ( Canadian ) Fertilizers Act and Regulations , Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada ( AAFC ) . The metals standards are generally applicable to fertilizers and supplements applied to land or used in crop production . These standards have been used to evaluate and manage all products regulated under the ( Canadian ) Fertilizer Act and for which metal concerns have been raised ( e.g. , organic fertilizers , processed sewage , compost , phosphate rich fertilizers such as monoammonium @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Between 1993 and 1995 , the AAFC met al standards were reevaluated in response to ( heavy metal ) standard development activities elsewhere ( e.g. , the U.S. EPA 's heavy metals limits for biosolids ) , the variety of by-products being proposed for reuse as fertilizers and supplements , and the progressive depletion of rock phosphate deposits worldwide . It was concluded that the AAFC metal standards remain valid . The Canadian standards for metals in fertilizers and supplements are based on what the Fertilizer Section , Plant Products Division of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency deemed as the total , acceptable , cumulative metal addition limits for soils . The Canadian standards affect all fertilizers and soil amendments , including compost and biosolids , marketed in Canada . FERTILIZER REGULATION EVOLUTION IN WASHIHGTOH STATE <p> CONCERN over the content of heavy metals in fertilizers appears to have begun in Quincy , Washington , when farmers blamed crop yield reductions and sick looking cows on the use of fertilizer products containing a steel mill by-product . This by-product was considered a hazardous waste at the steel mill @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) regulations , could be sold as a fertilizer ingredient . Eventually , the Washington State Department of Ecology ( DOE ) created a team to evaluate the issue of heavy metals ( nonnutritive elements ) in fertilizer products and the state legislature passed Senate Bill 6474 -- the Fertilizer Regulation Act -- giving DOE oversight authority over waste-derived fertilizers . <p> In June , 1998 , the state adopted the Canadian standards for maximum acceptable heavy metals additions to soils . The annual ( heavy metal ) limits were calculated by converting the kg/ha values into lbs/acre . Washington state assigned a long-term cumulative metals additions to soils of 45 years . The resulting limits , in annual maximum pounds/acre , are Arsenic -- .297 ; Cadmium -- .079 ; Cobalt -- .594 ; Mercury -- .019 ; Molybdenum -- .079 ; Nickel -- .713 ; Lead- 1.98 ; Selenium -- .055 ; Zinc -- 7.329 . The state Department of Agriculture may allow higher concentrations of certain micronutrients when guaranteed to provide needed nutrients to plants . The law also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ risk-based or peer-reviewed data become available which warrants their modification . <p> All fertilizerrs , agricultural liming materials , manipulated animal manure products , and any other products making nutrient claims fall under the purview of this law . ( Liming materials are considered fertilizer products in Washington state . ) Soil amendments currently are not regulated by the Department of Agriculture , and therefore do not fall under this law . However , if a compost product or any other soil amendment makes a nutrient claim or is registered as a fertilizer in Washington , then it has to comply . The language used on a product 's bag or label will determine whether it will be considered a fertilizer or a soil amendment . <p> The law also requires that all fertilizer products distributed in Washington , at a minimum , must have the following labeling statement : <p> " This product has been registered with the Washington State Department of Agriculture . When applied as directed , this fertilizer meets the Washington standards for arsenic , cadmium , cobalt , mercury , molybdenum , lead , nickel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to receive specific information about Washington standards from the distributor of this product . " After July 1 , 1999 , the label also has to state that product content details are available via the Internet ( and the web site is provided ) . Two bills have been introduced in Washington state 's legislature suggesting modification of the labeling requirement . One supports the standard labeling language developed by AAPFCO ( see main article ) . <p> Finally , the state Department of Agriculture will begin Ecological Review of waste-derived and micronutrient fertilizers in July as part of their fertilizer registration process . AAPFCO RULE MAKING PROCESS <p> THE rule making process within AAPFCO usually begins with one of its committees evaluating an issue . If deemed to be relevant , especially over a multiple state area , and requiring action , the committee will develop a course of action , which could be in the form of a model bill , a revision to an existing bill or regulation , or Statements of Uniform Interpretation and Policy ( SUIP ) , and recommend it to the AAPFCO Board @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ year in February . The board will then either send the proposal back to committee for further review , or approve it , which begins a six month review process by the AAPFCO membership . <p> Next , the proposal would be voted upon by the membership at its annual meeting in August . If approved , the proposal receives tentative status , allowing interested states to enact it on an interim basis . At the following mid-year meeting , the sponsoring committee would recommend to the AAPFCO board to approve the proposal , or keep it in tentative status for further evaluation . If the committee recommends to the board that the proposal become official and the board approves the recommendation , then the proposal is voted upon by the membership at the annual meeting in August . If the membership votes for adoption , then the proposal is passed , and is recommended as an officially approved document by the association for adoption by all regulatory authorities . Table 1 . Maximum acceptable cumulative metal additions to soil ( Canadian ) /cumulative pollutant loading rates ( US EPA @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> <p> Ron Alexander of R. Alexander Associates in Cary , North Carolina prepared the White Paper for the U.S. Composting Council on the AAPFCO approach to regulating heavy metals in fertilizers . For more information , background documents , or the USCC 's recommendations for action , contact the USCC at ( 440 ) 989-1552 ; **28;1158;TOOLONG . <p>

@@4017141 ABSTRACT : Environmental participation was examined within the context of a nonformal , field program for two small groups of high school students . A model of positive environmental action was developed and revised . An examination of the model reveals that positive environmental action can not be explained easily by a focus on predictors of individual behaviors nor the manipulation of these behaviors . The results indicate that the relationships between learning and environmental action are interactive , dynamic , and greatly influenced by the participants and the social situations within which they operate . <p> In 1977 , the Tbilisi conference on environmental education outlined the objective that environmental education should provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively involved at all levels working toward the resolution of environmental problems ( UNESCO , 1980 , p. 71 ) . The World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED , 1987 ) and the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro also reiterated that citizens must take a participatory role in environmental protection . <p> Many researchers and practitioners in environmental education have taken environmental participation goals quite seriously . Fien ( 1993 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ should promote participation in a variety of forms of social action to help improve and maintain environmental quality . As such , environmental participation is expected to play a role in social transformation . Others have interpreted participation to mean that people should practice environmentally responsible behaviors , and that achieving such behaviors is the ultimate goal of environmental education ( Hines , Hungerford , &; Tomera , 1986-1987 ; Hungerford &; yolk , 1990 ; Ramsey , 1993 ) . <p> Inspired in particular by the idea of environmental participation , I developed , implemented , and evaluated a nonformal environmental education program at the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize , Central America . In this article , I show how a practical environmental education experience informed the development and revision of a theoretical model of positive environmental action . During this process , some of my underlying assumptions were challenged , and the study became a critical reflection on methodology in action . I became aware that the relationships between learning in environmental education and positive environmental action can not be explained easily by a focus on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those behaviors . Instead , these relationships are interactive , dynamic , and greatly influenced by the participants and the social situations within which they operate . <p> Research related to environmental action and behavior has increased . Models by Hines et al . ( 1986-1987 ) and Hungerford and yolk ( 1990 ) show how a behavioral manipulation of many variables can result in people 's participation in desirable environmental behaviors . These works went beyond earlier explorations in environmental action and behavior ( Borden &; Schettino , 1979 ; Ramsey &; Rickson , 1976 ) and have helped guide innovations in environmental education practice , particularly in formal schooling situations ( Ramsey , 1993 ; Ramsey &; Hungerford , 1989 ; yolk , 1993 ) . A Model of Positive Environmental Action <p> Although previous models and related research provide important background information , their usefulness was limited in the context of this study . I developed a new model of positive environmental action ( Figure 1 ) whose three main features distinguish it from earlier models . First , it emphasizes positive environmental action instead of environmental @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the integration of multiple student-learning areas ( environmental concepts , environmental attitudes and sensitivity , action skills and procedures , and empowerment and ownership ) and their combined effect on positive environmental action . Finally , the model focuses on environmental education in a nonformal , experiential setting . An Emphasis on Action <p> In its emphasis on participation , this model is similar to earlier models . However , in this model , the participation goal is more narrowly defined as action , whereas most earlier models focus on behavior , such as responsible environmental behavior ( Hines et al. , 1986-1987 ; Sia , Hungerford , &; Tomera , 1985-1986 ) , or responsible citizenship behavior ( Hungerford &; yolk , 1990 ) . Positive environmental action is a deliberate strategy that involves decisions , planning , implementation , and reflection by an individual or a group . The action is also intended to achieve a specific positive environmental outcome , either small or large ( Emmons , 1994 ) . Defined as such , action has an intentional quality that may or may not characterize behavior @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ provide insight on the distinction between action and behavior . Deci described the following three types of behavioral response : ( a ) non-self-determining , such as coercion ; ( b ) automatized or automatic , such as habit ; or ( c ) self-determined and involving the human capacity for deciding how to behave ( 1980 , p. 17 ) . Behavior is a much broader concept than action in that it might be voluntary or involuntary , automatic or nonautomatic . Moreover , behavior includes basic , individual responses that may or may not be deliberate efforts toward a certain goal . <p> Environmental behavior as described in the literature may fall under either Deci 's second or third category of behavioral response , but is often presented as a final product , not a combination of product and process . For example , pupils may place recyclable materials in an appropriate container because they have formed habits or want to avoid reprimands , not because personal knowledge and attitudes have helped lead them to a process of planning and action . Thus , their use of classroom @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ come about as a result of cognitive and affective processes , as well as the use of action skills and strategies . Either way , the result is the same . The environmental behavior is achieved , but perhaps not in the way environmental educators intended . <p> Positive environmental action can be classified only under Deci 's third type of behavioral response ( self-determined ) , given that it requires foresight and planning and is designed to serve a specific purpose based on the individual 's decisions . This kind of action is voluntary and nonautomatic and is both a process and a product . In the case of classroom recycling , if students themselves decide to start a recycling program , they may do so in response to their knowledge and attitudes about recycling issues and are able to understand and implement appropriate strategies . They become engaged in the process of action ( deciding , planning , implementing , and evaluating ) , aimed at a particular product ( reduction of solid waste , reusing resources ) . Integrated Learning Goals <p> Prior research has tended to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Shore , 1975 ; Axelrod &; Lehman , 1993 ; Borden &; Schettino , 1979 ; Hines et al. , 1986-1987 ; Hungerford &; Volk , 1990 ; Jordan , Hungerford , &; Tomera , 1986 ; Marcinkowski , 1989 ; Ramsey , 1989 , 1993 ; Ramsey &; Rickson , 1976 ; Sia et al. , 1985-1986 ; Sivek , 1989 ) . Although I used other research initially in identifying important learning areas in environmental education , I found that the model of positive environmental action treats the areas not only as predictors or variables of environmental action , but also as important environmental education learning areas in and of themselves . Some earlier models present various cognitive and affective aspects in apparent isolation from one another . Others seem to regard the effects as sequential , additive , or even hierarchical . The new model is different in that it explicitly illustrates an integration of the learning areas and does not suggest a timeline for the occurrence of the various effects . The model shows four general learning areas : environmental concepts , environmental attitudes and sensitivity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Although each is referred to as a different learning area , their boundaries are not necessarily well defined . <p> There has been much discussion about the integrated nature of cognitive and affective learning . According to some , cognitive and affective learning are interactive and reciprocal ( Bloom , 1978 ; Brown , 1971 ; Stancato &; Hamacheck , 1990 ; Zimiles , 981 ) . There is a suggestion within this literature that educational programs that deal with the interactions of cognitive and affective learning are more productive than programs that emphasize one or the other . As Brown 11971 ) pointed out , it is difficult to make learning challenging and exciting when " a teacher 's methods and curriculum are bounded by limits that ignore the student as a feeling-thinking human being " ( p. 5 ) . When considering the goal of environmental participation , educators should treat students as feeling-thinking-acting human beings . Robottom and Hart ( 1995 ) also wrote that when environmental education concentrates primarily on a manipulation of behavior , the development of critical thinking in students is diminished . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ environmental action guides the development of an educational program in a nonformal , field setting . Students have intensive and direct experiences in the natural environment over several days . Some have suggested that environmental sensitivity can be built best through positive contact with the natural environment ( Hungerford &; yolk , 1990 ; McKnight , 1990 ; Peters-Grant , 1986 ) and that positive attitudes about various elements of the natural world can be increased through direct contact with them ( Harvey , 1989-1990 ; Newhouse , 1991 ) . <p> I designed the experiential element to help overcome some of the shortcomings that were identified in some school-based environmental education programs . For example , Pomerantz ( 1990-1991 ) found that environmental education materials used in schools tend to concentrate only on basic knowledge and neglect other important learning areas . Singletary ( 1992 ) also provided such evidence and added that many teachers are uncomfortable addressing environmental values . In addition , formal school settings often have few elements of play and enjoyment ( Block , 1984 ) . The use of a nonformal , field program @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all learning areas together , removed from the constraints of a formal curriculum and school environment . Nonformal educational settings also have fewer curricular and other constraints and can provide certain motivational elements -- choice , challenge , novelty , and cooperation -- that can motivate students to learn ( Brophy , 1987 ; Csikszentmihalyi , 1975 ; deCharms , 1984 ; Stipek , 1988 ) . The Program <p> Two small groups of local high school students ( a total of 10 females ) were invited consecutively to the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize in April 1992 for 5 days . All students were in 9th or 10th grade and ranged in age from 15 to 20 . Although environmental education opportunities for Belizean youth are on the increase , the protected areas in Belize are underused for this purpose . Female students in particular are often left out of field experiences and are less likely than male students to visit protected areas ( Emmons , 1994 ) . The students did not indicate any specific interest in nature or the environment , but they participated in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expenses for the students were covered . <p> The broad learning goals in environmental concepts , sensitivity and attitudes , action skills and procedures , and empowerment and ownership were similar for both groups of students , but there were differences in the types of instruction . As part of the plan , different activities were carried out with each group . The purpose of using two different approaches was to gain an understanding of the differences that might occur in the educational processes and outcomes of the two programs . The two approaches are described briefly below . ( A more complete account of the program development and implementation is found in Emmons , 1994 . ) <p> The first group , which contained 6 students , participated in a tacit educational program that allowed students to pursue learning and recreation at their own pace . This program was designed to resemble Fien 's ( 1993 ) education through the environment , given that the program attempted to use student experiences in the environment as the primary educational medium . Some structured activities had been set , but for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ objectives remained general . The flexibility of the schedule allowed students to make group decisions on many possible activities . With the plans and goals more implicit , l expected that much of the learning would take place in situ , or as it happened , naturally . For example , an observation during a hike might spark a discussion that lasted as long as students showed interest . Unstructured activities included trail hikes , night walks , and evening meetings . Unplanned activities , such as bird watching and informal discussions , also took place . The most important structured activity for this group was an action project ( described later ) . <p> The second group comprised 4 students . This group engaged in more structured activities , and the instruction was more explicit . This program attempted to resemble a shortened version of Fien 's ( 1993 ) education through the environment given that the purpose was to engage students in exploring and resolving environmental issues with an emphasis on lifestyle and social change . Structured activities included an action project and several discussions , including a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Mayan village . Students also had flexibility in helping decide the program schedule when it did not interfere with the plans for structured activities . <p> The two programs also differed in ways that were expected , but not planned , such as in group size , ages of students , individual personalities , and teacher experience . Method <p> The program was evaluated through qualitative research methods that use the perspective of the participants to assess the social climate in an educational setting ( Cantrell , 1993 ; Erickson , 1986 ) . I based the research in part on models of teacher research ( Cochran-Smith &; Lytle , 1993 ) and action research ( Kemmis &; McTaggart , 1982 ; McKernan , 1991 ; Nixon , 1987 ; Robottom , 1985 ) that outline steps for onsite , systematic research by practitioners who are directly involved in the educational setting . This type of research is formative rather than summative , with a focus on the improvement of the curriculum and methods and not a final judgment on their worth . Data were collected before , during , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ interviews , and ancillary sources . These are described more fully below . ( For a more detailed report of the collection and analysis of the data , see Emmons , 1994 . ) Participant Observation <p> Participant observation facilitated the collection of extensive data . While the program was carried out , most of the activities were recorded on audiotape and , in some cases , videotape . The data were later transcribed and generally contained conversations between the students and the teacher . Although participant observation methods generally include field notes , the researcher and the assistant in this study were full participants . They had to perform duties as teachers and leaders and were not always able to write , although they occasionally recorded notes on a tape recorder . McKernan 's ( 1991 ) description of episode analysis was particularly helpful as discourse and events were broken down into smaller episodes that allowed an examination of the relationships between phenomena . The data provided a picture of what occurred during the environmental education program and also revealed how the teacher and students interacted with one another @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for examining similarities and differences within the teaching and learning processes of the two groups . Questionnaires <p> The purpose of the questionnaire was to provide preprogram and postprogram data to help determine where students exhibited growth or change . Both groups of students received the same questionnaire , and preprogram written questionnaires were administered to both groups at a preparation meeting . The postprogram questionnaires were the same as the preprogram questionnaires and were administered shortly before students left the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary . On both questionnaires , students selected from several preset responses , although some students wrote in their own responses or provided written clarification . Data from the questionnaires were then counted and compared with related data . <p> Group discussions followed the postprogram questionnaires and proved useful . Students in both groups had the opportunity to clarify , elaborate , and correct their responses . Students discussed the items in a hypothetical manner and also provided examples from their own experiences . These discussions were audiotaped and later transcribed for analysis . Questionnaire items that were particularly informative in terms of both discussion and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like to walk in the forest at night . <p> I would like to have a tiger ( jaguar ) skin in my house for <p> decoration . <p> If I saw a snake in my yard it would be best to have someone kill it . <p> The zoo is the best place for wild animals to live . Interviews <p> All participants were interviewed individually on the first and last days of the Cockscomb visit . Interviews provided data to help determine where students exhibited growth or change . The interviews were semistructured and allowed open-ended responses on the following preset questions : What is the purpose of the sanctuary ? What would happen to this area if the trees were cut and citrus was planted ? If a friend tells you he shot a tiger ( jaguar ) and used its skin for a decoration in his house , what would you tell him ? If you were given the skin as a present , would you accept it ? Do you think it would affect you in any way if there were no more forests in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ species , and other environmental problems ? What is something you could do about environmental problems ? <p> Some of the interview questions were also discussed later with the entire group during the postprogram discussion . In the analysis of interview data , recurring themes across responses were noted and meaningful categories drawn ( McKernan , 1991 ; Spradley , 1979 ) . Interview data were also compared and contrasted with data from other sources . Ancillary Data <p> Student work was collected , including rough drafts and final products of projects , letters , and entries in the Cockscomb visitor 's log . The action project outcomes of both groups were particularly important data sources . Program logs and schedules were collected as a record of what kinds of activities took place and approximately how much time was spent on each . A variety of other recorded material was also collected . In place of written journals and written field notes , notes were recorded daily on audiotape by the teacher . These notes were supplemented by teacher self-interviews and discussions between the teacher and assistant . These data @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and allowed the teacher and assistant to voice their perceptions and concerns . <p> The data were examined for answers to a series of questions , which in their most general form were the following : In what kinds of activities did participants engage , and what kinds of educational ( and recreational ) opportunities did these activities provide ? What kinds of teaching methods and procedures were employed in these activities ? What factors supported or constrained teaching and learning processes ? What outcomes and patterns of change were apparent ? <p> These questions were employed to guide the process of data analysis to obtain an accurate view of the teaching and learning situations . The Action Project <p> One of the most important activities for both groups was the development of an action project . The project served as a confluence of learning opportunities , but was also helpful in the evaluation of the program . The project provided much of the information for the revision of the positive environmental action model . The voluntary aspect of the project was important . Students were not required to take @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ group to select an alternative activity . As an optional activity , the project served as a test of students ' motivation and demonstrated whether the program as a whole could inspire students to become more than just passive recipients of an environmental education program . <p> After listening to an introduction by the teacher , students decided as a group whether or not to proceed with the project , and students in both groups decided to do so . The students were helped initially by a discussion of project options that could be realistically completed during the 5-day program . They then chose , planned , and completed projects , combining their knowledge , feelings , and creative abilities to inform others about some of what they had learned . Students needed guidance and instruction in action skills and procedures , particularly in making initial decisions and plans . The second group , at the end of the project , also needed help with editing . <p> The first group of students produced a simple but sincere information poster for visitors : Take a Look ! ! <p> Welcome @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Cockscomb is an enjoyable sanctuary . In order for it to stay that way , we should protect animals and trees . Please be careful NOT to pollute the area . The sanctuary has many fascinating places to visit , such as the river , trail tracks , water fall . You can take a look at the Victoria Peak , walk through the forest and do some bird watching . <p> Note : To visitors we should all stand and help to preserve the sanctuary by giving a little DONATION for its betterments sic . <p> The second group produced the article " What the Rainforest Means to Us , " which was later published in the Belize Audubon Society Newsletter . In their article , students discussed conservation and environmental problems , as well as characteristics and attractions of Cockscomb , and ended with a strong message : We Can Make a Difference ! <p> Do you think the rainforest is here because it wanted to be here ? No , everything that is here has its reason to be here , and we can not change @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the country should take more interest and be concerned about preserving the rainforest for the future . Our natural resources such as the forest , all the animals and the plants are important to us . We should be proud of what we have . We should stand up and say what is right about it ; and we will see our success in preserving the beauty of our land and country . <p> In addition , participants in the second group took another form of action entirely on their own when they invited a local environmental activist to speak at their school . This young man had previously spoken to the students at Cockscomb about environmental problems and about personal responsibility for taking action . Reflection and Revision : An Integrative and Interactive Model <p> The analysis of the learning opportunities and learning outcomes of the program suggests that the processes and outcomes of the program fit the model of positive environmental action . Both groups of students participated in and completed action projects as part of a program that also focused on an integration of learning in several @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also revealed its weaknesses . Although the model seemed to work , some of the outcomes did not appear to be significant as positive environmental action . The question remained as to whether the students would continue to seek out opportunities for action after the end of the program . There was no guarantee that long-term environmental participation would ensue . Moreover , the model did not seem to illustrate adequately the intentional and independent action of Group 2 students when they invited the activist to speak at their school , an action that occurred outside the boundaries of the program . The new information showed that the original model of positive environmental action did not represent adequately the types of long-term actions that would qualify as part of Fien 's ( 1993 ) education for the environment and its potential for contributing to social transformation . The critical reflection on the study and its results , as well as the questions raised by this reflection , eventually led to a rethinking of the original model and its methodology . The model was then revised to illustrate better the emerging @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ positive environmental action ( see Figure 2 ) . <p> The outcomes of the second group of students in particular provided most of the new information for the model 's revision . For this reason , and as a result of space limitations , the illustration of the revised model contains only data from this group . The data serve to illustrate two important features of the revised model . One feature , the integration of the learning areas , was present in the original model , but could be illustrated in more detail with data from the program . The second feature , which is an interactive relationship between learning and action , was added after the analysis of the data was complete . Integrated Learning Areas <p> The revised model of positive environmental action shows that the learning areas interact to create a complex learning system . Program activities provided opportunities for integrated learning ( see Table 1 ) . For example , during the night walk activity , students were able to examine and discuss interesting elements of nature ( see Figure 3 ) . The night @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that they could later use in the action project . Instruction in action skills and procedures helped students with the planning and decisions needed for writing the article . Without the project , students may not have had the opportunity for translating an activity like the night walk into verbal form . Interactive Relationship <p> The interactive relationship between environmental education learning areas and positive environmental action is an important feature of the revised model . There is a circularity or reciprocity to this relationship , with the suggestion that students grow and learn as they carry out an action . This interactive relationship may take place entirely within the field setting , or it may begin there and continue in other settings . <p> Data from the action project reflect learning in both the processes and outcomes of the activity . Thus , students ' participation in their project not only resulted in an action outcome , but also appeared to contribute directly to further learning . Data collected through participant observation suggest that the students were learning or refining action skills and procedures , such as planning and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( see Table 2 ) . In their reflections on their completed work , students demonstrated realistic perspectives about what their article could actually achieve . They suggested , for example , that the article might help other students in their research . Each student 's contribution to the article reflected what she had learned during the program , and group cooperation resulted in the article 's completion . <p> An important aspect of the second program occurred when students took action entirely on their own by inviting an environmentalist to speak at their school and by asking their principal for permission . This action suggested that students had learned action skills and procedures ( such as planning and cooperation ) and had gained empowerment and ownership ( such as personal responsibility ) . Their action also took place outside the field setting , indicating that students made use of continued opportunities even after the program ended . The action might have been inspired by the program , but it was not directed by the instruction or bounded by program limits ( see Table 3 ) . However , given @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ took place outside of the field setting , some of the processes and outcomes remain speculative . Conclusion <p> The revised model of positive environmental action more adequately represents the continuous and dynamic processes that are believed possible when people in a particular social situation establish goals and procedures for their own actions . The participants within the setting begin to actively influence the processes of their growth and change , even when they may be encouraged initially by an environmental education program or some other event . When students are inspired to take action , follow-up activities that allow for continued cycles of growth and action appear to be important . Ideally , individuals and groups involved in environmental action make use of opportunities to reflect on and evaluate their initial action . They examine their growth and learning from past actions while they plan new ones . In this way , positive environmental action is a formative process as much as a final goal . At any point , the action goal may be achieved , hut the goals can adapt and grow as new information and skills @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mutually created and changed by participants within their social situation . <p> Future ideas and information may provide additional material for revision of the positive environmental action model . The next step is to better document the relationships between learning and action , particularly continued cycles of action within and beyond the field setting . More case studies could reveal how environmental education programs involve students in positive environmental action . More important , such studies might serve to examine the greater issue of how participation in environmental education may bring about meaningful and long-term social transformation . ACKNOWLEDGMENT <p> The author would like to acknowledge lan Robottom and Danie Schreuder for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article . TABLE 1 . Illustration of the Model : Opportunities for Learning PREFORMATTED TABLE TABLE 2 . Illustration of the Model : Positive Environmental Action Within the Field Setting PREFORMATTED TABLE TABLE 3 . Illustration of the Model : Positive Environmental Action Outside the Field Setting PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> FIGURE 1 . Model of Positive Environmental Action <p> FIGURE 2 . Revised Positive Environmental Action Model <p> FIGURE @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Outcome : Night Walk Activity <p>

@@4017241 Introduction <p> Shrimp fishermen trawling in the Gulf of Mexico and the south Atlantic inadvertently capture and kill sea turtles which are classified as endangered species . Recent Federal legislation requires the use of a Turtle Excluder Device ( TED ) which , when placed in the shrimp trawl , prevents turtle mortality . However , the shrimp industry has been concerned about the possible impact of the TED upon vessel shrimp catch . <p> This analysis was designed to address this issue by evaluating the impact of the TED regulations upon the economic viability of representative shrimp vessels in the Texas shrimp fishery . <p> This analysis , however , does not explicitly consider the interactive aspects of the shrimp fishery , both among the vessels and between the vessel catch and remaining shrimp stock . An implicit assumption of this analysis is that the individual vessel 's fishing behavior would not change as a result of the TED regulations , in response to either increases or decreases in catch per tow . Rather , this analysis is based on the resultant impact on the catch of the representative vessel in the Texas shrimp fishery given all the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , if the vessel catch has changed , what is the impact on the economic viability of the vessel ? Finally , this is an intermediate analysis of the impact of the TED regulations . Future analysis should be directed at examining the interactive effects within the fishery . History <p> In 1981 the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , as the result of an ongoing research and development program , introduced a shrimping gear design aimed at reducing the capture of sea turtles . This device would be sewn into a shrimp trawl ( Fig. 1 ) and was designed to provide a way for sea turtles to exit the trawl . Because of its proposed function , it was called a Turtle Excluder Device ( TED ) ( Watson et al. , 1985 ) . <p> All sea turtles are listed as endangered or threatened by the Endangered Species Act . Under this Act it is illegal to import , export , take , possess , sell , or transport endangered species without a permit unless these activities are specifically allowed by regulation ( USDC , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sea turtles are caught in shrimp trawls in the waters of the southeast United States . They are the loggerhead , Caretta caretta ; Kemp 's ridley , Lepidochelys kempi ; green , Chelonia mydas ; leatherback , Dermochelys coriacea ; and hawksbill , Eretmochelys imbricata ( Dean and Steinbach , 1981 ; Anonymous1 ) . In 1978 , when the green and loggerhead sea turtles were listed under the Endangered Species Act ( the other three species were listed in earlier rulemakings ) , the problem of incidental take of these species in the shrimp fishery was addressed in a Final Environmental Impact Statement ( USDC , 1978 ) . At that time , methods to reduce the incidental take were not available . <p> In 1983 , NMFS began a formal program to encourage voluntary adoption of TED 's by the shrimp industry . Through the voluntary program , TED ' s were constructed under contract and distributed to shrimpers who agreed to use them . Modification and evaluation of the TED continued , resulting in a smaller , lighter , collapsible NMFS TED , as well as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ publicity and training activities , the voluntary program was not effective ( Anonymous2 ) . As of late 1986 , less than 3 percent of the shrimp fleet had used or continued to use a TED ( Oravetz3 ) . <p> Specific regulations concerning use of TED 's were developed in 1986 during mediation between members of the southeastern U.S. shrimp industry and interested members of the environmental community . Proposed regulations were published in the March 1987 Federal Register and final regulations were published in the July 1987 Federal Register . As summarized by the National Marine Fisheries Service ( Anonymous 'S ) , as of 1 May 1989 in offshore waters , use of the TED was to be required of all vessels measuring 25 feet or longer . For vessels of less than 25 feet in length , the option of towing 90 minutes was available . There are seasonal requirements by region , with Canaveral and southwest Florida vessels required to pull the TED year-round , Gulf vessels required to pull the TED March though November , and Atlantic vessels from May through August . Inshore @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ either use a TED or limit tow time to 90 minutes . Turtle Excluder Devices <p> Testing conducted off Cape Canaveral , Fla. , prior to 1988 ( Table 1 ) identified four TED 's which satisfactorily excluded turtles from commercial shrimp nets : 1 ) The standard 30-inch opening and 25-inch opening NMFS TED 's , 2 ) the " Georgia " TED , 3 ) the " Cameron " TED , and4 ) the " Matagorda Bay " TED . In the time period subsequent to 1988 , additional devices have been approved but they are not considered as part of this analysis . <p> The NMFS and Cameron TED 's are three-dimensional , implying that a section of the net must be removed to install the device . The NMFS devices are rectangular in shape whereas the Cameron TED is circular ( Fig. 2 ) . The Georgia and Matagorda TED 's are two-dimensional and are sewn directly into the net . The Georgia TED has a long oval shape with parallel bars creating a barrier across the surface of the device . The Matagorda TED is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ barrier to entry into the cod end of the trawl ( Fig. 3 ) . The positioning of the opening in the trawl , which allows turtles and other large organisms to escape , varies by TED . The NMFS and the Matagorda devices have top openings . The Georgia TED has a bottom opening and the Cameron TED can be used with either a bottom or top opening . <p> Meanwhile , TED development and use has also been proceeding in other nations . In July 1986 , following a publicity and coordination trip in March , a workshop and vessel demonstration was held in Mazatlan , Mex . In Indonesia , over 1,000 TED ' s are in use in the western area on joint-venture Japanese vessels . Indonesia has sent fishing gear experts for training at the NMFS Harvesting Systems Division , Mississippi Laboratories ( USDC , 1985 ) . Tests for Shrimp Exclusion <p> NMFS Tests <p> As early as September 1983 , NMFS was testing its new TED to determine the impact on shrimp catch and by-catch reduction . These tests were directed at evaluating @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The TED used in these experiments was the original solid NMFS TED ( Anonymous5 ) . <p> NMFS continued testing and improving the TED , and additional tests were made in 1984 . From July through September , the FRV Jeanie conducted tests off Florida , Alabama , and Mississippi . Initially , tests were directed at performance of several different designs of the NMFS TED . These included : Fiberglass frame and PVC joints , steel-frame collapsible , aluminum frame , and miniature-frame TED . PVC joints of the aluminum-frame TED 's were found to be too weak to withstand normal shrimping operations . <p> Other cruises were made to compare shrimp retention rates of various TED 's vs. a control net without a TED . These cruises were done both day and night and incorporated different types of finfish deflectors ( Hummer wire , types A and H and solid bar , type D ) ( Anonymous6 ) . <p> North Carolina Test <p> The University of North Carolina Sea Grant program was also involved in testing shrimp and fin fish retention rates of the various TED @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were made aboard the Carolina Coast ( Table 1 ) ( Anonymous7 ) . Of the two NMFS TED 's tested , the one with the 37 degrees grid angle appeared to be more effective at eliminating by-catch with no overall loss of shrimp . Although by-catch was measured in kilograms , shrimp catch was measure in numbers of individual shrimp . Large quantities of shrimp were not encountered , possibly due to the half-hour tow limitation . This made it difficult to measure the impact on shrimp catch . <p> In July 1986 , under the auspices of the University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program , tests were conducted on the " Georgia Jumper " ( Anonymous8 ) . A total of 24 tows were made by the Carolina Coast . Nineteen tows were compared with a standard net and 5 tows were compared with the NMFS TED . Several adjustments were made to the TED before it was operating properly . When all 19 tows were considered , the TED experienced an 18 percent shrimp loss , however , for the 15 tows when the TED was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The tested TED was very effective in reducing horseshoe crab , cannonball jellyfish , stingray , and tunicate catches , with an overall by-catch reduction of 24 percent ( 21 percent for the 15 tows above ) . For the 5 tows against the NMFS TED there was an overall 9 percent shrimp loss with 40 percent less by-catch ( Anonymous9 ) . <p> Georgia Test <p> The Marine Extension Service of the Georgia Sea Grant College Program conducted tests off Georgia on the four TED 's tested at the Cape Canaveral channel : Georgia Jumper , Cameron TED , Matagorda TED , and NMFS Collapsible TED without funnel . The purpose of these tests was to determine shrimp exclusion rates of TED 's ( Anonymous 10 ) . <p> A total of 72 double-rig trawls were conducted with 9 port and 9 starboard tows conducted with each of the four different TED 's ( Table 1 ) . Sampling was conducted 3 -- 4 miles east of the south portion of St. Simon 's Island , Ga. , in 30 feet of water . The Georgia Jumper had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a TED . The NMFS TED had a 9.9 percent loss , the Cameron TED a 12.4 percent loss , and the Matagorda TED a 26.4 percent loss ( Anonymous11 ) . <p> Texas Test <p> Tests with the four TED 's presently certified for use were conducted in Texas waters using both bay and Gulf vessels to determine the impact of TED devices on Texas shrimp production ( 12 ) . Many of the tows done in Texas were faulty , for one reason or another , and thus , rigorous statistical analyses have not been carried out ( Table 1 ) . The results of this testing were useful in indicating the learning process which must occur when a TED is introduced into the trawl . TED Impacts <p> When reviewing testing that has been completed on various TED 's , a wide range of results is apparent . Tests have been conducted in different areas off the eastern and southern U.S. coasts using different types of vessels and different TED 's . The approach to testing is consistent , i.e. , simultaneous drags with a control net @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vary across all experiments . As a result , it is not surprising to find that TED capabilities varied with the experiments . <p> Cape Canaveral testing certified four TED 's as possessing the capability of " kicking out " sea turtles from the trawl . Further testing conducted by the NMFS determined finfish reduction capability of the TED and helped in refinement of the TED . Finfish reduction rates as high as 80 percent were recorded during the day although night reduction rates were lower . There was no significant reduction in shrimp catch during these tests ( Anonymous13 ) . <p> Testing by the University of North Carolina Sea Grant program resulted in extreme values for average shrimp loss ( 58 percent ) over all tests . The TED was mounted in the net at a 45 degrees angle ; subsequent North Carolina testing showed this to be an inappropriate angle . In addition , the results were for experiments where the total number of shrimp encountered were small , and this makes any analysis suspect . Further testing with a 37 degrees angle for TED installation gave @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were consistently encountered during these experiments . <p> Tests off St. Simon 's Island , Ga. , were the only ones to use all four certified TED 's . The Georgia Jumper had a 1.9 percent production gain , whereas the other three TED 's showed losses ( NMFS a 9.9 percent loss , Cameron a 12.4 percent loss , and Matagorda a 26.4 percent loss ) . However , only 18 tows were made with each TED . <p> The final series of tests , off the Texas coast , are reported here . Again , the variety of vessels used and variation in equipment , as well as change in location , made accurate interpretation of this data difficult . In addition , a report by Byrne , et . al . 14 argues that the experimental design of the TED testing does not allow specific shrimp retention rates to be identified . Economic Impact of TED 's Method of Analysis <p> The intent of this analysis was to examine the impact of TED regulations on the earning capacity of a single representative vessel . The method of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vessel in the Texas ' Gulf shrimp fishery , using the firm-level simulation model FLEETSIM , under the proposed TED regulations ( Clark et al15 ) . FLEETSIM is a firm level , recursive , simulation model which simulates the annual production , costs , and income aspects of a fleet , by vessel , over a multi-year planning horizon . <p> FLEETSIM is capable of simulating a hypothetical fleet for 1-10 years . The model recursively simulates a typical fleet by using the ending financial position for year one as the beginning position for the second year , and so on . FLEETSIM does not include an overall objective function to be optimize , but rather analyzes the outcome of a given set of input data and assumptions for a typical fleet . Accounting equations and identities constitute most of the computational components of the model . <p> Procedure <p> Three separate simulations were conducted in an effort to analyze the impact of the TED regulations . These three models were : 1 ) Historical , 2 ) Baseline , and 3 ) TED Simulations . <p> The first @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1978 to 1986 . No analysis is included for bay vessels on the assumption.that bay shrimpers will take advantage of the 90-minute tow time exception and will not be required to use TED 's . This analysis was deterministic and was conducted to obtain a starting financial position for the baseline simulation . The program was run using actual values for changes in inflation , interest rates , landings and prices , and production costs for a representative vessel . In addition , the model began with a new vessel in 1978 and was run without considering income tax . Therefore , all values generated represent a before-tax situation . <p> The second FLEETSIM analysis involved the development of a baseline simulation model for the fishery . The first year of analysis for this model was 1987 . The purpose of the baseline model was to predict what would occur in the industry without TED regulations . The result of the baseline simulations was later used to determine the impact of the TED regulations . The third step , following the development of the baseline simulation model and estimates of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to build effects of TED regulations into the model . <p> Data <p> Production and budget information for Gulfshrimpers was obtained from interviews conducted with members of the Texas Gulf shrimp industry ( Anonymous16 ) . This information included past production , costs and returns , and changes in number and size of vessels for the period 1969-86 . Vessel size and construction varied considerably from 20- to 30-foot wood up ' to 90-foot steel ones . Some firms had vessels that were 20-30 years old , while others culled vessels after 10 years . <p> Baseline and-TED simulation analyses were stochastic , as opposed to deterministic . In Baseline and TED policy analyses , pounds landed by the vessel were stochastically set about a mean value , based on a 5 year ( 1982-86 ) average of fishery landings . Prices were similarly set but included an adjustment based on changes in the Consumer Price Index . No attempt was made to account for any price changes which might occur if the use of a TED leads to a decline in total production of shrimp , Gulfwide . Price @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shrimp which are the mainstay of the Gulf shrimp fleet analyzed here . <p> In an effort to make stochastic variables a function of actual relationships in the industry , an analysis of historical price and landing trends for Gulf shrimp vessels was conducted . To generate random landings and prices , it was necessary to provide cumulative deviations around mean values for these variables . This was accomplished by regressing average annual landings and prices against time and taking resulting deviations and dividing them by the value for mean landings and prices . An additional explanation of this procedure can be found in the FLEETSIM user manual . <p> Values for future interest rates and inflations rates , associated with prices and production costs , were obtained from COMGEM17 , a macroeconomic simulation model developed by Penson , Hughes , and Romain . The " best " predictions available were annual predictions of inflation rates approximating 4 percent for 1987 through 1990 and , thereafter a constant of 4 percent . The cumulative deviations of these macroexogenous variables , i.e. , interest rates and fuel prices . were generated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those for landings and prices . <p> Assumptions <p> The impact of the TED on the production capability of the vessel is potentially manyfold . It is expected that initially there will be a negative impact while the fisherman learns how to use the device . This " learning period " will vary by vessel and captain and , therefore , a measurement of its impact is difficult . <p> Contributing to this measurement problem is the range of difficulty of use across various TED devices . The Georgia Jumper and Matagorda TED 's are relatively simple devices , whereas the NMFS and Cameron TED 's are bulky and more difficult to work with . Many vessel captains already employ some type of excluder device ( " jellyball shooters " ) during certain portions of the year . This experience should make efficient use of a TED more likely . In this analysis , because of the inability to establish a reasonable estimate of the " learning period " impact of adopting a TED , no impact is included . <p> Another point is the widespread perception that some of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to handle and may have an effect on insurance rates . Conversely , there may be positive benefits associated with the use of a TED . Improved fishing efficiency and fewer safety problems which arise from heavy by-catch , may result in favorable changes in insurance rates . No analysis is incorporated in this study because of an inability to establish a specific impact of the TED on insurance rates . <p> For similar reasons , issues dealing with possible improved shrimping efficiency associated with use of the TED are not dealt with in this analysis . This improved efficiency centers around possible higher percentage of shrimp in the catch when a TED is used , resulting in longer tow times , improved shrimp quality , and reduced sorting time . <p> A final issue is that research to date has been limited to tow-by-tow comparisons for one vessel and do not represent the situation when all vessels will pull a TED . For example , if an area of ocean bottom contains , at any one time , a fixed amount of shrimp , several passes through the area @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ each net is catching less shrimp on the first pass ( because of the TED ) , subsequent passes will be associated with larger remaining population level because less shrimp were taken on the previous tow . Thus , although catch per unit of effort might be reduced for a given tow because of the TED , the catch p of effort would not decrease as much as suggested by the sample data because more population remains for the next tow . The argument is perhaps best seen in reverse . Some of the research indicates that the use of a TED increases shrimp catch , yet it is not sensible to believe that the total shrimp catch Gulf-wide could increase annually by 5 percent if TED 's are employed . The impact of TED 's on the industry can not be extrapolated from an isolated vessel pulling a TED , which has been the research to date . <p> The studies that have been conducted to date do not focus on the above issues and , therefore , data are limited . Although these issues are recognized as being @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> It was assumed that the vessel was purchased new at the beginning of the historical simulation ( 1978 ) . The vessel was of steel construction and 73 feet in length . In purchasing the vessel , it was assumed that 50 percent of the purchase price was paid down and the rest of the purchase price was financed over a 10 year period at 9 percent per annum . <p> To examine the impact of the TED regulations , assumptions had to be made about the impact of the TED on production capabilities of the vessels and cost of various TED devices . These assumptions were based on production impact analysis presented earlier as well as cost information obtained for the four TED devices . <p> Considerable differences exist in the studies that have been conducted about the impact of the TED on shrimp production . It is assumed that shrimpers will use those TED 's that are most effective at retaining shrimp . The mean shrimp retention . however . has generally ranged from a small increase to about a 10 percent decrease when using a TED @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ encountered and technical difficulties are absent . ' Therefore , four scenarios are reported in this research ; No change , a 5 percent decrease a 10 percent decrease , and a 5 percent increase in shrimp production associated with the use of a TED . This range encompasses the mean retention of the most efficient TED 's . <p> TED Costs <p> At the time of this study there were five certified TED 's : the NMFS , Georgia Jumper , Cameron , Matagorda , and a " soft " TED . This paper was essentially complete before the soft TED was certified , and therefore , no economic analysis of this particular device is included . Highest estimates of acquisition costs were for the NMFS TED , with quotes between $375 and $475 , whereas price estimates for the Georgia and the Cameron TED 's ranged between $150 and $250 ( Clark and Griffin18 ) . For purposes of this analysis , each TED is assumed to cost $300 ( a number between the lesser cost TED 's and the NMFS TED ) . <p> Total cost of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ type of TED . In the Gulf it is possible to see both double-trawl and twin-trawl rigs , indicating between three and six TED 's could be required for a Gulf vessel . These numbers include a spare TED for each two TED 's used . The expected life of the TED is assumed to be 2 years . <p> The model was run for a double-trawl rig which required an investment in three TED 's at a cost of $300 per TED . This resulted in a total purchase cost for the Gulf vessel of $900 or an annual cost of $450 . <p> An additional annual maintenance cost of $50 was assumed , resulting in an annual TED cost of $500 . An accounting technique , which entered the TED cost on the cost side of the model and reduced initial cash by one-half the purchase price of the TED , forced the model to put cash aside for the purchase of a TED 2 years in the future . <p> Method of Evaluation <p> Variables used in evaluating the impact of TED regulations on the representative vessel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of return of the analysis , present value of ending net worth , equity-to-asset ratio and the probability net present value will be greater than zero . Net worth was determined by subtracting total liabilities from total assets . Ending net worth reflected owner 's equity in the vessel and in other personal property at the end of the planning horizon . The internal rate of return is often referred to as " marginal efficiency of capital . " By definition , internal rate of return is the discount rate that equates present value of benefits with the present value of costs . An investment is selected as long as internal rate of return exceeds cost of capital . <p> The present value technique puts the net worth at the end of the planning horizon in real dollars . The equity-to-asset ratio is one measure of solvency . A one-to-one ratio means a vessel/boat owner did not have any debt . A ratio less than one-to-one would indicate a business had not paid off all debt owed on assets ( Osburn and Schneeberger , 1978 ) . <p> Another issue @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that net present value of a stream of income during the period of analysis was greater than zero . The discount rate used for calculating net present value was set at 7 percent . It was not unreasonable to expect this rate of return on alternative investments outside the fleet . These five variables are obtained from stochastic simulations for the baseline and four TED scenarios . Discussion of Simulation Results <p> Deterministic Simulation 1978-1986 <p> A representative Gulf vessel was simulated for 9 years . An outstanding balance on the vessel of $120,000 was financed during 10 years at a rate of 9 percent per annum . Beginning cash reserve was set at $26,000 and resulting beginning net worth ( market value ) was $117,692 . These starting values are required by the model , but will not affect the comparative analysis of using a TED . <p> Annual values for those costs which varied with level of production are presented in Table 2 . In addition to these costs , dock space was set at an annual rental of $663 . Fixed costs , those which a re @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vary during the period under consideration , included only vessel insurance at $7,738 . Other costs , such as depreciation and interest , were calculated by FLEETSIM . <p> By simulating the model for the nine year period , 1978-86 , the ending financial position for the vessel was obtained . The vessel ends the 9 years with $122,469 in cash on hand and vessel assets worth $211,692 , giving total asset value of $334,161 . The only liability associated with the vessel was an intermediate-term debt of $17,155 . Net present value for 9 years was $54,739 . Internal rate of return was 8 percent . <p> Baseline Simulation <p> The baseline simulation was set up to simulate what would occur to the Gulf vessel during 1987-97 . This was accomplished without considering the impact of TED regulations and results were later used to compare against those analyses where the TED policy was simulated . The baseline simulation was run for 50 different iterations which allowed average values to be generated for the statistics of interest . <p> The vessel , purchased in 1978 had a market value in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Average ending net worth in year 10 for base-line simulation was $898,801 ( Table 3 ) . Although the value for average internal rate of return is low ( 3.72 percent ) , the use of a representative vessel in the simulation model contributed to this low value . The practice by many Gulf shrimpers of spreading the cost of running a vessel across many different operations , allows the vessel to be run less efficiently and still remain solvent ; hence , a low internal rate of return for the vessel . Many vessel operators , however , are very efficient and generated much higher rates of return . <p> Average present value of ending net worth was $455,888 and average equity to asset ratio was 0.945 , indicating the operator had a low debt level . The baseline simulation model had a 78 percent chance of generating a net present value greater than zero ( with a discount rate of 7 percent ) . <p> Simulation with TED <p> Four different simulations were run to examine impacts of TED regulations on a typical Gulf vessel . Again , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ statistics of interest to be generated . These different scenarios were run assuming no impact on shrimp catch ( Scenario 1 ) , a 5 percent decrease in catch ( Scenario 2 ) , a 10 percent decrease in catch ( Scenario 3 ) , and finally a 5 percent increase in catch ( Scenario 4 ) . These results were as expected in that all economic indicators declined for negative impacts on shrimp production and increased for the positive impact on shrimp production ( Table 3 ) . <p> The next step in the analysis of the simulation results was to determine if the decrease or increase in the economic indicators was a significant change from the baseline simulation . This was accomplished by a statistical comparison of the means . The hypothesis tested was <p> Multiple line equation(s) can not be represented in ASCII text . <p> with an alternative hypothesis of <p> Multiple line equation(s) can not be represented in ASCII text . <p> The test statistic used <p> Multiple line equation(s) can not be represented in ASCII text . <p> which is an approximation of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sizes are sufficiently large ( DeGroot , 1975 ) . The sample sizes , n1 and n2 , are equal to 50 . This test statistic allows determination of significant differences from the baseline results but does not allow any comparisons to be made across all simulations . Since the primary purpose of this analysis was to determine if use of the TED resulted in a change in the economic well-being of the vessel , it was felt this test statistic would be sufficient . <p> The computed z-values for the various economic indicators are presented in Table 4 . Each row examines the computed z-value for a TED scenario against the baseline scenario . Those test statistics which were significant at the 95 percent level are marked as footnote 2 . It is apparent that all of the TED Scenarios where there is a change in the level of catch will cause a significant change in both Ending Net Worth in Year 10 as well as Present Value of Ending Net Worth . This is important because it indicates that even the discounted Net Worth is significantly different . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not significantly different from the baseline until Scenario 3 . In Scenario 2 , where the impact on the shrimp catch is a loss of 5 percent , the calculated z-value is significant at the 80 percent level . There is no significant difference in the values for the Equity/Asset ratio between the baseline and any of the TED scenarios . <p> What this suggests is that the impact of the TED is significant if the vessel owner is primarily interested in vessel earnings . However , if alternative enterprises are to be considered then there is no appreciable difference in the rate of return associated with the decision to operate a shrimp boat or an alternative enterprise until the impact upon the shrimp catch is very large . It is also notable that the impact upon shrimp catch and therefore earnings , does not result in significant increases in debt levels in the TED scenarios . Because of the way the FLEETSIM model generates Probability of Net Present Value greater than Zero , it was not possible to use the above test to determine significant differences from the Baseline @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ analysis is an intermediate analysis of the impact of the TED regulations . It does not explicitly consider the interactive aspects of the shrimp fishery both among vessels and between vessel catch and the remaining shrimp stock . This analysis is based on the resultant impact on the catch of a representative vessel in the Texas shrimp fishery given all inter ) active effects . <p> Four scenarios were analyzed for the effect of the TED on shrimp production . These were , no change , a 5 percent decrease , a 10 percent decrease and a 5 percent increase . The results were as expected in that all economic indicators declined for negative impacts on shrimp production and increased for the positive impact on shrimp production . A statistical analysis of the economic indicators pointed out that in Scenario 2 and 4 , both of which represented a 5 percent impact upon shrimp catch , Ending Net Worth and Present Value of Ending Net Worth were significantly different from the baseline at a 5 percent level . Only in Scenario 3 ( 10 percent decline in catch ) were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Present Value of Ending Net Worth all significantly different from the Baseline Scenario at a 5 percent level . Research to date , however , indicates that there are TED 's , specifically the Georgia TED , which have experimental results consistently better than a 10 percent shrimp loss . In fact , the Georgia TED ( or Georgia Jumper ) has increased shrimp retention in all experiments reported here . If there is no effect upon shrimp landings as a result of pulling the TED , the only economic effect will be the cost of purchasing and maintaining the TED . These costs will have only a very minor impact on the shrimp industry . <p> It is important to note that no research has been undertaken on other impacts a TED may have on shrimping operations . For example , in addition to the impact which by-catch reduction may have on shrimp catch , the TED may also impact quality , onboard safety , and onboard handling of gear and shrimp fleet catches when all vessels are pulling a TED . None of these potentially significant impacts have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ no conclusive statements could be made about the impact of the TED upon shrimp retention using the existing data . A first step in the analysis of the impact of TED regulations on the shrimp industry should be to analyze the combined effects of shrimp gain or loss by an individual vessel with biomass changes when all vessels in the industry use a TED and the individual vessel impacts from reduced by-catch . These combined effects entail looking at the impacts , in the limit , of shrimp gain or loss when tows are successively applied to a fixed biomass of shrimp over time . If the combined effect leads to shrimp loss to all vessels , then further statistically valid side-by-side tests of a TED or TED 's on shrimp retention need to be done . The other issues of shrimp quality , safety and deck handling procedures could possibly be included in these further tests . However , if there is no significant shrimp loss to all vessels when considering the above combined effects , then further expensive side-by-side retention tests of TED 's is not warranted . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ National Marine Fisheries Service , financial assistance award # NA86WC-8-06129 ( MARFIN ) . <p> ( <p>

@@4017341 Introduction <p> Long-term trends in the abundance and distribution of several pinniped species and commercially important fisheries of New England and the contiguous U.S. west coast are reviewed , and their actual and potential interactions discussed . Emphasis is on biological interactions or competition . The pinnipeds include the western North Atlantic stock of harbor seals , Phoca vitulina concolor ; western North Atlantic gray seals , Halochoerus grypus ; the U.S. stock of California sea lions , Zalophus californianus californianus ; the eastern stock of Steller sea lions , Eumetopias jubatus ; and Pacific harbor seals , Phoca vitulina richardii . Fisheries included are those for Atlantic cod , Gadus morhua ; silver hake , Merluccius bilinearis ; Atlantic herring , Clupea harengus ; the coastal stock of Pacific whiting , Merluccius productus ; market squid , Loligo opalescens ; northern anchovy , Engraulis mordax ; Pacific herring , Clupea pallasi ; and Pacific sardine , Sardinops sagax . Most of these pinniped populations have grown exponentially since passage of the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972 . They exploit a broad prey assemblage that includes several commercially valuable species . Direct competition with fisheries is therefore @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ valuable fish . The expanding pinniped populations , fluctuations in commercial fish biomass , and level of exploitation by the fisheries may affect this potential for competition . Concerns over pinnipeds impacting fisheries ( especially those with localized spawning stocks or at low biomass levels ) are more prevalent than concerns over fisheries ' impacts on pinnipeds . This review provides a framework to further evaluate potential biological interactions between these pinniped populations and the commercial fisheries with which they occur . <p> Most U.S. pinniped populations have increased dramatically since passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act ( MMPA ) in 1972 , precipitating concern over the potential for competition with humans for resources . Pinniped and fisheries interactions have subsequently gained attention in recent years ( Beddington et al. , 1985 ; NMFS , 1997a ; Stone et al. , 1997 ) . These interactions are characterized as being either operational ( direct ) or biological ( indirect ) ( Lowry , 1982 ) . <p> Operational interactions include entanglement in fishing gear or debris , incidental take , and shooting by fishermen . Biological interactions are typically @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and include prey competition , changes in prey size structure , changes in prey distribution , or changes in community composition resulting from fishery harvests ( Lowry , 1982 ; Beverton , 1985 ; Harwood , 1987 ; NMFS1 ) . Two types of biological interactions are exploitative competition and interactive competition . The former involves direct competition for a particular prey , while the latter involves abandonment of a foraging area because of disturbance by a fishery , disruption of foraging patterns by fishing activities , or diminished foraging effectiveness because of disrupted prey aggregations ( NMFS1 ) . <p> Operational interactions are well documented ( Beddington et al. , 1985 ; Ferez and Loughlin , 1991 ; Wickens , 1995 ; Woodley and Lavigne2 ) and comparatively straight forward and quantifiable ( Lowry , 1982 ) . Fishery caused mortality and serious injury are presented in National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) marine mammal stock assessment reports ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ; Barlow et al. , 1998 ; Hill and DeMaster , 1998 ; Waring et al. , 1999a ) . <p> Biological interactions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ growing concern . Much emphasis has been on the competitive effects of pinnipeds on commercial fisheries , rather than the reverse ( Gulland , 1987 ; DeMaster and Sisson , 1992 ; Harwood , 1992 ; Haug and Nilssen , 1995 ; Mohn and Bowen , 1996 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . This emphasis is largely a result of increasing pinniped populations in regions of overexploited fish stocks and the potential economic impacts of resource competition . <p> The primary biological mechanism by which a fishery can adversely impact a marine mammal population is by altering its prey availability ( Beverton , 1985 ) , the effects of which are complex and difficult to establish conclusively ( Lowry and Frost , 1985 ) . The potential for exploitative competition depends on the spatial and temporal distribution of the fishery , the size-class targeted by the fishery , population size of the " competing " pinnipeds , their prey preferences , and the availability of alternative prey ( NRC , 1996 ) . <p> There are few documented cases of commercial fisheries impacting pinniped populations , partly because of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Large reductions in the Barents Sea stocks of herring in the 1960 's , polar cod in the early 1970 's , and capelin in the mid 1980 's produced observed changes in the Barents Sea harp seal population ( Haug and Nilssen , 1995 ; Timoshenko , 1995 ) . ( Please refer to Tables 1 and 2 for a list of the common and scientific names for all marine mammals , fish , and invertebrates mentioned in this review ) . Food limitations precipitated by the collapse of the capelin stock led to increased harp seal juvenile mortality and a mass movement of harp seals into Norwegian coastal waters during the late 1980 's ( Haug and Nilssen , 1995 ; Timoshenko , 1995 ) . A subsequent resurgence of Norwegian spring spawning herring helped mitigate these effects by the early 1990 's ( Haug and Nilssen , 1995 ) . <p> The large-scale walleye pollock and Atka mackerel fisheries of the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands area have been implicated by some as causal agents in the continued decline of the western @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ NMFS1 ) . The western stock has declined by 80% since the 1970 's , prompting a listing as threatened under the Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) in 1990 ( NMFS , 1990 ) and then as endangered in 1997 ( NMFS , 1997b ) . Walleye pollock and Atka mackerel have been the principal prey items of Steller sea lions in that region since at least the 1970 's ; the prevalence of walleye pollock in the diet decreases east to west where it is replaced by Atka mackerel ( Merrick and Calkins , 1996 ; Merrick et al. , 1997 ) . Because these commercially exploited species constitute a large percentage of the Steller sea lion diet , prey overlap and the potential for biological interactions may be substantial . <p> The continued decline of Steller sea lions and the concern over fisheries impacts has led to many fisheries management actions since 1991 . The December 1998 ESA Section 7 Consultation-Biological Opinion concluded that both the Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska walleye pollock fisheries were likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the western stock @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( NMFS1 ) . <p> The possibility that the continued Steller sea lion decline may be , at least partly , caused by biological interactions with important commercial fisheries has inspired this review of trends in abundance and distribution of pinnipeds and their potential interactions with several fisheries of New England and the contiguous United States west coast . Greater emphasis is on biological interactions ; operational interactions are only briefly noted . Biological interactions , however , are difficult to prove unequivocally and making such determinations is beyond the scope of this review . Materials and Methods <p> We have reviewed several pinniped species and commercial fisheries of New England , including the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank ( Fig. 1 ) , and the contiguous U.S. west coast and California Current ecosystem ( Fig. 2 ) for the period 1970-98 . Most of the species described are transboundary species , so Canadian data are occasionally included for either additive or comparative purposes . <p> The pinnipeds discussed are the western North Atlantic stocks of harbor seals and gray seals for New England waters , and the U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Steller sea lions as defined by Loughlin ( 1997 ) , and Pacific harbor seals for the U.S. west coast ( Table 3 ) . Information on stock definition and distribution , seasonal movements and migrations , population counts and growth trends , stock status , and food habits is summarized for each species . Population data are based on counts , rather than corrected population estimates , and as such , represent minimum population estimates . <p> Fisheries were selected based on two criteria : 1 ) they were of relatively large scale and economic significance , either historically or presently , and 2 ) the target species was a dominant prey of the selected pinnipeds . The New England fisheries chosen were Atlantic cod , silver hake , and Atlantic herring . West coast fisheries selected were Pacific whiting , market squid , northern anchovy , Pacific herring , and Pacific sardine . Information included basic life history and distribution , description and history of the fishery , stock status including biomass ( spawning stock biomass or total biomass ) and exploitation rate , and pertinent management measures @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ t ) ; data originally listed as either pounds or short tons were converted to metric tons . The fisheries are summarized in Table 4 . New England Pinnipeds <p> Four pinniped species occur in New England : harbor seals , gray seals , harp seals , and , occasionally , hooded seals . The former two are year-round residents ; occurrence of the latter two is recent , seasonal , and extralimital . The incidence of harp seal and hooded seal strandings in New England and incidental take in the New England sink gillnet fishery during the winter and spring increased since the 1980 's ( Kraus and Early , 1995 ; Waring et al. , 1999a ) . Sightings in the northern Gulf of Maine increased 92-fold since 1990 ( McAlpine et al. , 1999 ) . Reasons for this are uncertain ( Kraus and Early , 1995 ) , but collapsing fish stocks in regions where these seals commonly feed has been suggested ( McAlpine et al. , 1999 ) . Harp and hooded seals are considered vagrants in New England waters and will not be discussed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Trends <p> The western North Atlantic stock of harbor seals ranges from Labrador to southern New England , with occasional sightings as far south as the Carolinas ( Richardson3 ) ; they constitute a single population ( Temte et al. , 1991 ; Waring et al. , 1999a ) . They occur year-round along the coasts of Maine and eastern Canada , and from late September through May from southern New England ( south of Maine ) to Long Island Sound ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ; Katona et al. , 1993 ) . There is a general southward movement during fall ( Rosenfeld et al. , 1988 ) , and a northward migration in spring prior to pupping along the Maine coast ( Whitman and Payne , 1990 ; Kenney , 1994 ) . Pupping occurs in late May to early June , primarily on rocky ledges and islands in protected inlets and bays ; coastal Maine harbor seals tend to move offshore to more isolated ledges for molting in August ( Kenney , 1994 ; Richardson4 ) . <p> Massachusetts paid a bounty on harbor seals from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fisheries ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ) . Maine had a similar bounty that , despite being rescinded in 1905 , resulted in near extirpation of some localized populations . A bounty also existed in eastern Canada until 1976 ( Katona et al. , 1993 ) . The intense hunting pressure in Massachusetts apparently eliminated breeding activities there . Breeding and pupping are currently limited to coastal Maine ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ; Temte et al. , 1991 ) . <p> Population estimates for the U.S. portion of this stock are derived from periodic aerial surveys of the Maine coast during the peak haulout period of pupping . These surveys have been conducted systematically since 1981 ( Kenney , 1994 ; Kenney and Gilbert5 ; Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . Richardson conducted coastwide surveys in 1972-73 and partial surveys in 1974-77 ( Richardson3 ; Richardson4 ; Richardson7 ) , but differences in coverage , timing , and methods preclude direct comparison with later censuses ( Kenney , 1994 ) . To illustrate general trends , however , these earlier counts are included in Figure 3 . Population @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1994 ; Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . <p> The New England harbor seal population has nearly quintupled in size since passage of the MMPA ( Waring et al. , 1999a ) . Harbor seal counts in Maine grew from 10,540 at 334 haulout sites in 1981 to 30,990 at 584 haulout sites in 1997 ( Gilbert and Guldager6 ) ( Fig. 3 ) . The average annual rate of increase was 4.2% from 1981 to 1997,8.7% from 1981 to 1993 ( Kenney , 1994 ) , and 1.8% from 1993 to 1997 ( Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . The number of pups counted increased from 676 in 1981 to 5,359 in 1997 . The 1997 pup count was 26% higher than the 1993 count ( Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . The average annual increase in pups since 1981 was 12.9% ( Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . Although the population is increasing , its status relative to Optimum Sustainable Population ( OSP ) is unknown ( Waring et al. , 1999b ) . <p> General trends at winter haulouts in southern New England show a two-fold increase in seal numbers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; Kraus and Early , 1995 ; Rough8 ) . The three largest concentrations in southern New England are around Cape Cod ( Jeremy Point , Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge , Nantucket Island ) , followed by the Isle of Shoals near the New Hampshire/ Maine border ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ) . Monomoy supports the single largest concentration of harbor seals in eastern U.S. waters . Over 3,000 harbor seals were there in early May 1994 ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ; Rough8 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> The New England multispecies sink gillnet fishery is responsible for the majority of the harbor seal incidental take in New England waters , with a mean average annual mortality of 934 seals from 1993 to 1997 ( Waring et al. , 1999b ) . Take occurs year-round , with its temporal and spatial distribution related to the seasonal distribution of both seals and the fishery . Incidental takes of harbor seals by the groundfish gillnet , herring purse seine , halibut tub trawl , and lobster fisheries are negligible ( Waring et al. , 1999a ) . Food @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ harbor seals are limited in range and scope , and no prey studies have been done at Maine coast rookeries and haulout sites . The 24 species identified in stomach remains of the predominantly juvenile harbor seals incidentally caught in the New England sink gillnet fishery indicate a broad prey base that varies seasonally and regionally ( Williams , 1999 ) . Silver hake was the predominant year-round prey at 71% frequency of occurrence ( FO ) . Atlantic cod , Atlantic herring , red or white hake , redfish , pollock , alewife , and squids ( mostly Illex illecebrosus ) were also consumed ( >10% FO for each species ) , but these species varied more seasonally and regionally . <p> Prey remains from stomachs of seals stranded in southern New England included squid , haddock , silver hake , pollock , red hake , sand lance , and flatfish ( Selzer et al. , 1986 ) . Since many of these seals died during an influenza epidemic in 1980 , they may not represent normal prey habits . <p> Scats collected in southern New England during the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dominated the diet ( up to 99% FO ) in the sandy Cape Cod area , whereas the more diverse diet at the rocky Isle of Shoals included rockfish , gadids , Atlantic herring , American plaice , and yellowtail flounder . Herring consumption near Cape Cod increased when sand lance availability decreased . Overall , sand lance constituted at least 55% FO of the winter diet in both New Hampshire and Massachusetts ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ) . <p> Of the 23 taxa identified in stomachs collected at Grand Manan Island and eastern Nova Scotia , Can. , Atlantic herring , Atlantic cod , short-finned squid , and pollock constituted 72% of identified prey and 84% of estimated biomass consumed ( Bowen and Harrison , 1996 ) . Herring accounted for about 30% of biomass consumed . Frequency of occurrence varied seasonally , annually , and by age-group . Pups ate more herring and squid , seals older than 1 year ate more gadids and flatfish , and yearlings were intermediate between the two . Prey similarities between Grand Manan Island and eastern Maine are plausible based @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Abundance , and Population Trends <p> The western North Atlantic stock of gray seals ranges from Labrador , Can. , to Long Island , N.Y. , with occasional standings as far south as Virginia . The population center is in eastern Canada on Sable Island , Nova Scotia , which accounts for over one-half of the population , and in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence . Smaller populations occur in the United States around Nantucket Sound and central Maine ( Katona et al. , 1993 ; Rough8 ) . The southernmost breeding sites are those of Nantucket Sound , where Muskeget Island was the only known U.S. breeding site until 1990 ( Rough8 ) . In 1990 , pups were discovered on Monomoy Island ( Rough8 ) and in 1994 , a new breeding colony was discovered in Penobscot Bay , Maine ( Gilbert , 1995 ) . <p> Pupping occurs from late December to early February , after which gray seals typically disperse ( Stobo and Zwanenburg , 1990 ; Rough8 ) . They haulout again during molt beginning in early April in Nantucket Sound and May and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Maine are primarily on offshore ledges of the central coast ( Kenney , 1994 ; Richardson3 ; Gilbert et al. 9 ) and are thought to be from the Canadian population ( Gilbert and Guldager6 ) . Gray seals generally disperse again during late summer and fall ( Stobo et al. , 1990 ) . <p> Gray seals were considered extinct in the United States prior to 1958 , although about 40 were killed during the bounty hunt in Massachusetts in the 1940 's and 1950 's ( Andrews and Mott , 1967 ; Rough8 ) . Some were also likely taken during Maine 's bounty hunt ( Reeves et al. , 1992 ; Rough8 ) . Massachusetts passed legislation protecting gray seals in 1965 ( Andrews and Mott , 1967 ) and they received federal protection with the MMPA in 1972 . <p> Gray seals around Nantucket Sound were periodically monitored during the late 1960 's and 1970 's and regularly monitored since the 1980 's ( Richardson3 ; Rough8 ; Gilbert et al. 9 ) . Fewer than 17 gray seals were observed in any one year from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and to 2,010 in 1994 ( Richardson3 ; Rough8 ; Gilbert et al. 9 ) ( Fig. 4 ) . From 1971 thru 1987 , only 6 pups were reported , 3 of which were standings . Pupping has since increased , from 12 born on Muskeget Island in 1992 to 59 in 1994 ( Rough8 ) . The nonpup population rise is likely due to immigration from Canada ( Rough8 ) . <p> Gray seals in Maine also increased . Richardson3 estimated approximately 80 in summer from 1965 to 1975 . A minimum of 600 gray seals were counted in 1993 ( Kenney , 1994 ; Gilbert , 1995 ; Kenney and Gilbert5 ) . Between 25 and 50 pups per year have been seen in Penobscot Bay since 1994 ( Gilbert10 ) . <p> Estimates of gray seal numbers for the entire western North Atlantic are not available , so U.S. and Canadian components are estimated separately . Waring et al . ( 1999a ) used 2,010 as the minimum abundance estimate for U.S. waters . In 1998 , the Atlantic Regional Scientific Review Group recommended against using @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sable Island that winter around Nantucket ( Waring et al. , 1999b ) . Thus , there is currently no estimate for the number of gray seals in the United States and their status relative to optimum sustainable population ( OSP ) is unknown . Gray seal numbers appear to be increasing , but at an unknown rate ( Waring et al. , 1999b ) . In Canada , there is a minimum of 143,000 gray seals for Sable Island and the Gulf of St. Lawrence combined ( Waring et al. , 1999a ) , and numbers have been increasing . Sable Island pup production averaged roughly 13% per year from 1977 through 1993 ( Zwanenburg and Bowen , 1990 ; Mohn and Bowen , 1996 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> Known fishery-related mortality is low in U.S. waters and primarily involves the New England multispecies sink gillnet fishery . The average annual mortality for that fishery was 70 during 1993-97 ( Waring et al. , 1999b ) and occurred primarily in winter . Food Habits and Prey <p> The only prey information for gray seals in U.S. waters was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . Prey consumed included windowpane flounder , silver hake , sand lance , skates , and gadids . <p> Gray seal prey habits in eastern Canada have been well assessed . Over 24 species , including sand lance , silver hake , Atlantic cod , capelin , and flatfish , were identified from scats collected on Sable Island ( Bowen and Harrison , 1994 ) . Atlantic herring , Atlantic cod , pollock , Atlantic mackerel , silver hake , and squid dominated the Grand Manan Island and eastern Nova Scotia diets ( Bowen et al. , 1993 ) . Prey habits in eastern Maine may be comparable to Grand Manan , given their geographic proximity . New England Fisheries <p> Significant changes have occurred in New England fisheries resources over the last 30 years . During the 1960 's and early 1970 's , fishing effort by foreign vessels off the U.S. northeast coast was high , with takes more than triple the average annual catch of U.S. fishermen ( Anthony , 1990 ) . Enactment of the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act ( MFCMA ) in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in response , the northeast domestic fishing fleet grew rapidly in numbers and vessel size ( Kitts et al. , 1998 ) . Domestic fishing effort doubled in New England between 1976 and 1983 , and stocks that had not been targeted by the foreign fleet quickly went from being underutilized to overexploited ( Anthony , 1990 ; Murawski et al. , 1999 ) . While the number of vessels participating in the groundfish fishery gradually declined after 1980 , it remains nearly twice the pre MFCMA size . Competition for resources escalated with the increase in vessels harvesting the rapidly filled quotas , resulting in many management problems and rapidly declining stocks . <p> Groundfish abundance began declining in the early 1980 's and reached record lows by the early 1990 's ( Murawski and Almeida , 1998 ) . Along with this declining trend came an increasing reliance on cod ( Murawski et al. , 1999 ) . But there have also been increased landings of nontraditional species like spiny dogfish and skates ( Murawski and Almeida , 1998 ) . Meanwhile , abundance of principal pelagics ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Over half of the 51 stocks reviewed in Murawski and Almeida ( 1998 ) are at low abundance levels , one-third are at medium levels , and only one-tenth are considered at high abundance . Two-thirds of the stocks are overexploited , one-fourth are fully exploited , and one-tenth are underexploited . Nearly three-fourths of New England 's principal groundfish stocks are overexploited , as are all those of the mid Atlantic ( New York-Virginia ) region ( Murawski and Almeida , 1998 ) . Further details regarding fish , fisheries , stock status , and management for select commercially important stocks in the northeast follow . Atlantic Cod <p> Atlantic cod range from North Carolina to Greenland in the northwest Atlantic . In U.S. waters , cod are assessed and managed as the Gulf of Maine stock and the Georges Bank and Southward stock ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ) . The continental slope is the offshore boundary for cod along the coast of North America ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ) . Although cod are found at most depths throughout the year and are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ summer months ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ; NEFSC11 ) . Spring distribution extends from Cape Cod across Georges Bank and up into the Bay of Fundy , with localized concentrations ; densities decrease and cod are more geographically isolated during fall ( Hunt et al. , 1999 ) . <p> Cod attain sexual maturity between ages 2 and 4 , with ages 2-5 dominating catches . They can grow to 130 cm long and 25-35 kg and may live >20 years . Spawning time varies somewhat by area , but it is generally between February and June ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ; Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1998a ) and in water depths <50 fathoms ( 100 m ) ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ) . <p> The Fishery Cod has been an important component of New England commercial fisheries for about 400 years . Originally a hook and line fishery , it ranged from Massachusetts inshore waters out to Georges Bank ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ) . Gillnets came into use in the 1880 's . The mechanized fishery @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1900 's and led to increased landings ( Bigelow and Schroeder , 1953 ) . Today , commercial cod fisheries are conducted year-round principally with large-mesh otter trawls and sink gillnets . The Georges Bank fishery is dominated by otter trawls , while the Gulf of Maine fishery is more diversified . A large recreational cod fishery occurs during late summer in the lower Gulf of Maine and from late fall to early spring from Massachusetts southward ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ) . <p> Gulf of Maine commercial landings averaged 5,5001 between 1960 and 1975 , averaged more than twice that from 1976 to 1985 , declined from 1986 to 1988 , then reached a record high of 17,8001 in 1991 . Landings decreased since then to 4,183 t in 1998 ( NEFMC , 1996 ; 1999c ; 1999d ; NEFSC11 ) ( Fig. 5 ) . The Gulf of Maine recreational fishery decreased from about 2,800 t in 1990 to 300 t in 1997 ( NEFSC11 ) . Georges Bank landings quadrupled between 1960 and 1980 ( NEFMC , 1996 ) , peaked at 57,000 t in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increased through 1990 to 42,500 t ( U.S. and Canada ) . Landings dropped precipitously by 1995 , with a slight increase in 1997 ( NEFSC11 ) ( Fig. 6 ) . The U.S. accounted for 72% and Canada for 28% of the landings ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ) . U.S. landings for 1998 were 6,9231 ( NEFMC , 1999d ) . Recreational catches averaged 3,7001 between 1979 and 1986 ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ; NEFSC12 ) . <p> Discards of cod in the Gulf of Maine fishery reached 3,600 t in 1990 . Since 1993 , discards have decreased to 200-400 t/year ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ; NEFSC11 ) . Discards occur in the Georges Bank fishery , but reliable estimates are unavailable ( NEFSC11 ) . Stock Status <p> Cod stock biomass in the Gulf of Maine is extremely low and in a state of collapse ( NEFMC , 1998a ) . Spawning stock biomass is low , fishing mortality is high , recruitment is poor , and the pre-recruit survival rate is low ( NEFSC11 ) . Overall , spawning stock @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was expected to continue declining ( NEFSC11 ) ( Fig. 5 ) . Recruitment has been poor since 1992 , with each succeeding year class roughly half the strength of the preceding year class ( NEFSC11 ) . Exploitation rates have remained high and , since 1983 , have been 2-3 times above the level needed to attain maximum spawning potential ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ) . The mean exploitation rate from 1989 to 1997 was 59% ( NEFSC11 ) . Biomass surveys indicate a contracting cod distribution , with areas of high cod catches more narrowly distributed during 1994-98 than during 1979-83 ( NEFMC , 1998b ) . <p> The Georges Bank spawning stock biomass averaged 61,5001 for 1978-97 , from a high of 92,800 t in 1980 to a record low of 25,100 t in 1994 ( Fig. 6 ) . The exploitation rate for this stock averaged 40% from 1978 to 1997 . It peaked at 64% in 1994 , but dropped to 21% in 1997 ( NEFSC12 ) . Management <p> The U.S. Atlantic cod fisheries are managed under the New England Fishery Management @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( FMP ) , which includes a complex of ten groundfish species . The FMP was established in 1986 and has been modified many times since . Its principal goal is to reduce fishing mortality sufficiently to allow stocks to rebuild . Management measures include time/area closures , gear restrictions , minimum size limits ( 19 inches for cod ) , a permit moratorium , days-at-sea restrictions , trip limits for the Gulf of Maine fishery , and a vessel buyout program ( Mayo and O'Brien , 1998 ; NMFS , 1999a ) . Several of these measures are summarized in NEFMC ( 1996 ) , ( 1998a ) , ( 1999c ) , ( 1999d ) , and ( 2000 ) . <p> Due to the critical state of the Gulf of Maine stock , a Stock Assessment Review Committee , comprised of U.S. and Canadian experts , recommended immediate reduction of fishing mortality by ending all directed fishing and minimizing bycatch ( NEFSC11 ) . They also recommended a substantial reduction in effort including 56% reduction of fishing mortality rates for Gulf of Maine cod stocks and 36% @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . Total Allowable Catch ( TAC ) for Georges Bank ( 4,700t ) and the Gulf of Maine ( 1,783t ) were both grossly exceeded in 1998 ( NEFMC , 1999c ) . Thus , proposed low trip limits , reduced TAC 's , and closed area extensions are being used to essentially create a by-catch-only fishery in the Gulf of Maine ( NEFMC , 1999c ) . <p> Time/area closures for the sink gillnet fishery were initiated in the mid 1990 's to protect harbor porpoise in New England coastal waters from Rhode Island to the Canadian border and in an offshore region adjacent to , and including , Cashes Ledge . The Northeast ( Penobscot Bay to the Canadian border ) and Massachusetts Bay Closure Areas were later closed to all gear for groundfish conservation beginning in 1996 and 1997 , respectively ( NEFMC , 1998a ) . Other area closures were implemented to protect right whales between 1 January and 15 May in Cape Cod Bay Federal waters and 1 April-30 June in the Great South Channel ( NEFMC , 1998a ) . Silver Hake <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ South Carolina , but are most abundant from Nova Scotia to New York ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) , and are typically in depths of less than 200 m ( Helser et al. , 1995 ) . Their distribution shifts seasonally , as most adults move offshore into deeper , outer-shelf and slope waters in the winter and spring , then into shallower coastal waters and banks during the summer and fall ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) . The greatest concentrations of adults during the winter and spring are in the deep basins of the Scotian Shelf and Gulf of Maine and along the continental slope from Sable Island to Cape Hatteras ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) . Adults are more widespread in the summer and early fall , with concentrations over the shallower waters of northern Georges Bank and the inshore waters of the Gulf of Maine . Juveniles exhibit similar movement patterns , but generally in shallower waters ( Helser et al. , 1995 ) . <p> Within U.S. waters @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stock and the Southern Georges Bank-Middle Atlantic ( southern ) stock ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ; Belles and Begg , 2000 ) . A separate stock ranges over the Scotian Shelf in Canadian waters ( Helser et al. , 1995 ) . <p> Spawning runs from May through November , starting earliest in the south and progressing northward ( Helser et al. , 1995 ) . It occurs throughout the range , with heaviest concentrations in the mid-Atlantic region between Cape Cod , Mass , and Montauk Point , N.Y. , on the southeastern slope of Georges Bank , and between Cape Cod and Grand Manan Island in the Gulf of Maine . Most silver hake mature between ages 2 ( 20-30 cm ) and 3 ( 25-35 cm ) ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) . <p> Silver hake become increasingly piscivorous , even cannibalistic , with age and may exert some regulatory influence on other fish populations of the northeast continental shelf ecosystem . When hake is abundant , Atlantic mackerel and Atlantic herring stocks are low @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Helser et al. , 1995 ) . The Fishery <p> U.S. fishing efforts for groundfish increased in the Gulf of Maine , Georges Bank , and southern New England between 1976 and 1986 coinciding with a 72% decrease in silver hake biomass and a decline in U.S. landings ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) ( Fig. 7 ) . Distant water fleets ( DWF ) entered the fishery in 1962 and began a period of intense exploitation of groundfish stocks on Georges Bank and the Scotian Shelf ; silver hake was a principal target species . In just 3 years , the total take of hake reached 351,000 t , most of which was from the Gulf of Maine , northern Georges Bank , and mid-Atlantic areas . <p> Exploitation levels caused a decline in silver hake abundance and landings plummeted to 55,000 t by 1970 ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) . With declining U.S. stocks , DWF efforts on the Scotian Shelf intensified ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . DWF take in U.S. waters after 1970 focused primarily @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from 1970 to 1977 and reached 137,000 t in 1973 ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ) ( Fig. 7 ) . <p> Regulations imposed by the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries in 1973 restricted the DWF fishery both temporally and spatially ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . Implementation of the MFCMA further curtailed efforts ( Mayo , 1998 ) . The DWF fishery on the northern stock ended after 1977 , but not until 1987 for the southern stock where silver hake was primarily caught incidental to the squid fishery ( Mayo , 1998 ) . Stock status <p> Silver hake stocks were last assessed in 1990 ; there are no current estimates of stock size or spawning stock biomass ( NEFSC13 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . Previous estimates show a downward trend for the southern stock and a generally downward , but fluctuating , trend for the northern stock . Spawning stock biomass for the southern stock was 650,000 t in 1965 , but the intensified DWF fishery caused a rapid decline to 150,000 t @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fish in 1965 to less than 500 million by 1968 ( Helser et al. , 1995 ) . Survey biomass indices decreased by over 50% since 1985 and have been at record lows since the mid 1990 's . The DWF fishery similarly impacted the northern stock . Fishing mortality rates tripled between 1961 and 1964 . Spawning stock biomass decreased from 300,000 t in 1962 to very low levels in the 1970 's , and has been between 9,000 and 33,000 t since 1978 . Despite increases in biomass indices since 1980 , there has been no corresponding increase in the adult ( spawning stock ) biomass ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; Mayo , 1998 ; NEFSC13 ) . <p> The age structure of the stocks has become severely truncated and year classes are disappearing before becoming adults ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . A substantial juvenile mortality caused by consistently high discard rates in the otter trawl and northern shrimp fisheries may be impacting the adult populations , long-term yield , and spawning stock biomass ( Mayo , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . Most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and ages 1-2 ( NEFSC13 ) . Discard estimates for 1989-92 represented sizeable portions of each stock 's total landings ( NEFSC13 ) . <p> Fishing mortality rates increased substantially over the last 20 years ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . Since 1992 , the northern stock 's exploitation rate grew from 42% to about 65% ( Mayo , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . The exploitation rate for the southern stock was 33% from 1978 to 1980,54% from 1983 to 1987 , and was recently estimated at 60% ( Mayo , 1998 ) . Both stocks are considered overexploited ( Mayo , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . Management <p> Direct management of the U.S. silver hake fishery began with its addition to the Northeast Multispecies FMP in 1991 ( Helser et al. , 1995 ; NEFMC , 1999b ) . Amendment 12 to the FMP was submitted in February 1999 with the primary goal of decreasing silver hake exploitation by roughly 63% , to a target rate of 25% ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . The proposed action includes trip possession limits and mesh regulations , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and shortening the Cultivator Shoal season by one month ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . Trip possession limits based on mesh size ( the larger the mesh , the higher the limit ) were developed as an incentive to use larger mesh sizes and reduce juvenile take . Also recommended is treating the northern and southern stocks as a single management unit , while continuing to manage the Cultivator Shoal fishery separately ( NEFMC , 1999b ) . Atlantic Herring <p> Atlantic herring range from North Carolina to the Canadian Maritime Provinces . Adults occur along the southern New England and mid-Atlantic coasts from the inshore waters out to the continental shelf break during late winter to early spring , migrate north into the Gulf of Maine to feed in the spring , segregate into spawning aggregations in late summer and fall , then migrate south again after spawning to overwinter in warmer waters ( Friedland , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> Maximum length is about 43 cm and maximum weight 680 g . Most fish mature by age 5 , some by age 3 ( Friedland @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the exploitable population is at about age 2 , the target age-group of the juvenile herring fishery ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> Three major geographically distinct spawning stocks of Atlantic herring are on Georges Bank and Nantucket Shoals , in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine , and in the waters off southwest Nova Scotia ( Grosslein , 1987 ; Stevenson , 1998 ) . Each is further divided into smaller spawning areas that support discrete spawning aggregations ( Iles and Sinclair , 1982 ; Friedland , 1998 ) . Spawning occurs at depths of 10-100 m from late summer to fall , following a counter-clockwise progression from the northeastern Gulf of Maine around to Georges Bank ( Friedland , 1998 ; NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> In 1991 , the two U.S. spawning stocks ( Georges Bank/Nantucket Shoals and Gulf of Maine ) were combined to form the coastal stock complex . This encompasses North Carolina to the Gulf of Maine , Georges Bank ( U.S. and Canadian portions ) , and the western Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick . U.S. management is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ NEFSC12 ) . The Fishery <p> The Maine herring fishery developed in the 19th century along with the sardine canning industry in northeastern Maine and the growth of the lobster fishery , for which herring were used as bait . Weirs were the most commonly used fixed gear until the 1940 's in eastern Maine and are still routinely used in New Brunswick . Stop seines became the dominant gear in the 1950 's as herring became more abundant along the coast of central Maine . Juvenile ( age 2 , 17 cm ) herring were the primary target of this fishery and remained so through the 1970 's . Purse seines gained importance after 1960 and continue to harvest an increasing percentage of the catch today . The majority of herring are either canned or used as lobster bait ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> An adult herring fishery developed in the Jeffreys Ledge area in 1967 ( Anthony and Waring , 1980 ) and was supported by filleting and freezing plants that shipped the fish to West Germany . Southern New England and mid-Atlantic landings were relatively @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ NEFMC , 1999a ) ; 1996 landings were 20,200 t , roughly 20% of the U.S. total ( Stevenson , 1998 ) . <p> The offshore foreign fishery began in 1961 with 100 Soviet vessels fishing Georges Bank . Between 1965 and 1972 , the number of foreign vessels fishing from Georges Bank to Cape Hatteras increased from 450 to over 1,000 . Most targeted herring . The foreign fleet consisted primarily of stern trawlers and side trawlers rigged for purse seining ( Anthony and Waring , 1980 ; NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> This intense fishing pressure led to the collapse of the Georges Bank/Nantucket Shoals stock and fishery by the mid 1970 's ( Anthony and Waring , 1980 ; Friedland , 1998 ) . Estimated age 3+ biomass dropped from 1.2-1.35 million t in the late 1960 's to 400,000 t by the mid 1970 's ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . Landings steadily declined from 373,6001 in 1968 to less than 1,000 t in 1981 ( Friedland , 1998 ; NEFSC12 ) . Directed foreign fishing ended in 1982 . Mid-water trawlers recently returned to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 1996 and over 6,000 t in 1997 ( NEFMC , 1999a ; NEFSC12 ) . <p> Unlike Georges Bank , landings from the Gulf of Maine stock have been relatively stable , averaging about 73,000 t since 1995 ( NEFSC12 ) . The total stock complex catch averaged 116,000 t since 1995 ( NEFSC12 ) ( Fig. 8 ) . <p> Declines in fixed gear use since 1982 changed the Maine coastal fishery . Purse seines and , increasingly , mid-water otter trawls now dominate the fishery . Pair trawls are also starting to be used ( NEFMC , 1999a ; NEFSC12 ) . Mobile gear use increased from less than 50% in the 1970 's to greater than 90% during the mid 1990 's ( Friedland , 1998 ) . <p> With this shift in gear usage , the proportion of juveniles harvested declined and the fishery is now more a mix of ages 2 , 3 , and 4+ fish . Since 1986 , the catch has been about 75% age 3+ fish ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> The seasonal pattern of the fishery basically @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is active south of New England during winter ; there has been no winter fishing north of Cape Cod since 1993 ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . In spring , fishing shifts north into the offshore Gulf of Maine , then into the coastal Gulf of Maine in late summer/ early fall when herring move into these areas prior to spawning . Highest landings in the Gulf of Maine are from July through October , although herring are caught in Maine coastal waters from June to November . This coincides with spawning aggregations and the peak lobster season . Landings in Maine usually diminish by November and the fishery shifts south again ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . Recent Georges Bank catches have been made during summer to early fall ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . Most herring are caught off and landed in Maine , followed by Massachusetts and , recently , Rhode Island ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . Stock Status <p> The coastal stock complex has grown since the mid 1980 's and markedly so since the early 1990 's ( NEFSC12 ) ( Fig. 9 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Georges Bank/Nantucket Shoals components of the stock complex ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . Total stock biomass increased from 500 , 000 t in 1992 to 2.9 million t in 1997 ( NEFMC , 1999a ; NEFSC12 ) . Spawning stock biomass increased from 143 , 000 t in 1990 to 1.8 million t in 1997 ( NEFMC , 1999a ; NEFSC11 ) . <p> Coincident to the rising biomass , the relative exploitation rate for the entire coastal stock complex declined from 67% in 1968 to 30% in 1990 to 4% in 1997 ( NEFSC11 ) . In contrast , annual harvest rates were 25-40% for the inshore waters of the Gulf of Maine where the herring fishery concentrated over the last 20 years ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . As a result , the Gulf of Maine component of the stock is fully exploited , if not overfished . The total coastal stock complex , however , is considered underexploited ( NEFMC , 1999a ; NEFSC12 ) . Management <p> Herring fishing is managed by NMFS , NEFMC , Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission ( ASMFC ) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ interjurisdictional fisheries and resources within state waters and is working with NEFMC to develop complimentary management measures for state and Federal waters . The Final Rule for the Atlantic Herring FMP was published by NMFS in December 2000 ( NMFS , 2000 ) . Maine , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , and Rhode Island all have state specific regulations . <p> The NEFMC is taking a conservative approach under the new management plan by attempting to account for natural population fluctuations , ecosystem level considerations , such as predator-prey interactions , and the potential impacts of overfishing . In developing maximum sustainable yield ( MSY ) and target fishing mortality rates , there was an effort to include nonfishery sources of mortality , such as predation , including that by marine mammals . Because of potential overestimation of biomass , a precautionary approach was taken , allowing for slower development of the fishery and reducing the possibility for overfishing ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . West Coast Pinnipeds <p> U.S. west coast pinnipeds are the California sea lion , Steller sea lion , harbor seal , northern elephant seal , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fur seals are occasionally sighted in southern and central California offshore waters , and a female and pup were recently observed on San Miguel Island ( Melin and DeLong , 1999 ) . However , their only known breeding rookery is on Guadalupe Island , Mexico ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) , so they will not be discussed further . <p> Northern elephant seals and northern fur seals are also excluded from this report . They both breed and pup on some California islands ( fur seals only on San Miguel Island in the Channel Islands ) , but their distribution is generally more offshore , and both species widely disperse after the breeding season ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . California sea lions , Steller sea lions , and harbor seals are essentially year-round residents and are described in further detail below . California Sea Lion Distribution , Abundance , and Population Trends <p> California sea lions range from southern Mexico to Vancouver Island , B.C. ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ; Lowry et al. 14 ) . Three geographically distinct breeding stocks occur @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the U.S./Mexico border north into Canada ) is considered here ( Fig. 10 ) . The southern California Channel Islands ( Santa Barbara , San Nicolas , San Miguel , and San Clemente ) are principal breeding and pupping sites for this stock ( Lowry et al. 14 ) . California sea lions occasionally pup on the South Farallon Islands , where they are year-round residents , but fewer than 20 pups have been recorded there in the last 20 years ( Sydeman and Alien15 ) . Pupping takes place from late May to July , and peaks in mid-June . Breeding occurs in late June through July . <p> After the breeding season , adult and subadult males migrate north to the coasts of central and northern California , Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia and return to the rookeries in spring ( Lowry et al. 14 ) . Some immature sea lions undertake shorter migrations ( Huber , 1991 ) . The nonbreeding season range of adult females from the Channel Islands extends from southern California to the Farallon Islands ( Melin , 1995 ) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stay year-round in southern California are primarily adult females , pups , and juveniles ( NMFS , 1997a ; Heath and Francis16 ) . Ao Nuevo Island in central California commonly supports a large nonbreeding sea lion population ( NMFS , 1997a ; Melin et al. 17 ) . The largest concentrations in central/ northern California waters are usually found on the Farallon Islands in the fall and spring during migration before and after the breeding season ( Huber , 1991 ) . Only males haulout north of the Farallones ( Melin et al. 17 ) ( Fig. 10 ) . <p> California sea lions are found in Oregon waters from mid-August through mid-June , absent only during the peak breeding season ( Brown , 1997a ) . The peak northward migration is during September and October ( Mate , 1973 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Numbers decrease during the winter , but increase again with a smaller peak in April/May during the southward migration ( Brown , 1997a ; Brown18 ) . Sea lions are not restricted to coastal areas and have been seen as far up the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Falls on the Willamette River ( Brown , 1997a ) . <p> In Washington the peak northward migration occurs in December , and the peak southward migration is in March/April ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Large aggregations occur in Puget Sound from September to May , but decline during January-March . Increased numbers around Vancouver Island , B.C. , in January corresponds with the decrease in Puget Sound and may be related to herring abundance . California sea lions are most abundant along the outer coast from March to May and from October to December and are absent , or in low numbers , from June to August ( Gearin et al. 19 ) . <p> California sea lion abundance increased dramatically during the latter half of the 1900 's after a period of extensive exploitation that began in the 1800 's ( Cass , 1985 ; Stewart et al. , 1993 ) . They were taken for pet food , hides , " trimmings , " display , sport , bounty , fishery protection , and even target practice ( Lowry et al. 14 ) . Commercial fishermen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ until prohibited to do so under the 1994 amendments to the MMPA ( Cass , 1985 ; 16 U.S.C. 1387(a) ( 5 ) ) . Sea lion numbers began increasing after curtailment of the commercial hunt in the 1940 's and markedly so after passage of the MMPA in 1972 . <p> The 1995 population estimate for the U.S. stock was 167 , 000-188 , 000 ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) , higher than the previous estimates of 111 , 016 in 1990 ( Lowry et al. 14 ) and 87 , 000 in 1988 ( Boveng20 ) . <p> Pup counts increased 8.8% per year between 1976 and 1982 , 10.2% per year from 1983 to 1991 , and at 8.3% per year for 1983-95 ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) ( Fig. 11 ) . El Nio events profoundly impact growth rates and survivorship through decreased prey availability for pregnant and lactating females ( DeLong et al. , 1991 ) ; major declines in pup counts occurred during the strong El Nio years of 1983 , 1992 ( see Fig. 11 ) , and 1998 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1997 ; DeLong21 ) . Because of these pup declines , the average annual rate of increase in pup counts was 5.4% between 1975 and 1995 ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . <p> Peak Oregon counts grew from 1 , 000-2 , 000 in the late 1970 's to 5 , 000-7 , 000 in the early 1990 's ( NMFS , 1997a ) . An estimated 7 , 000-10 , 000 California sea lions likely pass through Oregon coastal waters during northward and southward migrations ( Brown , 1997a ) . Counts in the inland waters of Washington averaged 300-500 from 1986 to 1994 , then increased to over 1 , 100 in 1995 . Approximately 200-500 California sea lions were present along Washington 's outer coast during most of the 1990 's ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Numbers have increased substantially since 1997 , with high counts of approximately 980 , 1 , 200 , and over 2 , 700 in 1997 , 1998 , and 1999 , respectively ( Gearin22 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> California sea lion incidental mortality is highest in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ California set gillnet fishery for halibut and angel shark , with mean annual takes of 49 and 815 , respectively , for 1991-95 . Other commercial fisheries with known incidental mortalities are the California , Oregon , and Washington Pacific salmon troll fishery , Oregon and Washington nonsalmon troll fisheries , California herring purse seine fishery , California anchovy , mackerel , and tuna purse seine fisheries , California squid purse seine fishery , Washington , Oregon , California , and British Columbia salmon net pen fishery and the Washington , Oregon , and California groundfish trawl fishery ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ; Beeson and Hanan23 ) . Information on the mean annual takes is unavailable for many of these fisheries and is relatively low for the others . The total estimated minimum annual take for all fisheries combined was 915 for 1991-95 ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . Food Habits and Prey <p> Diet varies by location , year , and season . The most commonly consumed prey at the Channel Islands were market squid , northern anchovy , Pacific whiting , shortbelly rockfish , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Pacific sardine ( NMFS , 1997a ; Lowry and Caretta , 1999 ) . <p> Market squid , present in 35-44% of scats from three Channel Islands rookeries ( 1981-95 ) , is one of the most important prey items for sea lions in that area ( Lowry and Carretta , 1999 ) . Its prevalence in the diet increases in fall and winter , except during El Nio years when squid abundance declines ( Lowry et al. , 1991 ; Lowry and Caretta , 1999 ) . Most Pacific whiting consumed were 1-2 years old ( Antonelis , 1996 ) . The abundance of northern anchovy , which was available year-round and at a high frequency of occurrence in the diet , was inversely related to the consumption of other prey at San Nicolas and San Clemente Islands ( 1981-86 ) ( Lowry et al. , 1990 ; Lowry et al. , 1991 ) . <p> In central California offshore waters , Pacific whiting , rockfish , market squid , and herring dominate the diet . At the Farrallon Islands , Pacific whiting was most prevalent from April to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lions primarily consumed 2-3 year old whiting , the availability of which was inversely related to diet diversity . Rockfish were a major component of the winter diet ( Ainley et al. , 1982 ; Bailey and Ainley , 1982 ) . Principal prey at Ao Nuevo Island were Pacific whiting , shortbelly rockfish , and market squid ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Market squid dominate the California sea lion summer diet in Monterey Bay ( Harvey and Weise , 1997 ) . In San Francisco Bay , Pacific herring was most common in fall and winter ( NMFS , 1997a ) , and peak sea lion numbers around Tomales Bay coincided with winter herring spawning ( Huber , 1991 ) . <p> In coastal Oregon , the most common prey were Pacific mackerel , Pacific whiting , Pacific herring , cephalopods , Pacific sardines , salmonids , smelts ( Osmeridae ) , spiny dogfish , lamprey , rockfish , jack mackerel , skates , and sand lance ( NMFS , 1997a ; Riemer and Brown24 ) . Pacific mackerel was most abundant in February and Pacific whiting most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In Puget Sound , Wash. , important prey included Pacific whiting , Pacific herring , squid , salmonids , spiny dogfish , and gadids ( Schmitt et al. , 1995 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Diet data are not currently available for the Washington outer coast . Steller Sea Lion Distribution , Abundance , and Population Trends <p> Steller sea lions of the contiguous U.S. west coast are part of the eastern stock which ranges from east of Cape Suckling , Alaska , through southeast Alaska , British Columbia , and along the west coast to California ( Loughlin , 1997 ) . Only the California , Oregon , and Washington components will be discussed . The southern extent of the breeding range is currently in central California on Ao Nuevo Island ( Stewart et al. , 1993 ; LeBeouf et al. 25 ) . Other rookeries include the Farallon Islands , Sugarloaf/Cape Mendocino , and St. George Reef ( off Crescent City ) in California and Rogue Reef , Orford Reef , and Three Arch Rocks in Oregon ( Loughlin et al. , 1984 ; Loughlin et al. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are 10 regular haulout sites in Oregon , including the above-mentioned rookeries , from the south jetty at the Columbia River south to Rogue Reef ( Brown18 ; Brown and Riemer26 ) . Principal haulout sites in Washington range along the outer coast , and include Tatoosh Island , Cape Alava , Carroll Island , and Split/Willoughby Rocks ( NMFS27 ) . Steller sea lions are not commonly found in coastal bays or rivers , except the lower Rogue River and , occasionally , the lower Columbia River in Oregon ; they tend to remain within 5 miles of shore on offshore islands , reefs , and ledges ( Brown , 1997a ; Brown28 ) . <p> Since the early 1900 's the southern extent of the breeding range has shifted northward . In the late 1930 's there were over 2,000 Steller sea lions on the Channel Islands . By 1958 , there were less than 100 on San Miguel Island , the historical southernmost breeding site ( Bartholomew , 1967 ) . No pups have been born there since 1981 , and no adults have been seen there @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the current southernmost rookery , Steller sea lions were no longer present year-round beginning in the 1980 's ( LeBeouf et al. 25 ) . There has been no pupping at Point Reyes Peninsula since the mid 1970 's ( Sydeman and Alien , 1999 ) and little pupping at the Farallones since the early 1970 's ( Hastings and Sydeman29 ) . <p> The breeding season is from late May to early July ; peak pupping is in June ( Gentry , 1970 ) . Males generally disperse northward after breeding ( Mate , 1973 ; Hastings and Sydeman29 ) ; Mate ( 1973 ) found no adult males south of Oregon after August . Peak abundance in California and Oregon is during the breeding season . Because there are no rookeries in Washington , abundance there is lowest during the breeding season and highest from late-summer through winter ( NMFS , 1997a ; Gearin22 ) . <p> Steller sea lions were reportedly abundant along the California coast and outer islands prior to being hunted during the late 1800 's and into the 1900 's . Although California and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the sea lions taken by hunting were undoubtedly Steller sea lions ( Cass , 1985 ) . Large numbers were killed for bounties along the Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia coasts ( Stewart et al. , 1993 ) . Prior to 1971 , most subadult and adult mortality was from gunshot wounds . Rookeries in Oregon were dynamited and sea lions shot because of assumed fisheries interactions ( Brown18 ) . The frequency of such events declined after being declared a nongame species in 1971 and gaining protection through the MMPA in 1972 ( Mate , 1973 ) . <p> Steller sea lion populations did not escalate after passage of the MMPA . While counts in northern California and Oregon have been relatively stable to increasing , those in southern and central California have been declining ( Westlake et al. , 1997 ; Sydeman and Allen , 1999 ; LeBeouf et al. 25 ; NMFS27 ; Hastings and Sydeman29 ) . Counts of nonpups in California diminished from 5 , 000-7 , 000 between 1927 and 1947 to 1 , 500-2 , 000 since 1980 ( NMFS27 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; NMFS30 ) , and on Ao Nuevo , the largest central California rookery , they decreased nearly 10% per year from 1990 to 1993 ( Westlake et al. , 1997 ) . The Oregon population averaged about 2 , 000-3 , 000 since the 1970 's , and nonpup counts increased from roughly 1 , 500 in 1976 to over 3 , 000 20 years later ( Brown and Riemer26 ; Brown28 ; NMFS30 ) . This may reflect both improved and expanded surveys and an actual increase ( Brown and Riemer26 ) . An estimated 550-600 pups are born annually in Oregon , mostly at Rogue and Orford Reefs and a few at Three Arch Rocks ( Loughlin et al. , 1992 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . <p> Range-wide surveys of the eastern and western stocks were conducted during the summer breeding seasons of 1989 and 1994 ( Loughlin et al. , 1992 ; NMFS30 ) and a coast-wide census was made in summer 1996 . The 1994 nonpup counts included 1 , 046 in California , 3 , 070 in Oregon , and 447 in Washington @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were excluded in 1994 , and Washington was not surveyed in 1989 ( Loughlin et al. , 1992 ; NMFS30 ) , precluding a comprehensive assessment of trends . The total count for the 1996 census was 6 , 555 ( 5,464non-pups , 1 , 091 pups ) and included California ( 2,042 ) , Oregon ( 3,990 ) , and Washington ( 523 ) ( Gearin22 ; Brown28 ; Sydeman31 ; Ferryman32 ) . Figure 13 shows combined nonpup counts for California and Oregon trend sites only . The 1996 Washington coast summer count was comparable to counts during 1956-60 ( Loughlin et al. , 1984 ) , 1958-70 ( Mate33 ) , and 1994 ( NMFS30 ) . Nonbreeding season counts in Washington are substantially higher at 1 , 000-1 , 300 Steller sea lions ( Gearin22 ) . The eastern stock of Steller sea lions is listed as threatened under the ESA and depleted under the MMPA . Stock status relative to OSP is unknown ( Hill and DeMaster , 1999 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> Mortality incidental to west coast commercial fisheries was very low during @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fishery was less than two Steller sea lions per year , and less than one in the swordfish gillnet fishery , the Pacific whiting component of the **28;474;TOOLONG groundfish trawl fishery , and the northern Washington marine set gillnet fishery , respectively ( Hill and DeMaster , 1999 ) . Food Habits and Prey <p> Preliminary analysis of Steller sea lion prey in Oregon ( 1986-96 ) included 27 families and 36 species ( Riemer and Brown24 ; Gearin and Brown34 ) . Prey identified in =10% of scat samples for all years combined included , by percent frequency of occurrence , Pacific whiting ( 83% ) , Pacific lamprey ( 39% ) , salmonids ( 23% ) , Pacific herring ( 19% ) , squid/octopus ( 18% ) , skates ( 16% ) , and smelts ( 10% ) ( Riemer and Brown24 ) . <p> Pacific whiting ranked highest for all years , except 1986 and 1987 , when it was second to Pacific lamprey ( Riemer and Brown24 ) . Prey consumed at the Columbia and Rogue Rivers included Pacific whiting , rockfish , eulachon , anchovy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Scats collected in Washington during June-September 1993-97 included prey remains from 22 families and 25 species ( Gearin and Brown34 ) . Frequencies of occurrence for the seven major prey items , all sites combined , were Pacific whiting ( 94% ) , Pacific herring ( 23% ) , spiny dogfish ( 19% ) , skates ( 12% ) , Pacific sand lance ( 10% ) , Salmonidae ( 10% ) , and Pacific mackerel ( 4% ) ( Gearin22 ) . Harbor Seals <p> Eastern North Pacific harbor seals range from Baja California to the Aleutian Islands and from the Bering Sea to Cape Newenham and the Pribilof Islands ( Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . There are several stocks within this range . The three along the contiguous U.S. west coast have been designated by NMFS , using combined biological and management considerations , as the California stock , the Oregon and Washington coast stock , and the Washington inland waters stock ( Boveng35 ) . <p> Harbor seals frequent coastal and estuarine waters and haulout on a variety of substrates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1996 ; Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . They are essentially nonmigratory and exhibit strong site fidelity ( Herder , 1986 ; Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . Movements are usually within 25-50 km , but may be up to 550 km ( Brown and Mate , 1983 ; Herder , 1986 ) , and occur primarily outside of the pupping season ( Huber , 1995 ) . Harbor seals are year-round residents of Washington , Oregon , and California and pup in all three states ( NMFS , 1997a ) . There is a cline in the timing of pupping , occurring earlier in the south and later in the north . Pupping in Washington exhibits additional area-specific variability ( Temte et al. , 1991 ; Jeffries et al. 36 ) . <p> California Stock : Distribution , Abundance , and Population Trends The California harbor seal population has been steadily increasing , and its distribution has expanded since the 1960 's . The number of occupied haulout sites in California increased from 427 in 1982 to 877 in 1995 ( Hanan , 1996 ; NMFS @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ coast , the Channel Islands , Ao Nuevo Island , and the Farallon Islands ( Hanan , 1996 ) . They were uncommon on the Channel Islands during the 1950 's , but now breed on all eight islands ( Stewart et al. , 1993 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Mean pupping dates are from late March to mid-May ( Temte et al. , 1991 ) . <p> Harbor seals were hunted for bounty in California during the early 1900 's , received state protection from hunting in 1938 , and Federal protection under the MMPA in 1972 ( Hanan , 1996 ) . Surveys occurred as early as 1927 , but they were infrequent until the 1960 's and not systematic until the late 1970 's ( Hanan , 1996 ) . Statewide counts are currently derived from aerial surveys during the premolt period from late June to early July ( Hanan , 1996 ) or from May to June ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . The most recent statewide count was 23 , 302 in 1995 ( Hanan , 1996 ) ( Fig. 14 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to 1995 ( Hanan , 1996 ) . The average annual statewide growth rate was 3.5% from 1982 to 1995 , but was 1.9% , 5.8% , and 3.1% for the southern , central , and northern parts of the state , respectively ( Hanan , 1996 ) . The rate of increase on the South Farrallon Islands was 15.9% per year from 1973 to 1985 , then averaged 9% per year from 1985 to 1997 . This high rate of increase was attributed to immigration rather increased pupping ( Sydeman and Alien , 1999 ) . The status of the California stock of harbor seals relative to OSP is uncertain , although the population is increasing and fishing mortality is decreasing ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> The set gillnet fisheries for angel shark , halibut , and other large mesh fisheries accounted for nearly all incidental mortality of harbor seals in California . The mean annual take during 1994-95 was 228 seals . Implementation of gillnet area closures in southern California in 1994 reduced fishing effort and incidental mortality from a previous high @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . The California Department of Fish and Game ( CDFG ) implemented similar restrictions along the central and north coasts ( Hanan , 1996 ; Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . Oregon and Washington Coast Stock : Distribution , Abundance , and Population Trends <p> Most harbor seal data describe the populations by state rather than by stock . The following is differentiated by stock , when possible , and by state , when necessary . General Oregon and Washington information precedes the more specific regional and stock information . <p> In Washington harbor seals are found on the outer Olympic coast , in the coastal estuaries of Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay , the Strait of Juan de Fuca , San Juan Islands , south Puget Sound , and Hood Canal ( Huber , 1995 ; Jeffries and Johnson37 ) . In Oregon , they occur in most coastal estuaries , embayments , along isolated shorelines , offshore rocks and ledges , and at least 150 miles up the Columbia River ( Brown , 1997a ; Jeffries et al. 36 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Oregon ( Huber , 1995 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Pupping and breeding occur at all of these sites . Peak pupping in Oregon is from mid-May to mid-June ( Brown38 ) . Pupping in Washington occurs in early June in the coastal estuaries , around mid-June along the outer coast , from August to September in the inland waters , and from August to January , usually with a peak in mid-September , in the Hood Canal area ( Jeffries and Johnson37 ; Huber , 1995 ) . <p> Prior to the 1940 's , about 5 , 000-6 , 000 harbor seals were estimated to be in Washington waters ( Newby , 1973 ) . An estimated 17 , 133 seals were killed in Washington between 1943 and 1960 through a bounty hunt to control apparent competition with commercial fisheries ( Newby , 1973 ; Johnson and Jeffries39 ) . About 3 , 800 seals were similarly killed in Oregon between 1925 and 1972 ( Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . <p> The Oregon and Washington coast stock increased nearly three-fold between 1977 and 1996 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ count in 1992 , but the annual rate of increase slowed substantially during the latter part of this period ( Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . The average annual rate of increase in Oregon was only 0.3% during 1988-96 ( Brown38 ) . The combined annual rate of increase for the Washington coast and inland waters was 7.7% for 1978-93 but was less than 3% for 1991-93 ( Huber , 1995 ) ( Fig. 16 ) . The Oregon and Washington coast stock of harbor seals may be nearing OSP ( Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> Incidental mortality has been reported in the northern Washington marine set gillnet fishery ( 5.6/year ) , the **28;504;TOOLONG Pacific whiting groundfish trawl fishery ( 0.2/year ) , Grays Harbor salmon drift gillnet fishery ( 6.77 year ) , the Willapa Bay drift gillnet fishery ( =3.5/year ) , and the Washington-Oregon salmon net pen fishery ( =0.5/ year ) . The Washington-Oregon lower Columbia River drift gillnet fishery averaged 213 harbor seals per year for 1991-92 , but was only open 3 days in 1994 and closed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Washington Inland Waters Stock : Distribution , Abundance , and Population Trends <p> The Washington inland waters stock includes Hood Canal , Puget Sound , the San Juan Islands , and the Strait of Juan de Fuca . General distribution , pupping , and historical trends are noted above . The 1996 count was nearly double the 1984 count of 6 , 062 ( Boveng35 ; Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . Unlike the coastal stock , this population is continuing to increase ( Huber , 1995 ; Barlow et al. , 1998 ) , perhaps due to emigration from British Columbia ( Huber , 1995 ) . Tagging data indicate that harbor seals readily move between the San Juan Islands and the Gulf Islands and Boundary Bay in British Columbia , but not between the coast and the inland waters ( Huber , 1995 ) . The stock status relative to OSP is presently unknown ( Barlow et al. , 1998 ) . Fishery-related Mortality <p> The minimum total estimated fishery-related mortality is 36 seals per year based on observer data and strandings . Fisheries with reported takes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) , Puget Sound nontreaty chum salmon gillnet fishery ( 107 year ) , and the Puget Sound treaty and nontreaty sockeye salmon gillnet fisheries ( 15/year ) ( Barlow et al , 1998 ) . Food Habits and Prey <p> At the Channel Islands and coastal waters of southern California , prey included octopus , plainfin midshipman , market squid , rockfishes , flatfish , Pacific whiting , and spotted cusk-eel ( NMFS , 1997a ) . In Monterey Bay , prey included octopus , market squid , Pacific whiting , spotted cusk-eel , rockfish , plainfin midshipman , white croaker , Pacific sanddab , and staghorn sculpin ( Harvey and Weise 1997 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Yellowfin goby dominated in San Francisco Bay , followed by plainfin midshipman , northern anchovy , and staghorn sculpin ( Torok , 1994 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . The anchovies were primarily juveniles consumed during the pupping season ( Torok , 1994 ) . <p> Prey consumed in Oregon was equally diverse . In the Columbia River , the diet consisted primarily of 15 taxa ( Browne et al. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ herring , starry flounder , and other flatfish , smelts , lamprey , juvenile salmonids , Pacific tomcod , American shad , surfperch ( Embiotocidae ) , northern anchovy , and Pacific whiting ( Riemer and Brown24 ; Browne et al. 40 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . <p> Highest seal counts in the river coincided with winter spawning aggregations of eulachon , which was present in 85-100% of winter scats ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Coastal prey included sand lance , several species of sole , staghorn sculpin , Pacific whiting , smelts , lamprey , cephalopods , Pacific herring , surfperch , sanddab , rockfish , flatfish , eulachon , and salmonids ( NMFS , 1997a ; Riemer and Brown24 ) . Pacific lamprey , cephalopods , rex sole , Pacific herring , rockfishes , Pacific tomcod , and salmonids made up less than 10% frequency of occurrence for all sites in Oregon combined , 1983-96 ( Riemer and Brown24 ) . <p> Prey consumed in Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay , Washington included northern anchovy , smelts , Pacific whiting , flatfish , sculpins , salmonids @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Prey in the inland waters included Pacific whiting ( Puget Sound stock ) , Pacific tomcod , plainfin midshipman , Pacific herring , market squid , shiner perch , sculpins , walleye pollock , sole , and sand lance ( NMFS , 1997a ) . In the nearby Strait of Georgia , Pacific whiting ( Strait of Georgia stock ) and Pacific herring constituted 75% of biomass consumed by harbor seals ( Olesiuk , 1993 ) . West Coast Fisheries Pacific Whiting <p> The four major spawning stocks of Pacific whiting ( also known as Pacific hake ) are the coastal stock , the Puget Sound stock , the Strait of Georgia stock , and a stock off the west coast of southern Baja California ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The coastal stock is the most abundant and widely distributed , is genetically distinct , and characterized by a larger body size and extensive seasonal migrations ( Stauffer , 1985 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . It is also the most abundant groundfish resource of the California Current ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ both predator and prey ( Fiscus , 1979 ; Livingston and Bailey , 1985 ) . Only the coastal stock is discussed here . <p> The coastal stock is highly migratory and typically ranges from southern California to Queen Charlotte Sound , B.C. ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . It is a transboundary stock with biomass and landings in both U.S. and Canadian waters . From April to October , Pacific whiting migrate onshore and north along the continental shelf and slope from northern California to northern Vancouver Island , B.C. ( Dorn , 1995 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The densest summer feeding aggregations occur over depths of 200-300 m , and diurnal vertical migrations bring them near to the surface at night ( Alverson and Larkins , 1969 ; Dorn et al. , 1994 ) . The peak southward migration to the spawning areas is generally during November and December and spawning occurs from January to March ( Dorn , 1995 ) . Spawning concentrations are difficult to locate , but they range from central California to Baja California , over the continental @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1985 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ; Bailey et al. 41 ) ( Fig. 17 ) . Pacific whiting remain between 200-500 m deep when spawning and do not migrate diurnally ( Alverson and Larkins , 1969 ; Bailey and Ainley , 1982 ; Ainley et al. , 1982 ) . <p> Migratory behavior is age-dependent , resulting in age stratification along the coast in summer . The mean migration distance increases with age ; older fish are more widely distributed than younger fish ( Dorn , 1995 ) , and there is a higher mean size-at-age farther north ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . Juveniles ( 1-3 years old ) usually remain off central and southern California from spring through fall ( Ainley et al. , 1982 ; Bailey et al. 41 ) . Larger , older whiting typically arrive off Oregon and Washington by late April and off Vancouver Island by late May ; smaller fish arrive later ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . A preponderance of older ( age 5+ ) , larger , and female whiting migrate into Canadian waters @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . In general , whiting smaller than 40 cm are in the southern areas and those larger than 40 cm are in the northern areas ( Wilson and Guttormsen , 1997 ) . However , range and biomass shift northward during El Nio events ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> The coastal stock is characterized by extreme recruitment variability . Strong year classes can be two orders of magnitude greater than weak year classes ( Dorn , 1995 ) and dominate the population for 5-7 years ( Bailey and Francis , 1985 ) . This affects the mean age and spatial distribution of the population ( Dorn , 1995 ) . Recruitment to the exploitable stock is generally between ages 3-6 ( Stauffer , 1985 ) , with a significant contribution by age 3 ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . Average weight and length of mature whiting are 1 kg and 52 cm , respectively ( Alverson and Larkins , 1969 ) . The Fishery <p> Large-scale harvests of Pacific whiting in U.S. waters began in 1966 with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1970 's ( Dorn , 1995 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . A U.S.-foreign joint venture ( JV ) fishery began in 1978 . Suspension of Soviet and Polish fishing privileges in 1980 and 1982 , respectively , resulted in a diminished foreign non JV fishery in 1982 and no directed foreign fishery in 1983 ( Nelson , 1985 ) . Non JV foreign fishing ended in 1989 . The fishery became fully domestic in 1991 with the end of the JV fishery ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . <p> The domestic Pacific whiting fishery is a midwater trawl fishery comprised of at-sea processors ( motherships ) , catcher-processors ( factory trawlers ) , and a shore-based fishery ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . Seasons and quotas vary by sector . <p> The primary fishery occurs between April and November from northern California to British Columbia . Subject to spatial and temporal regulations , it essentially follows the whiting migration . Foreign and JV fisheries began off central Oregon in April , then worked northward through the summer and fall ( PFMC , 1997 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oregon , and British Columbia ( Ainley et al. , 1982 ) . During 1972-76 , fishing effort shifted south to central California ; more juveniles were targeted as a result ( Ainley et al. , 1982 ) . Beginning in 1977 , the MFMCA prohibited fishing south of lat. 39N and within 12 nautical miles ( n.mi. ) of shore ( Ainley et al. , 1982 ; PFMC , 1997 ) because of chinook salmon by-catch , national security , and a high juvenile whiting catch ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . U.S. catches are currently taken from Oregon to Cape Flattery , Wash. , over depths of 100-500 m ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The Makah Indian Tribe , which entered the fishery in 1997 , fishes off Cape Flattery . The Canadian fishery is primarily south of lat. 49N , off of southwest Vancouver Island , B.C. ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> The at-sea fishery generally fills its quota in 2-3 weeks ( PFMC , 1997 ) . Season closures in 1997 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in August for most of the shore-based sector ( northern California closed in June ) ( PFMC , 1998a ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The season closures differed in 1998 because of the shift in distribution associated with El Nio . The mothership fishery ended in May , factory trawling and the northern California shore-based fishing sector fishery closed in August , and Washington and Oregon shore-based fisheries closed in mid-October ( PFMC , 1998a , Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> The U.S. catch averaged 152 , 053 t from 1966 to 1998 . Canadian landings averaged 51 , 044 t for the same time period . The combined catch averaged 203 , 097 t , from a low of 89 , 936 t ( 1980 ) to a high of 358 , 901 t ( 1994 ) ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) ( Fig. 18 ) . <p> Most of the Canadian catch ( 1985-95 ) was age 7 and greater , whereas the U.S. catch had a higher frequency of age 3 and 4 fish . The mean size of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ranged from 40.6 cm to 44.7 cm . The smaller mean size in 1998 ( 40.6 cm ) may have been due to the El Nio induced northward shift of age 2 and 3 year classes that year ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . Stock Status <p> Biomass increased substantially in the early 1980 's , peaking at 5.7 million t in 1987 , then decreased as the 1980 and 1984 year classes were replaced ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) ( Table 5 ) . Average biomass from 1972 to 1998 was 2.8 million t , and was 1.67 million t in 1998 ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) ( Fig. 18 ) . A continued decline in biomass is expected over the next 3 years ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> The coastal stock is fully exploited relative to the acceptable biological catch ( ABC ) , harvest guidelines ( HG ) , and quotas ( Low , 1993 ; Methot and Dorn , 1995 ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . U.S. catches were below HG prior to 1989 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Canada harvested below their quota prior to 1987 but have fully utilized it since ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The combined U.S. and Canadian quotas have exceeded the annual ABC since domestication of the fisheries , averaging 128% of ABC from 1991 to 1992 and 112% from 1993 to 1998 ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> The exploitation rate also increased recently . United States exploitation averaged 6.5% from 1972 to 1998 , with a high of 13.9% in 1998 . The 1972-98 Canadian average was 2.0% and was also highest in 1998 at 5.2% . The combined exploitation rate was generally below 10% through 1993 but has averaged roughly 17% since 1994 ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) ( Fig. 18 ) . Management <p> Stock assessment and management are conducted jointly by the U.S. and Canada . Joint assessment , however , is recent ( 1997 ) and management is not always smooth . The Pacific whiting fishery is managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council ( PFMC ) and the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans ( DFO ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ long-standing disagreement exists over Canadian and U.S. allocations of the annual ABC ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The respective quotas , relative to ABC , were basically compatible from 1985 to 1990 . The United States accounted for 58-80% and Canada 28-37% of the total ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ) . In 1991 and 1992 , the U.S. and Canadian quotas were 90% and 30% of ABC , respectively . The U.S. quota has been 80% since 1993 ( Methot and Dorn , 1995 ; PFMC , 1998a ; Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . The ABC has been set at 290 , 000 t since 1997 and allotted as described above , for U.S. and Canadian quotas of 232 , 000 t and 80 , 000 t , respectively . The 25 , 000 t quota given to the Makah tribe in 1997 and 1998 was part of the total U.S. quota ( Dorn et al. , 1999 ) . <p> Prior to 1997 , 60% of the U.S. quota was available on a competitive basis to all vessels , with the remaining @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PFMC , 1997 ) . Since 1997 , 34% is allocated to factory trawlers , 24% to motherships , and 42% to the shore-based plants ( PMFC , 1997 ; PFMC , 1998a ) . The Pacific Whiting Conservation Cooperative ( PWCC ) , established in 1997 , further allocates shares of the factory trawler quota among member catcher-processor companies ( PFMC , 1998a ; Dora et al. , 1999 ) . Market Squid <p> Market squid is an important prey resource throughout its range . Nineteen species of fish , 13 avian species , and 7 marine mammal species reportedly consume market squid in Monterey Bay ( Morejohn et al. , 1978 ) . Market squid range from central Baja California , Mexico to southeast Alaska , but are most abundant between Punta Eugenio , Baja Calif. , Mex. , and Monterey Bay , Calif . ( Dickerson and Leos , 1992 ; PFMC , 1998b ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . They are considered pelagic and are primarily found over the continental shelf , from the surface down to 800 m ( PFMC , 1998b ) . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ coast is unknown , as is the portion of the stock residing in U.S. waters ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> This is a small squid , with adults reaching 305 mm and 56-84 g ( Vojkovich , 1998 ) . The maximum age is 2 years and most spawn when 1 year old ( Spratt , 1979 ; Jackson , 1998 ) , but maturity and longevity may occur at earlier ages ( Butler et al. , 1999 ) . The natural mortality rate is nearly 100% per year after spawning ( Spratt , 1979 ; Jackson , 1998 ) . Basic life history and fisheries biology information , such as productivity , growth , and maturity are largely unknown ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> Market squid form dense aggregations when spawning and prefer shallow , protected nearshore waters ( Fields , 1965 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Total spawning area is unknown , but the greatest spawning concentrations are off central and southern California ( Fields , 1965 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Spawning occurs year-round , with peaks in southern California from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ December in central California ( primarily Monterey Bay ) ( Fields , 1965 ; Spratt , 1979 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Spawning may peak biannually ( Spratt , 1979 ; Leos , 1998 ; Butler et al. , 1999 ) . Spawning has been observed off Oregon and Washington from May to July and off British Columbia in late summer ( PFMC , 1998b ) . The Fishery <p> Fishing occurs on the spawning grounds during the spawning season . Therefore , peak catches are in the fall and winter ( October to March ) in southern California , during the late spring and summer ( April to November ) in central California , and during the late summer from Oregon to Alaska ( CDFG , 1998 ; PFMC , 1998b ; Butler et al. , 1999 ) . The California fishery lands most of the catch ; landings elsewhere are quite small ( Fig. 19 , 20 ) . Landings in Washington increase during or just after warm water El Nio events ( Schoener and Fluharty , 1985 ) . <p> Chinese immigrants started fishing for market @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ markets for canned and frozen squid were developed in the 1920 's , and the fishery steadily increased during WW II and the 1950 's , as it expanded into southern California ( PFMC , 1998b ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Most of the catch was from central California , especially Monterey Bay , until the early 1950 's . From the 1960 's to the 1980 's , landings were split between central and southern California . The southern California fishery , which concentrates around the Channel Islands ( PFMC , 1998b ) , increased since the late 1980 's and currently accounts for 90% of the landings ( CDFG , 1998 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . <p> The market squid fishery was relatively minor until the 1980 's , yet recently became California 's largest fishery in tons landed and value . The central California take averaged about 6,000 t since 1950 . The southern California landings increased from an average of 9,000 t in the 1970 's and early 1980 's to over 41,000 t during the 1990 's ( Vojkovich , 1998 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 70,000 t per year ( PacFIN42 ) ( Fig. 19 ) . <p> Landings plummeted during the 1997-98 El Nio ( Fig. 19 ) , as the squid were either unavailable or harder to catch ( PFMC , 1998b ; CDFG , 1999 ) . The 1997 fishery was not as heavily impacted as the 1998 fishery ( PacFIN42 ) . <p> The growing importance of the fishery in California resulted in an expansion in area fished ( Dickerson and Leos , 1992 ) and in the number of participating vessels . The number of vessels fishing for market squid increased from 85 in the 1970 's and 1980 's to 149 in 1997 ( CDFG , 1998 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Fishing effort is expanding into previously underutilized spawning habitat off southern California ( Vojkovich , 1998 ) . The commercial squid fishery predominantly uses round-haul ( purse seine ) nets , although some scoop nets are used off southern California ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Stock Status <p> No information is available on the stock size of market squid . Because of the high rate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be dependent on spawning success and survival of recruits ( Spratt , 1979 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . The resource was considered underutilized for several decades , although that may be changing as the fishery expands ( Vojkovich , 1998 ) . Management <p> The California market squid fishery has essentially been an unregulated , open fishery , with a few small area closures in California off Santa Catalina Island and weekend closures in Monterey Bay . All vessel operators have needed to fish for squid were a commercial fishing license and boat registration ( CDFG , 1998 ; Vojkovich , 1998 ) . In 1997 , the California Senate passed a bill that included an expansion of the Monterey Bay weekend closure , a requirement for a squid permit for squid vessels and all light vessels ( those that use lights in catching squid ) , and a moratorium on new permits . Funds generated by the permit fees were to be used by CDFG to conduct squid research . The Squid Research Scientific Committee and Squid Fishery Advisory Committee were established and CDFG was given management authority @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1998b ) . <p> Market squid is included in the PFMC 's new Coastal Pelagic Species Fisheries Management Plan ( CPS FMP ) . Because of the paucity of basic information on market squid , the current preferred option is monitored management . The ABC recommended for the stock was 25% of the Maximum Sustainable Yield ( MSY ) catch , but MSY catch is unknown . The California Senate bill , noted above , required that CDFG develop management options based on the findings of the funded research by the year 2001 ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Northern Anchovy <p> Northern anchovy are preyed upon during all life stages . Juveniles and adults are important forage for a variety of fish , bird , and marine mammal species ( PFMC , 1998b ) . They range from Magdalena Bay , Baja Calif. , to the Queen Charlotte Islands , B.C. ( Frey , 1971 ) . The population is divided into northern ( Monterey Bay , Calif. , to B.C. ) , central ( San Francisco to Punta Baja , Baja Calif. ) and southern ( entirely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1998b ) . Most of the central subpopulation is within the Southern California Bight ( between Point Conception , Calif. , and Point Descanso , Mex . ) ( PFMC , 1998b ) . It supported a significant commercial fishery and has been the most extensively studied . The southern subpopulation will not be discussed . <p> Northern anchovy are small and short-lived , rarely surpassing 18 cm and 4 years of age ( Frey , 1971 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . Age composition and size vary regionally , with older and larger fish farther north and offshore ( Parrish et al. , 1989 ) . This distribution pattern is exaggerated during warmwater periods , such as El Nios , and at high abundance levels ( Methot , 1989 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . Anchovies commonly school in near surface ( <50 m ) and nearshore waters ; juvenile anchovy densities are about ten times higher nearshore than elsewhere ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Although spawning occurs year-round , it increases in late winter and early spring and peaks from February to April for the central @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2 ; spawning at an earlier age depends on water temperature ( Frey , 1971 ; Methot , 1989 ) . <p> Most of the northern subpopulation is offshore . Anchovies are only common along the Washington coast and coastal estuaries of Grays Harbor , Willapa Bay , and in the mouth of the Columbia River from May to October ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . They also occur in Puget Sound , where they were once reportedly abundant ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Spawning occurs from mid-June to mid-August , but specific spawning locations are not well known . A major spawning center off Washington and Oregon is associated with the Columbia River plume and anchovy eggs have been found in Puget Sound ( Richardson , 1981 ; Bargmann , 1998 ) . The Fishery <p> The anchovy fishery on the central subpopulation was small-scale until the mid 1940 's when the decline of Pacific sardines shifted focus to anchovies ( Frey , 1971 ) . Anchovies were initially landed for canning , and fluctuations in landings reflected changing consumer demand for canned anchovies . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and livestock and pet food began in 1965 . Landings for reduction hit record high levels in the mid 1970 's , declined in the late 1970 's and early 1980 's , and have remained low since 1983 ( Thomson , 1990 ; Jacobson and Thomson , 1993 ) . <p> Anchovy harvests for live bait began just prior to WW II , and those landings have ranged from 3,500 t to 7,000 t per year ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Landings for use as dead bait , canned , fresh , or frozen products , and anchovy paste ranged from 250 t to 5,800 t from 1965 to 1997 ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Total landings in California grew from less than 5,000 t in the early 1960 's to over 140,000 t in 1975 , decreased to around 50,000 t per year in the late 1970 's , and to only a few thousand metric tons per year since 1983 . Landings in 1998 were 1,438 t ( PFMC , 1998b ; PacFIN42 ) ( Fig. 21 ) . This fluctuation is partly a response @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( NMFS , 1996 ) . <p> The fishery operates year-round , from 1 July to 30 June of the following year ( Jacobson et al. 43 ) . Round haul purse seines are primarily used . The age group targeted depends on the fishery . The live bait fishery probably targets younger fish than the reduction fishery , although both fisheries take large numbers of age 0-1 fish ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> The anchovy fishery is the most active coastal forage fish fishery in Washington . Landings fluctuate , but are generally relatively low ; 103 t were landed in 1998 ( Fig. 22 ) . Fluctuations are related more to demand than to biomass availability ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ; Bargmann , 1998 ) . Landings in Oregon are negligible . Stock Status <p> Total biomass for age 1+ fish for the central subpopulation averaged 326,000 t until the early 1970 's , increased to nearly 1.6 million t in 1974 , then declined to about 500,000 t in 1978 . Levels fluctuated through the 1980 's , declined during the early 1990 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1998b ) ( Fig. 21 ) . Spawning stock biomass ( SSB ) increased to an estimated 388,000 t in 1995 , apparently because of high recruitment in 1993 ( Jacobson et al. 43 ) . The stock was last assessed in 1995 , but 1997 biomass levels were assumed to be similar ( Jacobson et al. 44 ) . The decline in total biomass was blamed on low recruitment , rather than on harvesting ; fishing mortality rates rarely surpassed 17% ( Jacobson et al. 43 ) . Environmental fluctuations appear to influence variability in anchovy abundance ( Lluch-Belda et al. , 1989 ) . The central subpopulation was considered fully exploited during the early 1990 's ( Low , 1993 ; NMFS , 1996 ) , but is presently underutilized ( NMFS , 1999a ) . <p> The status of the northern subpopulation is unknown for there have been no recent estimates . This stock apparently has declined since the 1980 's ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Stock assessments are not currently conducted for Washington coastal anchovies ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) , however , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Management <p> Prior to 1977 , the northern anchovy ( central subpopulation ) fishery was managed by the CDFG . In 1978 , the PFMC assumed management with the adoption of the Northern Anchovy FMP ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Between 1966 and 1989 , reduction fishery quotas ranged from 68,000 t to over 370,000 t ( 1981 ) ; most years averaged closer to 100,000 t . From 1991 to 1994 , that quota was zero ( Jacobson et al. 43 ) . There is no quota for the live bait fishery and a 7,000 t quota for other non-reduction uses ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> California state waters are divided at Point Buchon into southern and northern permit areas for regulating anchovy fishing . The northern permit area is open to fishing from 1 August to 30 June and the southern permit area is open from 15 September to 30 June ; each includes small area closures . The allowable take is 5,000 t if there is no biomass estimate . <p> Management of the northern subpopulation in Washington is achieved primarily by compiling @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ active management of the fishery ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . In Oregon , anchovy fishing permits and gear restrictions are determined annually ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Pacific Herring <p> The range of Pacific herring extends from California to Alaska , and includes many spawning stocks ( Frey , 1971 ) . Herring is managed by individual states , usually on a stock-by-stock basis , and stock delineation is frequently spawning-ground specific . <p> Herring are relatively small and extremely important forage fish for marine mammals , sea birds , and other fishes throughout their range . They attain sexual maturity and enter the spawning population between ages 2 and 4 ( Spratt , 1981 ) . Adults are capable of spawning for several years and tend to return annually to their natal spawning areas . Herring spawn in shallow subtidal zones , with most egg deposition from 0 to minus 10 feet in tidal range ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . <p> Nineteen spawning areas , or stocks , are located in Washington , 18 of which are east of Cape Flattery and 1 is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sound are considered resident , while those that summer off the coasts of Washington and British Columbia are considered migratory ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Spawning in Washington is from late January to early June and lasts two months . Spawning dates rarely vary by more than 7 days from year to year ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ; Bargmann , 1998 ) . Yaquina Bay is the primary spawning area in Oregon ( Bodenmiller45 ) . Spawning aggregations occur there from mid-January to late April , with peaks in February and March ( Brown18 ) . <p> The four largest spawning areas in California are in San Francisco Bay , the Tomales - Bodega Bay area , Humboldt Bay , and Crescent City Harbor . San Francisco Bay supports the largest spawning population , from which 90% of the state 's catch originates ( NMFS , 1999a ) . The spawning season in California extends from November to March ( Beeson and Hanan23 ) . The Fishery <p> Herring has been an important fishery resource in Washington for over a century . Several fisheries have existed in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , sac-roe , spawn-on-kelp , and recreational ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Landings peaked at about 3,300 t in 1970 , then declined rapidly thereafter ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Commercial sport bait and roe fisheries are currently the two principal fisheries in Washington ; there are no commercial herring harvests along Washington 's outer coast ( Lembergetal. , 1997 ; Bargmann , 1998 ) . <p> The commercial sport bait fishery targets juvenile ( ages 1-2 ) herring , mostly in south/central Puget Sound , during the spring through early fall when sport fishing is greatest ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ; Bargmann , 1998 ) . Landings were highest in the mid 1970 's at around 900 t/ year ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Average landings from 1992 to 1996 were 464 t . Most take is with small ( <200 feet ) lampara seines ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . <p> Adult herring fisheries target roe and are limited to north Puget Sound . <p> For the sac-roe fishery , spawning herring are caught and killed in gillnets or seines and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ t in 1974 , then declined with diminished stock size . <p> In Oregon , only Yaquina Bay has a large enough spawning stock to support a roe fishery , and takes are comparatively small . Average annual landings from 1981 to 1998 were 119 t ( PacFIN42 ; Bodenmiller45 ) ( Fig. 23 ) . The fishery generally opens in early February and takes are with lampara seines ( Brown18 ) . <p> The California herring fisheries , which peaked at over 10,000 t in 1982 ( NMFS , 1996 ) , are the largest on the west coast . Herring was initially harvested for reduction , bait , and canning , but the fishery for human consumption ended in 1954 . Since 1973 , California herring have been harvested primarily for roe for export to Japan ( NMFS , 1999a ) . The roe fishery season is November to March . California herring landings fell from 9,215 t in 1997 to little over 2,000 t in 1998 during the 1997-98 El Nio ( CDFG , 1999 ; PacFIN42 ) ( Fig. 24 ) . <p> The California roe-on-kelp @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Bays in 1965 , but it is currently limited to San Francisco Bay ( NMFS , 1996 ; CDFG , 1998 ) . The season is similar to that for roe , running from December through March for the 1998-99 season ( Ryan et al. 46 ) . Landings in Figure 25 do not include this fishery . <p> There is also a very small **25;534;TOOLONG fishery in Monterey Bay during the summer ( Spratt , 1981 ) . Only 45 pounds were landed in 1997 ( CDFG , 1998 ) . Stock Status <p> Spawn deposition and hydroacoustic surveys are used to assess herring biomass in both Washington and California ( O'Toole , 1995 ; NMFS , 1996 ; Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . Stocks in Washington are assessed individually but will not be individually described . Cumulative spawning stock biomass ( SSB ) in south/central Puget Sound was fairly stable from 1977 to 1996 , averaging 5,514 t . The north sound SSB usually exceeded 9,100 t during 1977-80 , fluctuated through 1994 , then declined to roughly 5,500-6,500 t in 1995-96 . The Strait of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ declined from the mid 1980 's to 1995 , then increased slightly in 1996 . Cumulative annual Puget Sound SSB for 1977 to 1999 averaged 14,069 t and has been below average since 1996 , despite a slight increase in 1999 ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ; Bargmann47 ) ( Fig. 25 ) . <p> As of 1996 , nine Puget Sound stocks were classified as healthy/moderately healthy , four were in a depressed or critical state , and information was insufficient for five . The Cherry Point stock , historically the largest in Washington , went from moderately healthy in 1994 to depressed by 1996 ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . In June 1999 , NMFS received a petition to list several Puget Sound herring stocks as endangered , warranting initiation of a status review and inclusion on the list of candidate species for the List of Endangered and Threatened Species ( NMFS , 1999c ) . Status of the coastal stock is unknown , but sporadic survey coverage suggests an overall decline in SSB ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . <p> In California @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Bays ; there are no estimates for Humboldt Bay or Crescent City ( NMFS , 1996 ; CDFG , 1998 ; Watters48 ) . The vast majority of the biomass is in San Francisco Bay , where 1978-98 SSB estimates ranged from 18,200 t ( 1997-98 ) to 90,636 t ( 1981-82 ) . The SSB estimates for the 1995-96 and 1996-97 seasons were among the highest ever due to large 1992-94 year classes ( CDFG , 1998 ) . The smaller Tomales Bay stock ranged from 314 t ( 1989-90 ) to 10,046 t ( 1982-83 ) ( Watters48 ) . Combined SSB estimates for Tomales and San Francisco Bays ranged from 11,613 t ( 1973-74 ) to 97,142 t ( 1981-82 ) ( Fig. 24 ) . The precipitous decline in SSB in 1997-98 was likely a result of pronounced El Nio conditions . Preliminary 1998-99 spawning biomass estimates for San Francisco Bay were 35,945 t , primarily due to an influx of 2-year old fish from the large 1997 year class ( Oda and Watters49 ) . Management <p> Washington State herring are managed by the Washington @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Puget Sound Treaty Tribes . Harvest guidelines are based on stock biomass estimates ( Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) and are used to minimize adult takes in the juvenile fishery area ( south Puget Sound ) and juvenile takes in the adult fishery area ( north Puget Sound ) ( Wildermuth , 1995 ) . Quotas for north Puget Sound fisheries are determined preseason and divided 50:50 , treaty and nontreaty . The harvest rate is a sliding scale of 5-20% , depending on stock size ( O'Toole , 1995 ) . Harvest guidelines for north Puget Sound Cherry Point stock roe fishery and the spawn-on-kelp fishery have been around 6% since 1992 ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . The target harvest rate for the commercial sport bait fishery is 10% of the average estimated adult biomass in south Puget Sound , and has recently averaged about 7% ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . <p> Market demand for bait and some gear restrictions help maintain a take level below the calculated average yield of 819 t per year for Puget Sound ( Wildermuth , 1995 ) . Also , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ entry ( O'Toole , 1995 ) . <p> Quotas for the Yaquina Bay fishery in Oregon are based on 20% of SSB . Abundance is predicted from one year to the next , although there are no good indices of abundance . There are no ocean harvest regulations ( Bodenmiller45 ) . <p> The CDFG manages each of the four major California spawning stocks separately ( NMFS , 1996 ) . Prior season estimates are used to determine catch quotas for the subsequent season . Allocation is usually 15% of estimated biomass , has been as low as 10% , but never above 20% ( Watters48 ) . Quotas for the 1996-97 roe fishery season included 11,181 t for San Francisco Bay , 215 t for Tomales Bay , 32 t for Humboldt Bay , and 25 t for Crescent City ( CDFG , 1998 ) . Pacific Sardine <p> Three subpopulations of Pacific sardine exist off the west coast of North America : the northern subpopulation ( northern Baja California to Alaska ) , southern subpopulation ( off Baja California ) , and a Gulf of California subpopulation ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ included here . <p> Pacific sardines have , periodically , been the most abundant fish of the California Current . When abundance is high , the range extends from the tip of Baja California to southeastern Alaska ( Parrish et al. , 1989 ) . When it is low , commercial quantities do not exist north of Point Conception , California . Occurrence in the northern part of the range is seasonal ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Increased biomass and warmer surface waters in recent years prompted the reoccupation of more northerly grounds off northern California , Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia ( Parrish et al. , 1989 ; Hargreaves et al. , 1994 ) . <p> Sardines are common in both nearshore and offshore areas and move seasonally along the coast . Older adults may migrate from southern California and Baja California spawning grounds to feeding grounds in the Pacific North-west . Younger adults ( age 2-4 ) feed along central and northern California . Juveniles are primarily in the nearshore waters of northern Baja and southern California ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> Sardines @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Age at maturity changes with biomass levels . Maturity is common at age 1 at low biomass and at age 2+ at high biomass ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Spawning occurs in the upper 50 m of the water column and is influenced by water temperature . It peaks April through August between Point Conception , California and Magdalena Bay , Mexico . Spawning shifts northward and spans a longer time period during periods of warm water ( Lluch-Belda et al. , 1989 ) . The Fishery <p> The Pacific sardine fishery was the largest fishery in the Western Hemisphere during the 1930 's and 1940 's , with peak landings of over 700,000 t . Fish were harvested from Mexico to British Columbia , with 83-99% of the harvest taken in California ( PFMC , 1998b ) . The fishery began declining in the 1940 's . The range shifted southward with reduced abundance , and the fishery ended first in the Pacific Northwest ( 1947-48 ) , then northern California ( 1952-53 ) , but continued in southern California through the 1950 's ( Frey , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . California imposed a 2-year moratorium on directed fishing in 1967 and allowed for a 15% take by weight in mixed loads for use as dead bait . Dead bait usage was limited to 227 t in 1969 . In 1974 , California enacted a complete moratorium on directed fishing but maintained incidental catch allowances for canning or reduction ( Wolf , 1992 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> Rising levels of sardine bycatch in the southern California mackerel and live bait fisheries , and increased sardines in juvenile fish surveys in the 1980 's indicated increasing abundance ( Wolf , 1992 ) . The harvest moratorium was lifted in 1986 , reestablishing a directed purse seine fishery . There are currently 30 active purse seine vessels , known as the " wetfish fleet , " participating in the California sardine fishery ( Hill et al. 50 ) . Sardines are canned for overseas use , sold fresh , or used for live or dead bait ( PFMC 1998b ) . <p> Since the resumption of the California purse seine fishery in 1986 , landings have increased dramatically from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . The fishery opens 1 January and operates year-round ; landings vary monthly due to fluctuations in availability , demand , and fleet participation . In 1997 , much of the catch was during the last quarter of the year when market squid was less available because of El Nio conditions ( CDFG , 1998 ) . <p> Landings in Ensenada , Mexico are also significant and increasing . Between 1983 and 1997 , Ensenada fishermen landed 63,700 t of sardines , 34% more than all California ports combined . Ensenada landings totaled 68,652 t in 1997 and 60,426 t in 1998 , compared to 42,839 t and 42,580 t in California ( PacFIN42 ; Hill et al. 50 ) . This resulted in total landings from this stock in excess of 100,000 t . Landings in Oregon were 3.9 t in 1992 , but have been under or near 1 t since then ( PacFIN42 ) . There are currently no sardine fisheries in Washington ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Stock status <p> Sardine biomass typically varies over periods of about 60 years , with declines generally @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the absence of fishing , sardines are prone to fluctuations in biomass levels because of sensitivity to environmental variability ( Lluch-Belda et al. , 1989 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . Spawning stock biomass averaged 3.5 million t from 1932 to 1934 , was between 1.2 million t and 2.8 million t until the mid 1940 's , then sharply declined through 1965 . It was estimated as less than 5,000-10,000 t during the 1960 's and 1970 's . By the mid 1980 's , biomass began increasing at about 27% per year ( Barnes et al. , 1992 ; PFMC , 1998b ) . Age 1+ biomass escalated since 1983 and recently surpassed the 1 million metric ton criteria that defines population recovery . The estimated biomass for inside the range of fishery and survey data was 1.07 million t in 1998 ( Hill et al. 50 ) ( Fig. 26 ) . Biomass estimates include data from Mexico and the U.S. ( Barnes et al. , 1997 ) . <p> The stock 's range has been expanding along with the increasing biomass . The stock was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but has since extended northward ( Hill et al. 50 ) . The stock is reoccupying its historic geographic range ( Baja California to British Columbia ) and historic age groups are also currently represented ( Hargreaves et al. , 1994 ; Bentley et al. , 1996 ; Bargmann , 1998 ; Hill et al. 50 ) . Recent increases in the Mexican harvest may be sufficient to hinder sardine recovery even without a U.S. fishery ( PFMC , 1998b ) . With the combined harvests , the resource may well be fully utilized . Management <p> The CDFG currently manages sardines , with assistance and data from NMFS . Sardines are also included in PFMC 's Coastal Pelagic Species FMP as an actively managed species . Current regulations permit a fishery when spawning stock biomass exceeds 18,200 t ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Recent allocations include a 20% target harvest rate for the entire stock . In the absence of a cooperative management plan with Mexico , allocations are prorated by the percent biomass in U.S. and Mexican waters . As a result , 59% is allotted to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The annual directed quota was 997 t from 1986 to 1990 , grew to 10,886 t in 1991 , and continued increasing thereafter to 43,545 t in 1998 and 120,848 t in 1999 ( PFMC , 1998b ; Hill et al. 50 ) . A dead bait quota of 227 t was established in 1988 and raised to 454 t in 1990 . The live bait quota was 68 t in 1984 and steadily increased to 907 t since 1988 ( PFMC , 1998b ) . The Coastal Pelagic Species ( CPS ) FMP includes a limited entry zone south of 39N within which vessels possessing limited entry permits may land no more than 125 t of CPS finfish per trip . Those lacking a permit may possess no more than 5 t ( NMFS , 1999b ) . The Coastal Pelagic Species FMP includes management options , such as harvest formulas and overfishing definitions , that incorporate forage needs and consider maintaining a forage reserve ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Discussion New England <p> Pinniped populations in New England are healthy and expanding . Resident species are increasing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ extending into the Gulf of Maine and southern New England . Food availability is apparently not a limiting factor . Prey studies , scanty for New England , suggest that harbor seals and gray seals consume a broad assortment of fish and squid , the selection of which is related to local abundance and availability and influenced by season , year , sex , and age class . Some prey species , such as Atlantic cod , silver hake , and Atlantic herring , are commercially valuable . There may be greater concern over the potential impact of expanding pinniped populations on commercial fisheries , rather than the reverse . The precarious state of New England groundfish resources could fuel this concern and exacerbate the issue . Incidences of operational interactions are well documented , especially in the New England sink gillnet fishery . The potential for prey overlap and resource competition may exist , but a detailed evaluation is not possible because of the complexity of these trophic interactions and a paucity of necessary prey data . <p> On average , only 3% of the New England sink gillnet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Williams , 1999 ) . Both harbor seals and gray seals were observed feeding on herring inside and outside of purse seines off the coast of Maine . The seals were released unharmed , so no seal mortality was associated with the depredation ( Stevenson and Scully51 ) . <p> Williams ( 1999 ) found little overlap between the size of the target species in the New England sink gillnet fishery and the prey consumed by harbor seals caught in that fishery . They were principally feeding on prerecruits to the fisheries , so were not considered in direct competition for the targeted fish . This seemed particularly true for the Atlantic cod fishery . Most of the cod consumed by harbor seals were between 25-30 cm in length and those kept by the fishery were in the 60-70 cm range . However , these data were primarily derived from juvenile harbor seals , whose prey size selection may differ from that of adults . <p> Cod consumption by gray seals in the Gulf of Maine is unknown , but has been a critical issue in eastern Canada where cod @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1995 ) estimated cod consumption by gray seals to be as high as 40,000 t in Atlantic Canada , a number derived by using estimates for the entire gray seal population . Over half of the cod consumed were less than 45 cm in length , or prerecruits to the commercial fishery . Similarly , Bowen et al . ( 1993 ) found that only 17% of cod consumed by gray seals in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were of commercial size . Gray seal predation of Atlantic cod on the Scotian Shelf was estimated to equal only 10-20% of fishing mortality and not considered an important factor in the cod stock collapse ( Mohn and Bowen , 1996 ) . The population of gray seals in the Gulf of Maine is comparatively small and localized in distribution . Any impacts on cod stocks are likely to be minimal . <p> Cod consistently appears in the diets of harbor seals in the Gulf of Maine and gray seals in eastern Canada , but its frequency of occurrence was never more than 26% ( Bowen et al. , 1993 ; Bowen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; Williams , 1999 ) and the size consumed was smaller than commercially valuable size . Although not directly competing with the fishery , the seals ' removal of prerecruits could lead to a potential loss to the adult spawning population ( Beverton , 1985 ; Harwood , 1987 ; Hammill et al. , 1995 ) . <p> Silver hake consumed by pinnipeds and that targeted by the fishery were more similarly sized . Juvenile harbor seals consumed silver hake that ranged in size from 5-50 cm , with a mean length of 21.9 cm ( Williams , 1999 ) . The fishery primarily targets 25-35+ cm fish ; the new juvenile fishery targets fish that are generally less than 20 cm . A portion of the silver hake taken by harbor seals is also of the size class that is typically discarded ( 15-25 cm ) . Although this does not directly overlap with the primary fishery , it does with the juvenile fishery ; it could perpetuate the truncated age structure of the silver hake stocks . About 80% of the silver hake consumed by gray seals in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1993 ) . <p> The potential for biological interaction may differ by stock of silver hake . Most information available regarding hake consumption comes from the smaller northern stock . Given the distribution of seals in the Gulf of Maine , this is probably the stock with which they would most frequently interact . Overholtz et al . ( 1991 ) estimated that harbor seals annually consumed an average of 449 t of silver hake from the northern stock and none from the southern stock between 1988 and 1992 . This was only a fraction ( 7.7% ) of the average annual fishery removal was 5,829 t in 1988-92 ( Heiser et al , 1995 ) , so may have had little impact on stock status . Proposed management measures that include coastal closure zones and take restrictions may minimize the likelihood for direct competition despite the current high level of fishery exploitation and the overexploited status of the northern stock of silver hake . Most landings are from the southern stock during the winter months and could overlap with harbor seals and gray seals wintering in southern New @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ seals caught in the New England sink gillnet fishery and was present in gray seal scats collected near Nantucket Island . The sample size for the latter was quite small ( present in 3 out of 42 scats ( Rough8 ) ) and the overall importance of silver hake in the diet was indiscernible . Also , the feeding rate of gray seals declines during the breeding and molting periods ( Reeves et al. , 1992 ; Bowen et al. , 1993 ; Rough8 ) , which would further reduce overlap . The impact of the expanding population of seals on the recovery of silver hake can not be ascertained . <p> Of the New England fisheries reviewed here , the Atlantic herring fishery has the greatest potential for biological interactions with pinnipeds . Assessing the extent of real or potential interactions is limited by the absence of prey information from the coast of Maine , where large numbers of harbor seals and a large herring fishery coexist . Most of the herring are landed off Maine between June and November when seals are abundant along the coast . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ seasonal movement of harbor seals in the Gulf of Maine . Herring is an important component of the summer diet in eastern Canada , where most of the herring consumed by both gray seals and harbor seals is of commercial size ( Bowen et al. , 1993 ; Bowen and Harrison , 1996 ) . The mean size of herring consumed by harbor seals caught in the New England sink gillnet fishery was 25.3 cm ( Williams , 1999 ) , also within the commercial size range . Overholtz et al . ( 1991 ) estimated that harbor seals in the northeastern United States annually consumed an average of 1,433 t of herring during 1988-92 . This was roughly 1.6% of the average annual landings for the total stock complex and 2.8% of the average annual Gulf of Maine landings . This consumption estimate was for years during which herring biomass was just beginning to escalate ; the current high levels of available biomass could alter that figure . <p> Herring is an important forage species for a number of predators , including seals and several commercially valuable fish , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . The increase in the seal population in the northeast coincided with increasing herring biomass . This may minimize direct competition for declining groundfish resources , but could lead to indirect competition with groundfish through the common pursuit of herring as prey ( NEFMC , 1996 ; Williams , 1999 ) . <p> The NEFMC , concerned that a high rate of juvenile herring predation could affect recruitment to the fishery at age-2 , is taking a cautious approach to herring management and attempting to account for predator-prey interactions in the newly developed Atlantic Herring FMP . In developing the MSY and the target fishing mortality rates , there was an effort to account for non-fishery sources of mortality , including marine mammal predation ( NEFMC , 1999a ) . <p> The precautionary management approach and current high biomass levels may minimize the potential for biological interactions . However , the recent resurgence of the fishery , change in gear types used , shifting target size and location of fishing may result in as yet unforseen impacts and interactions . <p> Sand lances are important prey for pinnipeds in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were not detailed in this review because they are not commercially harvested in either the U.S. or Canada . Since there is no fishery for this resource , there is little possibility for direct biological interactions , an important consideration when evaluating pinniped prey availability . However , fluctuations in abundance of commercially exploited species that either prey upon or compete with sand lance could indirectly affect sand lance populations . Such was the case with herring . Herring and sand lance apparently exploit similar prey and fill similar niches trophically . When herring abundance declined in the 1970 's , the sand lance population increased significantly in shelf waters from the Gulf of Maine to Cape Hatteras ( Sherman et al. , 1981 ; Kenney et al. , 1996 ) . When the sand lance population around Cape Cod declined in the mid to late 1980 's , herring abundance increased and became a more important part of the harbor seal diet around Cape Cod ( Payne and Selzer , 1989 ) . West Coast <p> The potential for pinniped-fisheries interactions appears greater and more complex along the U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the size of the region , the number of pinniped species , the extensive seasonal migrations undertaken by different sex and age classes of pinnipeds , tremendous variation in prey preferences , and numerous state and federally managed fisheries . Periodic El Nio events may further complicate matters by altering the abundance and distribution of prey and fisheries resources . <p> Pacific harbor seal and California sea lion populations have grown substantially since passage of the MMPA in 1972 , and some of the harbor seal stocks appear to be approaching carrying capacity . As opportunistic feeders , these pinnipeds exploit a large assemblage of prey , based on local abundance and availability , season , year , age or sex , and location . Fully 136 species or genera of fish , cephalopods , and crustaceans were identified as pinniped prey items in Washington , Oregon , and California ( NMFS , 1997a ) . Several , including Pacific whiting , market squid , northern anchovy , Pacific herring , and Pacific sardine , support commercially valuable fisheries with the potential for biological and operational interactions with pinnipeds @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the U.S. west coast have been well documented ( NMFS , 1997a ; Beeson and Hanan23 ) ; only those involving the commercial fisheries included in this review will be noted . California sea lions and harbor seals prey on the California herring gillnet fishery , with the frequency of depredation inversely related to fishing frequency . Both species also interact with the herring round haul ( purse seine and lampara net ) fishery and with the squid , sardine , and mackerel purse seine fisheries in California by foraging inside of the nets ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . <p> California sea lions usually escape from the herring nets before closure , so mortality is low ( Barlow et al. , 1997 ) . Depredation of the Yaquina Bay , Oreg. , herring fishery by California sea lions was considered problematic in the mid 1970 's . By the mid 1980 's , it was limited by a February opening date and was no longer considered a problem ( Brown18 ) . <p> The high abundance and extensive migrations of the coastal stock of Pacific whiting make @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ consumed by pinnipeds from the southern California rookeries to Cape Flattery , Wash . Availability is seasonal , size class differs regionally , and its abundance locally can strongly influence the predator 's diet ( Bailey and Ainley , 1982 ) . Smaller juvenile fish are generally consumed in southern California and larger , adult fish farther north . Availability of Pacific whiting is usually highest from spring through fall in California , and from summer through late fall in northern coastal regions . Its frequency of occurrence in the pinniped diet reflects seasonal changes in availability . <p> Pacific whiting is also the most commercially valuable and abundant groundfish resource of the California Current . As a result , it is one of the more thoroughly and regularly assessed of the U.S. west coast fisheries and has also been evaluated relative to its importance as pinniped forage . Bailey and Ainley ( 1982 ) and Livingston and Bailey ( 1985 ) estimated the total annual coast-wide pinniped consumption of coastal Pacific whiting to be 200,000-300,000 t , comparable to the commercial fishery 's annual landings . California sea lions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ estimated consumption highest south of 35N , based on population distribution ( Bailey and Ainley , 1982 ) . <p> Whiting is clearly an important component of the west coast pinniped diet , and seems particularly so for Steller sea lions in Oregon and Washington ( Gearin and Brown34 ; Riemer and Brown52 ) . Timing and location of the whiting fishery overlap with both Steller sea lion and California sea lion distribution along the northwest coast , and fishery closures south of 42N concentrate fishing efforts in this area . Lactating female Steller sea lions on the rookeries in Oregon focus foraging efforts on the dense offshore concentrations of Pacific whiting ( Riemer and Brown52 ) . Steller sea lions along the Washington coast , including several age and sex classes from rookeries to the north and to the south , consume a preponderance of Pacific whiting during the months it is available . There are currently no indications of resource competition for Pacific whiting along the Oregon and Washington outer coasts , but with fishing effort increasing near Cape Flattery , localized interactions could result . More detailed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ analyses of existing data are needed to better assess the likelihood of this occurring . <p> Since the coastal Pacific whiting fishery is , for the most part , closed south of lat. 42N , there are no apparent direct fishery impacts on California sea lions in southern and central California , including the Channel Islands rookeries , Steller sea lions in central California , and central and southern California harbor seals . In the few years preceding the fishery 's closure south of 39N in 1977 , intense whiting fishing in the continental slope waters off central California may have sufficiently depleted the resource near the Farallon Islands to cause California sea lions to feed inshore on other prey during late summer and fall . Sea lion distribution around the Farallones changed subsequent to the closure . The number of adults foraging offshore in the fall increased , as did the number of adults remaining at the Farallones during the summer , and juveniles moved farther north and farther offshore . This was attributed to whiting availability increasing offshore in the absence of fishing ( Ainley et al. , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ either their distribution , importance as prey , or fishery . Market squid is distributed coastwide , but is in greatest concentrations in southern and central California where it is a significant fishery resource and prey item . Its availability may be essential for female and juvenile California sea lions on the Channel Islands during the winter months , the primary spawning season for market squid in southern California . Both the fishery and pinnipeds exploit the dense schools of spawning adults around the Channel Islands during the winter , where its occurrence in sea lion scats mirrors the commercial harvest rate ( Lowry et al. , 1990 ) . Both also suffer the effects of market squid declines during El Nio years , resulting in the need to " prey switch . " The fishery may have greater short-term resilience and suffer fewer repercussions compared to the reproductive failures and high pup mortality experienced by California sea lions during strong El Nio events . Other prey consumed along with , or in place of , market squid need to be considered when evaluating the importance of market squid in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ its decline during El Nio events . The recent expansion of the fishery and relative lack of management heighten the potential for resource competition , but evaluating this is hindered by a dearth of information on market squid 's basic biological parameters , including stock size and status . Market squid are also consumed by pinnipeds in central California during the spring-summer spawning season , which coincides with the local fishery . Although only about 10% of the total California landings are currently from this area , localized interactions could still be significant . <p> Herring is an important forage fish for many of the pinnipeds discussed here , particularly for harbor seals in the northwest . With the Washington and Oregon harbor seal stocks increasing , impacts on prey and prey availability may arise . The Puget Sound herring stocks are commercially valuable and utilized by a growing population of harbor seals , whose estimated level of predation exceeds current fishing mortality ( Schmitt et al. , 1995 ; Lemberg et al. , 1997 ) . The herring fishery in Puget Sound is presently relatively small and the stock @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ level of predation by seals in Puget Sound , some impact upon the stocks is possible , especially on a localized level , and for those stocks in a depressed - or endangered - state . The fishery and stocks are closely monitored and regulated and harvest rates are low . Although prey studies indicate that harbor seals consume herring in the Columbia River , Oregon coast , Grays Harbor , and Willapa Bay , insufficient information on those herrings stocks precludes evaluating predator-prey-fishery interactions . Fishing activity on these stocks of herring , however , is either negligible or nonexistent . <p> The larger herring stocks of central California , notably San Francisco Bay , are also utilized by pinnipeds . Pinniped predation is highest during the fall-winter spawning season , which coincides with the fishery . Interactions with the fishery are mentioned above . There do not appear to be any conflicts over prey availability , and both the herring spawning stock biomass and pinniped populations are at healthy levels . However , herring abundance decreases during El Nios , causing declines in landings , and could affect @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ availability of northern anchovies and Pacific sardines appear important to the diet of pinniped populations along the coast , especially at the California sea lion rookeries , which are situated near large spawning aggregations of these small forage fish . The central subpopulation of anchovies was commonly exploited on the southern rookeries , where its predominance in the diet was year-round and less impacted by El Nios than some of the other forage species . The northern subpopulation was utilized by pinnipeds from central California and northward during the summer months . The anchovy fishery in southern California peaked in the mid 1970 's and has been fairly small since the early 1980 's . The most intensive fishing period then overlapped little with the period of greatest pinniped population increase in that area . Anchovy abundance recently declined , while Pacific sardine abundance is rapidly growing and expanding northward . <p> Sardines are important forage fish , with juveniles and adults preyed upon by numerous marine mammals , including seals and sea lions . However , there is little information available regarding sardines as prey because of their scarcity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ forage species as abundance increases , perhaps replacing anchovies in the diet of some pinnipeds ( PFMC , 1998b ) . Since sardine is an important forage fish , management considerations include maintaining a forage reserve and incorporating forage requirements into harvest formula options and overfishing definitions ( PFMC , 1998b ) . <p> As an addendum , eulachon in the Columbia River deserve mention . The importance of eulachon in the winter diet of harbor seals is well documented , but the fishery is not reviewed here because of its small size and localized use of the resource . The highest counts of harbor seals in the Columbia River frequently coincide with winter spawning of eulachon ( Bargmann , 1998 ) . Eulachon are both commercially and recreationally harvested during the winter spawn and pinniped consumption was estimated as 26% of the commercial catch ( NMFS , 1997a ) . However , the eulachon population is declining and harvest levels dwindled to less than 5 t per year over the last few years ( Bargmann , 1998 ; PacFIN42 ) . Conclusions <p> Since passage of the MMPA in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ contiguous U.S. west coast have grown exponentially , and the Oregon and Washington coast stock of harbor seals may even be approaching OSP . The U.S. west coast component of the eastern stock of Steller sea lions increased more gradually and less conspicuously . The population is relatively stable from at least northern California northward , but is declining from central California southward . The Steller sea lion is the only pinniped species included in this review that is listed as threatened , based on the status of the entire eastern stock . <p> The harbor seal , gray seal , California sea lion , and Steller sea lion populations described here exploit a broad assemblage of locally abundant and available fish and invertebrates , the relative significance of which is largely dictated by location , season , year , and environmental perturbations . Dietary differences are also related to age and sex class of the pinniped . All seem to maintain a degree of diet diversity and have the ability to " prey switch " in response to changes in prey availability and abundance . <p> A diverse diet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1997 ; Williams , 1999 ) . Merrick et al . ( 1997 ) found a strong correlation between diet diversity and the Steller sea lion population decline in the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands ; the decline was greatest where diversity was lowest . They concluded that a diverse diet - with at least two major prey resources - may enhance foraging efficiency and buffer fluctuations in availability of any one prey item . The California sea lion 's dietary and foraging strategy flexibility and adaptability are considered key elements in their recovery and continued population growth ( Lowry et al. , 1991 ; Melin et al. , 2000 ) . <p> The availability of small , schooling forage fish , alternative prey , and the ability to utilize that prey , are instrumental in adapting to fluctuating or limited prey resources . In both the New England and west coast regions , where most pinniped populations are thriving , small forage fish were nearly continuously available for exploitation . Fluctuations in abundance and availability , resulting from natural cycles and overexploitation , were frequently countered by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for example , were apparently replaced by sand lance ( and vice versa ) when herring stocks collapsed in New England . Although both northern anchovy and Pacific sardine populations fluctuate widely , in approximately 60 year cycles ( Baumgartner et al. , 1992 ) , anchovy abundance was high during much of the recent period of low sardine abundance along the U.S. west coast . Similarly , the resurgence of herring following the collapse of the capelin stocks in the Barents Sea was instrumental in alleviating the effects of prey limitations on harp seals ( Haug and Nilssen , 1995 ) . Comparative analysis by Shima ( 1996 ) and Shima et al . ( 2000 ) concur . Available alternative prey , dietary flexibility , and large or expanding pinniped populations were common to the California Current , Benguela Current , and Barents Sea , whereas alternative prey was either unavailable or inaccessible in areas of the Gulf of Alaska where age-1 wall-eye pollock dominated the diet of the declining Steller sea lion population . Merrick ( 1997 ) considered the decline in abundance of forage fish a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea . <p> Pinnipeds frequently prey upon commercially valuable fish and invertebrates , including Atlantic cod , silver hake , Atlantic herring , Pacific whiting , market squid , northern anchovy , Pacific herring , and Pacific sardine . Direct resource competition is then possible , as is competition for the prey of commercial species . This may be compounded by expanding pinniped populations , the sometimes vast fluctuations in commercial fish biomass , the fishery 's exploitation level , and the availability of alternative prey . <p> Given the current status of most pinniped populations described here , concerns over their impacts upon fisheries ( especially those with localized spawning stocks , or at critically low biomass levels ) are more prevalent than concerns over fisheries impacts on pinnipeds ( DeMaster and Sisson , 1992 ; NMFS , 1997a ) . Although pinniped predation is one component of natural mortality estimates ( M ) , few fish stock assessments explicitly address pinniped predation or the temporal-spatial elements of fishery competition . <p> Overlap in pinniped and fishery resource utilization exists in New England and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ biological interactions may be occurring can not presently be determined . More extensive and detailed research and evaluation are needed to augment the baseline information and trends presented here . Future endeavors would benefit from updated and more detailed prey information , including seasonality of prey preferences , and pinniped foraging depths and locations compared to specific times , locations , and depuis of fishery removals . Evaluating these variables on smaller geographic scales could reveal localized interactions that would otherwise be over-looked in broad scaled analyses . Reviewing management measures , particularly time/area closures , relative to pinniped movements and foraging locations may also prove instructive . <p> Potential biological interactions between pinnipeds and fisheries should be considered within a broader ecological context . This includes the impact of environmental changes on species composition and availability , especially when coupled with the effects of fishing ( Shima , 1996 ; Mueter and Norcross , 2000 ) , and accounting for predation by other species , fish and marine mammals included , when assessing fisheries and prey resources ( Hollowed et al , 2000 ; Shima et al. , 2000 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ management actions form a suite of interconnected variables that need to be considered when evaluating the causes and effects of biological interactions between pinnipeds and commercial fisheries . Acknowledgments <p> B. Stenberg and W. Daspit , the PacFIN database managers , were extremely helpful in providing data and in answering a multitude of questions . L. Fritz , M. Dorn , A. Williams , G. Waring , K. Thounhurst , J. Gilbert , P. Fiorelli , C. Kellogg , T. Nies , D. Hanan , K. Hill , D. Watters , G. Bargmann , D. Bodenmiller , G. Early , R. DeLong , D. DeMaster , P. Gearin , P. S. Hill , H. Huber , K. Hughes , J. Laake , P. M. Payne , M. Lowry , and J. Barlow provided insight , information , and clarification of data . K. Laidre and L. Compton were invaluable in assisting with maps and graphics . Reviews by G. Duker , L. Fritz , W. Hobart , H. Huber , J. Lee , K. Wynne , and two anonymous reviewers greatly improved the manuscript . This work was funded by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to LB . <p> The authors are with the National Marine Mammal Laboratory , Alaska Fisheries Science Center , National Marine Fisheries Service , NOAA , 7600 Sand Point Way , N.B. , Seattle , WA 98115 . Lisa Baraff 's current address is the School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences , University of Alaska Fairbanks , 245 O'Neill , P.O. Box 757220 , Fairbanks , AK 99775-7220 ( email : fs1sb1@uaf.edu ) . NMFS. 1998 . Endangered Species Act Section 7 Consultation - Biological Opinion considering authorization of an Atka mackerel fishery under the BSAI groundfish Fishery Management Plan between 1999 and 2002 ; authorization of a walleye pollock fishery under the Bering Sea-Aleutian Island groundfish Fishery Management Plan between 1999 and 2002 , and authorization of a walleye pollock fishery under the Gulf of Alaska groundfish Fishery Management Plan between 1999 and 2002 . Consultation by Alaska Region , Natl . Mar . Fish . Serv. , NOAA , on file at Natl . Mar . Mammal Lab. , Alaska Fish . Sci . Cent. , NOAA 7600 Sand Point Way , N.B. , Seattle , WA 98115 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ D. M. Lavigne. 1991 . Incidental capture of pinnipeds in commercial fishing gear . Manuscr. prep , for pinniped meeting held in conjunction with the IWC Symposium and Workshop on Mortality of Cetaceans in Passive Fishing Nets and Traps , SWFSC , La Jolla , CA , 20-25 October 1990 . On file at Natl . Mar . Mammal Lab . 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The external probe can measure temperatures from -100 Celsius to +40 Celsius with an accuracy of +/- 0.55 Celsius . <p> Telatemp Corp . Fullerton , CA Circle 877 <p> Circular chart recorder <p> CirciTrend is a digital , paperless circular chart recorder that eliminates chart changes and pen replacement @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PC software provides analysis , graphing , real-time computations and communications and remote programmability . <p> Penny &; Giles Instrumentation Austin , TX Circle 883 <p> Pressure transducers <p> In-Situ 's pressure transducers are fully submersible and provide water level , piping pressure , barometric pressure and partial vacuum pressure monitoring capabilities . The transducers feature the " Quick-Connect " cable connector that allows immediate removal of the cable from the transducer when necessary . <p> In-Situ Inc . Laramie , WY Circle 878 <p> Chart recorders <p> The LineMaster 200 continuous pen recorder features electrically-isolated and underground measuring input channels , an RS 485 interface , two event markers and two alarm displays per channel . The PointMaster 200 multipoint recorder comes with a multi-colored print head providing separate colors for each of the six input channels . Both units may be programmed using the internal keyboard or external PC software . <p> Bailey-Fischer &; Porter Co . Warminster , PA Circle 879 <p> Wastewater samplers <p> 6700 Series Samplers come in full-size or compact models for portable applications , or the CFC-free refrigerated model for permanent sites . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) sealed controller that features a built-in pump , flash memory and a plug-in module port to connect an ultrasonic , bubbler or area velocity flowmeter module , or a pH module to enhance the monitoring capability . <p> Isco , Inc . Lincoln , NE Circle 876 <p> Wireless SCADA system <p> The ULTRAc SCADA System is a wireless monitoring , control and alarm system for managing small fresh or wastewater systems . It consists of remote terminal units , a central controller and PC-based monitor and control software . The system features report by exception , control actions based on inputs , polling , voice-page alarming and an optional Modbus software interface . <p> Zetron , Inc . Redmond , WA Circle 882 <p> Data logging system <p> HydroTrack is an automated well level data logging system for water level measurement and monitoring in wells , mines , tanks and surface waters . This compact unit fits completely inside a 2 " well and requires no external power source or connecting cable . Software automatically graphs water level changes and data can be downloaded into Excel or Lotus @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Water monitoring systems <p> The Datapod DSW Series Water Monitoring Systems will accommodate level , flow , precipitation , quality , temperature and turbidity sensors , or a variety of weather monitoring sensors . Up to 12 sensors can be either pre-installed at the factory or purchased separately and constructed as the user sees fit . Available readings include instantaneous , average , min/max , time of minimum or maximum , standard deviation , and sum or total since last report . <p> Data Loggers Logan , UT Circle 884 <p> Chlorine analyzer <p> The FX-1000-P gives a complete analytical history of the free or total chlorine in a treated water or wastewater sample . The unit not only measures chlorine in parts per million but also will monitor for pH or temperature , and all monitors are independently displayed . <p> Foxcroft Equipment Glen Moore , PA Circle 885 <p> Portable flow recorder <p> The Meter-Master Model 100EL uses a strap-on magnetic sensor to digitalize a meter 's magnetic drive signal without any meter alteration or service interruption . It features a rocker switch design for on/off field operation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ least three months of battery life on each charge and Windows software for report/graph generation . <p> F.S. Brainard &; Co . Burlington , NJ Circle 897 <p> Pen recorder <p> The Logoline 500 has a four-digit , seven-segment display and one , two or three scales for indication . The Logoline 500d has a 24-point 5 " x5 " LED or matrix display . Both instruments are suitable for use with standard signals , resistance thermometers , resistance transmitters , potentiometers and thermocouples . <p> JUMO Process Control , Inc . Coatesville , PA Circle 892 <p> Chromatography system <p> The Model 203 Single Channel Chromatography Data System for GC and HPLC applications includes Peak-Simple for Windows software and serial port connection to any Windows or Windows 95 PC or notebook computer . <p> SRI Instruments Torrence , CA Circle 893 <p> Paperless recorders <p> Both units of the DataGraph VR Series of videographic paperless recorders measure , compute , display , record and review up to 12 analog and computation channels . A variety of options and features makes the device useful for plant maintenance and environmental and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ VT Circle 881 <p> Doppler flow recorder <p> By using digital signal processing techniques , the Starflow flow measurement system is able to monitor ultrasonic velocity , depth and temperature . The unit can operate in water qualities from fresh streams to primary sewage . Applications include flow monitoring in rivers , streams , open channels and large diameter pipes . <p> Unidata America Lake Oswego , OR Circle 896 <p> Serial data acquisition <p> The WinWedge Pro adds serial data acquisition and instrument control to most any Windows , Windows 95 or NT application . It automatically collects data from pH meters , balances , analyzers , spectrometers , titrators , dataloggers and other laboratory instruments or serial devices . It then can perform real-time analysis , charting and graphing of the data on the PC applications . <p> T.A.L. Technologies , Inc . Philadelphia , PA Circle 888 <p> Data collection and tagging <p> Both the Computerized Field Data Collection System and Computerized Field Tagging System come with a ruggedized penbase computer with a large transflective display and software that allows field data to be entered directly into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ monitoring allows operators to add , view and edit new and old data in the field , and existing drawings can be downloaded , displayed and edited in the field . <p> A.I.W. Inc . Houston , TX Circle 890 <p> Open control software <p> iNTegral CUBE , a family of ISO 9000-certified software solutions , is aimed at MMI , SCADA , redundant PC-based DCS , integrated maintenance management and expert system applications . The software features reporting and analysis , real-time data acquisition , alarming , trending , history , graphical configuration and event-driven engine . It supports ODBC , SQL , OLE , SPC , DDE and spread sheets . <p> ORSI America Brockton , MA Circle 886 <p> Signal processing system <p> The SPS6000 Signal Processing System is a modular front-end system that provides up to 32 fully conditioned +/- 10 VDC analog outputs with up to 10 kHz per-channel bandwidth . The unit performs all required signal-conditioning operations including excitation , scaling and active low-pass filtering . It also offers optional analog function modules for various real-time computational and logical operations . <p> Daytronic Corp @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> These sampling pumps are portable for use in the field or in the plant . A rechargeable 12-VDC battery allows continuous operation for up to 2 1/2 hours on each charge . The pumps also feature a chemical-resistant coated aluminum housing and a 28 ' water lift using silicone or C-flex tubing . <p> Barnant Co . Barringon , IL Circle 889 <p> Level gauge <p> The Aquatape water/wastewater level gauge features a three- to fifty-foot-long resistance-tape sensor that has no moving parts to stick or break . The gauge provides continuous output and is not adversely affected by agitation , sludge , foam or floating debris . It can be installed in tanks , wells , ponds and streams . <p> Consilium Metritape , Inc . Littleton , MA Circle 904 <p> Point-to-multipoint radio <p> With automatic global frequency calibration , all of this radio 's remotes are constantly calibrating their TCXO to the master station TCXO frequency . The deviation can be set as high as FCC permits without risking a violation , and automatic deviation control compensates for spikes or long-term level variations . Automatic level @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ level range without adjustment . Alligator <p> Communications , Inc . Sunnyvale , CA Circle 895 <p> Circular chart recorder <p> The microprocessor-based Circu-Log receives up to four analog universal inputs with each channel recorded in its individual color . The unit features four set points per channel and up to eight relay outputs . For flow applications , the system can have up to four totalizers ( nine digits ) and two totalizer count outputs . <p> Endress &; Hauser Instruments Greenwood , IN Circle 894 <p> NEMA-4 chart recorder <p> These chart recorders in NEMA-4 splashproof enclosures for pH , conductivity , SO 2 , NOx , ozone or other parameters are available in portable , flush mount and panel mount varieties . All three configurations have a baked-on , two component , black textured urethane coating to prevent rust and corrosion . These four-inch fan-fold chart recorders accept J , K , T , R , S and E thermocouples or Pt-100 RTDs and are suitable for long-term continuous recording . <p> M-Tek Pittsburgh , PA Circle 899 <p> Hand-held dust monitor <p> The DataRAM Dust Monitor/Data @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and fumes in real time and sounds an on-board audible alarm whenever a user-defined limit is exceeded . Integral data logging permits storage of up to 10,000 data points ( up to a maximum of 55 months of logging ) and is suitable for breathing zone , remediation site worker exposure and indoor air quality monitoring . <p> MIE , Inc . Bedford , MA Circle 891 <p> Dataloggers <p> This family of seven Datatakers includes a wide range of data acquisition and data logging devices , plus related software and hardware . All dataloggers are DOS and Windows compatible . Additional equipment includes a modem manager , expansion and isolation modules and a variety of enclosures . Training is provided by distributors at many locations . <p> Data Electronics , USA , Inc . Laguna Hills , CA Circle 908 <p> Wastewater sampler <p> The Model 105 Composite Sampler operates with no mechanical moving parts for reliability , low maintenance and low cost . Pneumatic remote sampler heads are available in aluminum , stainless steel or PVC , and air post-purge and 70-foot sample lift are standard . An @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instrumentation such as pH , conductivity and liquid level . <p> Markland Specialty Engineering Ltd . Rexdale , ON , Canada Circle 901 <p> Measurement system <p> The EZ-View-TA thermocouple measurement and data acquisition system features six simultaneous temperature channels , gain adjustments , bias offsets , scale selection , sampling rate and run-time selection , channel labeling , triggering , auto scaling and remote start options . The system can attach to a standard printer port of a laptop or desktop computer . <p> Mid-Atlantic Systems Co . Fenton , MI Circle 902 <p> Sampler/flow meter <p> The 900 MAX Refrigerated Samplers can be equipped with integral ultrasonic flow meters or water quality sensors to combine several monitoring requirements into the system . Multichannel logging capabilities allow for the monitoring of pH , temperature , dissolved oxygen , conductivity and rainfall . All programming and data retrieval has been put into a single controller , and the units are upgradeable so operators can add monitoring capabilities as requirements grow . <p> American Sigma Medina , NY Circle 907 <p> Pressure recorder <p> PW4 , a weather-resistant pressure recorder , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , rain , splashing water and hose-directed water . Pressure ranges from 0 to 500 psi in both 7-day and 24-hour recording times are available . The recorder can measure and document both liquid and gas pressure and is suitable for checking system leaks , investigating pressure complaints and recording pressure in compliance to regulations or quality programs . <p> The Dickson Co . Addison , IL Circle 900 <p> Portable dataloggers <p> These portable data acquisition and logging systems operate with HyperWare Windows software . Modular systems handle 1-24+ analog and digital inputs with alarm outputs . Optional features include modem and PCMCIA card access and battery power . <p> Logic Beach , Inc . La Mesa , CA Circle 906 <p> Data acquisition partner <p> The RS-232 " Quick Connect " Instrumentation and Data Acquisition Partner is a small MS-DOS controller that can be configured with a floppy disk drive , PCMCI , tape , rewritable optical , WORM or removable hard drive . Features include low power consumption , multiple I/O resident on the peripheral controller and up to 50,000 available MS-DOS-based programs . <p> Analog &; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Pocket-size gas detector <p> Smart Logger personal pocket-size gas detectors feature interchangeable , precalibrated Smart Block sensors , which allows one unit to detect many gases . Modules are available for H 2 , CO , H 2 S , SO 2 , Cl 2 , HCN , HCl , NO , NO 2 , NH 3 , O 3 , ClO 2 , ETO and O 2 . The units store up to 120 hours of exposure and event information . <p> ENMET Corp . Ann Arbor , MI Circle 905 <p> Data acquisition system <p> The Hydra Series II features an analog-to-digital converter board , temperature compensated resistor networks and improved relay scanning circuitry . Extended-life relays help to provide high-voltage channel-to-channel isolation and Category II overvoltage protection . This series increases the accuracy on many thermocouples to 43 Celsius . <p> Fluke Corp . Everett , WA Circle 903 <p> <p> Wastewater samplers <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Paperless recorders <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Point-to-multipoint radio <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Measurement system <p> PHOTO ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4017541 ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMS <p> Commercial power plants are in service using vapor-dominated and liquid-dominated geothermal power . Meanwhile , research and development continues on hot dry rock resources . <p> GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS a naturally occurring renewable source of thermal energy . Thermal energy within the earth approaches the surface in many different geologic formations : volcanic eruptions , geysers , fumaroles , and mud pots . <p> Generating electric power from geothermal resources began in earnest in 1960 and is ongoing . Today , the capacity of geothermal power plants worldwide exceeds 6000 megawatts . ( The table on page 78 lists the installed capacity by country . ) <p> The thermal energy in geothermal fluids is absorbed from the surrounding geologic formations over a period of time . When the rate of energy extraction to generate electric power exceeds the natural recharge rate , energy production from the reservoir declines . <p> The rate of decline is related to the energy extraction rate and the natural recharge rate . Many factors influence the natural recharge rate , including the amount of fluid in the reservoir , the inflow of cold water from external sources , and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Like other power plants , the design of a geothermal power plant is based on a specific set of flow , pressure , and temperature conditions . Although resource decline begins as soon as production starts , the power plant is initially insulated from the decline by resource temperatures and pressures that start out above the conditions used for the power plant design . As time and production continue , the resource flow conditions fall to , and then fall below the power plant design conditions . <p> The decline of resource flow conditions can usually be delayed by adding production wells and reworking existing wells . These techniques , however , provide decreasing benefit as the resource matures . Many geothermal power plants that have been in operation for a number of years are operating at reduced capacity because the resource has matured and is declining . <p> For reasons ranging from contract issues to tradition , the potential variations in the geothermal energy sources were not included in the original design of these power plants . By necessity , existing plants are being modified to respond to changes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ may be described as hydrothermal , hot dry rock , or geopressured . Hydrothermal resources contain hot water , steam , or a mixture of water and steam . Hot dry rock resources , as the name implies , do not have fluids that can transport the energy away from the high-temperature subsurface rock . Geopressured resources contain hot fluids under higher-than-normal pressures . <p> Although research and development projects continue to look for ways to efficiently extract and use the energy contained in hot dry rock and geopressured resources , virtually all current geothermal power plants operate on hydrothermal resources . <p> The characteristics of the hydrothermal resource determine the power cycle of the geothermal power plant . A resource that produces dry steam uses a direct steam cycle . A power plant for a liquid-dominated resource with a temperature above 330 degrees F typically uses a flash steam cycle . For liquid-dominated resources with temperatures below 330 degrees F , a binary cycle is the best choice for power generation . Power plants on liquid-dominated resources often benefit from combined cycles , using both flash and binary energy-conversion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for existing geothermal power plants are continuously improved to suit the changing resource conditions . The improvements described here for the different power cycles reflect probable design trends for the next generation of geothermal power plants . DIRECT STEAM CYCLE <p> Figure 1 shows a direct steam cycle . The cycle diagram shows the major components that are used to generate electric power and are influenced by changing resource conditions . Impacts on the turbine , condenser , gas-removal system , and cooling tower will be described herein , along with modifications that respond to the changing resource conditions . <p> The direct steam cycle is typical of power plants at the Geysers in northern California , the largest geothermal field in the world . The primary operator of the Geysers is Pacific Gas and Electric ; other participating utilities include Sacramento Municipal Utility District , Northern California Power Agency , Central California Power Agency , and independent power plants run by Santa Fe Geothermal and Calpine . Steam from geothermal production wells is delivered to the power plants through steam-gathering pipelines . The wells can be a mile or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ required to supply steam to the power plant varies with the geothermal resource and the size of the power plant . A 55-megawatt power plant in the Geysers receives steam from between 8 and 23 production wells . These wells range from 6000 to 10,000 feet deep . <p> In a direct steam cycle power plant , a geothermal turbine must operate with steam that is far from pure . Chemicals and compounds in solid , liquid , and gaseous phases are transported with the steam to the power plant . At the power plant the steam passes through a separator that removes water droplets and particulates before it is delivered to the steam turbine . The turbines are of conventional design with special materials , such as 12Cr steel and precipitation-hardened stainless steel , and design enhancements , such as using stainless-steel inserts for erosion protection in the casings and improved dram systems , to improve reliability in geothermal service . <p> Turbine rotors , blades , and diaphragms operate in a wet , corrosive , and erosive environment . High-alloy steels , stainless steels , and titanium improve @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the corrosive nature of the condensate require effective moisture-removal techniques for the later stages of the turbine . Scale formation on rotating and stationary parts of the turbine also frequently occurs . Water washing of the turbine at low load operation is used between major overhauls to remove scale . <p> As the supply pressure to the turbine declines , the turbine accepts less and less flow , resulting in diminished power generation . When the supply pressure falls to approximately half of the original design conditions , some capacity may be restored by removing the first-stage blades from the turbine . Future power generation can be evaluated , and the timing for this modification can be established using turbine and power plant performance data and resource deliverability curves . <p> Resource deliverability curves relate flow , pressure , and time to project future production capability . The shape and slope of the curves vary from resource to resource . Overlaying performance curves for the modified turbine on the deliverability curves will show whether the increase in resource production at a lower pressure will offset the reduction in energy-conversion efficiency @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ been effective for a number of plants in the Geysers . <p> The next component of interest is the condenser . Both direct contact and surface condensers have been used in direct steam geothermal power plants . Until the late 1970s direct contact condensers were used to condense turbine exhaust steam . These condensers were tailored to the geothermal power cycle because of their economic and performance benefits . Environmental concerns and increasing geothermal development led to the use of surface condensers in conjunction with noncondensable gas-treatment systems to control the release of hydrogen sulfide , which is one of the many compounds found in geothermal steam . <p> Surface condensers in geothermal service are subject to fouling on both sides of the tubes . Power plants in the Geysers have conservative cleanliness factors to account for the expected fouling . Some plants have installed on-line tube-cleaning systems to combat the fouling on a continuous basis , whereas other plants mechanically clean the condenser tubes when necessary to rectify lost performance . <p> The noncondensable gas-removal system for a geothermal power plant is substantially larger than the same system for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the steam from the geothermal resource . The gas , primarily carbon dioxide , contains lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , methane , nitrogen , and other gases . The total noncondensable gas content can range from 0.1 to more than 5 percent of the steam . The makeup and quantity of noncondensable gas varies not only from resource to resource but from well to well within a resource . <p> The equipment that removes and compresses the non-condensable gas from the condenser is one of the largest consumers of auxiliary power in the facility , requiring approximately 6 percent of the steam that is delivered to the power plant . A typical system uses two stages of compression . The first stage is a steam jet ejector . The second is another steam jet ejector , a liquid ring vacuum pump , or a centrifugal compressor ; the choice of second stage is primarily a function of the amount of gas to be compressed . <p> Changes in the resource are usually accompanied by changes in the noncondensable gas flow . Typically power plants must modify the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ system uses a large amount of auxiliary power , the modifications are also directed toward improving the efficiency of the gas-removal system . <p> Early plant designs used two stages of steam jet ejectors . Each stage had either two 50 percent capacity or one 100 percent capacity jet element . When modifying the gas-removal system for changing conditions , multiple jet elements of varying sizes are frequently selected to provide improved efficiency over a wide range of noncondensable gas flows . At many plants , the second-stage ejectors are being replaced by liquid ring vacuum pumps to reduce energy consumption and improve flexibility . <p> The last component of the power generation systems is the cooling tower . The cooling tower is a multicell wet mechanical draft design . Water is circulated from the cooling tower basin to the condenser and back to the cooling tower by centrifugal pumps . A parallel stream serves plant auxiliary coolers , including the gas-removal system and the turbine generator . Cooling is accomplished primarily by evaporation . Water that is lost from the cooling system to evaporation and drift is replaced by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the geothermal resource in an injection well . <p> Thus far , existing cooling towers have not required modification or upgrade to accommodate declining steam production . Even when the turbine has been modified for a greater-than-design flow at a lower inlet pressure , modifying the cooling towers to keep pace with the increased heat duty has not been necessary . FLASH STEAM , BINARY , AND COMBINED CYCLES <p> A flash steam cycle for a high-temperature liquid dominated resource is shown in Figure 2 . This dual-flash cycle is typical of most larger flash steam geothermal power plants . Single-flash cycles are frequently selected for smaller facilities . <p> Geothermal brine or a mixture of brine and steam is delivered to a flash vessel at the power plant by either natural circulation or pumps in the production wells . At the entrance to the flash vessel , the pressure is reduced to produce flash steam . The steam is delivered to the high-pressure inlet to the turbine . The remaining brine drains to another flash vessel where the pressure is again reduced to produce low-pressure flash steam , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The liquid-dominated resources that serve flash steam power plants do not produce hydrogen sulfide in quantities that require controls similar to those used at direct steam plants . This allows the use of a direct contact condenser in the flash steam cycle . Cooling for the flash steam cycle uses a multicell wet mechanical draft cooling tower . Water lost to evaporation and drift is replaced by steam condensate . Excess water and spent brine from the flash vessels are injected back into the geothermal resource . <p> Flash steam plants are faced with potential corrosion and erosion damage similar to direct steam plants . Similar materials are used , but each geothermal resource must be evaluated individually for corrosion-causing chemicals and compounds . <p> A decline in energy production for a flash steam plant requires modifications similar to those used in direct steam plants . Resource deliverability curves form the basis for developing the most beneficial modifications to the turbine . Removal of the first-stage blades alters the distribution of high- and low-pressure steam to the turbine and changes the flow-versus-pressure performance of the turbine . <p> As @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ changes in the noncondensable gas that is present in the geothermal fluid . These changes may require modifying the gas-removal system as described for the direct steam plants to handle more gas or a wide range of gas flows . <p> A binary cycle is the economic choice for hydrothermal resources with temperatures below approximately 330 degrees F. A binary cycle uses a secondary heat transfer fluid instead of steam in the power generation equipment . A typical binary cycle is shown in Figure 3 . This type of cycle can be used to generate electric power from resources with temperatures as low as 250 degrees F. Geothermal resources with temperatures below 250 degrees F have been used directly for district heating systems and greenhouses . <p> The cycle shown in Figure 3 uses isobutane as the binary heat transfer fluid . This cycle is representative of units with capacities of approximately 10 megawatts . Many small modular units with capacities of 1 or 2 megawatts use pentane as the binary fluid . Heat from geothermal brine vaporizes the binary fluid in the brine heat exchanger . The spent brine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the binary fluid vapor drives a turbine generator . The turbine exhaust vapor is delivered to an air-cooled condenser , where the vapor is condensed . Liquid binary fluid drams to an accumulator vessel before being pumped back to the brine heat exchangers to repeat the cycle . The brine heat exchangers are typically shell-and-tube units fabricated from carbon steel . However , some geothermal fluids may require special materials such as stainless steel or titanium for the tubes to resist corrosion . Turbines for binary fluid vapor are smaller and less expensive than a geothermal steam turbine of similar capacity . However , the higher cost of the auxiliary equipment for a binary plant eliminates the cost advantage . <p> Binary geothermal plants have been in service for less than 10 years . The inevitable resource decline has yet to significantly affect these facilities . When it occurs , a likely first response will be to modify the composition of the binary fluid to reestablish a match between the new resource conditions and the existing power generation equipment . <p> Combustion-based power plants have achieved improved efficiencies using combined @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Power plants are now being designed using a combination steam cycle and binary cycle to extract more useful energy from the geothermal resource . Existing steam cycle plants are being modified with a binary bottoming cycle to improve efficiency . This cycle is one of many that can be used for a geothermal power plant . The cycle-selection process includes consideration of resource production capability and conditions , ambient conditions , and , for an existing facility , the existing power cycle . THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL POWER <p> Geothermal power plants have historically been designed without consideration of potential resource variations or changes . The next generation of geothermal power plants will be designed using long-term projections for resource production as the basis for cycle selection , optimization , and system design . Equipment and system design will be capable of flexible operation to respond -- with minimal modification -- to anticipated resource changes over the life of the facility . <p> Power generation and gas-removal equipment will be designed either to operate efficiently over the entire range of conditions or to support planned modifications at intermediate conditions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ design of the power plant , power generation systems will efficiently use the variable resource production to generate the maximum possible electric power from the geothermal resource . <p> Significant geothermal reserves exist in many parts of the world . It is estimated that in the United States alone there is the potential for 23,000 megawatts of electric power generation for 30 years from recoverable hydrothermal geothermal energy . Undiscovered reserves may significantly add to this total . Many of the known resources can be developed with today 's technology to generate electric power and for various direct uses including in greenhouses or heating buildings . For other reserves , technical breakthroughs are necessary before this naturally occurring energy source can be fully developed . <p> Power generation from geothermal energy is cost-competitive with most combustion-based power generation technologies . In a broader picture , geothermal power generation offers additional benefits to society by producing significantly less carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour than combustion-based technologies . <p> Worldwide Geothermal Capacity PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 1 . Direct steam geothermal cycle . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 2 . Double-flash steam @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ geothermal cycle . <p> PHOTO : The East Mesa Geothermal Plant located in the imperial Valley of southern California uses a dual-flash cycle . The plant consists of two 18.5-megawatt units . <p> By Kenneth A. Phair <p> <p> Kenneth A. Phair is a mechanical engineer with Stone and Webster Engineering Corp . in Denver , Colo . <p>

@@4017641 Section : FEATURE FOCUS Three federally funded projects are underway to develop new rocket engines that can make it more affordable to send payloads into orbit . <p> IT HAS BEEN NEARLY a quarter-century since the American aerospace industry produced a new rocket engine that could propel a space vehicle of any size into orbit . Today , the U.S. government is funding three projects to develop new , less-costly booster rockets . Rather than focusing on pure performance , as propulsion engineers had in previous development efforts , substantially greater affordability is the key to the new , simplified launch engine designs . <p> The high price of traveling to orbit in today 's " throwaway " or expendable launch vehicles is largely due to their need to jettison successive propulsive stages en route . In the case of the complex , reusable Space Shuttle , high maintenance requirements make orbital launch prohibitively costly for all but critical or lucrative missions . Success with the new trio of American rocket engines could lead to a new era of routine , reliable , and low-cost access to space . <p> The R-68 liquid oxygen/hydrogen-fueled rocket engine is a pragmatic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the Boeing Corp . in Canoga Park , Calif . It is vying with the Lockheed Martin/NPO Energomash/Pratt &; Whitney RD-180 -- a reengineered version of an existing liquid oxygen/kerosene rocket developed in Russia -- to see which will power the first stage of the future Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle , a part of the U.S. Air Force 's $2-billion space-lift modernization program . The modular EELV , which will be based either on Lockheed Martin 's Atlas 3 booster or on Boeing 's Delta 4 , will be a flexible ( building-block-type ) system that the Air Force expects will cut medium- and heavy-lift launch costs by 25 percent or more . The R-68 , which is to generate 650,000 lbs . of lift-off thrust ( 745,000 at altitude ) , will be the most powerful oxygen/hydrogen-fueled engine in the world . <p> The new RS-68 propulsion system is Rocketdyne 's entry in competition to power the U.S. Air Force 's new heavy-lift booster . <p> The RD-180 which is a modified Russian design , is contending to be the main pewerplant for the U.S. Air Force 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Administration , meanwhile , is developing the oxygen/kerosene-fueled Fastrac engine , a bare-bones approach to a 60,000-lb. -thrust , single-use powerplant that is to propel the air-launched X34 spaceplane into space and back to a wing-borne landing . The reusable X-34 is being built by an industry team led by Orbital Sciences Corp . of Dulles , Va . The single-stage-to-orbit ( SSTO ) vehicle will reach speeds of Mach 8 and greater , carrying small commercial and research payloads to sun-synchronous orbits at one-tenth the cost of current expendable launch systems . <p> The most ambitious of the new propulsion system designs is Rocketdyne 's XRS-2200 linear aerospike engine , a seemingly nozzle-less oxygen/hydrogen powerplant that is designed to send the autonomously controlled NASA X-33 lifting body into orbit . The x-33 is being developed by Lockheed Martin Skunk Works in Palmdale , Calif . The unique aerospike engines , each of which will produce 206,400 lbs . of thrust at sea level , allow engineers to design the smallest , lowest-cost reusable SSTO vehicle because they cut weight and aerodynamic drag . NASA is hoping this subscale , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Vehicle that could slash launch costs for larger payloads early next century . The RLV is to take off vertically , gain orbit , deliver its package , and then fly back to Earth , landing horizontally . <p> Lockheed Martin 's X-33 vehicle is a lifting body design that will place payloads into orbit inexpensively than the Space Shuttle . CUTTING LAUNCH COSTS <p> " The key for new launch vehicles , whether they 're expendable or reusable , is to get the costs down " said Steve Bouley , director and program manager for RLV programs at Rocketdyne . Today , a typical satellite launch to geosynchronous transfer orbit using current expendable boosters -- such as the American Atlas , Delta , and Titan ; the European Ariane ; the Russian Proton ; or the Chinese Long March -- can cost anywhere from $10,000 to $13,000 per pound , he said . Meanwhile , there is a lot of debate regarding the true cost -- operational and otherwise-of the first and only reusable launch vehicle , the Space Shuttle , which NASA uses mainly for human missions to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Shuttle costs too much to maintain is widely held . NASA 's " near-term " goal for launches using next-generation reusable vehicles is about $1,000 per pound of payload . <p> The U.S. Department of Defense has been the major customer for American expendable boosters since the early days of the space program , noted Art Weiss , director and program manager of Rocketdyne 's R-68 program . Government-sponsored launches have always been relatively few in number , however , and low production volumes do not lend themselves to low cost , he explained . Today there is a lot more interest in launching commercial satellites , particularly the new communications satellite constellations , Weiss said , but " the current launch infrastructure is 40 years old . " Hence , the emphasis on new launch system technology . <p> Both Rocketdyne and NASA engineers cite modern computer-aided design and manufacturing technologies as the linchpin of their efforts . " Our Intergraph CAD system and the advanced engineering analysis packages we use allow us to confront design risks directly , as opposed to adding complexity to avoid design risk , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at NASA Marshall . " We have more faith in the analysis and design , so we 're more comfortable taking risks , which results in simpler , more elegant designs , " he continued . " In the past , it was often easier to design around risks by adding parts . In our case , the components we develop are inexpensive enough to test to failure without killing the project , " Davis said . " In fact , nearly all the equipment came out of the box and worked perfectly the first time . " <p> The two Rocketdyne managers had similar positive comments about their company 's Pro/ENGINEER-based-CAD and engineering analysis system . " The keys to the new designs are the 3-D solid-modeling tools we now have , " Weiss said . " Our analysts now work with the same model and database as the designers . " For instance , the first set of hardware for the R-68 fit together the first time . " That 's never happened before , " he reported . HIGH LAUNCH COSTS <p> The reasons why current launch @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ according to T.K. Mattingly , former director of reusable launch vehicles for Lockheed Martin . To place a payload into orbit , a rocket must ascend above the atmosphere while giving its payload sufficient horizontal velocity so that when it falls back to earth , the planet 's curved surface " fails " away at the same rate . This task takes a lot of power . Though the cost of the propellants containing the required energy is minor , the expense involved in building complex launch vehicles is not . The reason for " this seemingly profligate approach , " he explained , relates to the basic principles of rocketry . <p> The payload that can be lofted by a launch vehicle depends in large part on engine performance and the ratio of propellant to structural weight , Mattingly stated . The designer thus must maximize propulsion efficiency and minimize the amount of mass to be accelerated . Unfortunately , even the best efforts to improve efficiency and reduce mass have so far fallen short of what is needed to reach orbital velocity with a single set of rocket @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the vehicle 's weight to be allotted to propellant . Only by using two or more separate stages , each with its own engines and fuel , have designers been able to build practical boosters . <p> Such " staging " works because it lets segments of the booster be discarded along the way , he continued . That capability provides a great advantage . Quickly lifting a launch vehicle off the ground and out of the thickest part of the atmosphere requires high-thrust engines and voluminous propellant tanks to feed them . But such large engines are unnecessary in conditions up at altitude . By dropping these weighty components and using more suitably sized counterparts in the upper stages of the vehicle , the mass that must be accelerated to orbit can be minimized . <p> Using separate stages has other advantages , Mattingly noted . It turns out that a rocket engine is most efficient when its exhaust gases exit the nozzle at the prevailing atmospheric pressure . At low altitudes , where air pressure is high , this effect favors a short nozzle . However , in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nozzle is more effective . Staging thus allows the use of nozzles that work reasonably well even as the craft climbs through progressively thinner air . <p> Though the introduction of multiple stages allowed practical rocket boosters , they require labor-intensive checking processes to ensure that their entire mechanism is working perfectly , Mattingly stressed . The cost of this stringent inspection accounts for about half that of the total system , he claimed . <p> Meanwhile , reusability has its own problems to overcome : For example , after withstanding a rough flight , everything must be brought back to Earth gently so it can fly again and again . The key challenge to the success of reusable launch vehicles , however , will be the development of an efficient propulsion system that is lightweight yet powerful enough to allow for SSTO flights . The other major hurdle is a lightweight but strong and heat-resistant structure . AEROSPIKE ENGINE <p> The plan to meet the challenge of heavy-lift SSTO operations is to take a 30-year-old idea -- the aerospike engine -- update it , and then match it to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ entire airframe provides aerodynamic lift . In July 1996 , NASA awarded a $1.125-billion X-33 cooperative agreement to a Lockheed Martin-led development team . The federal space agency has budgeted some $941 million for the X-33 program through 1999 . <p> Lockheed Martin plans to conduct 15 flight tests of the x-33 , beginning in July 1999 . Originating from Edwards Air Force Base in California , the completely autonomous and preprogrammed suborbital flights will traverse from 400 to 900 nautical miles . The lifting-body design , which generates a shock-wave shape that keeps extreme heat off all but certain surfaces , requires significantly less protective sheathing than the Space Shuttle . <p> The main difference between the linear aerospike and conventional rocket engines is the shape of the nozzle . A rocket nozzle 's job is to expand the combustion products of the burning propellants , which decreases pressure and increases velocity . Unlike a standard rocket engine , which features a bell-shaped nozzle that constricts expanding exhaust gases to maximize thrust , the basic aerospike shape is that of a bell turned inside out ( see the illustration @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exhaust gas on its inside surface , the aerospike nozzle expands the gas on its outside surface . <p> Bell nozzles are designed to offer the best compromise of shape and length for a particular vehicle and flight path . At higher altitudes , gases could expand further if there were more nozzle length , thereby improving performance . But since the nozzle can not easily change shape -- that is , grow longer -- it gives up some performance . " For a bell nozzle , the designer selects the area ratio , which defines the length and the curvature of the bell , " Bouley said . " The designer chooses a configuration that is optimized for a specific altitude . It therefore offers maximum efficiency only at that altitude " Because most of the flight time is spent at high altitude , designers prefer large area-ratio nozzles . But large area-ratio nozzles operating at sea level produce separated exhaust airflows , performance losses , and high nozzle structural loads . Variable bell nozzles are mechanically complex and not cost-effective for this application . <p> As stated , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , with the vertex pointing toward the rear . The aerospike has a series of small combustion chambers along the forward rim of what is called the ramp . Hot gases shoot along the ramp 's curving outer surface , producing a spike-shaped plume , hence the name aerospike . The ramp serves as the inner wall of the bell nozzle , while ambient atmospheric pressure serves as the invisible outer wall . The combustion gases race along the ramp and the outer wall of air to generate the thrust force . In essence , Rocketdyne engineers removed half of the standard nozzles and canted them inward , thereby forming a central ramp or spike . <p> The high efficiency of the aerospike arises from the external expansion of the combustion gases . In a bell-nozzle engine , a particular nozzle shape and length will expand its combustion gases outward only as far as the nozzle allows . For maximum thrust , those gases should exit the nozzle after they have expanded enough so their pressure has dropped to match that of the surrounding air . If they leave the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ behind the vehicle . <p> As a linear aerospike shoots its exhaust gases across the central ramp , they are not enclosed by a nozzle , so the exhaust gases can expand to the ambient atmospheric pressure while reacting against the ramp . The aerospike can thus self-compensate for decreasing atmospheric pressure as the vehicle ascends , keeping the engine 's performance very high throughout the entire trajectory . While the free side blooms outward to adjust the combustion gas pressure to the local atmospheric pressure , it is pushing against the nozzle ramp surface on the other side , producing thrust . This arrangement lets the engine operate near maximum effectiveness at all altitudes . <p> Aerospike technology was pioneered by Rocketdyne engineers in the 1950s , first with Air Force and then NASA funding support , Bouley said . " So far , about $500 million ( in equivalent 1996 dollars ) has been spent on the technology from the 1950s to the 1970s , " he noted . During that period , earlier full-size aerospikes have undergone some 73 tests , along the way accumulating more than @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ been investigated thoroughly , an aerospike engine has not yet flown , he said . <p> Aerospike nozzles can be circular or linear . " The original design was a circular or annular aerospike , which features a plug-like ramp , " said Bouley . " The linear-type aerospike is a two-dimensional version of the annular type . " To save weight , the spike is typically truncated , which does entail some performance loss . <p> The novel engine 's altitude-compensating feature allows a simple , low-risk gas-generator cycle to be used as well , according to Bouley . " Since the free stream air acts as a variable area-ratio nozzle , the aerospike can capture performance levels close to that of closed staged combustion cycles , " he said . " in the gas-generator system , we burn some propellant at low-performance conditions to run the turbopump . " ( To save money , turbopumps recycled from Rocketdyne 's J-2 engines for the Saturn 5 second and third stages will be used in the X-33 . ) <p> And rather than recirculating and burning the turbine exhaust gases @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Shuttle Main Engine , or merely dumping the exhaust , as do most other bell-nozzle engines , the aerospike is designed to exhaust gases through the truncated end of the spike , creating additional thrust . By dumping the exhaust into the truncated base region , Bouley explained , the pressure in that region is elevated , which gives you back some of the performance loss associated with base drag , which occurs when the slipstream behind a vehicle does not reconverge immediately . Use of the gas generator also eliminates the extra weight of a staged combustion system whose high-pressure operations require heavier , more costly components . <p> Another benefit of the aerospike is that it makes a very good fit with the X-33 's lifting body configuration , Bouley continued . The rectangular-shaped linear aerospike engine fits nicely into a vehicle with a rectangular aft end . And because the aerospike 's conformal nature lets it produce a hot gas plume that nearly fills the base area of the vehicle , it lowers base drag . <p> Despite being rigidly mounted to the airframe , the aerospike @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ direction of the X-33 's flight will be controlled by varying the thrust from side to side and engine to engine . " We 'll use differential thrust to steer the X33 , which will be controlled by throttling the upper and lower banks of engines or some combination to get pitch , roll , and yaw control , " Bouley explained . To generate the necessary moments , the X-33 will have four banks of thrusters ( comprising two engines ) mounted in a rectangular array . He noted that the lack of systems for thrust vectoring -- gimbals , hydraulics , and flex lines-lessens weight and should make the aerospike easier to maintain than conventional engines . In the atmosphere , the x-33 lifting body will augment flight control with aerodynamic control surfaces ; in space , it will use a thruster-based reaction-control system . <p> Like the X-33 vehicle itself , the linear aerospike is subscale . Four engines , each weighing 7,500 lbs. , will be built . Two will be installed on the vehicle , while the other two will be used for testing , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the engines will have a series of 20 combustion chambers-10 lining the forward end of each nozzle ramp . The propulsion systems will produce a specific impulse of 339.9 seconds at sea level and 429.8 seconds in a vacuum . The full-scale aerospike for the RLV is to make 431,000 lbs . of thrust with 14 combustion chambers ( seven per side ) . Specific impulse levels will be in the 380- to 390-second range at sea level , and 450 to 455 seconds at altitude . The X-33 engine will be able to throttle from 50 to 105 percent of its designed thrust level , while the RLV engine will throttle from 18 to 100 percent . Engine life is expected to be 100 missions . <p> Bouley reported that the design work for the X-33 aerospikes at Rocketdyne is complete . Fabrication , component testing , and engine assembly are in progress , and powerpack/engine ground testing should be completed by mid-1999 . The first flight is scheduled for 1999 . <p> The decision of whether to proceed with the RLV ( also called VentureStar ) is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the new SSTO design will require a considerable improvement in performance , however . As with all SSTO vehicles , mass-fraction is the biggest technical challenge . <p> The widespread adoption of composites should help VentureStar to shave weight . Better volumetric efficiency will also be needed , because there is too much empty space on the X-33 . <p> Another needed measure will be to lower the weight of the aerospike engine itself . " We plan to use ceramic , matrix composites in some rotating parts of the turbine assembly , " Bouley said . " We may also take advantage of the high specific strength of metal-matrix composites to replace cast structures , as well as heat-resistant composites in the nozzle ramp . " To obtain several additional seconds of specific impulse , higher turbopump turbine temperatures and greater chamber pressure may also be used . FASTRAC ENGINE <p> Engineers at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center are designing Fastrac , which may be the world 's simplest turbopump rocket engine . Fastrac is to power the X-34 Technology Testbed Demonstrator , an air-launched spaceplane that is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of current booster systems . NASA , the U.S. Department of Defense , and an industry team led by Orbital Sciences Corp . are playing key roles in the development and eventual flight testing of the X-34 . NASA awarded the $50-million X-34 contract to Orbital Sciences in August 1996 . <p> Plans call for the autonomously operated , suborbital aerospace plane to be dropped from an L-1011 airliner . At speeds up to Mach 8 , the 58-foot-long vehicle is to fly to an altitude of approximately 50 miles . The single-stage X34 will also demonstrate the ability to conduct subsonic flights through rain or fog , as well as autonomous landings in crosswinds of up to 20 knots . <p> Fastrac itself is a gas generator-cycle engine , which will produce 60,000 lbs . of thrust by burning a mixture of liquid oxygen and RP-1 kerosene . It is 7 feet long , 4 feet wide , and weighs almost 2,000 lbs . Specific impulse at altitude will be 310 seconds . The new engine design features a single turbopump as well as a single-use combustion chamber liner @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ flight . <p> NASA Marshall 's Danny Davis said that engineers have assembled and tested the first engine unit . Some 75 hot firings will be conducted at the NASA Stennis Space Center in Mississippi . Ground testing of the X-34 is scheduled for March 1999 , with the first flight test taking place in August of that year . <p> " NASA is interested in upgrading the nation 's launch capability in the low end of the payload spectrum-around 150 to 300 kilograms , " Davis said . " Today , there 's no dedicated launch service for this payload size , which is mostly research satellites placed in solar-synchronous orbits from 200 to 300 nautical miles up . In the future , we 'll see more communications satellites in this size range , " he predicted . " It 's sort or a field of dreams : If you build a vehicle , the payloads will come . <p> " Though these payloads can cost a few million dollars to build , " Davis noted , " the ride to space can cost $15 to $17 million . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ out , we went after the single most expensive part of a launch vehicle -- the engine . " The simple , robust , and easy-to-build Fastrac engine is designed to achieve a dramatic reduction in cost , initially to about $1 million apiece -- one-seventh the cost of current similar systems . In a departure from traditional engine-development processes , the Marshall team adapted off-the-shelf technologies and common manufacturing methods to develop the new engine in a faster-than-usual design cycle . Fastrac 's price should drop even further as future enhancements come on-line -- eventually to $350,000 per engine . <p> While some concepts for the Fastrac engine have been around for decades , actual technology development and design on the new rocket engine began in March 1996 . " Our goal was to eliminate labor-intensive manufacturing procedures , " Davis said . " We hope that eventually anybody could build it . " Another focus of the program was " getting the parts count down . " <p> A typical rocket launch produces a temperature in the range of 5,500 Fahrenheit hot enough to melt most engine-chamber and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which circulates liquid fuel or oxidizer around the engine chamber and nozzle through hundreds of feet of tediously welded tubing . The Fastrac engine design avoids complex plumbing , opting instead to cool the rocket chamber by charring or scorching its inside surface as the engine heats , a process called ablative cooling . Fastrac features a thrust-chamber nozzle that uses a silica-phenolic liner strengthened with a graphite/ epoxy overwrap , Davis said . " Thiokol Corp . of Ogden , Utah is building the combustion chamber and nozzle by wrapping silica-phenolic tape , followed by graphite/ epoxy tape , around a mandrel , at the same time embedding a steel flange for assembly purposes . " The new nozzle should cost about $100,000 , compared with $800,000 for previous similar systems . <p> The Fastrac engine uses a simplified gas-generator cycle , which burns a small amount of kerosene and oxygen to provide gas to drive the turbine and then exhausts the spent fuel , Davis explained . The new engine 's simplified three-piece gas generator contains one-tenth the parts of previous designs . Summa Technologies Inc. of Huntsville @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Chamber pressure is supplied by a single turbopump . The new engine design incorporates significant reductions in the cost of turbomachinery , which " is typically a big technical challenge , " according to Davis . " We used system design to reduce the complexity of the turbopump . " By using simplified casting techniques and by putting both fuel and oxidizer pumps on the same shaft , engineers at Marshall and Barber-Nichols Inc. in Arvada , Colo. , believe they have developed a rocket pump that would cost only $320,000 , compared with nearly $1 million each for the oxygen/kerosene pumps on the current Atlas booster . <p> In addition , Fastrac 's injection system has only three parts : a face plate with a drilled hole pattern , a brazed injector body , and a gimbal block , Davis said . " The biggest problem was figuring out what the hole pattern should be so you do n't cook the silica/phenolic chamber " he noted . As a result of the simplified design , the injector system will cost about $50,000 a copy , as opposed to $200,000 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's R-68 engine is to be 17 feet tall and 8 feet wide at the base , according to Art Weiss , the program manager . As noted , the new rocket engine is to generate performance levels exceeding any previous oxygen/hydrogen rocket system . Company engineers conducted a full-scale main injector test in November 1996 and a key gas-generator test in February 1997 . <p> Weiss said that " we 're going for the lowest recurring cost we can get -- if possible , an order of magnitude reduction . Since cost drives the design , we 're using off-the-shelf technology -- only proven systems and processes . " <p> The part count has been minimized as well . " The R-68 will have one-tenth the parts of the Space Shuttle Main Engine , even though it produces 50 percent more thrust , " he said . For example , the engine 's 2,000-1b. turbopumps have only 30 parts , compared with 200 components in the SSME turbopumps . The next-generation expendable engine will use a simplified gas-generator cycle , Weiss noted . And , as with Fastrac , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ used rather than a regenerative nozzle with all its complex tubing . <p> Weiss stressed that the key to the R-68 engine design was the selection of ( higher-energy-content ) hydrogen as the propellant rather than ( lower-energy-content ) kerosene . " This allowed us to fully implement cost as the independent variable in the design process , " he said . " For example , we 're expecting a mission average ( for specific impulse ) of 410 seconds , which might seem a little low for an oxygen/hydrogen engine . But the use of hydrogen allows us to trade away some performance to get the costs down . " The entire design exercise , he said , required a change in mindset from the propulsion engineer 's traditional focus on high peformance to a concentration on lower costs . <p> DIAGRAM : The aerospike engine ( depicted as a computer image ) is designed to power NASA 's future x-33 reusable aerospace plane prototype . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : An aerospike engine is a conventional , bell-shaped rocket nozzle turned inside out . Here , Rocketdyne @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) : NASA 's low-cost Fastrac engine ( a CAD diagram of it is shown in the insert ) undergoes testing at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville , Ala . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : This dramatic nighttime test firing occured during development of Rocketdyne 's R-68 oxygen/hydrogen booster engine system . <p> By Steven Ashley , Associate Editor <p>

@@4017741 Engineers are making unique contributions behind headlines of the World Trade Center disaster . <p> BEFORE THE INITIAL SHOCK wore off , engineers were responding to the attacks on Washington and New York . They were coming to rescue the injured and to treat the wounds left in the landscape by unprecedented acts of malice . <p> A section of the Pentagon had been destroyed by the intentional crashing of a hijacked commercial airliner . Two others were diverted to deliver greater destruction to New York City . A fourth plane , taken by hijackers whose destination will remain unknown , crashed in Pennsylvania . <p> The place where the World Trade Center stood in New York has become an excavation site filled with rubble that stands six stories high . More than 5,000 died there , including 300 rescuers and firefighters who rushed into the buildings before they collapsed . <p> Heavy machinery has begun to slow and dangerous work of clearing the six-story-high debris that fills the sight once occupied by the World Trade Center in New York . <p> The challenges of moving around the area are formidable , the challenges of clearing the monumental wreckage @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ engineers at the site are using technology created by distant colleagues . Excavators , specialized vehicles , and robots are navigating the area , and teams of workers and technologists are slowly removing the concrete and steel shards of the fallen buildings . <p> Could today 's technology have prevented the attacks ? Or protected more people from harm ? No one can say yet , given the improbable nature of the assault . <p> Research under way before the disaster was already addressing many of the issues raised by the use of commercial airliners as missiles . That research has been given new impetus and direction in the hope that technology will prevent a recurrence of the events of September 11 . Harry Hutchinson <p> THE HEAVY EQUIPMENT MOVES IN <p> In the minutes following the collapse of the Twin Towers , Tim Mullally , who like so many could n't turn away from the television that day , understood intuitively that rescue workers would immediately need all-terrain vehicles . <p> Mullally sells John Deere equipment in Jeffersonville , N.Y . Within hours of the attack , he loaded @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the city . <p> Gators are small , six-wheel all-terrain vehicles originally manufactured as military vehicles and now finding much use among farmers , hunters , and sports teams , according to Barry Nelson , manager of public relations for John Deere . The vehicles are well balanced and highly maneuverable , and though they only go 18 miles per hour , they 're useful for the back-and-forth hauling of heavy items over several miles of difficult terrain that farmers frequently must do . Sports fans have seen them carting injured football players off the field . <p> As Mullally recognized , a car or even a pickup truck would not be able to drive in and among the mounds of debris , though certainly vehicles would be necessary at the site , which is being called Ground Zero . <p> " It has the type of tires that go through almost anything , " Nelson said . The tires resist puncture , which is another consideration in the glass- and metal-strewn area . <p> The vehicles have made their way through small passageways , crowded streets , and piles @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> John Deere also shipped 14 Gators to New York and provided wheel loaders , excavators , and backhoes . The company trained rescue workers to operate them . <p> Many other heavy equipment and vehicle suppliers also have helped with the effort by providing machinery . From Aurora , Ill. , Caterpillar brought in a 345 Ultra High excavator capable of 84-foot vertical reaches . Equipped with shears , the machine can lift heavy debris and cut through steel beams . <p> Caterpillar also provided an M320 wheeled excavator with a hydraulic cab from Aurora . The elevated cab places an operator high in the air to improve visibility in tight conditions . Two operators from the Caterpillar Demonstration Center in Edwards , Ill. , were in New York to operate the specialty equipment and provide backup support to other operators . -Jean Thilmany ROBOTS IN FORBIDDING PLACES <p> As early as 6 p.m. on the 11th , robots began arriving at the site . Teams came from Foster-Miller Inc. in Waltham , Mass. ; iRobot Corp . in Somerville , Mass. ; the Space and Naval Systems @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ South Florida in Tampa . They converged on the scene under leadership of the Center for Robot Assisted Search and Rescue based in Littleton , Colo . Of the 17 robots that attended rescue and recovery efforts , eight deployed at Ground Zero , and one was lost in action . <p> Inuktun Services Ltd. of Nanaimo , British Columbia , and the DARPA Advanced Technology Office in Arlington , Va. , also lent robots and sensors to the lifesaving effort . <p> Robots moved on crawler tracks to carry video and infrared cameras into the ruins . Some worked at the ends of tethers as they dragged power and communications links behind them . Others-larger than the tethered breeds-carried their own battery power into the wreckage . Wireless Ethernet communications kept these roamers in touch with the world of light . <p> By the 26th , robots were assisting in structural inspections of the slurry wall of the basement , the rescue having ended . -Paul Sharke PROPPING UP THE BATHTUB <p> The slurry wall , known as " the bathtub " because of its basin-like shape , holds @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Trade Center . While engineers say that the danger of the river actually penetrating the basement wall is small , they still plan to use a complex tieback plan to reinforce the structure , once debris has been removed , a method similar to that used to support the wall when the Trade Center was built . <p> Dan Hahn , a senior associate with Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers of New York , is part of the team charged with clearing the debris and reinforcing thewall . Before he joined Mueser Rutledge , he worked 32 years for the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , and did some of the design work for the foundations of the World Trade Center . <p> This topographic map of the World Trade Center was created in June 2000 using lidar equipment . Pulses of light projected from a low-flying aircraft create a 3-D image that is accurate to 15cm . <p> According to Hahn , " We are removing the pile of debris above the ground level , but it will be at least another four months before we get @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wall , made of a clay and water mixture , was reinforced by the structure of six basement floors . After the collapse of the towers , debris provided support . <p> The way debris is being removed is very painstaking , Hahn pointed out . <p> " We remove debris at 10-foot intervals down to about 70 feet , then drill through the wall at a 45-degree angle , then go through the soil and 10 to 20 feet into the bedrock of Manhattan , " he said . " Then , we 'll install a high-stress cable , about 100 feet long , into the bedrock and grout it ( with a mixture of water , cement , and sand ) into the bedrock . When the grout attains the required strength , we 'll test it . If it is okay at that point , we 'll attach a cable to the wall and go down another 10 feet . We 'll repeat that process about five or six times . This is the same way the World Trade Center was built . " <p> This laborious @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but can begin only after all the debris above ground has been cleared , Hahn pointed out . <p> Raymond Sandiford , chief geotechnical engineer for the Port Authority , said that when the Trade Center was built , 1,130 tiebacks were installed . He said the plan now is to use about 750 tiebacks of high-strength steel wire strands , bundled in groups of 15 . <p> " We can do about one of these installations a day , " Sandiford said . -Peter Easton MAPS OF DANGEROUS TERRAIN <p> One helpful tool in assisting with the work at Ground Zero is digital imagery provided in different formats . EarthData International of Washington prepares such images under contract with the State of New York Office for Technology for use by government agencies . <p> Using digital cameras and laser equipment in an airplane that makes two flights daily over the site , EarthData provides information in three formats ; 2-D , 3-D , and thermal . " These images are like blueprints , " said Bryan J. Logan , chief executive officer at EarthData . " Workers on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the site help with the use of cranes and other equipment , as well as make people aware of any potential dangers that may arise there . " <p> The 2-D digital images are ready quickly and are used to detect movements in buildings and other structures in the This information letsarea. structural engineers take the necessary precautions to secure unstable areas and protect workers in the recovery effort . Because the scene continues to evolve , the images enable authorities to make critical decisions . <p> Light detection and ranging equipment , known as lidar , is a laser imaging system that generates 3-D images of the site . From the aircraft , flying at about 5,000 feet , a laser shoots 15,000 pulses of light per second , which are bounced back when they encounter an object . The lidar equipment measures the timing of the returned light to generate a 3-D map of the area . <p> " The lidar is accurate to 15 centimeters and measures both vertically and horizontally , " said Logan . " It detects the size of rubble piles and the positions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or openings . " <p> Thermal images are developed from pictures taken in the morning . These detect hot spots where fires may continue to burn and pose a threat to gas lines or electrical equipment . Additionally , these thermal images are used so that firefighters know where fires may be and so recovery workers will know to keep away for their own safety . <p> " In the morning , the site has just come out of the cool of the night and has n't been heated by the sun yet , " said Logan . " This allows us to get a sense of where real dangers exist in the wreckage . " -Jack Raplee TERROR VS . THE FIRE CODE <p> " The two buildings stood up pretty darn good-one for 56 minutes , the other for about an hour and a half , " said Richard Gewain , a civil engineer and senior engineer at Hughes Associates Inc. , a leading fire research firm . The fire code could not prepare a building to withstand a crash by a fully fueled commercial jetliner . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of Civil Engineers investigative team that will study the World Trade Center disaster . <p> He has repeatedly viewed the videos of the Twin Towers ' destruction and described several factors that may have led to their collapse . <p> " The World Trade Center was designed as a tubular structure with the exterior walls carrying the vertical and horizontal dead loads , " Gewain said . " The aircraft crash knocked out a sufficient number of the columns within at least two of the walls in two or more floors , which weakened the structural integrity of the building . One of the questions that should be answered is , would the building , as damaged structurally , have collapsed if there had been no fire ? " <p> Bare open web steel joists in a floor construction like those in the World Trade Center can resist fire for only seven minutes , according to the ASTM E 119 fire test referenced by all building codes . That is why the steel joists in the floors of the WTC were protected with a spray-on mineral wool fiber having a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ giving them a resistance rating of two hours under ASTM test conditions . <p> However , the material may have been knocked off the steel joists as the planes crashed into the floors of the buildings . The conditions experienced on September 11-the impact and fire involving jet fuel and instant explosive flashover of all building contents-on those floors went far beyond the conditions used as the bases of the ASTM fire test . <p> " The nearly full tanks of aviation fuel set multiple floors aflame-two , three , or as many as eight , from what I have read-and the sudden creation of a 2,000F fire-ball caused a thermal shock that probably knocked additional sprayed fiber off the steel , " Gewain said . <p> The civil engineer noted that the ASTM E 1529 and Underwriters Laboratories UL 1709 fire resistance tests for hydrocarbon pool fires would be more in line with the temperatures of September 11 . <p> " The hydrocarbon pool fire was developed for the steel supports of elevated vessels and pipe racks in the petrochemical industry , " Gewain said . " This qualifies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to withstand physical damage , severe weather conditions , and instant continuous fire temperatures of 2,000F . " <p> At Hughes Associates , Gewain and his colleagues have modeled roof constructions with steel joists protected for two hours based on ASTM E 119 . Modeling the same construction exposed to a UL 1709 fire exposure reduces the fire resistance by nearly one-half , he said . <p> Gewain said that codes like the International Building Code have adopted field tests to evaluate density , thickness , adhesion , and cohesion of fire protection spray coatings . " Steel fireproofing materials are not evaluated to withstand the impact of a commercial aircraft , but the IBC has mandated third-party inspection of spray-applied fire protection material in the 2000 Edition of their code , and that 's a start we can build on , " he said . -Michael Valenti SENSING THE HAZARDS <p> The state of the Twin Towers just before they fell was unknown to everyone , including more than 300 fire-fighters and rescue workers who entered the buildings and died in the collapse . <p> Researchers say that , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ efforts during emergencies in large structures by locating trapped people , warning of fires , and monitoring structural conditions . <p> According to Albert P. Pisano , director of the Electronics Research Lab at the University of California , Berkeley , and chair of the Executive Committee of ASME 's MEMS subdivision , there are research programs under way to develop networks of small , battery-operated sensor modules linked together by radio-frequency transmitters . <p> This lidar image , created after September 11 , enables recovery and emergency workers at Ground Zzero to navigate the area safely by showing pits and debris . The images are updated daily . <p> Research at Berkeley is focused on outfitting buildings with sensors at critical structural points to determine damage . Tiny , wireless networked sensors , known as " motes , " would be part of a self-assembling system ; that is , they would be able to locate and communicate with each other automatically . <p> Berkeley is working with Crossbow Technology Inc. of San Jose , Calif. , which is supplying its wireless monitoring system to research groups . " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vice president of business development for Crossbow . " The network can identify whatever motes are around it and then talk . " <p> The sensors , distributed in rooms or a series of rooms , could find each other , communicate , and share information , he said . <p> Pisano emphasized that wireless sensor networks are still in the research stage , but could become commercially practical in the next few years . <p> He said that wireless sensor networks would be ideal for retrofitting existing buildings , because they would eliminate the high cost of wiring and be more dependable than wired networks . <p> Pisano envisions a future in which wireless networks of sensors can stream data on temperatures , smoke , vibration , or fire to a remote location . A possible use for the information is to be able to predict how a building may fail . <p> Nicholas Sitar , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Berkeley , said that wireless sensor networks could help emergency workers assess what is going on inside a building to judge how dangerous the situation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a system could be six to 12 months off , depending on research funding . A more complex system could be two years away . <p> According to R. Brady Williamson , a professor emeritus of engineering science in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Berkeley , older buildings present potential problems for fire safety because they may not meet newer standards . <p> " If you have an incident happen such as the World Trade Center , it would be useful to have lots of sensors of various kinds , " he said . -John DeGaspari SECURITY FOR AIR AND GROUND <p> In the wake of the events of September 11 , keeping airliners out of the hands of hijackers has become a matter of intense concern . <p> Perhaps the easiest fix to implement in airliners is hardening the cockpit entrance-a practice said to be already followed by E1 A1 , the Israeli airline . In general , current cockpit doors are flimsy " and do not represent a barrier to intruders , " observed Harry Armen , a member of ASME 's Board of Governors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ company . One possible approach is to have a double set of doors , so that unauthorized persons would find themselves trapped between them . <p> The World Trade Center burns on the morning of September 11 ; according to an engineer , the buildings held up well under the fierce assault . <p> Other , more complex responses involve changes in aircraft navigation systems . As Samuel Venneri , associate administrator for aerospace technology for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , noted , certain lines of research already in progress , aimed at enhancing aircraft safety and accident avoidance , could be reconfigured to also address security issues . <p> " In nearly all accidents involving loss of control , the airplanes had some functional capability , " Venneri said . In some cases , pilots have been able to save an airplane and get it back to earth by using its capabilities and surfaces in nonstandard ways . Current research seeks to develop ways for computers to take over the airplane 's propulsion systems and reconfigure them to adapt to emergency situations . <p> A similar sort @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which involve a database with a GPS-based terrain map that is designed to tell when a plane is about to crash into an obstacle and , if necessary , take control to prevent a crash . <p> This system could also detect deviations from the approved flight path , Venneri said . He said that techniques could be developed to " harden " aircraft systems and avionics against the possibility of a virus . <p> ( Venneri , his boss Daniel Goldin , and Ahmed Noor of NASA are the authors of this month 's cover story . They look at technology for the future of air and space travel , including issues of safety and security , in an article beginning on page 48 . ) <p> High-flashpoint fuels are being discussed as a way of mitigating the damage if all else fails . Additives , for instance , could preclude violent explosions , but they are also likely to make the fuels less efficient . Or , as Armen put it , " You want to make sure , under normal conditions , that they work . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ detect minute quantities of substances such as explosives , and improved 3-D luggage-screening technologies to help airport personnel interpret what they see . <p> Since many of the ideas NASA is working on were already in development , Venneri observed , some results could be expected fairly soon . His team is currently putting together ideas and hopes to have a demonstration of the technology ready to go in four months . Henry Baumgartner <p> <p> By Harry Hutchinson ; Jean Thilmany ; Paul Sharke ; Peter Easton ; Jack Raplee ; Michael Valenti ; John DeGaspari and Henry Baumgartner <p>

@@4017841 Engineering technology gets more work in the operating room . <p> The puzzles that engineers and doctors face have much in common . The human body , after all , can be thought of as an engineered system . Blood flowing through the body , for instance , mirrors airflow through an engine . It 's natural then , that medical researchers should appropriate for their own purposes engineering analysis technology originally developed to predict the flow of fluids through engines or of water around bridge stanchions . As these technologies find a home in hospitals and doctors ' offices , they 'll change the way surgeons assess patients ' conditions and operate . Analysis software lets surgeons plan an operation , by mapping it specifically to the patient 's body . Doctors will predict how a patient will respond to a medical implant and plot implantation accordingly , say researchers who work to configure engineering technologies for medical use . A Cultural Coming Together <p> David Gosman - professor of computational fluid dynamics at Imperial College of Science , Technology , and Medicine in London - uses computational fluid dynamics to study blood flow . He says engineering @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> " But my impression is that it 's still the early days , " he said . " CFD is relatively new , so it 'll take a while to become known and appreciated . <p> " We need more research to fully understand what simulations can offer and how to use that information , " he added . " And the tool needs to be put into an easy-to-use form so that it can be routinely applied to cardiovascular studies without the need for CFD specialists . " <p> Of course , before technology used and developed by engineers can shift to the medical world , the separate cultures need to find a common point of departure . <p> The medical researchers , often engineers themselves , have to understand how doctors work and how they 'd accept using a computer as a tool in the operating room . But in the subtle world of medical problem solving , doctors also have to accept that the cold , hard numbers that drive the computational methods behind analysis software do provide answers . <p> " A fascinating , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ results when the two fields must by necessity work together to develop medical equipment or methods , " Gosman said . <p> Professionals in the two fields use different terminology and approach measurement and simulation from different angles . <p> " We found the different jargons initially to be a real barrier , but this was gradually overcome with give and take on both sides , " Gosman said . <p> Still , for many doctors , computers and surgery just do n't mix , said Anthony Petrella , manager of the computational biomechanics group at DePuy Orthopaedics Inc. of Warsaw , Ind . The company makes almost every type of replacement joint . <p> Medical researchers at DePuy are working to repurpose CAE software with an eye toward visualizing and analyzing the . human body . Petrella said the company wants to use analysis software to improve joint replacement surgery . Doctors would use the software to predict how a patient 's new joint will likely wear and how tissue will respond to the artificial joint . Guided by those predictions , they can position the joint to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Joint replacement has become almost routine . Many U.S. surgeons perform joint replacement operations . For some , that 's almost all they do . Therefore they have little time to incorporate a new system into their daily routines . <p> " Surgeons are skeptical of computational methods , " Petrella said . " Still , new doctors today are tech savvy . They played computer games as kids . " <p> Computer-assisted surgeries , in which doctors get real-time information about their patients as they operate , are becoming more common , but computers still are n't usual operating room tools . Many surgeons do n't feel comfortable using them , Petrella said . He spoke in May at a user conference sponsored by Ansys in its home town of Pittsburgh . DePuy 's research uses Ansys software for analysis . <p> A medical tool of today could be used in the operating room to capture information about the patient 's condition and feed it to a computer . According to Petrella , fluoroscopy - essentially a moving X-ray of a patient 's joint - can visualize @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the basis for the computer model to predict how the joint would wear over time and how surrounding tissue might react to the synthetic material . <p> Researchers can calculate when and how a patient 's artificial joint will wear . But creating a model to predict how tissue will respond to the new joint is a different ball game entirely , Petrella said . Healthy tissue can respond any number of ways to the implant . It might become stiff or change shape over time . Analysis codes are hard to write for that type of intangible . <p> Still , Petrella and his fellow researchers say a computer program is within reach that will feed surgeons information unique to each patient . Help For a Weak Heart <p> David Gosman and his team at Imperial College are adapting technology originally developed to simulate airflow through a reciprocating internal combustion engine so that it can be applied to study the human heart . <p> CFD is most commonly used now to plan heart-bypass surgery . Surgeons simulate blood flow through the heart via CFD then program their findings into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Gosman 's research , on the other hand , aims to simulate how a weak heart muscle affects blood flow . The simulations would help researchers improve pacemakers and artificial heart valves . <p> " Doctors have been interested for some time in knowing about blood-flow behavior in the heart and how it differs between healthy patients and those suffering from heart illnesses , " Gosman said . <p> Little is known about the effects of heart irregularities on the flow , Gosman said . <p> " And there 's even less understanding of how pacemakers can be designed to control the heart motion in a way to restore the healthy pattern , " he added . " What kind of motion is necessary to achieve that ? " <p> Though CFD has already been used extensively to study artificial valves , little research has been done to evaluate how they affect blood flow when actually placed in a patient , Gosman said . His simulations will look at that . <p> Measurement techniques like magnetic resonance imaging give doctors information about patient blood flow and offer them a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or artificial heart valve , but MRIs do n't return the level of detail that CFD simulations depict , Gosman said . His approach combines MRIs with CFD simulation . <p> The information obtained by an MRI is in the form of a thin , two-dimensional image slice . Gosman and his team take MRIs at varied parts of a ventricle as it fills with and empties of blood . The images combine to show how the chamber looks during the entire cycle . <p> That image is then modeled with CFD . For modeling , the team uses Star-CD software from CD-adapco of New York . Gosman is also director and vice president of technology of CD-adapco . <p> With the model , doctors can predict how blood flow would change if a pacemaker or artificial valve were placed in the heart . It also lets doctors look at what-if scenarios that they ca n't run on the real subjects . <p> At first , the simulations would be used to help diagnose patients , and Gosman hopes that doctors eventually will study a particular patient 's CFD simulations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta are also studying blood flow . They have an eye toward using the information to design better artificial heart valves . <p> Numerical modeling techniques originally developed by the institute to simulate how water flows around hydraulic structures like bridge foundations is finding a second use in helping researchers better understand blood flow patterns through artificial mechanical heart valves . <p> The research could yield the most accurate depiction yet of the turbulent environment that blood cells and platelets encounter as they pass through the mechanical heart valve , said Fotis Sotiropoulos , an associate professor in the schools of civil and environmental engineering and mechanical engineering . He 's researching the system along with Ajit Yoganathan , who directs Georgia Tech 's cardiovascular fluid mechanics laboratory . <p> Doctors replace poorly functioning natural-heart valves with prosthetic valves . But present-day designs are far from ideal . <p> They can destroy blood platelets or permit a particle that has broken away from a blood clot to block a blood vessel . These complications likely come about because the blood is exposed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the mechanical prosthesis , Sotiropoulos said . <p> Doctors also think the complex blood flow patterns around the valve may trigger a cellular response that can lead to the onset of heart diseases . <p> But before the artificial valves can be redesigned , researchers need an in-depth understanding of the flow fields that the valves induce . <p> To date , the fluid mechanics of heart valves has been largely studied by way of experiments , Sotiropoulos said . His research is an attempt to apply both CFD and experimentation to the problem . <p> Cardiovascular flows generally pose unique challenges to even the most advanced CFD tools available today . The interaction between blood motion and compliant vascular walls leads to a very complex fluid-structure problem , he said . <p> Yet Sotiropoulos believes that CFD is developed well enough today to tackle the problem . " Computational resources and especially the advent of massively parallel clusters in the past decade have made it feasible to attempt such complex computations in very demanding simulations , " he said . ( Massively parallel clusters assemble many conventional CPUs into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ large problem . ) <p> Still , his team relies on the results of physical experiments to prove the accuracy of their CFD simulations . An in vitro experiment can use an anatomically realistic model of the human heart , through which researchers can pump blood . They can compare results against those of a CFD model . In vivo information is also available in the MRIs of patients . <p> " Experiments have to accompany CFD modeling to provide it with the credibility medical practitioners need to be convinced they can rely on such modeling tools to make decisions that could ultimately affect the span and quality of the life of the patient , " Sotiropoulos said . <p> The Georgia Tech team ultimately wants their tools to be used in what they call virtual surgery . Doctors would model a patient 's heart and blood flow to plan the best way to operate - before any incision is made . <p> Manufacturers of heart valves can also use the CFD method to optimize their designs to minimize hazards to blood elements . <p> Along with the exciting opportunities @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ does n't become colorful science fiction , but remains grounded to the physical reality it 's intended to simulate , Sotiropoulos added . Advances in other medical technologies make that likely . <p> A major difficulty in applying CFD to cardiovascular flows stemmed from medical researchers ' lack of understanding about the exact geometry of the various blood vessels that serve as the basis for a CFD model . Nowadays , major advances in MRI techniques have improved the accuracy of models of blood vessels . <p> " The availability of anatomically realistic geometries has opened new horizons for CFD and paved the way for CFD to make a major mark in the field of biomedical engineering , " Sotiropoulos said . <p> " The term virtual surgery no longer sounds like catchy phrases from a science-fiction novel ; it 's going to become reality in the coming decades , " he said . <p> " Doctors would use analysis a new joint will wear and software to predict how how tissue will respond to it " <p> " Research could yield the of the turbulence around most accurate depiction @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ form the basis of models that can guide surgeons through the unique fluid dynamics of each patient . <p> to study the effects of circulatory flow on the walls of the aortic arch , above , or to observe in detail a ventricle in the process of pumping blood . <p> By Jean Thilmany <p>

@@4017941 The IBM PowerPC 603e(TM) floating-point unit ( FPU ) is an on-chip functional unit to support IEEE 754 standard single- and double-precision binary floating-point arithmetic operations . The design objectives are to be a low-coat , low-power , high-performance engine in a single-chip superscalar microprocessor . Using less than 15 mm 2 of the available silicon area on the chip ( the size of the PowerPC 603e microprocessor is 98 mm 2 ) and operating at the peak clock frequency of 100 MHz , an average single-pumping multiply-add-fuse instruction has one-cycle throughput and four-cycle latency . An average double-pumping multiply-add-fuse instruction has two-cycle throughput and five-cycle latency . The estimated performance at 100 MHz is 105 against the SPECfp92(TM) benchmark . Introduction <p> The skeleton of the IBM PowerPC 603e(TM) FPU architecture is optimized to perform a multiply and an add operation 1-3 in a single floating-point instruction : <p> FRT = FRA * FRC + FRB , ( 1 ) <p> where FRT is the target operand , and FRA , FRB , and FRC are the three source operands . Each of the four operands can be any one of the 32 user-accessible floating-point registers ( FPRs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and multiply instructions can easily be derived from this multiply-add-fuse instruction by forcing FRC to the constant 1.0 or FRB to the constant 0.0 . <p> The 603e 1 FPU data flow architecture comprises three independent pipeline stages -- the multiply , the carry-propagate-add ( CPA ) , and the Writeback ( WB ) . Each stage requires only one clock cycle to execute in a normal situation . In addition to the 32 user-accessible FPRs , there are four floating-point rename buffers to provide temporary storage for the execution result . These rename buffers are used to allow fast result forwarding for the next instruction and to avoid storage dependency problems . There is hardware to support floating-point divide , **25;867;TOOLONG conversion , denorm input operands , denorm result , IEEE exception handlers , three new graphics instructions , and non-IEEE mode for fast execution . <p> Figure 1 shows the 603e FPU as a function unit which takes instructions from the dispatch unit . The operands can come from either the FPR or the rename buffers . The result is placed at the preassigned rename buffer only . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with LSSD testability . The implementation employs an ASIC design methodology approach to speed up the design cycle time for chip integration ; however , most of the building elements of the 603e FPU are fully custom designed for the specific application in order to achieve peak performance . The control logic is synthesized , placed , and routed automatically . The logic is verified by a random test generation program through both an FPU stand-alone simulation model and a whole-chip simulation model . <p> The 603e FPU has two types of execution modes -- scientific mode and real-time mode . The scientific mode is implemented for precise scientific computations and engineering applications that require high precision and execution power . This mode conforms to ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 4 , the " IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic " ( hereafter referred to as the " IEEE standard " ) , including all four rounding modes and exception status reporting , but it does have a dependency on supporting software in order to do so . All floating-point operations conform to that standard , except when software sets the floating-point @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and control register ( FPSCR ) to 1 , i.e. , real-time mode , in which case floating-point operations conform to a subset of the IEEE standard -- all results are produced without software assistance ( without causing a **27;894;TOOLONG program interrupt , a floating-point-assist interrupt , or a fast-trap ) . All exceptions are handled by hardware , and default numbers such as quiet not-a-number ( QNaN ) , maximum , and zero are output according to the exception . Basic instruction pipeline stage and timing <p> The PowerPC 603e FPU comprises three major stages ( Figure 2 ) . The first stage of the FPU engine is the multiply stage . It performs the main multiply function of FRA times FRC using a 53 by 28-bit Booth recoding Wallace tree multiplier array 5 , 6 to generate the accumulated partial product in the sum-and-carry format . Concurrently , FRB is only right-shifted to align with the result of FRA times FRC . Finally , the aligned FRB and the result of FRA times FRC are compressed by a 3-to-2 carry-save adder . To save silicon area , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a full 53 by 53-bit array using three levels of 4-to-2 carry-save adders . For a double-precision multiply operation , it requires double pumping through the multiplier array . <p> The second stage is the carry-propagate-add stage , which performs a 161-bit one 's complement add using a carry-lookahead adder . The result of the operation goes through a leading-zero detector for normalization shift-count calculation . <p> The third stage is the WB stage , which performs the normalization left shift , rounding , and status generation operations . The final result is stored in one of the four rename buffers and/or forwarded back to the multiply stage for the next instruction execution . The rename buffer content does not update the FPR until the instruction is architecturally completed . <p> Figures 3 and 4 respectively show typical timing examples involving three single-pumping and three double-pumping instructions . For single-precision multiply instructions ( and instructions which do not have the multiply function incorporated in them ) without data dependency , the throughput is one per clock cycle , and the latency is four cycles . For double-precision multiply instructions without @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cycles , and the latency is five cycles . **27;923;TOOLONG <p> Figure 4 shows the major building clements in the 603e FPU for the multiply-add-fuse instruction . The three independent pipeline stages ( multiply , CPA , WB ) require one clock cycle to execute under a normal situation . Extra cycles are required for situations such as the following : For a full double-precision multiply operation , an extra cycle is required for iterating in the multiply stage to double-pump the operand or intermediate result through the multiplier array . The normalization shifter is implemented with a 63-bit left shifter , and in the event of mass cancellation in the mantissa calculation , the WB stage could require one or two extra clock cycles to execute . Underflow and overflow exceptions require an extra cycle in the WB stage for exponent correction . Denormalization of results requires an extra cycle . Bypass unit <p> The block diagram in Figure 5 shows a bypass unit -- used to handle abnormal executions ( i.e. , the abnormal operands NaN and infinity , and abnormal operations such as divide by zero , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The normal multiply and CPA stages are bypassed , and the default result is fed to the WB state to simplify the datapath logic . The bypass unit also manipulates the FPSCR for FPSCR instructions , and handles the graphic-instruction floating-point conditional select register . <p> -- Multiplier array <p> The 603e multiplier is a high-performance fully pipelined multiplier which uses radix-4 Booth recoding 5 to halve the summands ( partial products ) which must be added and a Wallace tree 6 of 4-to-2 CSAs to minimize the time necessary to add the summands together . The multiplier configuration is a 54 x 28 arrangement capable of unsigned operations . The 603e single-precision floating-point multiplication can be operated at the rate of one instruction per cycle . For double-precision multiplications , the operands are double-pumped at each stage to obtain the desired results with the required precision . <p> Figure 6 shows the multiplier array structure . The two feedback paths for the most significant bits of the sum and carry each use a 2:1 mux which allows the results of the first pass to be incorporated into the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> The CPA is implemented as a 161-bit one 's complement adder with an end-around-carry adjustment . It accepts one 's complement input from the aligned FRB , and it accepts the result of FRA * FRC , which is always positive relative to FRB from the multiply stage . The output is represented in sign-magnitude format with the sign bit handled in control logic . The CPA consists of three pieces , as shown in Figure 7 . Since the lower 26-bit product from the multiply array is generated from the first CPA cycle by the carry-lookahead adder ( CLA ) and saved , the lower 26-bit portion of the 161-bit CPA is an incrementer instead of a CLA . Since carry-lookahead incrementers are smaller and faster than carry-lookahead adders , the actual CLA is only 88 bits wide . <p> The propagate from the carry-lookahead incrementer and the group identifier generated by the 87-bit CLA are fed back to the carry-in to correct the end-around-carry problem without a closed loop . XOR gates are used at the output to invert the result back to sign-magnitude format . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ make it easier to convert the result back to sign-magnitude format . The upper 63-bit portion of the 161-bit CPA result is examined for the number of leading zeros for normalization shift count in the next stage . <p> -- Alignment shifter <p> The alignment shifter for the B mantissa is reduced to a 53-bit-input 136-bit-output right shifter through double-pumping . It is implemented as a partial decode having three levels in a multistage structure with partial-shift groups , or as a modulo shifter ( maximum shift count of 143 ) , since each nested shift amount is calculated with modulo arithmetic . Figure 8 shows the three levels , which carry out shifts of binary ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) ; multiples of 4 bits ( 0 , 4 , 8 , 12 ) ; and multiples of 16 bits ( 0 , 16 , 32 , 48 , 64 , 80 , 96 , 112 , 128 ) , respectively . Shifting arising from a negative shift count is prevented by a bypass port in the third level that takes advantage of critical timing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ first two levels . The alignment shifter also includes the automatic sticky-bit detection logic for the bits that are shifted off . <p> -- LZD ( leading-zero detector ) <p> Three 63-bit LZDs inside the FPU are used to calculate the number of leading zeros . The most time-critical one is at the CPA stage after the 161-bit add . It is implemented by three levels of coarse and fine circuits . The first level contains sixteen 4-bit leading-zero-detect circuits . The second level contains four 16-bit leading-zero-detect circuits . The final level contains one 64-bit leading-zero-detect circuit . The other two LZDs are not time-critical and are implemented by synthesis . <p> -- Normalization shifter <p> The normalization shifter comprises three levels and is not a complete shifter . The maximum shift count is 63 . For a normal CPA result , it requires only one pass through to generate the normalization result . For the case of mass cancellation from unlike-sign add operations , it requires one to two extra cycles to normalize the result . A sticky bit is also accumulated for bits beyond bit 53 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , each containing a 70-bit floating-point number . The format of this 70-bit number includes a 3-bit tag , a 1-bit sign , a 13-bit exponent , and a 53-bit mantissa . The FPR register array has one write port from one of the four rename buses . The data transfer control signals and address for the write come from the completion unit , which allows updates from either the writeback unit or the load/store unit . The FPR register array also has three read ports for latching the three operands ( FRA , FRB , and FRC ) needed to execute an instruction . The data transfer control signals and addresses for the three reads come from the dispatch unit . Finally , the FPR register array also has one more read port to the load/store unit . The data transfer control signals and address for this read come from the load/store unit . The four reads and one write can take place at the same time . <p> -- Division <p> The 603e FPU employs a 2-bit nonrestoring division algorithm which produces two correct mantissa bits per cycle @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ normal double-precision divide requires 33 cycles to execute , utilizing most of the existing hardware . Exception detection and handling <p> The 603e FPU detects exceptions in two parts -- an early detect in the first cycle of instruction execution ( multiply ) in the bypass unit , and a late detect in the last cycle of instruction execution ( WB ) . All seven invalid operations exceptions ( Inf - Inf , Inf * Zero , SNan , etc. ) and the zero-divide exception fall in the early-detect category , while all overflow , underflow , and inexact exceptions fall in the late-detect category . For cases of exceptions with corresponding exception-enable bits that are clear in the FPSCR , early detection in the bypass unit is carried out with exponent and mantissa checking , and appropriate default results are generated , while late detection is handled by generating a meaningful result . For enabled exceptions , early-detect exceptions stall the dispatch unit from dispatching further FPU instructions , whereas for late-detect exceptions an adjusted result is prepared and loaded into the rename bus . <p> Figure 9 shows @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ standard assumes that it should be possible to identify the instruction that triggers an exception trap . The 603e FPU identifies each executed instruction with a 3-bit IDN ( ID number assigned during dispatch ) , which is passed on to the completion unit along with the finish signal for an instruction . The completion unit handles situations such as misplaced branches and out-of-order completion among the FPU , the fixed-point unit ( FXU ) , and the load store unit ( LSU ) , and fires a complete signal for the FPU to update architected registers . FPSCR control <p> The floating-point status and condition register ( FPSCR ) is implemented inside the FPU . Each bit in the FPSCR belongs to one of three categories : 1 ) report exception ( sticky ) , 2 ) status , and 3 ) enable and programming mode control bits . The FPSCR is accessed by the following two groups of instructions : FPSCR instructions This group requires machine serialization . Floating-point arithmetic , multiply-add , rounding , and conversion and compare instructions This group does not require instruction serialization . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ required to maintain the FPSCRs in program order . The update from one of two rename FPSCRs to the master FPSCR takes place when the completion unit announces that the associated instruction is completed . <p> The FPSCR is implemented with a full 32-bit master architectural FPSCR and two 17-bit FPSCR rename buffers which are implemented with a stack structure as shown in Figure 10 . The FPSCR rename buffers contain the non-sticky-status bits of ox , ux , zx , xx , vxsnan , vxisi , vxidi , vxzdz , vximz , vxvc , vxcvi , fr , fi , and fprf . <p> The FPSCR renames are updated by the instruction which is at the final cycle of the WB stage . When the completion unit retires the finished FPU instruction , the architectural FPSCR is updated from the bottom of the FPSCR rename stack , and the stack is decremented . When both FPSCR renames in the stack are full , the FPU will be stalled until the FPSCR rename which is on the top of the FPSCR rename stack is free again . Figure 10 and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the state diagram for the FPSCR rename control . Under the assumptions listed below , the performance lost due to stall caused by the lack of FPSCR rename buffers is minimal : Given that there are only four target rename buffers which are being shared with the LSU , and assuming that on the average , the FPU uses only half the number of the target rename buffers , the FPU will be stalled in any case by the lack of target rename buffers . Therefore , only two FPSCR rename buffers are needed to match the four target rename buffers . The probability of having a long instruction ( e.g. , FXU divide , LSU with a miss ) in front of a floating-point instruction is very small . Most FPU applications will not be delayed . **32;952;TOOLONG <p> In the 603e FPU , denormalized source operands are prenormalized by using the normalization shifter in the writeback stage. 2 The bypass unit contains the logic which detects denormalized source operands and stalls the FPU from accepting further instructions . The denormalized operand bypasses the multiply and CPA stages and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ number of denormalized sources , three to five extra cycles are required before the instruction commences execution . A single denormalized source utilizes three extra cycles , where two and three denormalized sources take four and five extra cycles , respectively . Prenormalization is carried out for all instructions which could potentially cause an error in certain cases with denormalized source operands . The prenormalized number is fed back to the EIB for normal execution via the rename bus that was pre-assigned for the target register of that instruction . <p> The extra hardware required for handling denormalized operands consists of a leading-zero detector ( LZD ) in the bypass unit , and minimal logic to detect denormalized operands and to stall the FPU . The LZD in the CPA stage fell in a time-critical path and was not used , since introducing a 2:1 mux in the path would compromise timing . Since the bypass LZD was not time-critical , it was implemented using synthesis . <p> The denormalization operation for denormalized results is handled at the writeback stage . The normalization shifter can only left-shift from 0 to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and the final exponent is computed , if a denorm operation is required , the result is looped back to the WB pipeline register with a 56-bit hardwired right shift while the multiply and CPA stages are stalled . Another left shift is performed by left-shifting the result by ( 56 minus the number of the denorm bit position ) . The denormalizing operation requires an extra cycle . The extra hardware required is an extra port in the writeback register . Design methodology <p> The 603e FPU was described in a proprietary high-level register-transfer design language called Design Structure Language ( DSL ) . The DSL compilers accept hardware constructs in a program like manner and support many levels of hierarchy for a macro design approach . Customized , hand-placed circuits ( off-the-shelf , or OTS , macros ) were used to lead to optimal timing and density for memory elements , multiplexors , and challenging functions . Control logic was developed by allowing synthesis to map the high-level , functional model for each random logic macro ( RLM ) to primitive gates in the technology library . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , hiding a desired implementation from synthesis , or altering synthesis timing assertions . MCSPICE was used for detail circuit simulation on critical speed paths , before and after layout . Summary <p> The IBM PowerPC 603e floating-point unit is an IEEE- 754-compliant fused multiply-add design . With complete hardware support for denormalized numbers , overflow and underflow processing , and invalid operation exceptions , the 603e requires the same minimum software envelope as high-end RS/6000(TM) processors . Requiring less than 15 mm 2 area and operating at 100 MHz , the 603e floating-point unit represents an excellent cost-performance implementation . <p> SPECfp92 is a trademark of Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation . <p> PowerPC 603e and RS/6000 are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation . " PowerPC 603e " and " 603e " denote the same microprocessor . R. Jessani , C. Olson , and M. Putrino , work in progress . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 1 Block diagram of the PowerPC 603e microprocessor . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 2 Major stages of the 603e FPU . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 3 Timing for single-precision multiply in the 603e FPU @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the 603e FPU . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 5 Block diagram of the 603e FPU . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 6 Multiplier array . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 7 Carry-propagate adder . Level 1 : CPA dataflow ; Level 2 : One 's complement adder examples with end-around-carry adjustments ; Level 3 : Actual implementation for the 161-bit adder divided into four sections . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 8 Alignment shifter . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 9 Exception module . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 10 Implementation of the FPSCR rename stack and the architectural FPSCR . <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 11 State diagram for the FPSCR rename control . <p>

@@4018041 The Following is PSA 's annual record of exhibitors who have attained an honored level of achievement , specified by each division , during the past year . Also included in this listing are the PSA Journal Editorial Awards . <p> KEY : First column -- judgings ; Second column -- acceptances ; Asterisk -- judging credit equivalent to entering one exhibition and earning three acceptances . Color Slide <p> The Color Slide Division 's requirement for inclusion in Who 's Who is an acceptance in at least five PSA-recognized judgings . <p> There were one hundred and nineteen 1993 PSA-recognized judgings . Those used in compiling this list are as follows : Algarve , Argentino , Arizona , Austrian Super Circuit4x2 ( four salons of two sections each ) , Auvergne , B.C.RA. , Birkenhead-2 , Bon-A-Slide-2 , Boon Lay , Border , Bristol , Buenos Aires , CACCA , Capitol Circuit-6 , Chinese Photographic Association , Chinese YMCA , Circle of Confusion , Detroit , Eastcape , El Camino , Euro-Picamera , Garden State , Georgia Southern Circuit-3 , Golden Cat , Golden River , Golden Spurs , Grace , Greater Lynn , Halifax , H.K.C.P.A.C. , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Hong Kong Slide Society , Howrah , Indian Circuit6 , Iris , Jackson , Kerala , Kowloon , Luxembourg , Macao , Maitland , Masters Circuit4x2 , Midland , Minneapolis , Minneapolis/St . Paul , Mississippi Valley , Mother Lode , National orange , North American , North Texas , Northern Counties , Northwest , Oklahoma , Old Dominion-6 , R.A.B. , P.A.D. , Paisley Photo Art of Singapore , Photo Image , Photographic Society of America , Photographic Society of Hong Kong , Photographic Society of Singapore , Pittsburgh , Pretoria , Ridgewood , Rosario , S4C , San Antonio Scottish , Siam , Smethwick , Southampton , Springfield , Sydney , Taipei , Teaneck , Tribute to Colour , Tulsa , U.A.P.A. , Welsh , Westchester , Wichita , Wilmington , Wisconsin and Worcestershire . <p> Every effort has been made to keep this list accurate . However , misplacement and misspelling of names and unreported errors in the catalogs may have resulted in some inaccuracies . Some exhibition catalogs challenge the directors to attribute the correct number of titles to the correct exhibitor . AND exhibitors are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all exhibition entries to facilitate correct credits . Inquiries are welcome but must be accompanied by a list of exhibitions entered , the titles of acceptances in each exhibition and postage for the reply . PREFORMATTED TABLE Nature <p> Compiled by Irene Mudrak , FPSA , 917 Woodmere Dr. , Broadview Heights , Oh 44147-1617 Nature Slides <p> The following list includes all exhibitors who have five or more acceptances in international exhibitions recognized by the PSA Nature Division with closing dates in 1993 . There were 63 recognized exhibitions . <p> The exhibitions are : AMCA Insect , Argentino , Auvergne , BCPA , Birkenhead , Bon-A-Slide , Border , Bristol , Buenos Aires , CACCA , Circle of Confusion , Columbus Detroit , Eastcape , El Camino , EuroPicamera , Festicolor , Golden Cat , Golden River , Golden Spurs , HKCPAC , Halifax , Howrah , India Circuit ( 6 ) , Iris , Kajaani , Kerala , Maitland , Midland , Mile High , Minneapolis-St . Paul , Minnesota Botany , Mississippi Valley , National Insect , National Orange , North American , North Central Insect @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Paisley , Pretoria , PSA , Rosario , S4C , Saguaro , San Antonio , Scottis , Smethwick , Southampton , Sydney , Taiepei , Tulsa Magic Empire , Welsh , Westchester , Witchita , Worcestershire . <p> Each asterisk ( * ) before the number of exhibition indicates a judging credit which is equivalent to entering an exhibition and earning three acceptances . PREFORMATTED TABLE Nature Prints <p> The following listing includes all exhibitors who have three or more acceptances in international exhibitions recognized by the PSA Nature Division with closing dates in 1993 . There were 17 recognized print exhibitions : CACCA , Detroit , Eastcape , India Circuit ( 5 Exh . ) , Kajaani , Maitland , Midland , North Texas , Oklahoma , Pakistan , Pretoria , PSA and Sydney . <p> Each asterisk ( * ) before the number of exhibitions indicates a judging credit which is equivalent to entering one exhibition and earning three acceptances . PREFORMATTED TABLE Photojournalism <p> Compiled by Terry Mahon , 933 45th , Street , Rock Island , IL 61201 <p> The exhibitions in this listing met @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at least two of those exhibits are required in order to qualify for Who 's Who . Photojournalism prints and slides have been totaled separately . <p> The following exhibits were recognized during 1993 : Argentina , BCPA , Border , Buenos Aires , CACCA , Calgary , Euro Picamera , Golden West Indian Circuit , Iris , Kerala , Laymans NAt'l Bible , Midland , North American , North Texas , Northwest , Oklahoma , PAD , PICC , PSA , Rosario , S4C , Santa Fe , Southwest , Weschester , Wichita and Wilmington . <p> Each asterisk ( * ) indicates that an individual has judged an exhibit and has been awarded three acceptances for that effort . PREFORMATTED TABLE Photo Travel <p> Compiled by Beverly Goldey , FPSA , 251 East 51 Street , New York , NY 10022 <p> The following list includes all exhibitors who have had acceptances in three ( 3 ) or more PSA-recognized Photo-Travel Exhibitions during 1993 . The thirty-seven ( 37 ) recognized exhibitions ar BCPA , CACCA , Circle of Confusion , Columbus , Eastcape , Euro-Picamera , Georgia @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Cat , Golden Spurs , Golden West , Grace , Illini ( 2 ) , Indian Circuit ( 6 ) , Kerala , Minneapolis-St . Paul , Mississippi Valley , Mother Lode , North American , PSA-Atlanta , Photo Travelers , PAD , Rosarion , S4C , Siam , Smetwick , Sunshine State , Tulsa Magic Empire , Westchester . <p> An asterisk ( * ) denotes credit for judging the above 37 exhibitions , which is equivalent to entering one exhibitions and having three acceptances . PREFORMATTED TABLE Pictorial Print <p> Compiled by Simon &; Rhyna , APSA , Goldsmith and Nancy Sams , 3861 N. Sapphire , Mesa , AZ 85215 Notes : 1 . Masters Circuit , 1st/Linz catalog was not received and will be listed in the 1994 totals . <p> 2 . Kedah , 4th,1992. is included in 1993 totals . <p> 3 . Hong camera Club , 1993 , was withdrawn due to irregularities . <p> 4 . Of these 61 Internationall Exhibitions recognized by PSA , the Austrial Super Circuit consisted of four exhibitions . If an entrant enterd both Large Color Print @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the totals . <p> 5 . In the India Circuit , there were five exhibitions . <p> 6 . An asterisk denotes judging in at least one exhibition with three acceptances given for that event . <p> 7 . Five Acceptances are needed for this list . The exhibitions in this list are : Smethwick 18th , Maitland 36th 1992 , Keddah 4th , ACP/Calcutta , Circle of Confusion 56th , Southampton , Reflet Mondial , Festicolor 39th , San Antonio , Boon Lay , Argentino 1992 late Wichita 36th , National Orange , Scottish 76th , Exhibitions Assn . ( EA HK ) , North American , Teaneck , NY Color ( PSNY ) -21st , Pretoria 12th , UAPA 4th-Kowloon , Garden State , Macau , Calgary , Chinese YMCA , South Shields , PS/Singapore , Algarve , S4C , NCPA Ngai Ching , North Texas , CPA/HK 34th , Oregon , PSA Atlanta , Nortwest , Oklahoma , Santa Fe/Argentina , Photo Art/Singapore-13th , Arizona , Foto Club Argentino , Austrian Sup . Circuit , Halifax-The Atlantic Winter , CACCC 13th , Detroit 60th , Jackson @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Miri 2nd , Mondial 30th Lux , Mississippi Valley , Sydney , Pakistan-9th , Rosario 42nd , Eastcape , Central Washington State Fair , Border RSA , India circuit , Buenes Aires , Ohio Capitol-Columbus , PSHC-Photographic Society of Hong Kong , Wilmington , Hongkong Photo Art-1st . PREFORMATTED TABLE Monochrome Prints <p> Compiled by Larry Price , 4911 Michigan Ave. , St. Louis , MO 63111 There were 55 internationals recognized by the PSA Pictorial Monochrome Print Division . ( 1st Master Circuit and India Print Circuit , four exhibitions each , was accredited , but catalogs not received . If anyone who entered these exhibions has a catalog. , please send it to me and I will give the credit next year be sure to include the judges ) . <p> The Exhibitions were : Wilmington , Circle of Confusion , A.C.P. , Reflect mondial South Hampton , Pretoria , San Antonio , UAPA , Ohio Capital , Wichita , Teaneck , Eastcape , Maitland , Exhib Assoc. , Calgary , S4C , National Orange Show , Garden State , North American , Scottish , 7th Macau @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Austrian Super Circuit , Border , Minneapolis/St . Paul , Roasarion , Jackson , Oklahoma , Central Washington , Detroit , Midland , Mondial , Arizona , H.J. Photo Are 13th CACCA , Pakistan , Kowloon , Mississippi Valley Salon , Hong Kong . <p> Only exhibitors who had five or more acceptances are included in this list . Each asterisk ( F* ) indicates a judging credit equivalent to entering one exhibition and receiving three acceptances . To be listed , a judge must have entered , as a contestant , in at least one exhibition . PREFORMATTED TABLE COMMERCIAL PRINTS <p> Compiled by Diane Racey , APSA , 2967 N. Verdugo Rd. , Glendale , CA 91208 <p> The Commercial Print Division finished its third year in good shape . The approved exhibitions that sent catalogs were Arizona , Border , Circle of Confusion , jackson , Minneapolis/St . Paul , National Orange , North west , Ohio Capital , PSA , and S4C . There were 157 individuals that had at least one acceptance . Entries came from Brazil , Canada , England , Germany , Hong @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as the US . Northwest alone had 229 entrants . <p> Class C Commercial Prints must be made by a commercial lab and have a maximum size of 8 by 12 inches ( 20 x 30 cm ) with optional mounting . Please be sure to read entry forms carefully , and mark entries Class C. It is difficult if not impossible to tell if an 8 x 10 is homemade or commercial . Again I noted some acceptances that may have bneen in the wrong class . <p> Those exhibitors having acceptances in more than one salon are listed here . There were no judging credits noted . PREFORMATTED TABLE SMALL PRINTS <p> Compiled by Diane Racey , APSA , 2967 N. Verdugo Rd. , Glendale , CA 91208 <p> The Small Print Division has completed its ninth year . We gained one new exhibition in CACCA which will return in 1995 . While numbers are down , exhibitions had entries from Austria , Bangladesh , Canada , costa Rica , Czech Republic , Denmark , Ecuador , Germany , South Korea , Luxembourg , netherlands , Norway , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 76 individuals that recieved at least one acceptance and small color had 47 . There is a consistent core of exhibitors and several have achievedtheir third star . <p> With postage costs threatening to rise again and the increased costs of materials , this division offers print makers a more economical way to compete with their work . Prints must be a maximum of 8 by 10 inches ( 20 x 25 cm ) either unmounted or on lightweight 8 x 10 months amd must be printed by the exhibitor . Proper marking of entry forms is necessary -- these ae CLASS B. also , an exhibitor may not enter more than one color and/or one monochrome class per exhibition . <p> The Small Print Division had 13 exhibitions approved for 1993 . Whether this was an unlucky number or not , I only received catalogs for 11 . Those included in this report : Arizona , CACCA , Garden State , Jackson , Minneapolis/St . Paul , National Orange , North Texas , Northwest , Ohio Capital , PSA , and S4C . Exhibitors who had acceptance in a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ three acceptance is given . PREFORMATTED TABLE Stereo <p> Compiled by Erma I. Lauck , APSA , 56865 Ivanhoe Drive , Yucca Valley , CA 92284 <p> The exhibitors in this listing met the Stereo Division 's requirements of having one or more sliders accepted in two or more international exhibitions . <p> There were thirteen international stereo exhibitions in 1993 : Auvergne , Chicago Lighthouse , Cordova , Detroit , Hollywood , Oakland , PSA International , PSA Stereo Sequence , PSA Traveling , Rocky Mountain , Southern Cross , Thrd Dimension , Society , and Wichita exhibitions . <p> The Stereo Division allows an exhibiting judge a slide acceptance credit of three for each salon judged . By this procedure a judge is not penalized in the standing of the division by a willingness to act as a judge when called upon to do so . The number of exhibitions judged is shown by asterisks preceding the number of acceptances . Star ratings of the exhibitors are incorporated in records of " Who 's Who in Stereo Photography " and are indicated by the stars following each exhibitor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Compiled by DR . James A. Reynolds , 171 Linden Avenue , St. Louis , Mo 63105 <p> The following competitons have been included : america Internatioanl Film and Video Festival ( I ) , Canadian International Film Festival ( I ) , pSA-VMPD ( II ) , Society of Amateur Video Makers &; Cinematographers ( I ) , Society of Canadian Cine Amateurs ( I ) , and Ten best of the West ( II ) . <p> Those listed have two exhibitions or a minimum of 20 acceptances . any inquiries regarding the point listing should be accompanied by the exhibitor 's complete record as it appears in his/her files . PREFORMATTED TABLE EDITORIAL AWARDS <p> Compiled by W.B. ( Web ) Heidt , FPSA , Chairman , Editorial Awards Committee , 124 Blossom Glen Way , Los Gatos , CA 95032-3807 <p> This list includes the names of PSA members who have been awardee at least five points for articles or photographs published in the PSA Journal duting the year 1993 . Points range from two points for a new item to 30 points for a full @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Committee maintains a cumulative point record for each PSA member who has contributed to the Journal . The records are updated monthly upon receipt of the Journal . An Editorial Awards Card , indicating the number of points awarded each month , is sent to each member at the end of each quarter . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p>

@@4018241 In my article , " Advanced Two-Projector Program Techniques " ( PSA Journal , February 2000 , pgs. 16-18 ) , I discussed tape recording equipment and the preparation of sound tracks for sound-synchronized slide projector programs . <p> Tape recording , however , has a number of weaknesses . If you inadvertently fail to include a music or narration segment , or make a mistake in a segment and do n't catch it right away , it is necessary to make insertions later on , which is much more work . The traditional solution is to copy the tape to another one , making corrections as needed . This is a royal pain since it means starting and stopping both tapes , finding the proper insertion points , and using a third tape for the replacements . Moreover , the clicks that result when starting and stopping a tape further degrade its quality . <p> However , for those readers who have access to a home computer , these sound tracks can be improved and edited with a great deal more ease and precision than that afforded by cassette-to-cassette tape recorders . Equipment <p> A cable is needed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ equipment . The cable ( available from Radio Shack , Cat . No. 42-2483 ) has two RCA plugs on one end ( this connects to the " line-out " of your audio equipment , typically the amplifier ) and a 1/8 " stereo plug on the other ( this connects to the " line-in " of your sound card or onboard audio . ( Note : Many computers have their audio built right into the motherboard ; the connectors , however , are available at the back of the computer just as they are with sound cards . ) <p> Transferring the sound from a tape to the computer takes place in real-time , i.e. , if the tape contains 30 minutes of sound , it will take 30 minutes to digitize and record it ( once you push the " record " button , you can , of course , walk away and have lunch or whatever ! ) . For each minute of stereo sound recorded at a sample rate of 44,100 Hz and a 16-bit sample size , you must have roughly 10MB of free disk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a 300 MB sound file . Therefore , a hard drive with sufficient free space is required . However , I find that recording at a sample rate of 22,050 Hz and an 8-bit sample size results in a quality level that is entirely satisfactory for slide show audiences . At this level a 30-minute recording results in a file size of only 75 MB . Note that the actual file sizes you will experience may be 5 to 10 percent larger because edited sound files invariably contain additional information that you supply , such as commentary and marking points . <p> You also will most likely need some RCA-type cables to complete the connections between the computer and the audio equipment , the kind and number of which will depend upon your particular setup . To avoid having to connect and disconnect these cables , a pair of audio switch selectors - one for computer input and one for output - is useful ( Radio Shack , 42-2112 ) . <p> There are two methods for getting the sound file out of your computer : Transferring to Tape : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the 1/8 " stereo end is connected to the auxiliary " line-out " of your sound card ( the standard " line-out " is usually connected to computer 's amplified speakers ) , and the RCA plugs to the " line-in " of your audio equipment . This is a digital-to-analog conversion . One problem that may arise is that some sound cards , and even more frequently on-board audio , do not have more than one " line-out " connector . In this case you must split the signal with a 1/8 " stereo headphone Y-adapter ( Radio Shack , Cat . No. 42-2463 ) , one leg of the Y going to your speakers and the other going to the " line-in " of your audio equipment . Transferring to CD : If you have a CDR and there is a CD player included in your audio equipment , the sound file can be " burned " to a CD . This is a lot faster than transferring the file to tape where again the transfer occurs in real time . Since it is a digital-to-digital conversion , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ you do n't have to re-do the editing and re-bum it is cheaper since CD-R blanks cost less than a tape . ( Note : If you have a CD-RW , do n't copy the file to a RW disk , as these usually can not be played in an ordinary CD player . However , CD-RWs can also copy files to a CD-R disk , so this poses no problem for those who have such equipment . ) Software <p> Software is needed to digitize and record the sound from a tape and to edit the resulting sound file . The sound-editing program I use is Sound Forge XP 4.5 ( www.sonicfoundry.com ) . It is easy to use and inexpensive ( I got mine from www.buy.com for $30 plus shipping ) . Once the analog sound on the tape is converted into a digital form and recorded , it is saved as a digital WAV file . Then , using the sound editor , the WAV file is edited . <p> If the music you are planning to use is on a tape , then transfer is in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to transfer 30 minutes of music from the tape to your computer . However , if it is on an audio CD , it can be transferred to your sound file directly in a matter of a minute or two ( a process known as " tipping " ) . For this you will need another piece of software and the one I use is a " freeware " program ( nope - does n't cost anything ! ) called " Audio Crasher , " downloadable at www.sysdesk.de.It is easy to use , fast , and the price is right . Editing Sound <p> Unlike tape , where one must spend considerable time forwarding or reversing the tape to get to a target point , moving around in a sound file is both precise and fast . On the sound file you can , among other things , do the following : Remove the noises made when starting and stopping the tape ; Add or replace narration or music segments with ease ; Adjust the volume of individual segments ; Fade sound in or out ; Add , delete , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The procedure for removing starting and stopping noises is simple . When you play a sound file on your computer using a sound-editor , you not only hear the sound through the computer 's speakers , but you see the waveform on the monitor . The unwanted sounds are shown as " blips " on the waveform . The playback is stopped at these points and the segment containing the blips is selected with your mouse and " muted , " in effect replacing them with silence . <p> Adding or replacing narration or music segments is just as easy . After recording the additions or replacements on tape they are digitized to a different file . The segments are then inserted from this secondary file into the main file precisely where you want them . Another advantage is that although it is not always possible or easy to tape-record replacement music or narration to match the sound volume of the rest of the tape , in a digitized sound file a sound editor can adjust the volume and/or tone of any part of the file with just a few @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or out using a tape deck , a sound editor can do this automatically with a single mouse click or , alternatively , you can specify the exact shape of the fade-in or fade-out amplitude . <p> The ability to add or delete segments of silence in a sound track comes in handy . For example , when adding music to the end of an existing music selection , you must first press the record button on the tape and then the play button on the music source device . Since this takes some time there is always a small segment of silence between the selections . The segment of silence can easily be removed in a sound editor , making the two musical selections sound as if they came from the same sound track . <p> Although there is not sufficient space in this article to examine sound editing in detail , the accompanying figure shows what a wave file looks like and some of the advantages of audio editing . The top row shows the narration for each slide and the bottom row shows the continuous music accompanying @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the narrations are set precisely ( to a thousandth of a second if you want ! ) . The first four intervals are set to 8 seconds , the fifth to 16 seconds since there is a single non-narrated slide between them , and the sixth at 24 seconds since there are two non-narrated slides between them . Next , observe that the maximum volume of the music has been adjusted so that there are no sudden , loud changes that would be distracting or irritating to the audience . Many music selections that were unsuitable previously , now become useful . <p> Thirdly , note that the sound level of the music has been lowered during the narrations so it does not interfere with the audience 's ability to hear the narrator . This is a smooth reduction that starts about 1 second before the narration starts and fades the music gently to a low level , and then fades it back up after the narration is completed . It is accomplished by a single keystroke , using the Sound Forge " Graphic Fade " command . Finally , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the middle of the fifth narration . This is where I have changed the music . The change is made during a narration when it is low enough so that the audience does n't notice the transition . Annotations can be as simple as this one word or as complex as a sentence . Either way they do not show up on the sound track when it is played and a single keystroke takes you instantly to any one of them . <p> In addition to perfecting your sound tracks , be they narration or music , computer-based sound editing is kind of fun . You can take your time editing , it is easy , and if you make a mistake you can re-do it and try again . It requires a modest investment in cables and software , but the end result is professional-quality sound in your presentations . As the saying goes , " The devil is in the details , " and there is the inevitable tinkering with computer settings before everything works just right . I would be happy , therefore , to respond @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ suggestions . Contact me at aklee@fuse.net . <p> By Albert J. Klee , Milford , OH <p>

@@4018341 Division News , Photography Tips &; More ! Electronic Imaging http : //psa-eid.org/ PREFORMATTED TABLE EID Virtual Exhibitions <p> Creative Competition for Individuals <p> The EID Creative Competition for Individuals ( EID-CCI ) is open to all PSA members . The competition consists of three sessions each year occurring in February , June and October . Each entrant may submit up to four images via the Internet in each session for a maximum of twelve per competition year . The fee per entrant for the entire competition year is $5.00 . <p> Awards are Best of Show and Honorable Mentions in each session . The winning images are displayed on the competition website following each session . A special award for the entrant with the most accumulated points for all three sessions is presented after the final session is judged . <p> The Creative Competition for Individuals has gotten off to a good start . Nick Muskovac , APSA , PPSA , heads up this new activity and competitions are scheduled for July and November , 2004 . <p> Entries for the second session will be accepted during the month of June 2004 . See the EID Creative Competition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Form and Session Results at http : **38;3654;TOOLONG . For additional information about this competition , please send an e-mail to Chairman Nick Muskovac at nmuskov1@tampabay.rr.com . <p> All interested EID Members are encouraged to participate in this activity . It 's a lot of fun and it 's quite easy . If you 're in doubt about entries or have questions , please feel free to contact me at chairman@psa-eid.org . Video News <p> It is important that anyone wishing to enter the International Video Salon contact Dr. Christine Haycock , FPSA , PPSA at chaycock361@pol.net for the application form and the submission rules . The rules have changed from previous years . The major change is the permissible formats . Color Slide http : //psa-csd.org/csd.html PREFORMATTED TABLE Introductory Color Slide Competition for Individuals ( ICSCI ) <p> Round Three of the ICSCI was judged on April 7 , 2004 by Ken Cordas , George Hagen , and Greg Locke -- members of Anaheim Camera Enthusiasts ( CA ) . Donald Diehl of Royal Oak , MI received the First place award for his image St. Peters Int . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of Fairfield , OH for his entry Vermont Fall . Dorothy Mills of New York City , NY was awarded Third place for Travis &; Dante . <p> Honorable Mention ribbons were awarded to Patricia Muller of Portola Valley , CA for Swallowing Caterpillar ; Tracey Thompson of Cranbury , NJ for East Point Lighthouse and White Mountains in Winter ; and Cindy Walpole of Pt . Pleasant , NJ for The Blind Sheik . Joanne Stolte <p> Individual Portrait Competition <p> Round Three of the Individual Portrait Competition was judged by Anne Eastwood ; June Hughes , APSA ; and Stan Watt , PPSA , of Pasadena Photochromers Camera Club in Arcadia , CA on March 12 , 2004 . <p> In Class B , the Award went to Linda Hollinger of PA for Jamila and an Honorable Mention went to Linda Hollinger of PA for Ed . <p> In Class A , Award ribbons were given to Erwin Traunmuller of Austria for Opa mit Enkelin , Willy Van de Poel of Belgium for Milady , and Lawrence Yeo Kok Lip , EPSA of Singapore for Uncle Sam and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , FPSA , of FL for Japanese Gentleman with Thai Hat ; Weng Chow Yip of Singapore for Smiling Monk ; Claudia Peterson of CA for Foxy Senior Citizen ; Willy Van de Poel of Belgium for White Hat ; and Flor Van Laer of Belgium for Nadia-V . Melissa Sonnen <p> Color Slide Division PSA Conference Programs <p> Mary Ellen Brucker , FPSA , Conference Program Director for the Color Slide Division ( CSD ) , reports that four outstanding programs offering a variety of photographic how-to subjects are lined up for the 2004 PSA Conference in Minneapolis . <p> M. Craig Carver , FPSA , of Portland , OR will present Photography at Home , a new program detailing many ideas for photo projects one can do without leaving the house . The program draws on Carver 's well-known creativity in abstract , close-up , glass , and other subjects ; and provides clear instructions for photographers at all skill levels . <p> One of PSA 's most successful portrait photographers , Liz Keery , APSA , of Somers , CT will show how she works her magic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ characterized by dramatic color , flawless lighting , and dating composition ( e.g. , she has successfully shot her subjects in horizontal formats ) . <p> Light , a key element in most images , is the subject of two other CSD programs . Alan Millward , FPSA of England will present Different Light for Different Subjects . This program features landscapes , many from the UK , along with people and some nature subjects . <p> Ambient Light is the subject Mike Rudman , APSA , will cover in his presentation , his second in two years . Attendees will remember his very popular program on landscape photography last year in Houston . Nature PREFORMATTED TABLE Digital Nature Exhibitions <p> The feasibility of conducting a digital Nature exhibition , where acceptances could be credited towards a Nature star rating , is being discussed in the Nature Division . At present , only prints or slides are allowed in Nature exhibitions . <p> Photographs for this type of salon would be submitted and judged according to the technical rules of the EID , but adhere to the traditional definition of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the photograph with all the wonderful tools on the computer would NOT BE AN OPTION . Rules governing these nature salons will be discussed and proposed by the Nature Division for the Consolidated Exhibition Standards during the coming year . Limitations on Nature Section Entries <p> The Consolidated Exhibition Standards state that an entrant may only enter a maximum of two sections of a PSA-recognized nature exhibition and use these acceptances for credit in Star Ratings and Who 's Who . Currently an exhibition may run general nature and wildlife sections in both slides and prints , but only two of these may be used for credit . It is the responsibility of the exhibition Chairman to include a statement to that effect on the entry form and to only judge entries for two sections for each individual . Marilyn Cloran <p> Pictorial Print PREFORMATTED TABLE Five-Star Awards <p> Star ratings are not usually reported in the PPD column . However , this time it is warranted because it is a milestone for a relatively new print category . Small Monochrome Prints has been gaining popularity and has a contributor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to reach the five-star award . She also joins a very small number of people who have attained the five-star category in Small Color Prints . Green Eagle Awards <p> We have an unusual occurrence this month . Three members of the #39 Study Group have received their certificates for 15 Green Eagle Awards : Richard Mueller , Eric Wagner and Taylor Williams . Congratulations ! Print of the Month ( POM ) Notice <p> For many years , Anthony and Lois Winston , APSAs , have shared Director duties for the Pictorial Print of the Month group . They are giving up the Director position beginning in July . You may send your June entries to Tony and Lois as before . However , for the July contest , you should mail your entries to the new Director , Joe Hearst at 685 Glen Road , Danville , CA 94526 . Welcome Joe and many thanks to Lois and Tony . International Club Print Competition <p> We now have the results of the February contest for the International Club Print Competition ( ICPC ) and we list the first @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ makers , Tower of London Chapel by Tim Lemon of Photo Guild , Detroit . <p> Class AB advanced monochrome print makers , Just Resting by Janis Maddalena , Suffolk CC , Brentwood . <p> Class KK color prints by makers only , Caf Van Gogh by Tim Lemon , Photo Guild , Detroit . <p> Class TP color prints by professional labs , Peggy 's Panorama by Fred Greene , FPSA , EPSA , Photo Guild , Nova Scotia . Highlighting Pictorial Print Division ( PPD ) Participants <p> This month the American Portfolios ( Study Groups ) Director , Richard Collier , is featured . Richard has had a variety of business experiences ranging from managing the family bowling lanes , to Computer Programmer to Investment Representative and he is now retired . He remains active in the Southern California Council of Camera Clubs ( S4C ) , having been president and board director . He has been the Director of the American Portfolios ( study groups ) since 1990 . Photojournalism <p> Keith Vaughan , FPSA , EPSA , Editor 7 Amberwood Court , Halifax , Nova @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Keith.Vaughan@smu.ca Photojournalist of the Year ( Annual Smith Award ) <p> PJ exhibitors are reminded that the closing date for entries in the 2003 Photojournalist of the Year ( PJOY ) contest is July 31 , 2004 . Slides and prints that won awards higher than HM in any PSA-recognized exhibition during the calendar year 2003 , except any image having previously won PJOY , are eligible for entry in this competition . The photographer/ maker must be a PSA member in good standing . See PSA Journal/ January 2004 for details or Opportunities PDF on the PSA website . The PJOY competition is organized by the Director , Thomas Moorhead , APSA , 196 Palisade Avenue , Emerson , NJ 07630 . Tugging at Your Heart Strings <p> The deadline for submission of slides for the " Tugging at Your Heart Strings " competition is July 1st , 2004 . Slides should be submitted to Joanne Stolte and the images will be used for a presentation at the 2004 PSA conference , which will be choreographed by Dale Gilkinson , FPSA and Diane Racey , FPSA , PPSA . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the April issue of the PSA Journal . <p> Interclub Slide Competition Director Ralph Pyke , FPSA , has reported the results of the March 2004 PJ Interclub judging from Gerald Emmerich , Jr , FPSA , EPSA . The slides were judged by the East Troy Viewfinders Camera Club of which Gerald is a member . Gerry acted as the competition supervisor . The judges were Joe Haertle , Sandy Matson and Dan Richardson . The results are : st - Working High Wire by Herman Keller , Circle of Confusion , 13 points nd - Zoar Gap Kayak by Judy Manna , Greater Lynn Photographic Association , 13 points rd - Innocent Lives Lost by Cissy Dawson , Dallas Camera Club , 13 points <p> HM - 4th of July by Pat Crofton , Houston Camera Club , 13 points <p> HM - Trick Star BMX Show by Judy Manna , 13 points <p> HM - Face Painting by Wayne Garland , Photo Guild of Nova Scotia , 12 points <p> HM - Senior Moving With The Wind by Joe Burgess , Greater Lynn , 12 points @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 12 points <p> HM - Skateboarding #2a by Ralph Pyke , FPSA , Dallas CC , 12 points <p> HM - MHC-LAX by Andrew Katsampes , Greater Lynn , 12 points <p> HM - Straining at the Oars by Tony Oberbrunner , Photo Pictorialists of Milwaukee , 12 points <p> HM - MHC-03 LAX by Andrew Katsampes , Greater Lynn , 12 points The Club standings are : <p> Greater Lynn , 209 points Dallas CC , 199 points Circle of Confusion , 198 points Photo Guild of NS , 195 points Photo Pictorialists of Milwaukee , 191 points Oklahoma CC , 189 points Image Makers CC , 187 points IIWF Germany , 180 points Houston CC , 173 points Charlotte CC , 170 points <p> Greater Lynn entered an extra set of slides to make up for the set not entered in January when they judged . Oklahoma also entered an extra set since they are going to judge the next round in June . The scores from their sets were not included in the totals . Deadline for the next round at Oklahoma is June 1st . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Ralph Pyke for the Slide of the Year competition . Winners will be announced at the PSA conference in Minneapolis . Photo Travel <p> Robert B. Gorrill , APSA , Editor 48 High Street , Damariscotta , ME 04543 ( 207 ) 563-7463 , RGorrill@photo-ne.com <p> Philomena Martin , APSA , Star Ratings Director for the Division , reports that Jozef Aerts , FPSA , EPSA of Belgium is the first to achieve the Photo Traveler IX award . Congratulations to Jozef on this achievement . <p> Philomena goes on to state that the requirements for the Photo Traveler awards are as follows : <p> Photo Traveler 1-5 : 25 new titles with 3 acceptances each . <p> Photo Traveler 6-8 : 50 new titles with 3 acceptances each . <p> Photo Traveler 9 and 10 : 75 new titles with 3 acceptances each . <p> Faye Jones reports that three clubs were overlooked in her reporting of the February Photo Travel competition results . Those clubs were Pilchuck Camera Club with a score of 61 ; Warren Photographic with 57 and Flatirons Foto Club with 60 . Faye expresses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lists to the clubs in question . <p> Be sure to send me your news items for inclusion in this column about events that would be of interest to all of our division members . E-mail me at rgorrill@photo-ne.com with information . Stereo PREFORMATTED TABLE Important Information <p> There is continued misunderstanding about what 3D images are eligible for exhibitions . To be eligible an image must be an original photographic image taken by the maker . After that it can be modified or manipulated in an image-editing software program as long as it contains at least 50% photographic content when completed . <p> A picture of another 's artwork or creation does not qualify as a photographic image . Further , it raises questions of copyright violation in some cases . Conversion of such images to 3D is interesting and to be commended , but this does not qualify the image for a photographic exhibition . However , any recognized exhibition has the option to sponsor a non-recognized section for non-photographic images , as Cascade has done . If there is enough interest in this area , a special @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Pauline Fredrickson <p> USA Slide Study Group Winners <p> No. 1 , Round K : st - White Amaryllis by Paul Milligan nd - Water Carved Canyon by Ray Kluever rd - Christmas Cactus by Paul Milligan <p> No. 2 . Round Y : <p> 1st - Man , That 's Hot by Marty Abramson <p> Tie - Milkweed by Wilbur Dick 2nd - Pigeons and Church by Lewis Regelman 3rd - Weaver , Peru by Lewis Regelman <p> Tie - Farm Implements by Hank Washburn <p> Tie - Mountain Top by Hank Washburn <p> No. 3 , Round N : <p> 1st - Protea III by Norm Henkels <p> Tie - Garden Statues by Bill Payne <p> Tie - POV-Ray Direction Parameter by Bill Payne <p> 2nd - Pennant Fish by Norm Henkels <p> Tie - Title Slide by Bill Payne <p> Tie - West Mitten by Micki Morison <p> 3rd - Goethite Crystals on Quartz by Barrie Bieler <p> Tie - Columner by Norm Henkels <p> Tie - Banded Colors in the Desert by Paul Milligan <p> Tie - Canyonlands From a Plane by Paul Milligan <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ No. 6 , Round H : st - Jeep Arch by David K. Morison nd - Sunset at Capital Reef by David Morison rd - New Owner of Pier by Bruno Lizzi <p> No. 8 , Round W : st - A Temple -- Hoi An by Marie-Francoise Brasquies nd - Late Spring At US Capitol by Paul Talbot <p> Tie - Silversword , S. B. by Paul Talbot <p> 3rd - The Golden Gate on a June Day by Dave Thayer <p> Tie - Goosenecks of the San Juan by Les Gehman <p> No. 10 , Round U : <p> 1st - Cross , Mount St. Joseph by Dale Walsh <p> Tie - Oregon Surf -- After by Lee Pratt 2nd - White Sand Sentinel by Micki Morison 3rd - Looking Thru Mesa Arch by Micki Morison <p> To join a study group , contact M-F Brasquies , APSA , SD Study Group Director , 72-34 , Austin St. , F-2 , Forest Hills , NY 11375-5358 . Participating in a study group is one of the most enjoyable activities of the Stereo Division and a good way to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> The Gold Rush Chapter was organized on April 1 , 1970 and chartered on April 20 , 1970 . It serves the counties of Alpine , Amador , Butte , Calaveras , Colusa , El Dorado , Glenn , Lassen , Modoc , Mono , Nevada , Placer , Plumas , Sacramento , San Joaquin , Shasta , Sierra , Siskiyou , Stanislaus , Sutter , Tehama , Tuolumne , Yolo and Yubu in northern California and Churchill , Douglas , Iyon , Ormsby , Storey and Washoe in northwest Nevada . <p> As one of the most successful Chapters , in the early 1980s they sponsored the Reno-Sparks PSA Regional Conference . Inspired by the enthusiastic response , in 1988 the Chapter joined forces with the Yerba Buena Chapter to co-sponsor the Annual Asilomar Conference . In June of 1993 , the Chapter again sponsored and hosted another successful PSA Regional Convention in Sacramento , CA . <p> To promote photography among the youth , the Chapter participates in the Annual PSA Youth Showcase . The 1999 winner of the Youth Showcase Brian William Goldberg Award @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The teacher , as well as other students , attended the event . <p> The success of the Chapter is attributed to its experienced and dedicated program chairmen who secure the most talented presenters and arrange for a variety of subjects and " how to " programs for each quarterly event . In addition , attendees are invited to bring their photographic works for display and review . This creates an excellent opportunity to exchange stimulating ideas and techniques among attendees . The Gold Rush Nugget Bulletin keeps the membership informed and it is presently edited by Diana Valusek . The Chairman is Truman Holtzclaw , V. Chairman is Jim Cunningham , Secretary is Jean R. Harris , APSA and Treasurer is Samuel G. Shaw , APSA . Society Presidents , many division chairmen and numerous project chairmen came from the Gold Rush Chapter . Chapters Up'NComing Events : <p> Apr - June : HQ Print Display -- Wisconsin Chapter -- Chairman : Kathleen Z. Braun , APSA ; Display Chairman : John Streich , FPSA , ( 303 ) 429-8178 or J1streich@cs.com . July-September display by the Gold @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ - Quarterly meeting at the Holiday Inn , 5321 Date Ave. , Sacramento , CA . Registration begins at 8:30 a.m . For more information , see the May Journal , call ( 916 ) 455-5111 or e-mail dbs1323@sbcglobal.net . <p> Jun 25 : Deadline submissions of October 2004 events for publication in the September 2004 Journal . When sending notices via e-mail , please identify your Chapter in the subject line . Camera Club PREFORMATTED TABLE Bulletin Editors : <p> How-to articles by fellow club members are popular inclusions in many camera club newsletters . The authors usually are long-time club members and experienced photographers who have valuable and interesting information to often . Often , however , their how-to writing is wordy , hard to read and hard to understand . <p> As newsletter editor , you must spend time with a red pencil to edit copy and clarify the writing for your readers . Copy editing does not mean that you should rewrite the whole article . Copy editing just polishes the author 's writing to make it easier to read . <p> Here are a dozen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ edit submissions : <p> -- Delete repetitive words and phrases . <p> -- Replace weak verbs with strong verbs to eliminate the need for adverbs . <p> -- Read the material aloud . You 'll be surprised how much wordy material you can eliminate once you read it aloud . <p> -- Replace fancy words with plain words , unfamiliar words with familiar words . <p> -- Choose " picture " nouns and " action " verbs rather than adjectives and adverbs . <p> -- Avoid long words when short ones will do as well . <p> -- Prefer simple , declarative sentences to complicated sentences . <p> -- Vary sentence lengths . <p> -- Use active voice . <p> -- Put statements in positive form . <p> -- Remove needless words , sentences and paragraphs . <p> -- Copy edit carefully . Improvement is always possible . Eleanor Edmonds <p> <p> If you have an item of national interest concerning a PSA activity that you wish to appear in the news , please send a brief typed article to the appropriate News Editor . General News/Calendar of Events items @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Stolte , PPSA -- Director , ICSCI ; Melissa Sonnen , Director ; Marilyn Cloran , FPSA -- Director , PSA Nature Exhibition Standards ; Pauline Fredrickson , Hon. PSA , FPSA , SD Chairman and Eleanor Edmonds , APSA Bulletin Advisory Service <p>

@@4018441 ABSTRACT <p> While the readjustment of combat veterans of the Vietnam War has been studied extensively since the end of that conflict , no studies have focused on the readjustment problems of noncombatants serving in a peacekeeping capacity . Results are presented from a study of the psychosocial adjustment of 121 current and former Canadian Forces military personnel who served in Vietnam as members of an international peacekeeping force during the period of U.S. involvement in the war . These results indicate that the majority of Canadian Forces personnel have not suffered significant long-term adverse effects resulting from service in Vietnam . For a minority of respondents , however , service in Vietnam proved to be very stressful , resulting in symptoms of a stress reaction called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder ( PTSD ) . The importance of war zone and postwar experiences in the development and continuation of PTSD are discussed . Policy implications for future Canadian Forces peacekeeping efforts are presented . <p> Canada has had a long history of involvement in peacekeeping activities in Vietnam . This involvement began with the establishment of the International Commission for Supervision and Control at the 1954 Geneva Conference . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Poland , and India , whose mission was to report and , hopefully , deter violations of the cease-fire agreement between the French and their Vietnamese supporters located south of the 17th parallel , on the one side , and the Communist and nationalist Vietnamese located north of the 17th parallel , on the other . By the end of 1954 there were approximately 200 Canadians in both North and South Vietnam as well as in Laos . A reduced Canadian presence continued for almost 19 years when the last ICSC representative departed Hanoi in March 1973 . Two members of the Canadian delegation ( CANDEL ) were killed during this period . <p> Canadian peacekeeping efforts continued after this date , however , as part of the International Commission for Control and Supervision , which was formed following a cease-fire agreement signed in Paris on 28 January 1973 by representatives of the United States , the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) , the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( North Vietnam ) , and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam ( Viet Cong ) . Members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Indonesia . Between the period 27 January to 31 July 1973 approximately 250 Canadian military personnel served in Vietnam. ( n1 ) The total number of Canadians who served in the ICCS is estimated at 282 military and 37 civilian personnel. ( n2 ) One Canadian Forces ( CF ) member of the ICCS , Capt . C. E. Laviolette , was killed on 7 April 1973 . <p> The issue of Canadian involvement in the Vietnam war only recently has become the focus of research on the readjustment of Vietnam veterans . This article is based on a study of the psychosocial adjustment of 164 Canadians who served in Vietnam as part of the U.S. military. ( n3 ) Compared to U.S. Vietnam veterans , Canadian Vietnam veterans were found to have a greater prevalence of a stress reaction called Posttraumatic Stress Disorder . PTSD results from exposure to trauma that is generally outside the range of normal human experience . It is characterized by symptoms such as recurrent and intrusive dreams and recollections of a traumatic event , a numbing of responsiveness to the external world ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and additional symptoms ( e.g. sleep disturbance , survivor guilt , and memory or concentration impairment ) . ( n4 ) <p> PTSD has been documented in survivors of such traumas as flood , fire , or rape. ( n5 ) More commonly , the condition has been studied within a military context , particularly that of survivors of the Vietnam War. ( n6 ) Research has not focused , however , on the prevalence of disorders such as PTSD among peacekeeping forces . <p> While the chances of peacekeeping forces being wounded or killed are less than those for actual combatants , there are still risks involved . During the first three months of the 1973 cease-fire agreement in Vietnam , approximately 7,000 violations occurred , some involving extremely large-scale operations. ( n7 ) In the course of investigating cease-fire violations it would not be uncommon to witness the aftermath of such violations ( e.g. wounded or dead soldiers and/or civilians ) . Past studies of Vietnam veterans have shown that it was not necessary to be a combatant to be traumatized by war. ( n8 ) Nurses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , yet they experienced the same prevalence of PTSD as did actual combat troops . This finding lends support to the hypothesis that exposure to the violent aftermath of combat and the constant threat of danger can be just as traumatic as direct combat participation. ( n9 ) The prevalence of stress reactions such as PTSD among CF personnel in Vietnam is unknown . Any problems experienced by Canadian military personnel as a result of their peacekeeping duties in Vietnam are likely to have been unrecognized or misdiagnosed since PTSD was not an official psychiatric diagnosis until 1980 . <p> In an effort to determine the effects of peacekeeping service in Vietnam on members of the CF , a research project was initiated in late 1987 . The primary focus of the study is on the psychosocial adjustment and prevalence of PTSD among these CF personnel as compared to the results of earlier studies using the same methodology with U.S. Vietnam veterans and Canadians who joined the U.S. military and served in Vietnam . Method <p> Respondents consisted of members of the CF who served in Vietnam with either the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the war ( 1961-1975 ) . Potential respondents were located by several techniques . First , advertisements were placed in the monthly magazine published by the Royal Canadian Legion and in the publication Sentinel , which is put out by the CF. Second , personnel data files maintained at National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa were searched to identify names and addresses of all CF personnel still on active duty who were formerly posted in Vietnam . Third , the CANDEL ICCS Association was contacted . This group is composed of military and civilian personnel who served in Vietnam with either the ICSC or the ICCS . <p> A cover letter , questionnaire , informed-consent form , and postage-paid return envelope were mailed to all respondents ( N = 39 ) identified through the first two techniques . Due to concern over maintaining the confidentiality of the membership roster of the CANDEL ICCS Association , the questionnaire packets were sent in blank , postage-paid envelopes to the president of the association , who then supplied the names and addresses of individual members on the envelopes and mailed them . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ checked against the CANDEL ICCS Association roster to avoid duplicate mailings of the questionnaire . A total of 213 questionnaires were mailed to association members . Canadians who served in Vietnam as civilians with the Department of External Affairs were excluded from the study , as were military members who served in Vietnam prior to 1961 . <p> All respondents were sent a modified copy of a research instrument entitled the Vietnam-Era Veterans Adjustment Survey , which has established validity and reliability in studies involving over 2,700 respondents. ( n10 ) The VEVAS provides information on demographics , attitudes and opinions about the war , combat experiences , social support experiences during and after service in Vietnam ( particularly during the first year back ) , and both physical and psychosocial health problems during and after service in Vietnam . Results <p> Questionnaires were sent to a total of 252 current and former CF personnel who served in Vietnam with the ICSC or the ICCS . Twelve questionnaires were returned as undeliverable , and one was returned because the individual was deceased . Completed questionnaires were received from 121 respondents @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ percent . <p> In terms of demographic data ( see Table 1 ) , the respondents range in age from 40 to 74 years , with the average being just under 53 years . These respondents are nearly 11 years older than Canadians who served in Vietnam with the U.S. military , ( n11 ) the major reason being that the peacekeeping forces were largely composed of older , experienced career officers and enlisted personnel . Of the 89 officers ( 74% of the sample ) , 47 ( 53% ) held the rank of major or higher while in Vietnam . Of the 31 enlisted personnel ( 26% of the sample ) , 24 ( 77% ) held the rank of sergeant or higher . Data on rank was unavailable for one respondent . The respondents spent an average of 26 years on active duty and just over 6 months in Vietnam , with the overwhelming majority ( 86% ) serving in 1973 . Over 56 percent of the respondents reported that they volunteered for duty in Vietnam . Two respondents reported being hospitalized while in Vietnam for combat-related @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ non-combat-related reasons . <p> Racially , over 96 percent of the respondents are white with only one Oriental , one Hispanic , one black , and one North American Indian or Innuit . The respondents are also highly educated , with 90 percent having graduated from high school and 40 percent being university graduates . Over 90 percent of the respondents are currently married , and just over 9 percent are either separated , widowed , or single . A total of 14 respondents have been divorced , and 4 of these 14 ( 29% ) report that their service in Vietnam contributed to their divorce . <p> Turning to combat experiences in Vietnam , only 2 respondents reported firing their weapon at other soldiers . No respondents reported wounding or killing anyone or being directly involved in killing or wounding civilians , although 2 respondents felt they were indirectly involved in killing or wounding civilians . Fifteen respondents ( 12.7% ) were involved in firefights in Vietnam , while 22 percent at one time or another found themselves in a combat situation in which they thought they might not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of being killed or wounded in Vietnam . In terms of exposure to the violent aftermath of combat , 30 percent of the respondents reported seeing others being killed , 72 percent reported seeing bodies of dead soldiers , 60 percent reported seeing bodies of dead civilians , 83 percent reported seeing wounded soldiers , and 73 percent reported seeing wounded civilians . <p> Respondents were asked a series of questions related to psychosocial health problems they might have experienced while serving in Vietnam . Over 40 percent of respondents reported drinking alcohol often or very often while in Vietnam , but only 3 respondents reported using drugs while in Vietnam . Over 10 percent had trouble dealing with bad memories about their experiences , with 16 percent reporting trouble falling asleep and 5 percent reporting recurring bad dreams or nightmares while in Vietnam . Ten percent of the respondents had trouble getting emotionally close to others , and over 31 percent had trouble trusting others in Vietnam . Forty percent of the respondents had trouble tolerating frustration while in Vietnam and 12 percent had trouble controlling their temper . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ percent felt nervous frequently , and 29 percent felt overly aroused or " keyed up " in Vietnam . Only 6 percent of respondents reported having " flashbacks " in Vietnam in which they felt like they were reexperiencing events . Eleven percent had trouble dealing with stressful experiences , and over 33 percent felt that their actions in Vietnam were not worthwhile . <p> Social-support experiences while in Vietnam were generally quite good . Over 92 percent of respondents often socialized with and felt close to members of their unit in Vietnam . Approximately 89 percent felt that members of their unit understood them and their problems and were supportive . Only 35 percent of respondents reported often writing to friends or relatives back home about their problems in Vietnam . Of those who did write , 46 percent reported receiving expressions of support from friends and 50 percent from relatives . When asked who helped them the most in dealing with their problems while in Vietnam , 23 percent of the respondents reported that members of their unit had been the most helpful . Almost 64 percent reported @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ first year back from Vietnam only 45 percent of the respondents reported positive attitudes from fellow Canadians toward the war itself , but over 80 percent reported positive attitudes from others toward their involvement in Vietnam . Attitudes toward their involvement in the war were slightly more positive ( 83% ) from Canadian veterans of previous war eras . Over 73 percent of the respondents often initiated conversations about their experiences in the war during their first year back , and over two-thirds reported often getting together with other veterans of Vietnam to talk about their experiences . Only 7 percent of the respondents reported experiencing negative or hostile events after returning from Vietnam ( e.g. , being spit at or challenged to fight in bars ) that were related to their involvement there , and less than 5 percent of the respondents reported that the way they were treated by friends , relatives , or the public in general kept them from talking about their experiences in Vietnam as much as they may have wanted . Thus , most of these veterans did not encounter many negative or hostile @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the experience of U.S. Vietnam veterans . <p> Physical health data in the VEVAS consist of responses to a 75-item symptom checklist based on the Cornell Medical Index. ( n12 ) The respondent indicates whether he has ever been bothered by a particular ailment or illness since entering the Canadian Forces and , if so , whether he is still bothered . These 75 items comprise six different categories or clusters of health symptoms : respiratory , cardiovascular , gastrointestinal , nervous system , skin disorders , and general health . Items within each category are summed to provide total scores . The results reveal that the vast majority of these veterans do not appear to have any significant health problems . Only 6 of the 75 items were checked as being currently experienced by 10 percent or more of the respondents . These items include hay fever ( 11% ) , high blood pressure ( 11% ) , frequent upset stomach ( 12% ) , frequent indigestion ( 10% ) , hemorrhoids ( 18% ) , and being overweight ( 15% ) . <p> If one looks at the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the CF , the number of items checked as being experienced by more than 10 percent of the respondents is 16 . These items include : frequent clearing of the throat ( 11% ) , a continually stuffed-up nose ( 12% ) , persistent severe colds ( 11% ) and heavy chest colds ( 11% ) , hay fever ( 16% ) , high blood pressure ( 22% ) , pains in the heart or chest ( 18% ) , frequent upset stomach ( 15% ) , indigestion ( 13% ) , and loose bowel movements ( 12% ) , hemorrhoids ( 33% ) , skin rashes ( 12% ) , tiredness after working ( 14% ) , exhaustion upon getting up in the morning ( 11% ) , and being overweight ( 25% ) . <p> To determine the relationship between physical health and psychosocial health , Pearson correlations were computed between scores representing the 11 symptoms of PTSD and all 6 categories of current physical health . Results indicate highly significant positive correlations between PTSD symptoms and respiratory problems ( r = 0.28 , p < 0.05 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 0.01 ) , gastrointestinal problems ( r - 0.40 , p < 0.001 ) , and nervous system problems ( r = 0.54 , p < 0.01 ) . <p> The same questions concerning psychosocial health problems that the respondents answered for the period of their service in Vietnam were also answered for the present . Currently only 13 percent of the respondents report drinking alcohol often or very often , with an additional 54 percent drinking occasionally . No current drug use was reported . While 10 percent of the respondents currently have trouble falling asleep , only 4 percent have trouble dealing with bad memories about experiences in Vietnam , and less than 3 percent report recurring bad dreams or nightmares about events in Vietnam . Sixteen percent have trouble getting emotionally close to others , and almost 18 percent have trouble expressing their feelings to those they care about . Twenty-three percent report trouble tolerating frustration , and 13 percent have trouble controlling their temper . Eleven percent feel depressed a lot while 9 percent feel nervous a lot , and 16 percent report feeling overly aroused @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ having flashbacks to events in Vietnam . Fourteen percent of the respondents report trouble trusting other people , with an equal number reporting trouble dealing with stressful experiences . Over 21 percent of the respondents currently feel that their actions in Vietnam were not worthwhile . <p> In addition to noting the kinds of problems reported by respondents both during their service in Vietnam and at the present time , particular patterns of problems representing the symptoms of PTSD were identified to determine the prevalence of this disorder . Results indicate that three respondents ( 2.5% ) are currently experiencing symptoms of PTSD . Six respondents ( 5.0% ) reported experiencing symptoms of PTSD during their service in Vietnam . This figure includes two of the respondents who also report current symptoms of PTSD , which means that the total number of respondents who have experienced PTSD is seven , rather than nine . <p> By comparing respondents reporting current PTSD symptoms with those reporting symptoms during their service in Vietnam , one can calculate additional prevalence rates representing the categories of acute , chronic , and delayed PTSD . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their service in Vietnam but do not report being bothered by symptoms at the present time . These respondents may be considered to have experienced acute PTSD , although it is possible these symptoms may have lasted more than six months , contrary to guidelines specified in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ( n13 ) One respondent ( 0.8% ) reported no symptoms of PTSD during service in Vietnam but does report symptoms of PTSD at the present time . This respondent may be thought of as having delayed PTSD . Two other respondents ( 1.7% ) reported being bothered by symptoms of PTSD while in Vietnam and report still being bothered by symptoms of PTSD at the present time . These respondents are considered to have chronic PTSD . These mutually exclusive categories may be combined to yield an overall PTSD rate consisting of the percentage of respondents who have experienced symptoms of PTSD at any time during or after service in Vietnam . Seven respondents fit this category for an overall rate of 5.8 percent . <p> In order to determine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PTSD symptomatology of the respondents , a multiple regression analysis was performed . Variables representing combat experiences ( COMBAT ) , social support received during service in Vietnam ( VSS ) , social support received during the first year back from Vietnam ( FYSS ) , and during the year of respondent service in Vietnam ( WARYEAR ) were regressed against a variable representing the 11 symptoms of current PTSD ( CPTSD ) measured in the VEVAS. ( n14 ) Military rank was not entered into the equation on the basis of t-test results that found no significant differences between officers or enlisted personnel on any psychosocial health problem either during or after service in Vietnam . Interaction terms for these variables were computed by standardizing responses via Z-score transformations and entered into the regression equation . This procedure allows the regression analysis to test interactions among the variables similar to analysis of variance , but does not require that the independent variables be grouped into discrete levels . <p> The results of this regression analysis on the variable CPTSD ( R-Square = 0.33 ) revealed a highly significant main @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ < 0.01 ) and main effects that approached , but did not exceed , levels of conventional statistical significance for first-year social support ( F1,117 = 2.61 , p = 0.10 ) and for support during the year the respondent served in Vietnam ( F1,117 = 3.53 , p = 0.06 ) . In addition , a highly significant interaction was found between combat experience and first-year social support ( F1,117 ) = 10.93 , p < 0.01 ) . These results indicate that increased combat experience is associated with increased severity of PTSD symptomatology , and respondents whose social-support experiences during the first year back from Vietnam were primarily positive in nature have significantly lower levels of PTSD than do respondents whose experiences were critical or nonsupportive . <p> As a means of determining the nature of the significant FYSS x COMBAT interaction , respondents were divided into four groups on the basis of their scores on the variables FYSS and COMBAT ( High FYSS/High COMBAT , High FYSS/Low COMBAT , Low FYSS/High COMBAT , Low FYSS/Low COMBAT ) . Results of t-test comparisons of the means for each @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ combat experience with high first-year social support ( M = 3.54 ) was associated with the least amount of PTSD symptomatology while the combination of high combat experience and low first-year social support ( M = 8.75 ) yielded the greatest amount of PTSD symptomatology ( t88 = 2.07 , p < 0.05 ) . <p> In order to determine which factors may have influenced the development of PTSD symptoms during service in Vietnam , the variables COMBAT , VSS , WARYEAR and all computed interaction terms were regressed against the variable VPTSD , which represents the 11 items in the VEVAS measuring symptoms of PTSD during service in Vietnam . The variable FYSS was not included in this analysis since it represents events that took place after service in Vietnam . The results of this analysis ( R-Square = 0.27 ) revealed highly significant main effects for combat experience ( F1,119 = 24.18 , p < 0.01 ) and the year of service in Vietnam ( F1,119 = 6.64 , p < 0.01 ) . The effect for social support during Vietnam approached , but did not exceed , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . No significant interactions were found . <p> Increased combat experience was found to be significantly related to increased levels of PTSD symptomatology during service in Vietnam . Those respondents who served in Vietnam prior to 1973 with the ICSC were found to have significantly more reported PTSD symptomatology during their service in Vietnam than respondents who served during and after 1973 with the ICCS . <p> Although the respondents do report experiencing various psychosocial health problems , the overwhelming majority continue to look upon their service in the CF and as peacekeepers in Vietnam as positive and beneficial . Over 83 percent report that if another war similar to Vietnam broke out they would be willing to serve in a similar capacity . Seventy-five percent of the respondents report that their military experiences have helped them get ahead in their job or career . Ninety-five percent of the respondents feel that their service in the military has helped them become a better person , and 76 percent report that their service in Vietnam has helped them in this regard . In the event of a future war , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ soldier because of their service in Vietnam . Finally , over 98 percent of the respondents feel that the overall impact of their military service on their life has been positive , and over 83 percent feel the same way about their service in Vietnam . Discussion <p> The results of this study , although unavoidably subject to the problems of retrospective reporting , demonstrate that the overwhelming majority of CF personnel who served in Vietnam on peacekeeping duty have not suffered any long-term adverse effects from their service . Although a fair number of the respondents ( 10-30% ) reported experiencing various kinds of psychosocial problems both during service in Vietnam and at the present time , these problems appear to be relatively minor in that respondents have continued to cope and are successful , healthy , contributing members of society . <p> While certainly not representative of other military personnel who served in Vietnam as combatants , there is no reason to believe that the respondents in this study are significantly different from those CF peacekeepers who did not respond to the questionnaire . Some respondents noted on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ since they were peacekeepers , not combatants as were U.S. Vietnam veterans . Thus it is likely that many of the nonresponders felt the same way and chose not to participate on this basis . Given the nature of peacekeeping duties , it is likely that the findings of the present study can be generalized to other peacekeeping forces , particularly Canadian efforts in areas such as Cyprus and Namibia . <p> The data demonstrate that for these respondents military service , including service in Vietnam , has been of great importance to them in their career and personal development . Most of the respondents look upon their service in Vietnam as just another posting . They do not consider themselves " Vietnam veterans " in the sense that other Canadians who served with the U.S. military do . Many respondents are justifiably proud of their role as peacekeepers in Vietnam , although nearly one-quarter still feel that their actions in Vietnam were not worthwhile . <p> For a minority of respondents , however , service in Vietnam was very stressful and resulted in symptoms of PTSD . The reported @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) , and overall ( 5.8% ) PTSD compare very favorably with rates found among other U.S. and Canadian veterans who served in Vietnam ( see Table 2 ) . The six groups of Vietnam and Vietnam-era veterans being compared consist of active duty U.S. Army soldiers , active duty U.S. Army Nurse Corps personnel , soldiers assigned to troop units in the U.S. Army Reserve , U.S. veterans ( civilians ) receiving medical compensation from the Veterans Administration , Canadians who joined the U.S. military and served in Vietnam , and CF military personnel who served in Vietnam as peacekeepers . The most comparable sample to the CF personnel in terms of noncombat duty would be the U.S. Army Nurse Corps members . Neither group actively participated in combat but both were exposed to the often violent aftermath of combat ( witnessing dead and wounded personnel ) and were still in danger , even though they were noncombatants . <p> One may argue that the reported rates of PTSD for CF personnel may not be due to Vietnam at all but rather to other types of traumatic experiences . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the data in Table 2 can support both views . For example , the current rate of PTSD among CF personnel ( 2.5% ) is virtually identical to that of active-duty , U.S. Army Vietnam-era veterans ( 2.3% ) . ( A Vietnam-era veteran is defined as someone who was on active duty during the period of the Vietnam War but did not serve in Vietnam . ) If you compare the CF personnel to active-duty , Vietnam-era nurses , however , the rate for CF personnel is over three times higher ( 2.5% , vs. 0.8% ) . Compared to U.S. Army Reserve Vietnam-era veterans , the rate of current PTSD is two-thirds higher ( 2.5% vs. 1.5% ) . The PTSD rate ( 10% ) for U.S. Vietnam-era veterans who have not maintained any military affiliation ( civilians ) is much higher . These veterans are experiencing some type of medical/psychiatric problem for which they are currently receiving disability compensation from the Veterans Administration , which increases the likelihood of finding stress-related disorders such as PTSD . <p> Although this comparison only deals with current PTSD rates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ symptoms in the past would have been medically discharged from the military and thus have become the responsibility of the Veterans Administration . The high rate of PTSD found among the sample of civilian Vietnam-era veterans obtained from the VA would tend to support this argument . Thus , rather than the current PTSD rate , a more accurate comparison might be the overall PTSD rate for CF personnel ( 5.8% ) , which is indeed much higher than among Vietnam-era veterans . <p> The results of the regression analyses confirm past findings on the importance of both war zone and postwar experiences ( e.g. social support ) on the development of stress reactions such as PTSD . The findings confirm the observation that one does not have to be a combatant to be traumatized by war . Exposure to danger and to the violent aftermath of combat ( seeing dead bodies and/or wounded personnel ) proved to be traumatic for several CF noncombatant personnel , just as it was for noncombatant U.S. Army nurses . Social-support experiences , particularly those encountered during the first year back from Vietnam , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of PTSD and acted as a moderator-variable on the effects of combat experience in Vietnam . <p> Several policy implications for effective performance in future CF peacekeeping efforts may be inferred from this study . One is the need for awareness of the potential negative effects of peacekeeping duties on the psychosocial health of CF personnel . One must look beyond the obvious , traditional forms of stress reactions resulting from actual combat ( combat stress reaction , battle fatigue , etc. ) to the more-insidious and less-obvious stress reactions such as PTSD . Another implication of the study is the various ways in which stress can manifest itself . Although one can not argue cause and effect on the basis of correlational data , it is evident that exposure to stressful experiences may result in both physical and psychosocial health problems . <p> Personnel returning from peacekeeping duties should be thoroughly debriefed by mental health professionals and given the opportunity to work through any stressful experiences . In this regard , CF mental health personnel should be specifically trained to recognize and treat stress reactions such as PTSD . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the failure of mental health professionals to recognize symptoms of delayed stress and to develop appropriate treatment strategies . General medical officers should also undergo this same training since soldiers are often reluctant to talk about or will deny having mental health problems but will more readily admit to physical health problems which the trained physician will recognize as being possibly stress-related . <p> Societal support for the peacekeeping role should be carefully assessed before troops are committed , to ensure that returning personnel do not have to bear the brunt of negative societal reactions to their participation in such missions . Greater public awareness of the positive value of peacekeeping roles by CF personnel may also help peacekeepers cope with any problems they experience . <p>

@@4018541 In this article , I will examine the continuities and discontinuities in the Western ethical tradition with respect to its understanding of the nature and role of the warrior . I will suggest that Plato , Aristotle , St. Augustine , Machiavelli , Kant , and Nietzsche each contribute to the contemporary understanding of the warrior and his morality . However , none presents what we take to be a complete picture . Rather , our views are a blend of classical and modem elements , and these views change and tend to emphasize various components of classical or modem philosophy , depending on our level of optimism or cynicism , with respect to foreign affairs and the role of the United States in the world order . I believe it is the case that virtually all of the common perspectives on these matters have a serious intellectual pedigree , whether or not the contemporary exponents of these perspectives realize it . Further , I will argue that the military , in its own interests , should articulate a clear moral self-understanding and , to the extent possible , act on this self-understanding in the education particularly of its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ moral philosophy , as a systematic mode of inquiry and body of knowledge , was invented in Greece in the fifth century BC . Ethics first came to sight , paradoxically , in the form of an attack on existing codes of morality . It was an attack launched by the so-called Sophists , who were itinerant lecturers - professors - of the ancient Greek world . The Sophist Protagoras maintained that moral codes were purely conventional creations , useful to human life but not grounded in nature or any ultimate truth . A form of ethical or moral relativism was therefore extant in ancient Greece ; it is certainly not something the West , or Americans , invented in the 1960s . More radical Sophists extended this insight of Protagoras by claiming that , since morality is only conventional , it ought not to be binding . In this view , rationality points to pursuing one 's own interests , however moral or immoral they may appear to be . As the Sophist Thrasymachus claims in Plato 's Republic , our goal should be to extend our interests and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to get away with it . So one might say that a form of realism , or realpolitik , also has distant origins . <p> Since the 1960s , in the name of attacking our Western conception of justice , and in the tradition of Thrasymachus , we have sometimes heard cynical paraphrases of Chairman Mao : " justice comes from the barrel of a gun . " Alas , if justice does come only from the barrel of a gun , the morality of the warrior is a simple one : become the most effective soldier , the most efficient purveyor of one 's will or the will of one 's superiors , that one can possibly be . In addition , we ( at least most of us , certain strains of postmodernism notwithstanding ) tend not to think that justice or morality reduces to power . We tend to think , with Plato , that right conduct is rooted somehow in the nature of things and is a function neither of conventional views nor raw power . <p> Plato tried to address the Sophists by suggesting one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that results . According to Plato , reason , spiritedness , and desire should be blended in due measure . Behaving unethically is understood , in general , to be a result of allowing desire or the passions to triumph over the golden , ductile cord of reason . By behaving ethically , one comports oneself with a standard that is both intrinsically good and that , from a utilitarian point of view , leads to a harmony of the soul and of society - which is , according to Plato , the human soul writ large . <p> Of the divisions of the soul , the spirited or thymotic part is perhaps the most relevant to the warrior , an idea recently commented upon in some detail by Francis Fukuyama. 1 Spirit , or thymos , seems related to the Aristotelian virtue of courage , although it is not simply this . The warrior class in the Republic is , primarily , blessed with thymos . The warriors will mount a courageous defense of their city , and their courage will be elevated and sustained by a spirited love @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ take the form of righteous indignation toward those who would destroy what they hold most dear - their laws , their mores , their morality , which are encapsulated and given life by their city . The enemy attacks not just the nation , as it were , but the warrior , on a very personal level . By defending the political order , the warrior defends himself . In the warrior , private spiritedness becomes a public virtue . The seeming tension - so common in contemporary Western societies - between the private and the public , between personal desire and social flourishing , is overcome in the archetype of the warrior . <p> But thymos does more than bridge the public/private gap . It can also , somewhat paradoxically , be an aid to reason and ethics. 2 It can perform this function on an individual level insofar as one can become indignant toward oneself when , for example , one follows the pull of a powerful appetite - perhaps sexual desire - when one knows it to be wrong . <p> In a societal sense , thymos @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ - the Utopia that Plato recognizes can be constructed in theory only . ( This theoretical construction is in fact Plato 's task in the Republic ) . Even such a perfect city , after all , requires a warrior class to defend it against its enemies . A Utopia , with what Plato thinks to be the best system of citizen training , will still be confronted by those who would seek to destroy it . Hence the ineluctable need for the warriors . Plato , even in his most Utopian moments , never wished simply to give peace a chance . <p> Aristotle , too , connects the notion of individual moral virtue with social well-being . In fact , Aristotle views ethics as being a mere subset of politics , which is the master science of the human good . Politics , properly understood , provides the possibile conditions , including especially citizen education , necessary for human beings to achieve happiness . Happiness , the ultimate purpose of human life , comes from the practice of moral and intellectual virtue , over a full lifetime . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , inculcated by proper habits . Happiness , therefore , has objective content ; it is not the relativist construct of individual human beings . <p> This ancient account of politics is of course very different from that of modem philosophical liberalism , which would either deny politics any role in the good , or try to limit that role dramatically . For Aristotle , the good of the community is higher and more noble than the good of the individual . And I would suggest that some form of this notion is essential to any military ethic . One might therefore say that a proper military ethic is , in decisive respects , essentially premodern . A proper military ethic is bound to encounter difficulties as it tries to make its peace with the modem liberal state . In James Toner 's words , the military ethic is " at odds with the basic tenor and the fundamental tenets of a progressively inclined , liberally concerned , democratically structured civil order . " 3 The best we can hope for is to strive , imperfectly , for that " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 4 <p> Aristotle is grating to the modem sensibility in other ways . In his emphasis on moral virtues rooted in character , he would be hostile to modem accounts of politics that try to raise a firm distinction between character and competence , character and technical expertise , or character and genuine " issues . " For him , right conduct always depends on character . To those who would deemphasize character as the fundamental ordering concept of military or ethical life , Aristotle would say they 've got it wrong ; in fact , they 've got almost everything wrong . He would also be hostile to an overemphasis on modem rule ethics - many derivatives of which are so common in military life . Laws , rules , and regulations are never sufficient to govern a good person 's actions , which are dependent upon the moral virtues - which dictate the ends of human action - plus the intellectual virtue of prudence , which dictates the means to those ends . <p> Of the many individual moral virtues with which Aristotle deals , the virtue of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is worthy of special comment from the point of view of the morality of the warrior . While courage is obviously critical to the warrior , high-mindedness is a more encompassing virtue . It is a virtue that seems to be related to great affairs of state and the like . As Aristotle says , " A man is regarded as high-minded when he thinks he deserves great things and actually deserves them . " 5 It is the mean , the midpoint , between foolish vanity and small-mindedness . Those who are small-minded think of themselves as undeserving and therefore do not pursue great things . Those who are vain - a not uncommon vice in both the military and civilian worlds - think they are great when in fact they are not . The high-minded person thinks himself great , 6 and actually is . <p> The high-minded person is concerned with the greatest of external goods - honor , a tribute normally paid to the gods , from which he derives some pleasure. 7 A high-minded person has perfected the virtues - courage , justice , moderation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ person to whom nothing is great . It seems that there might be statesmen or military leaders who embody high-mindedness , or magnanimity , in this Aristotelian sense . Abraham Lincoln and , more recently , Winston Churchill , come to mind . And I would suggest that this crown of the virtues 8 might also be the perfect expression of the military ethic . <p> And this , perhaps , is the most positive language we have to express our understanding of the warrior morality . When we are most optimistic and confident about our national purposes , when we are burdened with a war that , nevertheless , most think to be a just war , when we can speak with one voice about the military , it is then that we see the warrior as the great-souled individual , the magnanimous man , in Aristotle 's terms , possessed of all the moral and intellectual virtues ; the magnanimous man whose thymos causes him to rise and defend the city on a hill , the city that reflects the proper balance among reason , thymos , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ way , the perfect Republic . <p> In these moments of optimism , the West 's predominantly Christian tradition does not get in the way of the celebration of , indeed , the reveling in , the warrior morality . Since St. Augustine in the fourth century AD , it has been clear that a Christian can argue plausibly and rationally for the compatibility of religious doctrine and warrior morality . The Bible , according to Augustine , requires us to turn the other cheek only in the sense of our inward dispositions , not our actions in the world . Not war , but the love of war , is a sin . Says Augustine , PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> In terms of the secular world , the Bible is as much directed toward justice as forgiveness . Just war is permissible , and is demanded , in certain circumstances . The earthly city , while inferior to the city of God , is nevertheless good , and worthy of protection , because it allows us to enjoy the earthly goods . Even the faithful , who are members of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ through the secular world . They must seek the peace that it offers . This means that laws must be obeyed , and the wicked must be restrained . This is one of the primary tasks of the earthly city and its coercive government - it deals in a concrete way with our fallen nature . As Augustine so beautifully puts it . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> So , as I have said , religious faith has not necessarily been understood to interfere with our most sanguine assessments of the warrior . But when , by contrast , we are pessimistic and lack confidence in national purposes , when we are burdened with a war we consider unjust , when we can not be sure of how we ought to think about the military , we tend to fall back on a very different , more modem conception of the warrior . It is modem in that the language and framework of our conception date not from antiquity , but from the early sixteenth century . It is the language of Niccolo Machiavelli . <p> I have spoken to this point @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Aristotle on the one hand , and Christianity on the other . Machiavelli attacked both of these traditions as inadequate and positively misleading . He did so most famously in The Prince , the most famous book on politics ever written . Only the Republic comes close , and it turns out to discuss politics in the context of something higher than politics-philosophy. 11 For Plato and Aristotle , politics had an ultimately subordinate place to philosophical wisdom ; not so in The Prince , where everything of importance is political . <p> Machiavelli 's response to the central ideas of classical and Christian virtue is that , if one looks at necessity , one sees that both are defective . Virtue leads to ruin in politics . Machiavelli therefore changes the focus of political and social inquiry from the end of human life - human perfection by way of virtue - to the beginnings , the circumstances of basic day-to-day existence and struggle . Machiavelli sees regimes primarily as new or old , not as good or evil . To found a regime , he claims , one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is politics - or the new science of politics - which is what we commonly understand as politics today . The end justifies the means used by a politician to get what he or she wants . Our dismissive phrase , " It 's just politics , " is Machiavellian in origin . <p> The Prince was a new kind of book . It claimed that necessity conflicts with virtue , and that people , especially princes , must sometimes act immorally . Machiavelli therefore redefines virtue . The old definition was moral virtue ; his new definition is courage and wile in the service of acquisition . The new virtue is most appropriate for new principalities . Old principalities can in a way afford to be moral in the old sense ; new ones can not . Hereditary princes are dependent on old and established expectations , people , laws , customs , and traditions for their success. 12 Nonhereditary princes - new founders or conquerors - can depend only on themselves . Only armed prophets will succeed ; unarmed prophets will not . <p> I do not of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Aristotle and St. Augustine - were ignorant of , or ignored , the fact that many actual regimes were founded in bloodshed . In the City of God , Augustine makes much of the fact that the parent of humanity and communal life - the founder of the very first city - was Cain . He of course slew his brother Abel ; he belonged therefore to the corrupt city of man , not the city of God . The first city was founded on a fratricide . So too was Rome , when Remus was slain by his brother Romulus . The classical account of human nature was not so dissimilar to Samuel P. Huntington 's renowned characterization of the military ethic , which " emphasizes the permanence , irrationality , weakness , and evil in human nature . " 13 <p> But Machiavelli takes Augustine 's insight to a new level . He makes it the bedrock of his political science - a bedrock from which we can not - indeed , dare not - even try to distance ourselves . For St. Augustine , after all , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not so for Machiavelli . <p> Machiavelli says that crimes and cruelties can be badly or well used. 14 The lesson is not that crime does not pay , only that the prince must use cruelties to his benefit . This means doing evil things up front and all at once , while spreading benefits out over time , because people have short memories . <p> How does one establish a new republic ? Machiavelli claims it is by way of crime . Rome , for example , was founded in criminality , but later came to be regarded as great and just . Given enough time , regimes do come to be so regarded , but all regimes are founded on cruelty initially ; it is the only way to found . Veneration for a regime grows only with time , when the cruelties are lost in the mists of history . <p> So what is our cynical conception of the warrior morality , drawn from Machiavelli ? When we wish to be reductionist about the aims of politics , our archetypical warrior is Machiavelli 's Remirro de Oreo @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ warriors understand and apply <p> Machiavelli 's new definition of virtue . Remirro , who is described by Machiavelli as a " cruel and ready man , " 15 was assigned , according to Machiavelli , to pacify a territory . He was given by the prince " the fullest power , " 16 a power of which he took full advantage . <p> In the aftermath of this exercise of power , Cesare Borgia - the very prince who ordered Remirro to do his dirty deeds - realizes he will be hated by the people unless he makes a show of getting rid of his consummate warrior , Remirro . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Machiavelli 's point ( in addition to his less than flattering commentary on the nature of the people and public opinion ) is that the art of ruthless war , and ruthlessness in general , is essential to command . Principalities must be able to defend themselves . To rely only on God , or on a misguided conception of morality , leads to slavery and misery . <p> In chapter 15 of The Prince , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a new principality , which is modernity itself . He declares his intention " to depart from the orders of others " 18 - particularly others such as Plato who , according to Machiavelli , only imagines republics that have never been realized in actuality . Machiavelli sees himself as ushering in the modem project - he is a sort of prophet or founder of this new way of understanding politics , and of war in the pursuit of political aims . It is an age in which we , in our cynical moods , understand with Machiavelli that it is better to be feared than loved , for love is fickle , fear eternal . Machiavelli paved the way for our seeing the warrior merely as a violent tool of the prince . <p> Machiavelli severed the connection between politics , war , and human happiness . Happiness was central for Aristotle , who thought there was no community just because a group of individuals banded together to seek mere self-preservation . By cutting politics off from the deepest human concerns - virtue , the good life , theology @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and contemporary rights-based politics , wherein virtue plays a very modest role indeed . <p> Machiavelli points us to the low , not the high . The ancients certainly knew there were low aspects to human nature , but thought the high - reason and virtue - could dominate the low passions if human beings were given the right training and habituation . Machiavelli , along with , perhaps , most who have followed him , prefer to rely on low but solid foundations . Machiavelli tells the prince not to reach high , as did the ancient or Christian philosophers , because , if he does , he will get burned . Peace and the preservation of the principality are the only truly worthy human goals that remain . And many means are unleashed when the ends of human life are so defined . <p> It is interesting to reflect on the fact that Machiavelli meant to shock . Today , we are so used to hearing arguments that " the ends justify the means , " so used to hearing dismissive attacks on traditional notions of morality and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . At the time he wrote , however , he was shocking . The fact that we no longer find him so - most analysts today apply to Machiavelli relatively neutral adjectives - certainly not " shocking " or " amoral " - this fact reveals something about ourselves . It reveals that , in a way , Machiavelli has won . His language of politics and martial virtue is now a commonplace . <p> We should not conclude without reflecting on the Enlightenment and the reaction to it . Immanuel Kant , the Enlightenment philosopher par excellence , has bequeathed us a way of viewing the warrior morality that is still very much with us . Blended with certain strains of contemporary Christian theology , it is a powerful vision . According to Kant , the only good in the world is the good will . In practice , this points to conforming our actions to a universal law . It means that one should " act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law . " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sense . He says that moral action can take no account of consequences . This absolutism sometimes finds expression in pacifism . If it is wrong to borrow money without the intention of returning it ( Kant 's example ) , it is absolutely wrong , no matter what the consequences of doing without the money . If it is wrong to wage war ( in Kant 's ideal future of perpetual peace ) , it is absolutely wrong , no matter what the consequences . <p> We can see in Kant some of the roots of contemporary pacifism , 20 which sees the warrior only in terms of one who routinely violates or is prepared to violate , as part of his profession , the most absolute of all categorical imperatives . Again , in times that are dominated by an equivocal sense of our national purpose , many of us become simplified Kantians . Some of us claim that war is wrong because it conflicts with Christian principles , 21 which admonish us to turn the other cheek . But this ignores St. Augustine , among others . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not be sufficiently perspicacious when it comes to questions of war and peace . But nevertheless , from the perspective of the Enlightenment , the warrior becomes , if not Machiavelli 's grotesque tool of sovereign will , then at least an anachronism - an artifact of a pre-Enlightenment hell when the world did not realize the badness of war , or the possibilities of purely good will . <p> Finally , a word about Nietzsche . By the nineteenth century when Nietzsche wrote , the Enlightenment , and Christianity itself , were under intense assault , especially by German thinkers . For Nietzsche , Kant 's categorical imperative , insofar as it demands conduct that is universalizable and available to all rational beings , is " a Moloch of abstraction " 22 which destroys the possibility of great or noble individual action . Nietzsche damns the good will and celebrates action that overcomes all conventional , egalitarian moralities . <p> Machiavelli 's attempt at realpolitik - cutting politics off from a common morality - reaches its ultimate expression in Nietzsche 's aristocratic reaction to Enlightenment liberalism . In Nietzsche @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the low morality of mere self-preservation - is celebrated for its own sake . Aesthetics replace morals . Self-expressive individualism emerges full-blown . <p> And the politics of self-expression are indeed unstable ; one can not predict just what a self , divorced from traditional , unchanging constraints of virtue , of morality , might wish to express . But even if the politics of the self do not create a Hitler , even if they do not open a new moral space for a Hitler to come into being , they at least undermine the traditional language in which we might condemn a Hitler . <p> Nietzsche says that most individuals share a contemptible herd morality of self-preservation . Only times of war remind them of the need for strong individuals to rise above the pack . Jack Nicholson 's courtroom scene in the film A Few Good Men brilliantly reminds us of this . In its campy Hollywood way , it captures a serious , Nietzschean criticism of liberal morality . The scene , while not legally realistic , is philosophically compelling . <p> Nicholson plays U.S. Marine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the herd morality - a blue Navy lawyer played by Tom Cruise - that , deep down inside , at a level Cruise and people like him will not admit exists at their cocktail parties , he . Cruise , is thankful that there are men warriors such as Jessup patrolling the walls that protect the herd from predators . What Colonel Jessup actually does to ensure that those walls are protected is not , from the colonel 's point of view , important . It must be said that the colonel is not a pure Nietzschean in that he does have the physical well-being of the herd at heart ; he is not committed solely to his own creative freedom . ( Colonel Kurtz in Apocalypse Now is a purer Nietzschean - the horror for him is not war , but the entire world he has created , wherein he becomes as a god . ) <p> In A Few Good Men , nevertheless , it is the reality of being above the herd that appears to be the most important thing to the man that Nathan Jessup is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the film and is hauled off to jail , as he must be in a liberal society . But this is not to say , I think , that his essentially Nietzschean critique of contemporary morality does not have bite . <p> The true warrior , according to Nietzsche , can not be constrained to the preservation of the very herd for whom he has only a mixture of contempt and pity . Of warriors , Nietzsche says . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> And this too is one of our visions of the warrior - the warrior as pure expression of will ; the warrior as wolf in a herd of sheep , overcoming and eating all we hold dear ; the warrior as criminal of the most horrific sort - the criminal who acts in furtherance of an agenda wholly his own . This warrior does not act even for the sake of Machiavelli 's goal of forced pacification , which , after all , has a certain kind of rudimentary logic . Instead , the warrior becomes madman . <p> One could of course say more about other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ describe the military ethos . But by now , I hope I have demonstrated my central point : we rely , whether we are conscious of it or not , on a rich philosophical vocabulary to describe the warrior morality . We , as a society , choose our language oftentimes on the basis of the prejudices of the day . Most people have always done this , and will continue to do it . But the philosopher and , I dare say , the warrior , must be more careful . For them , it is important , intellectually and practically , 24 to understand the strengths and weaknesses of their descriptive statements ; in other words , to see them not simply as statements , but as ways of expressing the underlying truth of the virtues , or vices , of the military profession . Military Ethics in a Civilian World <p> Let me conclude by discussing what I believe ought to be seen as the military 's - especially the American military 's - goals and limits in this ethical context . There is no serious dispute @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subordinate to civilian authority . There is still not much serious dispute over the fact that the military ethic , and the virtues associated with it , are in fact different from a civilian ethic and civilian virtues . As I have suggested , there is an important sense in which the military ethic is premodern , regardless of the particular ethical picture we choose to paint of the warrior . The military ethic will always be , if not at war , then at least in some measure of tension with the modem liberal state . <p> I have up to now kept my discussion of ethics on a philosophical plane ; I now want to ground the discussion in as practical and concrete a manner as possible . In particular , I want to address the question of ethical education for members of the military , and especially for military officers . It is , after all , one thing to understand the philosophical vocabulary we rely on when we describe the morality of the warrior , and quite another to understand the implications of this vocabulary for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ behavior at the micro level . <p> In David Donovan 's memoir of the Vietnam War , Once a Warrior King , 25 we are introduced to a particular warrior - a young soldier who in some ways turns out to be precisely a " warrior king . " As a first lieutenant , Donovan arrives in Vietnam to act as military advisor to local villagers and soon finds himself master of a small universe : PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Such amazing power of life and death might seem to be a recipe for Nietzschean madness , but in Donovan 's hands the power is exercised largely in accordance with Aristotelian moral virtue and prudence . For example , remembering the instructions in duty and courage he received from one of his training officers , he exercises remarkable leadership at moments of great peril . " When all the chips are down , when the privates wo n't move and the sergeants wo n't move and fear has taken over everything , all the responsibility falls on your shoulders . That 's why you have the commission and they do n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , now you have to pay your dues . " 27 <p> In so many ways , and in unimaginably bizarre circumstances , Donovan seems to find just the right Aristotelian mean . He exercises the virtue of gentleness , showing neither short temper nor apathy ; friendliness , being neither obsequious nor dyspeptic ; and truthfulness in his social relations , being neither boasting nor self-deprecating . Likewise , his self-control - though occasionally he seems to lose it - is nevertheless generally splendid in the circumstances . Once a Warrior King can be read as a kind of case study in Aristotelian ethics in extreme military situations ( and this indeed is how I encourage my graduate students to read it ) . <p> Even Donovan 's occasional deviations from a happy mean seem only to emphasize how close he comes to getting it right . In exemplifying the military virtue of loyalty ( so important for Admiral Stockdale and others ) , Donovan is perhaps too loyal to the incompetent " Captain Jackson , " who , through both gross negligence and violation of the laws of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is to be a virtue in Aristotle 's terms , it would be a mean ( between the vices of blind loyalty and betrayal ) . No one could accuse Donovan of betrayal , but , in his decision with respect to Captain Jackson , he might slip into the vice at the other extreme : PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Even though , in the end , Donovan goes out of his way to ignore Jackson 's misdeed , it is clear that he is himself unsure of whether or not he has found the happy midpoint ( as , indeed , are we ) . <p> It seems that , despite the military 's necessary emphasis on rules and absolute principles of duty , virtue ethics are still needed by many warriors in many circumstances ( particularly in the circumstances of the " traditional " battlefield , as opposed to the circumstances of the detached techno-warrior , for whom rules and simple principles will likely be of primary importance ) . In short , Aristotle 's ethical framework still , practically speaking , provides a good account of the warrior @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ we - inculcate such an ethical understanding ? <p> It is certainly the case that , in the United States , military education at the undergraduate , professional , and graduate levels takes ethics seriously . Of course , this education is directed primarily at officers rather than enlisted personnel , and it is largely , of necessity , highly concentrated " book learning . " However , it is far from clear that many of Donovan 's responses to his unique situations were governed by such book learning . They were , rather , conditioned by the apparently proper habituation he received , throughout his life , prior to become an officer in the field . This is eminently Aristotelian , but perhaps disturbing for that reason . For Aristotle , as I have mentioned , one is habituated to virtuous behavior over the course of one 's entire life , until such behavior becomes automatic ; it ceases to require specific incentives or rational calculations . And it certainly can not be " learned " just by taking a course or two - or , indeed , many @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ right family structure , the right mores , the right kind of society that takes the habituation of its citizens seriously . <p> In this sense , Toner 29 is not out of keeping with Aristotle when he points to the disjunction between the military world-view ( pessimistic and collectivist , among other things ) versus the American civilian world-view ( optimistic , individualist , among other things ) . The military world-view is perhaps most cogently and famously presented by Huntington , who marks out officership as a profession , apart from the mores of nonprofessionals ( especially civilian nonprofessionals ) . In this view , the military mind must be understood , and judged , according to relatively unchanging professional standards . The officer has a professional ethic - conservative realism - in the same way a lawyer or doctor has a definable ethic . <p> But this ethic seems to have limitations . It can perhaps be too cautious , oblivious to larger ( and legitimate ) political or moral concerns . It may require correction by society outside the military profession , if that society has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Toner indeed seems to counsel against a wholehearted embrace of either the military or civilian world-view , but rather for an appropriate balance between the two . The result , as I mentioned earlier , is his appreciation of that " magnificent anomaly , " the " democratic soldier . " The democratic soldier will reject , and know when to reject , an illegal order because he is ethical ( not merely the possessor of a military ethos ) and because he is American , which implies a sense of fair play and respect for proportion in all things ( an Aristotelian mean , as it were ) . <p> At the macro or command level , the question for Toner is not whether the soldier has no political involvement or substantial political involvement , but what kind of involvement there will be ( MacArthur in Japan - good , or MacArthur in Korea - bad ) . Professionalism , in short , always involves moral/political judgments ( not merely technical skill in the execution of the soldier 's primary task - killing the enemy and controlling territory ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ new millennium is , really , whether it can support Toner 's interpretation , or whether it will throw up enough counterexamples to put Toner 's optimism about the democratic soldier , if not his ideals , into question . <p> Malham M. Wakin also recognizes , sometimes implicitly , sometimes explicitly , the enduring value of an Aristotelian version of the ethics of leadership , albeit with some caveats for American military practices and the American military ethic. 30 Character is a habitual whole , developed over a lifetime . One looks to a good man as a model and military leaders in particular must exemplify moral virtue . Practical moral obligations are neither absolute ( thou shalt not intentionally kill ) nor relative ( everything in life depends on " where you 're coming from " ) . 31 There are universal obligations that are nonsubjective , nonrelative , but they may conflict with one another ; how these obligations are to be obeyed depends on the circumstances ( although for each set of circumstances there is a naturally right course of action ) . According to Wakin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ can not be comprehensive statements of what honor requires , single out lying , cheating , and stealing as " act-types " that are strictly forbidden . This is an Aristotelian approach to character-building that helps make honesty the automatic response of every cadet. 32 It remains the case that certain features of military life , from honor codes to simple mottoes such as " duty , honor , country , " attempt to step into the breach to compensate , in effect , for the defects of the larger society 's system of habituation , on which the military must of necessity rely for its young officers-to-be . These features point to the need for integrity in systems - including of course the military system itself - rife with incentives for careerism and worse ( especially as the essentially civilian management ethos gains pride of place in military thinking ) . Military life , from its beginnings in the military colleges onward , attempts to encourage habits of mind and action that help develop a character that would be pleasing to Aristotle . PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> I would suggest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , in certain circumstances , must have , an essentially Aristotelian moral compass . However , this is not a moral compass that the military can fully inculcate in its officers , much less in its enlisted personnel. 34 The military ultimately draws from , and is a reflection of , the society of which it is a part . <p> So the challenge to the military is great indeed . Only if the military can maintain ethical standards that are , we may say , slightly more demanding and elevated than those of the civilian world , yet not in fundamental conflict with that world , can it maintain its professional independence . Jacques Barzun notably claimed of the professions that they are destroyed from within . When they lose competence and moral legitimacy , they invite control by outsiders ; they invite being treated as mere trades or businesses . To the extent that the military comes under the undue control of outsiders , to the extent that the military is treated as a mere trade onto which the standards of the civilian world can be fully superimposed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ own failure . It will be a result first of the military 's failure to articulate the most noble philosophical essence of the military ethic , and second of its failure to distill this essence into a workable program of military education that , by its nature , can never be fully successful . Nevertheless , it is a program of education that must to some extent demand of its students something that their society , without this articulation of the military ethic - and perhaps even with it - will neither fully comprehend nor fully embrace . <p>

@@4018641 The largest body of brackish water in the world , the Baltic Sea , has severe problems of water pollution and environmental degradation. 1 As late as 1950 , the Baltic Sea was still regarded as environmentally " healthy . " Since that time , however , the situation has changed dramatically . In spite of numerous protective efforts , the Baltic Sea 's rich biodiversity is threatened by environmental pollution that could cause irreversible damage to a sea that is an important source of economic activity and recreation for more than 80 million people who live along its coast and within its catchment area . <p> The Baltic Sea catchment area , or drainage basin , is home to 14 nations ( see Figure 1 on page 9 ) . Nine of them share the Baltic 's coastline : Sweden and Finland to the north ; Russia , Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania to the east ; Poland to the south ; and Germany and Denmark to the west . The catchment area also includes parts of Belarus , Norway , Ukraine , the Slovak Republic , and the Czech Republic because some of the rivers flowing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these countries are undergoing dramatic political , economic , and social changes . As the division of Europe into Western and Eastern blocs vanishes and the countries in the eastern and southern Baltic region lose their peripheral position , the region has chance of regaining its historical position as one of the major crossroads of economic exchange , as in the time of the Hanseatic League -- a mercantile organization of towns along the Baltic Sea and the North Sea from the 13th through 18th centuries that allowed trade to flow across the Baltic Sea without political obstacles . Certainly , such present cooperation as the recent establishment of the Union of the Baltic Cities and the Baltic Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs confirms this possibility ( see the box on pages 12 and 13 ) . <p> The Baltic Sea is important in several ways . Its coast is a popular vacation area ; therefore , the demand for tourist and recreation services is very high . The coastal areas also serve as spawning , nursery , and feeding grounds for several species of marine and freshwater fish @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cod dominate in open waters , and both marine and freshwater species inhabit coastal areas . The value of the catches , which amounts today to about 540 million European currency units ( ECU ) per year , is an indication of the considerable economic importance of the Baltic fishery . But above all , the Baltic Sea has an environmental significance of its own : It is a shared heritage to be preserved and managed as a common resource . Causes of Degradation <p> The Baltic Sea has a total surface area of 415 square kilometers and is naturally vulnerable to pollution because of its semi-closed character and particular hydrography . The link with the North Sea is very narrow , with the shallowest sill being only 18 meters d B link , the Baltic Sea is dominated by freshwater inputs . Vertical variations in salinity cause permanent stratification , hampering the exchange of oxygen in the deeper parts of the sea . In some years , as much as 100,000 square kilometers , close to one-fourth of the whole sea , approaches " dead bottom " conditions . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ seriously aggravated by the destruction of its wetlands , particularly in the western parts of the catchment area . During the 19th century , coastal wetlands were ditched and drained to meet the demands of expanding agriculture . Wetlands have also been dredged or filled to make room for urban and industrial developments , including harbors . The consequences of these activities were not readily visible until the environmental situation in the Baltic Sea had further deteriorated . <p> Pollution reaches the Baltic Sea by a wide diversity of pathways . Diffuse " nonpoint " sources include airborne emissions and agricultural runoff , while point-source pollution from urban areas and industry -- including untreated sewage from 30 million people , wastewater from pulp-and-paper and other industries , toxic substances , and heavy metals -- is either directly discharged into the sea or carried into it by rivers . This devastating influx can be attributed to a host of different factors , including economic inefficiency , poor legislation , lack of enforcement , and institutional weaknesses . In general , however , Denmark , Finland , Norway , Sweden , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of problems than do the once centrally planned economies . In the former , municipal and industrial pollution loads have been significantly reduced over the last few decades , and product control measures have reduced the use of hazardous compounds . There is , however , still scope for improved control in some industries , such as pulp-and-paper . The total farming area in these countries is much smaller than in other parts of the basin , but intensive agricultural practices involve high use of chemicals , and better policies are needed to control nutrient releases . <p> In the countries that used to have centrally planned economies , pollution loads from various sources are still heavy although declining somewhat because of new control measures and the overall slowdown of economic activities in the past few years . In the past , the economic structure of these countries became skewed toward heavy industry dominated by large , state-owned monopolies . These industries used as much as two to three times more water and energy per unit of output than did similar industries in other countries of the basin . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ such large industrial basins as Upper Silesia in Poland and Ostrava in the Czech Republic ) , coupled with inadequate wastewater treatment and limited emission control , resulted in very high levels of water and air pollution as well as large quantities of solid wastes . <p> The principal pollution sources for the Baltic Sea are municipalities , industries , and agriculture that are located not only on the coast but deep in the interior as well . Municipalities <p> In the formerly centrally planned economies , most of the water bodies , such as rivers , natural and man-made lakes , and groundwater aquifers , receive excessive amounts of untreated or insufficiently treated municipal wastewater . Existing facilities , including sewer systems and treatment plants , are generally inadequate , overloaded , and poorly maintained and operated . Moreover , large quantities of highly toxic industrial wastewater and chemical liquid wastes are discharged into the municipal sewage systems . For example , in the late 1980s , the city of St. Petersburg was responsible for about 90 percent of all copper and chromium discharged into the Gulf of Finland @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ treatment processes to operate efficiently . Without either pretreatment or the separation of noxious industrial wastes from household sewage , serious problems with sludge disposal also arise . Another important source of water pollution , and one which is attracting increasing attention , is storm water runoff from urban areas . <p> In the Nordic countries and in the western states of Germany , there have been substantial reductions in the pollution load discharged by municipalities during the last 20 years . The load of organic substances has been reduced from 50 to 5 percent and that of phosphorous from 25 to 10 percent of the amount generated by municipalities . For example , in Sweden and Finland , the average reduction efficiency for biochemical oxygen demand ( BOD ) and phosphorus in municipal sewage treatment plants exceeds 90 percent . Industries <p> Industrial restructuring is taking place in the formerly centrally planned economies , but it will take many years for the environmental effects of this process to become more visible . For the time being , industry continues to play a significant role in the discharge of polluting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and chemical industries discharge a variety of inorganic wastes that affect water in diverse ways , including rendering it completely toxic . Synthetic chemical production creates new and more exotic types of waste . Many technologies are obsolete , the most dramatic examples being the paper mills in Kaliningrad , Russia , that were built at the end of the 19th century . Wastewater treatment installations typically suffer from the same problems as sewage treatment plants -- insufficiency , overloading , and poor operation and maintenance . <p> The pulp-and-paper industry , in particular , plays a significant role in the discharge of oxygen-consuming , nutrient-rich , and slowly degradable substances into the sea and river waters in the Baltic region . Most of the old mills are located in the Karelian , St. Petersburg , and Kaliningrad regions of Russia , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland . In Sweden and Finland , pulp-and-paper mills are located primarily in the catchments of the Bothnian Sea , Bothnian Bay , and the Gulf of Finland . Some of the mills already have closed circulation of process water in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ further substitutes for chlorine- and sulfur-containing chemicals . <p> In the Baltic 's catchment area , about 400 million tons of solid waste of industrial and municipal origin are generated annually . In Denmark , Finland , Sweden , and the western states of Germany , hazardous wastes are handled separately from both household and regular industrial waste and are properly treated . Unfortunately , this is not the case in the remaining countries of the region , where thousands of poorly maintained or uncontrolled dumping sites contribute significantly to contamination of local aquifers , lakes , rivers , and ultimately the Baltic Sea . The lack of separation of various kinds of wastes is a major problem . Furthermore , the effects of past practices are monumental . For example , landfill and dumping sites around St. Petersburg contain about 200 million tons of mineral waste . In Poland , accumulated solid waste is estimated at 1,500 million tons . Agriculture <p> Important agricultural areas are located in Russia , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland , with the latter accounting for about 40 percent , or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ catchment . Except in Poland , large , formerly state-owned farms dominate ; their average size is more than 5,000 hectares . In Poland , the ownership structure is different ; about 80 percent of agricultural land is in small family farms with an average size of about 5 hectares ( although the number of large private farms is growing ) . <p> Agriculture in Denmark and southern Sweden relies quite heavily on fertilizers . Farming operations in the Danish part of the Belt Sea catchment , which has a total area of about 12,400 square kilometers , annually discharge about 30,000 tons of nitrogen into the sea , while operations in the much larger Vistula River basin , whose 166,000 square kilometers cover two-thirds of Poland and small portions of Belarus , the Slovak Republic , and Ukraine , discharge some 50,000 tons . As agriculture intensifies in Poland and other formerly communist countries , the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides must be avoided and alternatives developed . Otherwise , nutrient loading of the Baltic Sea will increase dramatically . <p> At present , inputs of nitrogen and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the Baltic Sea . They originate from ammonia volatilization , nitrogen leaching ( nitrate and organic nitrogen ) , phosphorus leaching , soil erosion , and the discharge of farm wastes , such as effluents from animal houses , manure storage , and silage heaps . Animal manures produced not only in the Baltic catchment but also in the North Sea catchment in Germany , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , and France release ammonia into the atmosphere that is eventually deposited in the Baltic Sea . Nitrate leaching is mainly the result of inadequate handling and inefficient use of commercial fertilizers . Although livestock density is generally low , large animal farms -- for example , hog farms with 100,000 to 150,000 animals -- cause the most serious and difficult problems in handling animal manure . A Framework for Regional Action <p> The Baltic Sea 's environmental problems have been the concern of the surrounding countries for several decades . In 1974 , inspired by the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment , the governments of the region signed the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Convention , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on a provisional basis , and the convention formally entered into force in May 1980 . The Helsinki Commission ( HELCOM ) is the steering agency for the convention . Unfortunately , until the relatively recent political changes in the Baltic region , the activities of HELCOM concentrated on the open sea . As long as the coastline was shared by countries belonging to different military blocs , the coastal waters were largely inaccessible , and only extremely limited data on land-based pollution sources were available . <p> About 15 years after signing the initial Helsinki convention and as soon as the political situation in the region had changed , the prime ministers of Poland and Sweden invited their colleagues from the other countries in the Baltic catchment to a conference held in Ronneby , Sweden , in September 1990 . The participants at the Ronneby conference adopted the first Baltic Sea Declaration , which sets out a number of principles and priority actions necessary to enhance the Baltic environment . Most importantly , the conference signaled the launching of a concrete effort to " assure the ecological restoration of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the marine environment and preservation of its ecological balance . " 2 That effort is the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme . The program was developed from 1990 to 1992 by a HELCOM ad hoc high-level task force ( HLTF ) , which was a joint endeavor of the Baltic Sea countries ( Denmark , Estonia , Finland , Germany , Latvia , Lithuania , Poland , Russia , and Sweden ) , the countries of the catchment area ( Belarus , the Czech Republic , the Slovak Republic , Norway , and Ukraine ) , the Commission of the European Communities , and four international financial institutions ( European Investment Bank , European Bank for Reconstruction and Development , Nordic Investment Bank , and World Bank ) . Also invited to attend HLTF meetings were several organizations that acted as observers , including the International Baltic Sea Fisheries Commission , the Coalition Clean Baltic , Greenpeace , and the World Wide Fund for Nature . The task force used a variety of studies and sources of information to develop the program , including national plans prepared by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ eastern , southern , and southwestern parts of the catchment. 3 The prefeasibility studies and special topical studies 4 were financed by grants totaling 5 million ECU from the Commission of the European Communities , the governments of Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , and Sweden , the Nordic Project Export Fund , and Sweden 's World Wide Fund for Nature . In April 1992 in Helsinki , the Diplomatic Conference of Ministers of the Environment revised the 1974 Helsinki convention and approved the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme . The Joint Comprehensive Programme <p> Nearly 20 years of scientific work by HELCOM committees and studies conducted for the HELCOM task force have followed ecological developments in the Baltic Sea catchment . This preparatory work for the program concluded that preventive and curative actions are necessary in all of the countries in the catchment to reduce the pollution load reaching the sea . Some of these actions are already under way : Some state-owned enterprises with polluting production activities have shut down ; wastewater treatment plants are planned or partly constructed ; new protected areas have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ These ongoing activities require support ; in particular , new environmental policies and pollution control programs should be formulated and adopted in the formerly Eastern-bloc economies . The Strategy <p> The underlying strategy of the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme consists of actions by each concerned government to carry out needed policy and regulatory reforms ; to build capacity ; and to invest in controlling pollution from point and nonpoint sources , safely disposing of or reducing the generation of waste , and conserving ecologically sensitive and economically valuable areas . To complement these activities , the program also includes elements to support applied research , environmental awareness , and environmental education . These actions will be phased in to keep pace with the gradually increasing capacity to raise funds and pay for the recurrent costs of environmental management in the transforming economies . For the first few years , emphasis will be placed on creating the enabling policymaking environment and institutional arrangements , on making limited investments in the highest priority projects , including pilot and demonstration projects , and on promoting private investment and initiative through @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and western parts of the region are also an integral part of the joint comprehensive program and are expected to be financed from local resources . Program Components <p> The program consists of six components that comprise broad and distinct areas of action . The first component is a set of policy , legal , and regulatory reforms that establish a long-term .. environmental management framework in each country , including macroeconomic policies and incentives ; financial facilities , policies , and controls ; environmental standards and laws ; and the appropriate systems for monitoring and enforcing these laws . To accomplish these goals , the program will encourage participating governments to undertake studies of new legal regulatory arrangements and drafting of governmental and parliamentary decision documents ; policy studies of options , costs , and benefits ; investment in new monitoring equipment , upgrading of laboratory equipment and procedures , and upgrading of data processing and analytical capacity ; and development of new organizational structures and arrangements to carry out management functions . The program will also promote the use of a range of economic measures for the management @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ polluter pays principle , " adoption of realistic user charges , and introduction of cost sharing principles in the case of trans-boundary pollution . In addition , the program will seek to promote the adoption of the best environmental practices and the use of the best available technologies to prevent pollution at the source , consistent with the 1992 Helsinki convention ( an update of the 1974 convention that was signed at the Diplomatic Conference ) and HELCOM recommendations . Actions that facilitate the transfer of technology between and within cooperating countries will also be encouraged . <p> The second component of the program is institutional strengthening and human resources development : building the organizational and human capacity to enforce regulations ; planning , designing , and implementing environmental management systems , including infrastructure ; and managing natural resources efficiently . The program focuses on training people to use new concepts of management and new technology and developing the organizational and administrative framework for people to work effectively and efficiently . Priority will be given to support for environmental planning , river basin management , coastal zone management , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ environmental management , the program will support the development of effective local authorities that are responsible for water supply , wastewater , and disposal of solid wastes . The program will also support the development of local capacity to carry out environmental audits by training personnel from local industries , consulting firms , and regulatory organizations . <p> The third component is a program for infrastructure investment in specific measures to control point and nonpoint sources of pollution and to minimize and dispose of wastes . These measures include the rehabilitation and modernization of existing infrastructure ; the development of new infrastructure ; and the conservation of environmentally sensitive areas and resources . This program includes investments in three areas : Investments in municipal environmental management will emphasize the collection , treatment , and disposal of wastewater . Existing municipal water systems in the region commonly include all or most of the industrial wastewater within the service area of the sewer network , which means that they are functioning as combined municipal and industrial wastewater systems . The program will support national and local activities to rationalize municipal water consumption @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also be provided for the completion of facilities already under construction , subject to design modification ( taking a least-cost approach ) and replacement of any substandard civil works . There are a number of such projects under way in the region 's " hot spots , " including Kaliningrad , Klaipeda , Liepaja , Tallinn , and Vilnius . Key operational problems , such as inadequate plant instrumentation and energy-inefficient equipment , will also be addressed . Industrial waste management at specific sites and complexes will also be financed . These projects are primarily for wastewater management , but they also address waste minimization , safe disposal of solid wastes , treatment and safe disposal of various forms of hazardous and toxic wastes , and environmental restoration from past degradation . Particular attention will be given to the pulp-and-paper industry , which has special significance in the region . Although this industry is perhaps most modern in the northern and western parts of the region , it is arguably one of the most outdated and inefficient in the eastern and southern portions . In both cases , the pulp-and-paper @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ substances . In addition , priority will be given to addressing wastewater treatment in the chemical and metal production and processing industries . Controlling polluted water runoff and discharges from agricultural lands , large livestock operations , and rural settlements is also an investment priority . Agriculture and livestock are major contributors of nutrient loads to the sea . Control measures will involve a wide range of changes in farming practices , including modifications in the timing of manure application and tillage ; improvements in farm infrastructure , such as larger capacity and more secure storage for fertilizers , manure , and farm wastes ; changes in water use ; and new equipment , such as manure spreading and waste handling equipment . The program will also support investment activities to reduce pollution problems resulting from fish farming . <p> The fourth component of the program is to aid in the management of coastal lagoons and wetlands . These environmentally sensitive and economically valuable areas serve as important buffers of pollution before it reaches the sea and provide critical habitat for diverse flora and fauna , including commercially important fisheries @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ infrastructure and , in some cases , will be integrated with compatible ecotourism and recreation developments , possibly through joint public and private ventures or private investment . The program will support the development of a series of demonstration activities concerning the use of natural and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and storm water retention and as traps for nutrients and other pollutants . <p> The program 's fifth part is supporting applied research to build the knowledge base needed to develop solutions , transfer technology , and broaden understanding of critical problems . Specific priority topics include environmental trends ; systems ecology ; development and application of the " critical load " concept for different pollutants in the Baltic Sea and its subregions ; assessments of risks to human health ; agricultural development patterns in the Baltic Sea basin ; future trends in transportation and its environmental management ; and management of critical ecosystems , such as coastal lagoons and wetlands . <p> Finally , the program will encourage public awareness and environmental education to develop a broad and sustainable base of support for the implementation of the other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ level and the development of effective environmental education programs are essential to promoting public awareness and political commitment . Efforts to promote and expand environmental education , particularly in the context of local environmental cleanup activities , will be given priority . <p> The 1992 Baltic Sea Declaration that was signed at the April 1992 Diplomatic Conference mandated that the key elements of the Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme be initiated in 1993 . Although the main responsibility for implementing the program will rest with the governments concerned , coordination of many program activities is needed . Such activities include monitoring pollution and the impact of the program , maintaining databases , reforming policies and regulations , providing technical assistance , planning research programs , and exchanging information , as well as periodically updating the program . To this end , the Programme Implementation Task Force has been set up within the framework of HELCOM . The Costs and Financing of the Program <p> The total cost of the 20-year program for all countries in the Baltic Sea catchment is estimated to be about 18 billion ECU ( about $25.6 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to 1997 , is projected to cost about 5 billion ECU ( about $6 billion ) . ( See Table I on page 28 . ) <p> The program will focus on remediating 132 " hot spots " ( see the map on page 14 ) , 98 of them located in Russia , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Belarus , Ukraine , Poland , the Czech Republic , and the Slovak Republic . These 98 actions will cost about 8.5 billion ECU , out of which 6.5 billion ECU will go toward 47 " priority hot spots , " including 26 municipal spots , 9 industrial spots , and 12 others . The remaining 34 hot spots , located in Denmark , Finland , Germany , and Sweden , have been selected by these countries themselves , and their remediation will cost approximately 1.5 billion ECU . In Poland , which has the largest land area and population in the Baltic Sea catchment , the estimated cost for remediating the 40 recommended hot spots and priority hot spots exceeds 4.0 billion ECU ( see " Report from Poland @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the March 1991 Environment ) . <p> In phase 1 of the program 's implementation , the needs of 29 priority hot spots will be addressed , 19 in the Vistula and Oder river basins and 10 in Russia , Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania . In addition , major reductions in discharges of adsorbable organic halogens are planned for the pulp-and-paper industry in Finland and Sweden . <p> The immediate costs for the program total about 30 million ECU for the feasibility studies of the highest priority projects . Financial arrangements for the implementation of these projects can not be completed without the results of these studies . In addition , the governments in the eastern and southern parts of the catchment will need to arrange for local and external support to carry out the required policy and regulatory reforms . Timely implementation of the program critically depends on those and other noninvestment activities . To complicate matters , nearly two-thirds of the hot spots are located in countries whose current economic situation makes ordinary loans and commercial financing difficult . Therefore , some combination of normal and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be needed from bilateral and multilateral financing agencies . Varied approaches to project financing are also needed , including enhanced local sources of revenue from taxes and user charges , user taxes on potentially polluting substances , and private investment that supplements traditional public-sector borrowing and budgetary resources . <p> In March 1993 , at the High Level Conference on Resource Mobilization for the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme in Gdansk , Poland , the participants stressed that availability of local or foreign funds is not the only constraint to program implementation ; several mutually related factors also limit the mobilization and flow of , and the capacity to use effectively , the funds that are available . Several important observations were made at the Gdansk conference. 6 First , the greatest proportion of project financing must come from local resources ; however , despite the efforts on the part of governments of the formerly communist countries , local resources will remain limited in the short term . Slow progress in this regard has been largely due to the precarious position of the economies in transition . Nevertheless @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ action should be taken to support the establishment of financing mechanisms and incentives , to develop the institutional capacity to implement them , and to create greater public awareness of their importance . " 7 The principal local sources of funds available to support activities under the program include user charges , pollution fees , budgetary allocations and nonbudgetary incentives , domestic loans , and , potentially , private investments . Domestic loans may not be a major factor in the near term because local financial institutions , such as capital markets and banks , have not been sufficiently developed to support environmental improvements . <p> Under the current economic conditions , however , the concerned countries , municipalities , and enterprises have sought increased support for program financing from external sources . Although some of the potential donor countries are suffering from a protracted recession , " there will be a critical need , at least for the short term , for continued and better coordinated support from bilateral donor organizations to implement the Programme , especially to support policy , institutional development and investment project preparation activities . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the European Communities and bilateral donors , from both within and outside the region , has been an important source of support for program activities in recent years . <p> In addition , the conference participants anticipated that " the international financing institutions will continue to provide loans and implement projects for selected priority actions under the Programme consistent with the requests of the borrowers and within lending limits established by their credit worthiness. " 9 The level of investment by international financing institutions is determined by the priorities of the borrowing country , the levels of borrowing and indebtedness that present and anticipated economic conditions are able to support , the balance of investment activities between priority sectors , the quality of the proposed investment , and the related characteristics and conditions of the borrower . <p> During phase 1 of the program 's implementation , special emphasis " must be put on comprehensive feasibility studies that yield economically and financially feasible and affordable investment projects , and that devote more attention to the assessment of the current institutional framework and the formulation of measures to strengthen that framework @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ actions will require special attention in phase 1 , including local fundraising , support for institutional reforms , support for industries in transition , and the phasing in of investments requiring long development periods . <p> The conference also acknowledged that , in the formerly communist countries , pollution control " at the source " will have to be incorporated into the ongoing privatization , restructuring , and modernization of industries . In the municipal sector , innovative approaches -- such as joint ventures with foreign capital and long-term concessions -- will be needed to attract capital financing , especially from private and commercial sources . Investments in municipal wastewater treatment plants must be seen within the broader framework of developing autonomous self-financing municipal and regional water and wastewater utilities , whether public or private . " 11 <p> The environment ministers and other representatives of the governments of the Baltic Sea countries and the representative of the Commission of the European Communities assembled at the Gdansk conference jointly decided to make all efforts to mobilize local , national , bilateral , and multilateral financial and other resources for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Phase 1 investment activities will concentrate on improving combined municipal and industrial wastewater treatment to reduce organic pollution loads . High-priority projects are the completion of unfinished or inoperable treatment facilities , the installation or improvement of pretreatment of industrial wastewater discharges into the municipal sewage systems , and the expansion of safe disposal of sludges . In the formerly centrally planned economies , nutrient-removal facilities ( tertiary treatment ) at municipal wastewater treatment plants will be deferred until more substantial progress is achieved in nutrient reductions in the agricultural sector . <p> As discussed at the Gdansk conference , 13 initial program activities have emphasized the establishment of priorities at the national level and detailed preparation of projects , including feasibility studies . Out of the 29 priority hot spots to be addressed in phase 1 , detailed feasibility studies are under way or are planned at 17 of the 26 priority municipal hot spots ; and environmental audits have been carried out at 6 of the 9 priority industrial hot spots . In addition , an economic and environmental assessment of the region 's pulp-and-paper industry was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the region 's 34 pulp-and-paper mills and focused on 12 mills that are candidates for feasibility studies and possible investment support . <p> The development of control programs for nonpoint source pollution in the agricultural and livestock sectors requires a different approach . The emphasis in phase 1 is on establishing an effective institutional framework and on developing and implementing well-designed pilot and demonstration activities . Seven pilot studies and programs have been established for the control of agricultural and livestock runoff in hot spot areas of Russia ( at a major hog farm in the St. Petersburg region ) , Estonia ( protection of groundwater from agricultural pollution ) , and Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland ( testing ecotechnologies in small catchment areas ) . Thirteen surveys , studies , and pilot programs have been established or are planned in the most important wetland areas and in the key coastal lagoons , which are mostly in Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland . In addition , the World Wide Fund for Nature , in cooperation with the countries of the region , is developing a regional @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ central Matsalu Bay in Estonia , the north coast of Latvia , and Putsk Bay , which is a subsection of Gdansk Bay in Poland . <p> Although several factors have combined to slow the rate at which resources are committed to and used for various program activities , the first year of implementation has demonstrated that , despite all difficulties , a great deal can be accomplished . The foundations established during this early phase will ensure the long-term success of the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme . Expected Environmental Benefits <p> The program is expected eventually to have a major impact on the rivers in the Baltic Sea catchment , which are the principal source of water supply for industry , agriculture , and about 80 million people . Reducing pollution loads and restoring aquatic ecosystems will increase the quality and reliability of water resources and benefit the health and well-being of the local population . <p> The coastal waters are expected to improve most rapidly , which would allow several contaminated beaches to open again and contribute to re-establishing favorable conditions for tourism and local @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ should reduce algal blooms , assist in lowering eutrophication levels , and improve oxygen conditions . These improvements should have a major positive impact on fishery resources , including an increase in the number and diversity of commercially valuable fish species , such as whitefish , cod , and plaice . The quality of the open sea will be restored more slowly , however , because of the difficulty in controlling long-range atmospheric transportation of various pollutants . <p> Another benefit of the program to Baltic countries is the strengthening of local capacities to plan , finance , and manage environmental measures . The strategic gains from capacity building for environmental cleanup will be of particular importance in the formerly centrally planned economies , which are undergoing profound institutional as well as economic changes . <p> Given the current state of the Baltic Sea environment , however , the program can not be expected to make any major impacts for about 20 years . But gradual and visible improvements , both environmental and economic , can be realized in the relatively near future . <p>

@@4018741 Section : REPORT ON REPORTS <p> Can agricultural growth be sustained ? More specifically , have the efforts of the last several decades to put in place a global agricultural research system established the research capacity that will enable the farmers of the developing world to meet future demands ? <p> This report , which summarizes and interprets the research policy recommendations made by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ( CGIAR ) Third System Review Panel , attempts to respond to these questions. ( n1 ) PMahendra M. Shah served as executive secretary of the review panel , with Maurice F. Strong as chair . The panel addressed issues that the system of international agricultural research centers , organized under CGIAR , will face as it attempts to respond to the food security , resource management , and poverty reduction challenges of the first several decades of the 21st century . The report also attempts to fill a broader public information function by highlighting the unique role and accomplishments of the CGIAR system . It addresses the resources that will need mobilization if the international system , together with the National Agricultural Research Systems ( NARS ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The report is well written . The figures , tables , and boxes that accompany the text are particularly useful . Inventing the CGIAR System <p> CGIAR 's vision of a global agricultural research system emerged in the early 1960s as a result of growing concern about a potential world food crisis generated by rapid population growth . Freedom from want had been part of the vision of the architects of new post-World War II international institutions . In the immediate post-war years , much of the institutional responsibility for meeting world food needs fell on the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) . But John Boyd Orr , the first director general of FAO , burdened by the memory of the agricultural surpluses of the 1930s , was highly critical of the view that knowledge and technology represented a serious constraint on agricultural production capacity . In the first two decades after World War II , assistance for agriculture was conducted largely in a technology transfer and community development mode. ( n2 ) <p> The inadequacy of these policies led to a reexamination of assumptions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could be readily exported from countries that had achieved high levels of agricultural productivity to low productivity countries and regions . The result was the emergence of a new perspective : Agricultural technology , particularly yield-enhancing biological technology , is highly location specific . Evidence also accumulated to the effect that only limited productivity gains could be achieved by the reallocation-or the more effective use-of the resources available to peasant producers in poor countries . <p> A new view also emerged on the role of peasant producers in agricultural development . In early post-war development literature , peasant producers were viewed as obstacles , " bound by custom and tradition , " to agricultural development . In an iconoclastic work published in 1964 , Theodore W. Schultz , who subsequently received a Nobel Prize for his work on agricultural development , advanced a " poor but efficient " view of peasant producers. ( n3 ) He viewed them as making efficient use of the resources at hand but living in societies in which productivity enhancing high-payoff inputs had not been made available to them . Schultz insisted that the principal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reproducible resources . Although the services of nature , particularly land and water , would be essential for sustaining agricultural production , the sources of growth would be based on new knowledge and new technology . <p> These insights , gained from experience and analysis , shaped the response of the international community to the food crises of the 1960s and the 1970s . In 1969 , the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations , the World Bank , FAO , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) , and a number of economic assistance agencies in developing countries held consultations that led to the creation of CGIAR . The four international agricultural research centers already established by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations-the International Rice Research Institute ( IRRI ) in the Philippines , the International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat ( CIMMYT ) in Mexico , the International Center for Tropical Agriculture ( CIAT ) in Colombia , and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture ( IITA ) in Nigeria-were brought into CGIAR as the first research units in the new system. ( n4 ) <p> During @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conduct research on additional commodities ( potatoes , cassava , bananas , plantain , livestock , and livestock disease ) ; resources ( soils , water , forest , marine , and genetic ) ; and on agricultural , food , and research policies ( see Figure 1 on this page ) . The establishment of the newer centers reflected a shift from an almost exclusive focus on the enhancement of crop and animal productivity to a broader research program that included the resource and environmental bases on which agricultural production rests . By the late 1990s , approximately 30 percent of the research budget of CGIAR centers was directed to areas of environmental protection and biodiversity preservation . Impact Assessment <p> There is now a large body of research indicating exceptionally high social rates of return to agricultural research in developing countries. ( n5 ) The studies suggest average rates of return upward of 40 percent for a wide range of commodities . The report by Shah and Strong makes brief references to the specific impacts of CGIAR research ( p. 27-32 ) . Because of the close articulation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not easy to isolate their separate contributions . <p> There can be no question , however , about the importance of the contributions of CGIAR research to the growth of production of the most important food commodities in developing countries . For example , a study conducted in the early 1990s indicated that wheat varieties developed through the CIMMYT-NARS collaborative research network accounted for more than 40 percent of the 13,000 wheat varieties released in developing countries between 1966 and 1990 . In addition , varieties developed by using CIMMYT-NPRS germplasm as parents in NARS adaptive research accounted for about 25 percent of all varieties released in developing countries . Thus , about two-thirds of all wheat varieties in developing counties from 1966 to 1990 were directly or indirectly based on germplasm developed by the CIMMYT-NARS network . In addition , varieties containing CYMMT-based genetic material had a significant yield advantage relative to varieties containing only locally based genetic material. ( n6 ) Studies of other major commodities , such as rice , maize , and potatoes , indicate comparable results . <p> The contribution of CGIAR to strengthening national @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ attention than the direct impact of center research on production . CGIAR centers serve as nodes for a global system for the exchange of scientific and technical information and genetic material . There is a continuous exchange of scientific , technical , and administrative staff among the several institutes and between the CGIAR system and agricultural research systems in both developed and developing countries . The world 's largest collection of genetic resources for the major crop plants are now located at CGIAR centers . The mission of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute is to strengthen international collaboration in the conservation and use of plant genetic resources and to disseminate knowledge and technologies relevant to improved conservation and use of plant genetic resources . A continuing concern that has never been fully resolved is the relationship between increased agricultural production and the broader problems of rural poverty . A benefit that has frequently been overlooked is the impact of CGIAR-NARS research on the urban poor . In developing countries , the very poor frequently spend more than half of any incremental income on basic food commodities . Without the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ CGIAR research , basic food prices in many of the poorest countries would be substantially higher. ( n7 ) However , agricultural research has been a blunt instrument with which to address the problems of resource-poor families in rural areas . <p> The member institutes and centers of the CGIAR system also deserve a number of criticisms . They have often been tempted to announce premature " breakthroughs of the year . " An example was the premature announcement by IIRI in 1993 of a new rice biotype that would result in dramatically higher yields . Numerous other examples could be cited . The temptation for premature publicity about potential breakthroughs is often driven by national donor agency pressures to demonstrate to their constituencies the importance of their support for the CGIAR research effort . A second , valid criticism is that institute directors and scientists have , at times , acted as if they were competitors rather than collaborators with NARS , thereby giving inadequate recognition to the work of national scientists . A New Mission <p> What about the future ? Will the CGIAR system be as effective @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it has been in the past ? What are those challenges ? Gordon Conway , president of the Rockefeller Foundation , has called for a " doubly green revolution " that will contribute effectively to poverty reduction by enhancing food production. ( n8 ) The environmental community has called repeatedly for a stronger ecological approach in the CGIAR research agenda . <p> The intensification of agricultural production associated with the adoption of larger yielding crop varieties has generated a number of environmental concerns . Some of these concerns are related to the expansion of irrigated areas on which many of the higher yielding crops grow . Irrigation systems are often poorly designed , managed , and maintained . Overexploitation of groundwater in such areas as northwestern India and north China results in falling groundwater levels . Expansion of gravity irrigation systems in areas , such as the Indus River basin in south-central Asia , results in salinization . Intensive use of fertilizer and pesticides have resulted in soil degradation and water pollution . There have also been negative impacts on fish culture , livestock , and human health in some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ CGIAR centers . Recognition of problems associated with intensification of crop reduction has resulted in a substantial broadening of the research agenda at CGIAR centers . By the late 1990s , research directly related to productivity enhancement had fallen to less than 40 percent of center budgets. ( n9 ) <p> The review panel recommended a new mission statement , which CGIAR has adopted , " to contribute to food security and poverty eradication in developing countries through research , partnership , capacity building , and policy support promoting sustainable agricultural development based on environmentally sound management of natural resources " ( p. 330 ) . It insisted that the specific commodity approach taken by many of CGIAR centers would not be sufficient to meet the demands of population and income growth and to protect and enhance the agricultural resource base . The panel proposed " a far more holistic approach to the interlinked problems , with sustainable agriculture providing the common thread ( p. 33 ) . <p> In its deliberations , the panel found it necessary to struggle with a number of difficult issues . One of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ has been forced to work . Since the early 1990s , when several new natural resource-oriented institutes were added to the system , CGIAR experienced increasing financial stress ( see Figure 1 ) . Financial support declined continuously throughout most of the 1990s . Since the end of the Cold War , contributions by the United States have fallen from a commitment of 25 percent of CGIAR 's budget to less than 15 percent . The decline in U.S. support has made it easier for other developed countries to reduce their support . In Germany , a green movement , critical of modern biological and chemical technology in agriculture , made it easy for a government burdened with the heavy resource demands associated with reunification to reduce its commitment to the support of international agricultural research . Among the developed countries , only Japan , Denmark , and a few others increased their support for CGIAR during the 1990s . Without enhanced support from the World Bank , CGIAR 's financial crisis would have been even deeper . <p> A second issue that the panel struggled with was the role @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ green revolution technology , based on the application of the older Mendelian genetics , had not escaped controversy . Some critics labeled it a western technology inappropriately imposed on nonwestern societies . It was criticized for contributing to loss of genetic diversity and for a bias against the poor. ( n10 ) The panel attempted to tread cautiously among embracing the potential of the new biotechnology to release biological constraints on crop and animal productivity , concern about possible health and environmental impacts , and the inadequate regulatory regimes to monitor release of new biotechnology products for commercial use . That these deliberations were under way during an escalating " food fight " between the United States and several European Community member countries contributed to the caution with which the review panel approached the issue of biotechnology. ( n11 ) <p> A third , closely related issue that confronted the panel was the issue of intellectual property rights of the technology developed at CGIAR centers . The urgency of intellectual property rights arises from the much larger role that private sector research and development is playing in the development of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ particularly in developed countries and in some of the larger and more advanced developing countries . One of the concerns addressed by the critics is farmer access and ability to pay . " Those who oppose protection argue that the protection shifts control of resources from farmers and local communities to large corporations . It also tends to skew the research agenda to favor industrial agriculture , bypassing the community and diversity-based agriculture that , over the generations , has fostered and maintained genetic diversity " ( p. 46 ) . <p> A related concern is the excessively broad intellectual property rights granted by the U.S. national patent office on genetic material. ( n12 ) The panel had to confront the issue that failure to establish intellectual property rights on the product of its research could mean that it would lose control of its own research results . It will not be able to give away what it does not own . The panel " urged CGIAR to create a legal entity to hold and manage the international patent rights on behalf of the centers " ( p. 47 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ under a licensing arrangement that would ensure that technology developed by CGIAR centers would be freely available . Several European donors to the system opposed this recommendation . The governing body of the CGIAR system has not yet acted on the recommendation , in spite of its urgency . <p> Another issue , which the review panel failed to confront , is the governance and structure of the CGIAR system . It is generally acknowledged , even by its strongest supporters , that the system has great difficulty arriving at and implementing strategic decisions . The independent corporate identity of the constituent institutes has the great strength that research priority decisions can be made at the level at which the science is actually done , and by those with the imagination and capacity to know what is feasible . This independence has been eroded as the core budgets of the centers have declined relative to external project funding by donors . As the system has grown , the Technical Advisory Committee has found it increasingly difficult to advise the governing body on scientific and organizational issues . CGIAR has found @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ more productive research objectives and almost impossible to reorganize or close the several centers that have been unproductive or whose missions are no longer relevant . If the CGIAR system is to meet the challenges outlined in the third system review or in the report by Shah and Strong , it will need to address the issue of its own governance and advisory structure with greater determination than it has demonstrated in the past . A Second Green Revolution ? <p> The developed country donors to the CGIAR system have become too complacent about its capacity to meet the demands placed on the world 's farmers to meet the food demands arising out of population and income growth and to navigate the transition to a sustainable system of agricultural production over the next half century. ( n13 ) <p> The accomplishments of the past half-century are impressive . World population rose from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6.0 billion in 2000 . In spite of rapid population growth , global average per-capita food availability rose from less than 2,400 calories to morP than 2,700 . Food grains have become available @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ countries . Population growth will likely add in the neighborhood of 3.0 billion people to world population by 2050 . Income growth in poor countries will also add substantially to food demand. ( n14 ) <p> In the early 1960s , it was not difficult to anticipate the sources of the increase in agricultural production during the next several decades . Advances in crop production would come from expansion in irrigated areas , from more intensive application of fertilizer and crop protection chemicals , and from the development of crop varieties more responsive to fertilizer and management . Advances in animal production would come from genetic improvements and advances in animal nutrition and animal health . At a more fundamental level , increases in grain yields would occur from changes in plant architecture that make possible higher plant populations per hectare and by increasing the ratio of grain to total dry matter . Increases in production of animals and animal products would come about by decreasing the proportion of feed devoted to animal maintenance and by increasing the proportion used to produce useable animal products . <p> Today , it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the sources of increase in crop and animal production over the next half century. ( n15 ) Neither expansion of cultivated areas nor increases in irrigated areas will contribute substantially to agricultural production in the future . There are severe physiological constraints to increasing the grain-to-dry-matter ratio or to reducing the percentage of animal feed devoted to animal maintenance . Constraints are already evident in terms of a reduction in the incremental yield increase from fertilizer application . There are also preliminary indications of a decline in agricultural research productivity-measured in terms of the number of scientist research years to achieve incremental gains in crop and animal productivity . <p> It is possible , within another decade , that advances in molecular biology and genetic engineering will reverse the urgency of the above concerns . However , the products of genetic engineering now on the market , primarily plant protection and animal health products , are not contributing to raising yield ceilings above the levels achieved with the older Mendelian technologies . The institutional constraints associated with the development of intellectual property rights and the regulatory regimes for monitoPing health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that induce private sector research are directing efforts toward higher value-added products , which include functional foods , neutraceuticals , and pharmaceuticals , in tead of yield enhancement . <p> If the CGIAR system had not already been invented , it would be necessary to do so . The challenge of the future will be to make it a truly global system , to reform its governance and management , and to provide the substantial new resources necessary if the world 's farmers are to meet the demands that their societies will place on them . International assistance agencies and national governments need to direct renewed attention to reversing the recent decline in donor support for agricultural development and to strengthening the national agricultural research systems in the poor countries of the world . <p> There are other issues that will be impossible to resolve within the CGIAR system of agricultural research centers . Agricultural productivity growth will remain a blunt instrument in attempts to resolve the deeper problems of urban and rural poverty . The centers , in cooperation with national agricultural research programs , can be expected to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ associated with agricultural production and nitrous oxide and methane emissions , for example . But the broader issues of poverty reduction and environmental protection must be addressed by policies and programs designed to specifically confront these issues . A major tragedy is that the international community has not yet put in place an environmental research system designed to provide the knowledge and technology needed to address environmental issues at the enterprise and community levels in developing countries . <p>

@@4018841 Section : BOOK REVIEWS AND NOTES PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> This final seventh volume of John Wesley 's Journals and Diaries was initiated in 1988 with the publication of Volume 18 in the Works of John Wesley , now under the general editorship of Richard P. Heitzenrater . The publication of this last volume of the Journal and Diaries represents a landmark in Wesleyan studies . The painstaking and meticulous scholarship of Ward and Heitzenrater has culminated in seven volumes of critically footnoted narrative and episodic information that will serve students of history for many decades . <p> The first six volumes of the Journals and Diaries ( Volumes 18-24 of the Works ) , after Reginald Ward 's 119-page introduction in Volume 18 to the genre of journal and autobiography , contain almost all the actual content of Wesley 's journal and diary entries . This final volume reproduces only the last extract of the Journal ( January 1,1787 to October 24 , 1790 ) and the Manuscript Diaries from January 1 , 1787 to February 24 , 1971 . Wesley died the following Wednesday , March 2 , 1791 , only a week after his last entry . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ through an interesting evolution that is quite discernible if one compares entries in Volumes I and II with those in Volume VII . In the earlier installments there is a definite apologetic air to Wesley 's narrative -- as might be expected against hostile accounts surrounding his flight in disgrace from Georgia after the Sophy Hopkey affair , his being banned from Anglican pulpits for perceived fideism , or his conflict with Whitefield over predestination . The copious index to all seven volumes ( contained in this final volume ) now makes it a straightforward exercise to find his apologetic for the Georgia affair simply by looking under " Georgia " and " Hopkey , Sophia . " The reader can contrast Wesley 's expressed appreciation for the Moravians ' influence on his " conversion " ( Volume 18 ) with his frustrations over their quietism ( Volume 19 ) simply by referencing the index under " Moravians " and " stillness . " Helpfully , if the reader looks first under " quietism , " the editors then lead you to " stillness , " not expecting the general @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ early distinctive characteristic of the Journals and Diaries carries through to the final volume , namely , to define the " character " of Methodism . As one might expect , by the time entries were made from 1787-91 , this is no longer an apology directed outward , but there is a recurring note in Wesley 's admonishments that many Methodists were not exemplifying the Christian character expected by their leader . On Thursday , May 3 , 1787 he writes : " I took leave ... and went on through a delightful country to Clonmel . At six , I preached in the courthouse . I was much surprised . I know not when I have seen so well-dressed and ill-behaved a congregation . " This perhaps means they did not hang on his every word as the eighty-four-year-old icon of Methodism had become accustomed . Wesley adds , " I was told , ' It was the same way that they behaved at church . ' Pity then that they do not turn Papists . The Church of England needs no such members " ( 22 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fine clothes led also to hardening of the spiritual sensibilities , and the Methodists were chasing wealth rather than " fleeing the wrath to come , " the disposition he cherished the most , as noted on the facing page about parishioners at Cork ( 23 ) . It is not the case that these minatory comments are missing in earlier journal entries , but in these pages there is hardly a positive commendation that is not overmatched by negative observations like , " What wonder if all the people were grown dead as stones " ( 26 ) . I previously have not read all the Journals looking for these observations , but it is striking how often in the pages we encounter the admonition : " I exhorted to go on to perfection " ( 52 ) . Wesley does not entirely forsake the Methodist apologetic in the later Journals , but it is my estimation that from 1778 onward the pages of The Arminian Magazine are his venue for this apologetic . Wesley is deeply concerned about the spiritual vitality of his Methodists , and he is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to admonish , correct , and supervise them : " The old murderer is restrained from hurting me , but it seems , he has power over my horses " ( 31 ) . <p> As in the previous installments , Wesley does not hesitate to report what he allows to be God 's providences , whether they be the miraculous saving of souls fleeing the wrath to come or healing those whom neither his remedies nor the physicians ' could cure . The testimony of Mr. Kingford at Canterbury is unusual only in the level of detail Wesley records : <p> Seven years ago I so entirely lost the use of my ankles and knees that I could no more stand than a newborn child . Indeed , I could not lie in bed without a pillow laid between my legs , one of them being unable to bear the weight of the other . All the advice I had profited me nothing .... At bath I sent for a physician , but before he came as I sat reading the Bible , I thought , " Asa sought @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2 Chron. 16:12 but God can do me more good than any physician . Soon after ... rising up , found I could stand . Being much surprised , I walked several times about the room . Then I walked into the square and afterwards on the Bristol road . And from that time , I have been perfectly well . <p> The daily diaries deciphered by Heitzenrater are a completely different genre than the preaching records , social and spiritual commentary of the journal entries . Diary entries note his rising at 4:00 a.m. and end with evening prayers at 9:30 p.m . Typical is his entry for Friday , January 5 , 1787 the numbers represent the time of day : <p> 4 Prayed ; read Dr. Hunter ! 12 The family . 1 Prayer . 2:15 Dinner , necessary talk religious ) , prayer ; Hunter . 5 Tea , religious talk ; prayed . 6 Prayed ; Hunter ; supper , religious talk , prayer . 9:30 . <p> While entries of this type appear rather mundane and unhelpful , references like " read Dr. Hunter @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they tell us what Wesley was reading at the time he was engaged in various conversations and polemics . In this case , we find an entry in the Journal for Friday , January 5 , 1787 , that reads , " in the vacant hours of the following days , I read Dr. Hunters Lectures . " The footnote tells the reader that this is Henry Hunter , and that his book is Sacred Biography ; or , The History of the Patriarchs . Even though the Journals omit names of daily conversation and dinner partners , these are included in the diary entries . The cumulative effect of these diary entries is a much more detailed picture of Wesley 's life . They are like the pixels in a digital image ; the more you have the clearer the image . <p> Some remarks are necessary about the detailed footnotes and the Bibliographical Index . The notes provide the reader insight into Wesley 's sources , those noted by him and those silently quoted or plagiarized ! Scriptural references are provided for citations as well as clear scriptural @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , traveling companions , hosts , and hecklers are given in adequate detail , and other references are made to sources that provide more information . The Bibliographical Index is equally precise . If Wesley mentions reading a piece or refers to it , or if the editors utilize a secondary source , these are all found with full bibliographical information , ( 397-505 ) . And this is followed by a comprehensive " Index to Scriptural References " ( 507-43 ) indexed in canonical order with cross-references to every volume and page on which the scriptural text or reference Occurs . <p> It is difficult to avoid overly praising these seven volumes , and especially this last one , which makes all of them eminently useful to the historian and the interested casual reader as well . Their completion is truly a landmark in Wesleyan Studies . <p> By W. Stephen Gunter , Candler School of Theology , Emory University <p>

@@4018941 A modern chef takes on the challenge of ancient cooking <p> LIKE MANY AMERICANS THESE DAYS , I fancy myself a fairly adventurous cook . And I 've produced some ( overly ) ambitious stuff in my cramped kitchen , like quail in rose-petal sauce and chicken livers and eggs in aspic . So when ARCHAEOLOGY asked me to fix up some ancient menus , I figured , no problem . I 'll hit up the Greeks and the Romans and that will be that . But I had no idea what I was getting into . Because it turns out Apicius is n't the unchallenged king of the ancient culinary world , after all . <p> Many hungry ARCHAEOLOGY readers are no doubt already familiar with Apicius , the first-century A.D. Roman gourmand and chef who wrote copiously on elaborate food preparation and presentation , leaving us with an invaluable insight into the culinary mores of his contemporaries . ( And who can forget his recipe for stuffed dormice ? ) Apicius is widely acknowledged as the first cookbook writer , but why should Romans have all the fun ? <p> Why not give the Mongolian Empire 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ court physician can be credited with showing us what in Xanadu did Kublai Khan dine on while decreeing his stately pleasure dome . In 1330 , Hu presented the Mongol emperor Wenzong , the great-grandson of Kublai Khan , with an enormous dietary manual , Proper and Essential Things for the Emperor 's Food and Drink , containing more than 200 recipes , and much advice concerning the medicinal values and health dangers of foods . ( The full translation of this book , along with extensive commentary and the complete original text , can be found in A Soup for the Qan , by Paul Buell and Eugene Anderson . ) In his dishes , from lamb-stuffed eggplant , with basil-garlic yogurt sauce to deep-fried fish cakes flavored with mandarin orange and the bitter spice asafoetida , he was creatively combining flavors from the wide sphere of Mongolian influence , from Baghdad to Beijing , centuries before the words " fusion " and " cuisine " were ever used in the same sentence . <p> Or what about the nameless cooks who scribbled down their tips in cuneiform in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ became all the rage in today 's chic bistros , chefs in the cradle of civilization were , if the clues they left on clay tablets are to be believed , dismembering tiny game birds , roasting the legs , and braising the bodies before carefully reassembling them atop a round of flatbread and garnishing them with watercress . <p> The Maya were not lacking for culinary achievements either , as we know thanks to European observers , archaeological evidence from trash heaps , and a direct culinary heritage that can be traced forward to many of today 's Latin American cooking traditions . They made good use of the many foodstuffs native to the New World , such as tomatoes , maize , turkey , and chile peppers , to create a complex and flavorful cuisine , and the tamales and salsas ( not to mention chocolate ! ) they invented today grace tables the world over . <p> Long before superstar chefs started experimenting with trout ice cream or tomato foam , adventurous foodies from Mongolia to Mesopotamia to Mayapn were paving the way . I decided to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ re-create some of their most appealing dishes for a group of brave guests . <p> THE FIRST DIFFICULTY a twenty-first-century home cook runs into when attempting to explore cuisines hundreds or thousands of years old is in establishing the ground rules . Does one make use of refrigeration ? ( The answer , after a brief but definitive analysis of logistics : an emphatic yes . ) What about mutton , one of the most common meats throughout the Old World but now almost impossible for the common consumer to obtain in this country ? Would I be cheating if I settled for lamb ? ( In America today , sheep are slaughtered almost exclusively before the end of their first year , making them technically lamb . Anything older is very , very tough -- to buy , I mean , although I presume it also presents a challenge to the incisors . ) And what about all those archaic food-preparation methods ? I possess neither a horse under whose saddle I can shove meat for tenderizing , as the Mongols did , nor a yard into which I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . And then there are the Sumerian recipes that call for blood . Is it safe to cook with blood ? Is it even legal ? <p> Mesopotamians were not the only ones to use blood in their cooking , and they were most likely not the first , either . Blood , after all , is full of iron and protein ; it 's also tasty , with a meaty flavor not unlike liver . And when added to a dish with some liquid in it , say turnips braised in broth , the blood acts as a thickener much like flour or cornstarch , only more so ( and with a more disturbing color ) , creating a thick , dark brown sauce . This binding quality made blood valuable to early cooks trying to raise the bar on their culinary endeavors . The cooks of the Mongol court disregarded the religious taboos of some of the empire 's subjects when they used sheep 's blood as a binding agent in noodles , both to add nutritive value and to make the dough easier to handle . To @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ blood to bind the fillings for their blood sausages . <p> Which is why it 's a little surprising to me that everyone I tried to buy the stuff from thought I was a Satan worshiper . <p> Whether I was talking to ethnic butchers in Queens or a gentlemen farmer selling his organic lamb chops and wool at a bustling , upscale green market in Manhattan , the tenor of a previously amicable conversation would change drastically upon mention of the word " blood . " Friendly , open faces would close up , turning wary , suspicious . The answer to my query was always some variation on , " Oh no , we do n't have that . " One sheep farmer said she could provide blood , but with a condition . " I 'll have to get you to sign a form indicating that the blood will not be used for human consumption . " <p> Not be used for human consumption ? What exactly was I getting myself into here ? <p> Finally , after weeks of failure , I walked into a Greek @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ managed to get the precious stuff -- a gallon jug of frozen beef 's blood , USDA approved if you can believe the cap . It was n't until I 'd paid 15 bucks -- the going rate for a gallon of cow blood , salinated to prevent coagulation-and was on my way out that the guy asked : " So what are you , a vampire or somethin ' ? " <p> Ingredients in Hu 's book posed different sorts of challenges . The carp for his fried fish cakes , for instance , is just an overgrown goldfish , which hardly anyone eats anymore . I found mine -- and had it executed by bludgeoning -- at a fish monger 's stall deep in Chinatown . Then I carried the creature 's butchered remains with me uptown a dozen or so blocks to an Indian grocery , where I obtained , for the same recipe , a small vial of asafoetida , which is a powdered resin from a plant in the fennel family , yellowish in color with a distinctive odor not unlike burned garlic . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our foodie forebears-but it was nothing compared to the cooking . <p> Here our shadowy Mesopotamian friends threw a few wrenches into the works . Unlike Hu 's detailed book , clearly intended as an instruction manual for healthy and flavorsome eating , the three cuneiform tablets I referenced -- happened upon unexpectedly among the tablets of the Babylonian collection at Yale University and translated by Jean Bottro in The Oldest Cuisine in the World-are essentially bits of information being passed from one professional cook to another . Knowledge of cooking methods is often taken for granted ; in the recipe for turnip broth , for instance , the cook is to " prepare the water " ; no further clues are forthcoming . In other instances , ingredients themselves remain mysterious . Bottro guesses when he can , based on other direct and indirect sources , but when it comes to ingredients such as samidu and kisimmu , the scholar is stumped . <p> While an author engaged in respectable research must refrain from undue speculation , guesswork is par for the course when you 're a contemporary home @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for example , the following instructions for " amursnu-pigeon in broth " : " ... after cooking in broth and removing the amursnu-pigeon from the pot , you wipe it off . Then you indecipherable the stove , and stoke the fire indecipherable . I then roast the legs at high heat ? ; wrap them in dough , and I place the amursnu-pigeon filets on the dish ? .... " <p> As you can see , contemporary home cooks have their work cut out for them here . For starters , what the beck is an amursnupigeon ? <p> I wound up using quail . First I removed the legs of the birds . These I roasted in high heat in the oven , while the bodies I gently poached in a broth made with a bit of animal fat ( I used lamb ) , vinegar , leeks , garlic , onions , and shallots . ( The shallots were my embellishment , an almost certainly inauthentic stab at the ingredient samidu . I thought shallots would be appropriate because the Mesopotamians , according to Bottro , were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ seem to have used leeks , onions , and garlic together as a base in many of their recipes , much as the French use their " holy trinity " of carrots , celery , and onions . ) Then I removed the birds from the broth , dried them , rubbed them with garlic , and served them on small flatbreads made with barley flour , baked on a hot dry . skillet -- the Mesopotamians would have baked them on the walls of a clay oven -- accompanied by bitter greens ( I used watercress ) and sprinkled with vinegar , with the roast legs alongside . Was it anything like amursnupigeon as the Mesopotamians ate it ? Who knows ? But the elements of what Mesopotamians would have found a worthy dish -- the flavors , the nutritional value , the presentation -- were there . <p> Turnips stewed with blood was , by comparison , a fairly straightforward affair . In one pot I braised quartered turnips in water until tender . In a second I sauted chopped onions in rendered lamb fat . Once the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and crumbled in a small cake that I made of ground black sesame seeds , molded into a sort of freeform brick and baked until hardened . ( This is my admittedly ad hoc improvisation on the seed " cakes " Mesopotamians made as a sort of pantry staple , to be added to everything from beer to , well , turnips in blood . ) Once this flavor base was cooked through , I stirred in the turnips with a couple of cups of its broth , and poured in a quarter cup of blood . The blood looked very much like blood in my measuring cup , but once it hit the hot water it immediately thickened and darkened to an earthy brown color that coated the turnips nicely . <p> The quail broth I used to make an accompanying dish of simple barley porridge , flavored with a garnish of raw leeks , onions , and garlic , finely minced . One of the surprise delights of the meal , the porridge was more successful than the quail as an evocation of the Mesopotamian habit of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exotic flavor was also treasured by the members of the Mongol court , if Hu 's book can be taken as an accurate guide . In common with other sophisticated cuisines around the globe , many of Hu 's dishes are named for ones they are meant to emulate in flavor , cooking method , or appearance . " Eggplant Manta , " for instance , is not actually a manta at all -- manta being a sort of stuffed , steamed dumpling -- but stuffed eggplant , the idea being that the eggplant skins fill in for the role of dumpling dough . I cut the eggplants in half , hollowed them out , and stuffed them with lamb ( plus some extra fat ) , onions , and mandarin orange peel , then steamed them . This dish , served with a garlicky yogurt sauce with basil , shows the wide influences cooks of the empire 's court worked with . Stuffed vegetables , as Soup for the Qan authors Buell and Anderson note , were typical of contemporaneous Turkic cuisine , while the orange peel is a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , is delicious . A lamb and vegetable stew was a smorgasboard of ingredients and methods gleaned from all corners of the Mongolian world -- yams , ginger , apricot kernel paste , carrots , pickles , and even a ten-egg omelet -- sliced up and stir-fried together before being placed in a lamb broth studded with meat . I flavored cakes of minced fish with ginger and mandarin orange , typical Chinese flavors ( this after boning the carp-the arduous process of which goes a long way toward explaining why carp is not so popular these days ) , but also asafoetida , an ingredient much more typical of the Middle East and India . This and the cooking method -- deep-frying -- made me wonder if the inspiration for this dish might not have come from the onion-loving descendants of the writers of those ancient Mesopotamian tablets ! <p> By comparison , Maya recipes seem familiar to our contemporary palates , a meaningful reminder of how much the flavors of the New World have influenced the way we eat today . Using recipes provided by the Legacy Program @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for Archaeological Research , I made plump corn masa tamales stuffed with turkey ( a dish likely used for both rituals and everyday dining ) , garnished with a lime-spiked salsa , and a thin , bitter version of hot chocolate , sweetened with honey . A simple pumpkin soup of roasted pumpkin , thinned with turkey broth , flavored with honey and allspice , and garnished with pumpkin seeds and scallions , was beautiful to look at and surprisingly delicious as well -- the balance of sweetness , earthiness , and spice , and the textural contrast offered by the pumpkin seeds and onions , made for a complex , contemporary-seeming dish . I finished off with what the UTSA archaeologists call a " Honey-Vanilla Compote . " The dish of mixed fruits -- pineapple , guava , cherries , and grapefruit-stewed with honey and vanilla tasted great . Feasting on these lighter , brighter foods , not so different from what the home cooks of Latin America make today , I felt that it is the Maya 's culinary legacy that will stand the test of time . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ -- Mesopotamian quail with porridge and bloody turnips , Mongolian mutton stew accompanied by stuffed eggplant and fish cakes , and turkey tamales with salsa , pumpkin soup , and hot chocolate , we were in need of a digestif , to say the least . Luckily , I had on hand some homemade Mongolian-style lamb liquor , which I 'd made by soaking a raw joint of lamb in some bottom-shelf vodka for a week . According to Hu , this concoction " greatly supplements and augments a person . " I do n't know about that . But it did sort of taste like lamb chop -- not half bad , actually . <p> While some of my bolder guests sipped the lamb vodka , we considered . The meal was enlightening indeed . Seeing all the ancient dishes side by side , some surprisingly tasty , others less so , it was apparent that no translation of a cuneiform tablet could demonstrate as clearly that , evolving palates aside , the pursuit of good eating is as old as civilization itself . And maybe the ancients still @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Not that I 'll be mixing up a batch of dry lamb martinis anytime soon . MESOPOTAMIAN MENU PREFORMATTED TABLE BARLEY PORRIDGE <p> Adapted from THE OLDEST CUISINE IN THE WORLD , by Jan Bottro PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Add chopped leek and onion and 2/3 of the minced garlic to broth and bring to boil . Reduce heat to moderately low and simmer 10 minutes . Season broth with salt . <p> Keeping the broth at a low simmer , gradually add barley , stirring all the time to avoid clumps . Cook approximately 15 minutes until the porridge is thick and does not taste of raw flour . Stir often to keep the porridge from scorching . Add more broth or water if necessary . <p> Combine the minced leek , onion , and the remaining garlic . When ready to serve , ladle porridge into bowls and garnish with the leek-onion-garlic mixture . <p> Serves 6 MONGOLIAN MENU PREFORMATTED TABLE EGGPLANT MANTA <p> Adapted from A SOUP FOR THE QAN , by Paul Buell and Eugene Anderson PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> For the sauce , combine garlic and basil @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hours , or up to a day , ahead . <p> Slice eggplants in half lengthwise and scoop out flesh , leaving a -inch shell . Dice the flesh finely . <p> Brown fat in skillet over moderately high heat . Add onion and cook until soft and golden . Add lamb and cook until it loses its pink color . Stir in eggplant and orange peel and cook another 2 or 3 minutes . Salt and pepper to taste . <p> Heap stuffing into each eggplant half . ( Up to this point , recipe can be made several hours ahead . Refrigerate until ready to serve . ) Set eggplants into large steamer unit over simmering water , and steam 6 to 8 minutes until the eggplant shells are cooked through but not soggy . <p> Serve with basil-garlic sauce cold or at room temperature on top or on the side . <p> Serves 4 MAYA MENU PREFORMATTED TABLE PUMPKIN SOUP <p> Recipe courtesy of the Legacy Program at the University of Texas at San Antonio 's Center for Archaeological Research PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> Preheat oven to 350 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ easily pierced with a knife , about 1 hour . Allow pumpkin to cool , slice off top , and scoop out seeds . Remove pumpkin fibers from seeds , toss seeds with oil , and salt to taste . Spread out on a baking sheet and return to oven 15 to 20 minutes until crisp and golden . Reserve for garnish . <p> Scrape the pumpkin flesh from shell and mash , or puree if a smoother mixture is desired . Place the pumpkin in a large saucepan and season with salt , honey , and allspice . Gradually stir in enough broth to make soup with thin or thick consistency , as desired . Simmer over medium heat about 5 minutes , until hot . If desired , serve soup in small pumpkin or squash shells . Garnish with onions and pumpkin seeds . <p> Serves 6 <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The author and her guests dig into an ancient smorgasbord . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The author with a plate of turkey tamales she prepared following a recipe based on ancient Maya cooking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2700 B.C. , this limestone plaque depicts a Mesopotamian banquet in full swing . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : This Maya vessel depicts a deity clutching a cacoa pod , the source of chocolate . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) <p> By Julie Powell <p> <p> JULIE POWELL received a 2004 James Beard Award for food journalism . Her book chronicling a year spent cooking out of Julia Child 's Mastering the Art of French Cooking ( Vol. 1 ) will be published in 2005 by Little , Brown . <p>

@@4019041 ABSTRACT <p> A six-year longitudinal study investigated the development of self-esteem in relation to mother 's child-rearing attitudes , role satisfaction , and perceived temperament of the child . Participants were two age cohorts of girls and boys from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study , being 6 ( n = 416 ) and 9 years old ( n = 408 ) at the beginning of the study ( baseline ) . Scores regarding mother 's hostile child-rearing attitudes , mother 's low role satisfaction , and maternal perceptions of child 's difficult temperament ( high activity , negative emotionality , and low cooperativeness ) were obtained at baseline and three years later . Self-esteem was measured by self-reports six years later , at the ages of 12 and 15 . The results indicated considerable gender differences . Among girls nearly all childhood variables individually predicted self-esteem , whereas among boys the associations were less evident . Additionally , perceived difficult temperament at baseline predicted hostile child-rearing attitudes at first follow-up , which further predicted low self-esteem among girls only . <p> Self-esteem , conceptualized as evaluative judgments about self ( e.g. , Coopersmith , 1967 ; DuBois @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1996 ) or as overall feelings of worth or value as a person ( e.g. , Harter , 1998 ; Rosenberg , 1979 ) , has been consistently found to be related to a wide area of adjustment and well-being , such as social relationships ( Dekovic &; Meeus , 1997 ) , school achievement ( Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ) , resilience to stressful life events ( Dumont &; Provost , 1999 ) , depression ( Hammond &; Romney , 1995 ) , suicidality ( Wichstrom , 2000 ) , substance abuse ( Scheier , Botvin , Griffin , &; Diaz , 2000 ) , personality disorders ( Watson , 1998 ) , and eating disorders ( Willcox &; Sattler , 1996 ) . Self-evaluations start to develop in early childhood ( see Bowlby , 1982 ; Harter , 1998 ) and are relatively stable after adolescence ( Block &; Robins , 1993 ; Kling , Hyde , Showers , &; Buswell , 1999 ; O'Malley &; Bachman , 1983 ) . View of primary source of self-esteem varies according to theories and definitions of serf-esteem . William James ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ suggested that self-esteem develops through one 's feelings of competence ( see Higgins , 1991 ; Gecas &; Shwalbe , 1983 ) . The major determinant of one 's level of self-esteem in this context involves the relation between perceptions of competence and the importance of success . The sense of competence , in turn , reflects the discrepancy between one 's goal , or ideal , and one 's performance . The ideal self is a person 's representation of what she/ he wants to be or feels that she/he should be . During childhood the parents ' hopes and aspirations usually form the basis for ideal self-representations ( Higgins , 1991 ; see also Harter , 1999 ) . <p> Early symbolic interactionists such as Cooley ( 1902 ) and Mead ( 1934 ) have placed more emphasis on social interactions . The primary source of self-esteem has been suggested to be the opinions received from significant others . A similar view is shared by psychodynamic theorists ( e.g. , Kernberg , 1970 ) and attachment theorists ( e.g. , Bowlby , 1982 ) , who highlight the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ needs are satisfied and who experiences parents as totally accepting , emotionally available , and loving will view him/herself as absolutely good and loveable ( see Bowlby , 1982 ) . In short , parenting , especially in childhood , is of primary importance . <p> Empirical findings have supported the theoretical propositions . High self-esteem in children and/or adolescents is related to parental reports of warmth and acceptance ( Coopersmith , 1967 ; Dekovic &; Meeus , 1997 ) and low levels of parent-child conflict ( Shek , 1998 ) . In addition , children 's and/or adolescents ' perceptions of authoritative parenting ( Carlson , Uppal , &; Prosser , 2000 ) , parental warmth ( Paulson , Hill , &; Holmbeck , 1991 ) , parental support ( Paulson et al. , 1991 ) , and parental acceptance ( Herz &; Gullone , 1999 ; Ohannessian , Lerner , Lerner , &; von Eye , 1998 ) , as well as reports of strong affective ties with parents ( Roberts &; Bengtson , 1996 ) , are related to high serf-esteem . Low self-esteem has been shown @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of their parents as authoritarian ( Buri , Louiselle , Misukanis , &; Mueller , 1988 ) , as using psychological control and being overly firm ( Litovsky &; Dusek , 1985 ) , and as being overprotective ( Herz &; Guillone , 1999 ) , as well as reports of conflict with parents ( Slater &; Haber , 1984 ) . Moreover adolescents ' high self-esteem has been shown to be related to observations of positive mother-adolescent communication ( Killeen &; Forehand , 1998 ) . <p> Some , however , have suggested that parenting is affected by contextual factors such as child and parent characteristics ( Belsky , Steinberg , &; Draper , 1991 ) . Empirical studies have shown that different temperamental characteristics of the child elicit different parenting practices . For example , difficult temperament has been found to be associated with deficient parenting ( Glark , Koshanska , &; Ready , 2000 ; Katainen , Rikknen , &; Keltikangas-Jarvinen , 1997 ; van den Boom &; Hoeksma , 1994 ) . Empirical studies have also shown that parental role dissatisfaction is associated with less effective @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1999 ; Lerner &; Galambos , 1985 ; McLoyd , Jayaratne , Ceballo , &; Borquez , 1994 ) . Moreover , it has been proposed that the relation between contextual factors and parenting may be reciprocal , and that contextual factors may also be associated with each other . Empirical results have shown that parental negativity ( e.g. , hostility and lack of empathy ) increases difficult temperament in the child ( e.g. , Lerner &; Galambos , 1985 ; Rikknen &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ; cf. evocative genotype-environment interaction ; see Scarr &; McCartney , 1983 ) , and that maternal role satisfaction is related to child 's difficult temperament ( Katainen et al. , 1999 ) . However , there is a lack of research on the development of self-esteem that approaches parenting in a broader and transactional context ( cf. DuBois &; Hirsch , 2000 ) . <p> A few cross-sectional studies have indicated that these contextual factors ( i.e. , child 's temperament and parental role satisfaction ) may be directly associated with the development of a child 's self-esteem . It has been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ withdrawal , and rigidity ( Windle et al. , 1986 ) , and low adaptability and reactivity to the environment , as well as high distractibility ( Klein , 1992 ) , are related to low self-esteem among children and/or adolescents . In addition , parents of adolescents with low self-esteem have been found to rate their marriages as less satisfying than have parents of adolescents with high self-esteem ( Matteson , 1974 ) . However , single mothers ' negative perceptions of the maternal role were not found to be related to their adolescent 's self-esteem ( McLoyd et al. , 1994 ) . Thus , findings regarding the effects of child 's temperament and parental role satisfaction on the development of self-esteem remain sparse and somewhat inconsistent . <p> Taken together , studies on the development of self-esteem have neglected the known correlates of parenting such as the perceived temperament of the child and the role satisfaction of the mother . Moreover , a majority of the studies on the development of serf-esteem have been cross-sectional , and have not covered different developmental periods , particularly the transition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ need for studies that are both longitudinal and take the transactional nature of parenting and contextual factors ( e.g. , child 's temperament and maternal role satisfaction ) into consideration ( cf. DuBois &; Hirsch , 2000 ) . <p> The objective of the present study was to examine the role of maternal child-rearing attitudes , role satisfaction , and perceived temperament of the child in the development of self-esteem from childhood to adolescence . We hypothesized that the mother 's emotional rejection of the child , her intolerance of the child 's behavior , and her strict disciplinary style ( a constellation that closely resembles " hostile child-rearing attitude " ; Schaefer , 1959 ; see also Holden &; Edwards , 1989 ) , as well as her low satisfaction as a mother , as a spouse , and with work when the child was young , would predict the child 's low self-esteem in adolescence . We also hypothesized that maternal perceptions of the child as being high in both activity and negative emotionality and low in cooperativeness -- perceptions that together refer to general child difficultness ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a child 's low self-esteem in adolescence . Additionally , we hypothesized that maternal child-rearing , role satisfaction , and perceptions of child temperament transact in the development of self-esteem . <p> Finally , several studies have indicated that gender may play an important role in the development of self-esteem . First it has been shown that adolescent boys tend to have slightly higher self-esteem than do girls ( Block &; Robins , 1993 ; Kling et al. , 1999 ) . Second , studies have found that there are qualitative differences in women 's and men 's self-esteem ( Josephs , Markus , &; Tafarodi , 1992 ; Thorne &; Michalieu , 1996 ) . That is , women 's self-esteem is more dependent on significant others , whereas men 's serf-esteem depends more on independent achievements . Also noteworthy is that sociocultural expectations are gender dependent ( Block , 1983 ) and there are gender differences in the associations between temperament and family factors ( e.g. , Prior , 1992 ) . Therefore , we acknowledge that the development of self-esteem might differ according to the gender of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Young Finns ( CRYF ) is an ongoing prospecrive study of changes in behavioral and biological characteristics from childhood to adulthood . In 1980 , the CRYF recruited a stratified random sample of 3,896 children and adolescents from six age cohorts on the basis of the population register of Finland . There were initial baseline clinical evaluations , with follow-ups every 3 years . Institutional review boards approved the project . Complete details of the CRYF study protocol can be found elsewhere ( kerblom et al. , 1991 ) . <p> To meet the study objectives , focus was placed on participants in the 6- and 9-year-old cohorts , from whom maternal perceptions were available starting at childhood and from whom data on self-reported self-esteem were available at adolescence ( ages 12 and 15 ) . Of the 1,229 children participating in 1980 , complete data ( maternal evaluations at baseline and at three-year follow-up and self-reports of self-esteem at six-year follow-up ) were available for 824 children ( 6-year-old cohort : 223 girls and 193 boys ; 9-year-old cohort : 212 girls and 196 boys ) , thus comprising @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the study and children participating in the first or in the first and second stages of the study did not differ from one another in terms of activity , cooperativeness , or negative emotionality , or on measures of child-rearing practices or maternal role satisfaction ( ps > .24 ) . <p> Measures <p> Mother 's hostile child-rearing attitudes . Three scales from the Operation Family Study ( Makkonen et al. , 1981 ) were adopted to assess mother 's child-rearing attitudes . The first scale , comprising four items , tapped the child 's emotional significance ( e.g. , " The child is not emotionally significant to me " ; " I do not enjoy being with the child " ) . The second scale included three items focused on mother 's intolerance regarding the child ( e.g. , " The child makes me nervous " ; " The child is a burden to me " ) . The third scale consisted of two items focusing on the disciplinary style of the mother ( e.g. , " Disciplinary actions are needed regularly with the child " ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ totally disagree ) to 5 ( totally agree ) , except for the disciplinary style items at baseline , with responses being 1 ( totally disagree ) or 2 ( totally agree ) . This constellation resembles Schaefer 's ( 1959 ) " hostile childrearing attitudes , " consisting of three elements : mother 's emotional rejection of the child , her feeling that the child is a burden , and her strict disciplinary style ( see also Holden &; Edwards , 1989 ; Rikknen &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ) . The stability of the individual child-rearing dimensions was evaluated , and the 3-year test-retest ( Pearson 's r ) was significant in all age and gender groups ( rs > .21 , ps < .01 ) . In addition , the reliability estimates of internal consistency for the individual dimensions have been shown to range from .54 to .91 ( Katainen et al. , 1997 ; Rikknen &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ) . The 3-year stability for the hostile child-rearing attitudes construct was also significant ( rs > .33 , ps < .01 ) . <p> Child temperament . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ assessed by the mothers using scales derived from the Health Examination Survey ( Wells , 1980 ) . Activity was assessed using one item , with responses ranging from 4 ( always extremely active and energetic , even restless ) to 1 ( always controlled ) . Cooperativeness was evaluated using one item , with responses ranging from 3 ( continuous problems in cooperating with peers ) to I ( always very cooperative and responsive to others ) . Negative emotionality of the child was evaluated using six items ( e.g. , " Other children 's parents often complain about the child 's behavior " ; " The child often hits , pushes or provokes other children " ) , with responses made on a 2-point scale ( statement does not fit the child vs. the statement fits the child ) at baseline and on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 ( totally disagree ) to 5 ( totally agree ) at first follow-up . The reliability of the negative emotionality dimension has previously been shown to be acceptable , ranging from .63 to .81 ( Katainen et al. , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . This constellation of dimensions has been referred to as perceived child difficultness or perceived difficult temperament ( see Goldsmith et al. , 1987 ) . The stability of the individual dimensions was evaluated , and the 3-year test-retest ( Pearson 's r ) was significant in all age and gender groups ( rs > .23 , ps < .01 ) . The 3-year stability for the difficult temperament construct was higher ( rs > .30 , ps < .01 ) . <p> Mother 's role satisfaction . Mother 's role satisfaction was assessed using scales derived from the Operation Family Study questionnaire ( Makkonen et al. , 1981 ) . Items addressed the mother 's satisfaction with herself as a mother , as a spouse , and with her role at work ( e.g. , " I am satisfied with myself as a mother " ) , and these were evaluated on a scale ranging from 1 ( totally agree ) to 5 ( totally disagree ) . The stability of the individual dimensions was evaluated , and the 3-year test-retest ( Pearson 's r ) was significant @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , ps < .01 ) . The 3-year stability for the role satisfaction construct was higher ( rs > .43 , ps < .01 ) . <p> Self-esteem . A shortened version of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory ( Coopersmith , 1967 ; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1990 , 1992 ) was used to assess self-esteem . The 18 items ( e.g. , " I often feel ashamed of myself " ; " I am pretty sure of myself " ; and " I am easy to like " ) were evaluated on a scale ranging from I ( totally disagree ) to 5 ( totally agree ) . Reliability ( Cronbach 's alpha ) was above .79 for all age and gender groups . <p> Statistical Analysis <p> Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling ( Anderson &; Gerbing , 1988 ; Jreskog &; Srbom , 1996 ) were utilized . To examine the direct effects of child-rearing , role satisfaction , and perceived difficult temperament on self-esteem , structural modeling analyses were conducted using the LISREL 8.30 computer program ( Jreskog &; Srbom , 1996 ) . We used the maximum @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the models using chi-square statistics ( chi/df < 2 ; Bollen , 1989 ; Loehlin , 1987 ) , comparative fit index ( CFI ) ( above .90 ) , and root mean square error of approximation ( RMSEA ; Steiger , 1990 ) ( below .05 indicates close fit and from .05 to .08 adequate fit ; Browne &; Cudeck , 1993 ) . RESULTS <p> Characteristics of the sample are shown in Table 1 . Mothers of 6-year-old boys perceived them as being less cooperative ( baseline ) and as having a higher degree of negative emotionality ( 3-year follow-up ) , as well as tolerated their behavior less ( baseline and 3-year follow-up ) and used a more strict disciplinary style ( 3-year follow-up ) , than mothers of 6-year-old girls . Similarly , mothers of 9-year-old boys perceived them as having a higher degree of negative emotionality ( baseline and 3-year follow-up ) , as being less cooperative ( 3-year follow-up ) , and as requiring more strict discipline ( baseline and 3-year follow-up ) than mothers of 9-year-old girls . <p> Measurement Models <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ child-rearing attitudes , role satisfaction , and perceived difficult temperament of child are shown in Table 2 . Latent factors were allowed to correlate freely . To obtain adequate model fit for the 9-year-old boy cohort , error terms for disciplinary style and negative emotionality were allowed to correlate at the 3-year follow-up . After this specification , all factor loadings were significant in the expected direction for all age and gender groups , and chi/dfs < 1.73 , CFIs > .90 , and RMSEAs < .061 indicated good fit for the models . Further , the measured constructs exhibited statistically significant stability from baseline to follow-up 3 years later ( s > .43 , ps < .05 ; chi/dfs < 1.68 , CFIs > .90 , RMSEAs < .059 ) . <p> The self-esteem construct was specified by setting the loading of the sum score of self-esteem variables at baseline and at follow-up to 1 , with an error term of 0 . <p> Structural Models <p> Direct effects . We tested whether the latent factors of mother 's hostile child-rearing attitudes , maternal role satisfaction , and perceptions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 3-year follow-up predicted self-esteem in the adolescent at 6-year follow-up . Each latent factor was tested in a separate model . Mother 's hostile childrearing attitudes , low role satisfaction , and perceived difficult temperament of the child measured at baseline and at 3-year follow-up predicted low self-esteem at 6-year follow-up among girls ( s > .17 , ps < .05 ) . There were two exceptions : perceived difficult temperament ( 6-year-olds ) measured at baseline and perceived difficult temperament ( 9-year-olds ) measured at 3-year follow-up did not predict self-esteem at 6-year follow-up . A good fit was indicated for all models ( chi/dfs <1.96 , CFIs > .90 , RMSEAs < .067 ) . For 6-year-old boys , mother 's hostile child-rearing attitudes measured at 3-year follow-up predicted low self-esteem at 6-year follow-up ( = -.21 , p < .05 ; chi/df = 0.16 , CFI = 1.00 , RMSEA = .000 ) . There were no other significant associations for boys . <p> Transactional effects . To investigate the transactional effects of mother 's hostile child-rearing attitudes , role satisfaction , and perceived difficult temperament of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for all age and gender groups . The model involved ( a ) direct paths from baseline maternal perceptions to maternal perceptions measured at 3-year follow-up , ( b ) cross-relations between the constructs measured at baseline and at 3-year follow-up , and ( c ) path from all maternal perceptions measured at baseline and at 3-year follow-up to adolescent self-esteem measured at 6-year follow-up . <p> In regard to the girls , the a priori models did not show acceptable fits . Thus , we eliminated the nonsignificant paths ( see Jreskog , 1993 ) . The respecified models exhibited acceptable fits ( chi/df = 1.50 , CFI =.91 , RMSEA = .047 , and chi/df = 1.45 , CFI = .93 , RMSEA = .044 , for the 6- and 9-year-old girl cohorts respectively ) . Figure 1 shows that paths from perceived difficult temperament measured at baseline to hostile child-rearing attitudes measured at 3-year follow-up to low self-esteem measured at 6-year follow-up were significant . <p> In regard to the boys , there were no significant transactional paths from the childhood characteristics to self-esteem in adolescence . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ investigate whether an identical measurement model would fit for boys and for girls , we constrained all factor loadings and correlations between the latent factors to be equal between girls and boys , but allowed error variances at baseline and at 3-year follow-up to differ . The resulting goodness of fit was chi/df =1.77 , CFI = .87 , RMSEA = .061 . However , based on the inspection of the modification indices ( see Jreskog &; Srbom , 1996 ) , we specified two error correlations between conceptually similar variables . After this specification , the same measurement model had a good fit : chi/df = 1.59 , CFI = .90 , RMSEA = .053 . <p> Structural models . First , we tested whether the substantively similar final structural models of 6- and 9-year-old girls were statistically identical . We constrained all paths and factor loadings to be equal between the two groups , but allowed all error variances and the correlations between error variances at baseline and at 3-year follow-up to differ . The constrained model had an acceptable fit ( chi/df = 1.48 , CFI = @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were no statistically significant differences between the two groups of girls . <p> Second , we tested whether the final structural model for girls would fit the boys ' data . When one correlation between error variances was allowed , the girls ' model fit the boys ' data ( chi/df < 1.47 , CFI > .92 , RMSEA < .054 ) . However , the path from hostile child-rearing attitudes to self-esteem , which among girls was significant , did not reach statistical significance ( < .19 , p > .05 ) among 6- or 9-year-old boys . <p> The present study investigated the development of self-esteem , that is , evaluative judgments about the self ( Coopersmith , 1967 ) , across six years , from childhood to adolescence , in a Finnish sample . The results are consistent with earlier empirical findings showing that parenting and parental perceptions are important ( e.g. , Cooley , 1902 ; Coopersmith , 1967 ; Dekovic &; Meeus , 1997 ; Matteson , 1974 ) , but also highlight that parenting is not independent of contextual factors and that different elements @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Hirsch , 2000 ) . It was found here that maternal hostile childrearing attitudes , role dissatisfaction , and perceptions of the child as having a difficult temperament at ages 6 and 9 predicted low self-esteem as self-reported by the adolescents six years later at ages 12 and 15 . Moreover , results showed that maternal perceptions of difficult temperament and hostile child-rearing attitudes transacted in the development of self-esteem . <p> Maternal hostile child-rearing attitudes ( i.e. , emotional rejection of the child , intolerance regarding the child 's behavior , and a strict disciplinary style ) predicting low self-esteem over 3 and 6 years is in line with earlier cross-sectional results ( e.g. , Coopersmith , 1967 ; Dekovic &; Meeus , 1997 ) , which have shown that parental reports of low emotional warmth and acceptance are related to a child 's low self-esteem . There were also complementary findings regarding parental role satisfaction and adolescent self-esteem . An earlier cross-sectional study ( Matteson , 1974 ) showed that parental marital dissatisfaction is associated with adolescents ' low self-esteem , and current results add to the literature @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , as a mother , as a spouse , and at work ) before her child 's entry into adolescence is related to lower self-esteem in adolescence . In addition , maternal perceptions of child 's difficult temperament ( i.e. , high levels of activity and negative emotionality , and low cooperativeness ) predicted low self-esteem . Cross-sectional studies have shown that self-rated dimensions closely related to temperamental difficultness -- negative mood , high withdrawal ( Windle et al. , 1986 ) , and low adaptability ( Klein , 1992 ) -- are associated with self-esteem among children and/or adolescents . Current results thus indicate that maternal reports of child temperament might also be a useful tool in detecting children who are at risk of developing low self-esteem . <p> Furthermore , maternal perceptions of difficult temperament may have promoted hostile child-rearing attitudes across 3 years , which in turn predicted low self-esteem across 6 years . This provides empirical evidence for the view that different factors transact in the development of serf-esteem ( cf. DuBois &; Hirsch , 2000 ) . Moreover , results support the view that more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ temperament ) affect parenting ( Belsky et al. , 1991 ) . Thus , parenting and parental perceptions of child temperament , owing to their interrelations ( cf. Katainen et al. , 1997 ; Katainen et al. , 1998 ) , ought to be studied simultaneously in regard to the development of self-esteem . <p> As hypothesized , gender proved to be an important qualifier . Quantitatively , more associations were found between maternal evaluations and adolescent self-esteem for girls than boys . Among girls , maternal hostile child-rearing attitudes , role dissatisfaction , and perceived temperamental difficultness of the child were all significant predictors of self-esteem in adolescence . Among boys , maternal hostile child-rearing attitudes predicted low self-esteem in adolescence , but only across three years and in the 6-year-old cohort . Qualitatively , the **25;717;TOOLONG transaction explained the development of self-esteem for girls only ; there were no transactions for boys . <p> The quantitative and qualitative gender differences may reflect differences in the developmental processes of self-esteem between boys and girls . According to theory ( Gilligan , 1982 ) and empirical evidence ( e.g. , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1996 ) , the development of self-esteem in girls is more dependent on connectedness with and appraisal of other persons , whereas the development of self-esteem in boys is more dependent on individual achievement and separation from others . Therefore , mother 's child-rearing attitudes , role satisfaction , and perceptions of child temperament may be less essential for the development of self-esteem in boys than in girls . Further , utilization of maternal evaluations of childhood contextual and individual factors may explain the gender differences found in the present study : the same-sex parent has been suggested to be more important for the formation of self-esteem than the opposite-sex parent . The same-sex parent may , for example , have greater expectations for the child than the opposite sex-parent ( cf. Ohannessian et al. , 1998 ) . However , there is also research suggesting that , for both girls and boys , the mother is more relevant for the development of self-esteem than is the father ( e.g. , Litovsky &; Dusek , 1985 ) . <p> Finally , gender differences in the developmental process of self-esteem may @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1983 ) . High activity and low sociability are less accepted in girls than in boys ( Block , 1983 ) , and this may explain why temperamental difficultness predicted low self-esteem among girls only . This may also explain why perceived difficult temperament of the child was associated with maternal hostile child-rearing attitudes ( cf. Katainen et al. , 1997 ) , which in turn predicted low serf-esteem among girls . <p> With regard to family factors , Harris ( 1998 ) has suggested that parental behaviors have no effect on the psychological characteristics that children will have later . This may appear to be so because most previous studies have been cross-sectional or retrospective ( Vandell , 2000 ) . The present findings indicate that family factors do play an important role in the development of self-esteem , at least from childhood to adolescence . Additionally , self*esteem has been shown to be relatively stable after adolescence ( e.g. , Kling et al. , 1999 ) . It should also be kept in mind that different factors might play a role in the different developmental periods . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ noted . We used nonstandardized childhood measures to evaluate mother 's child-rearing attitudes , role dissatisfaction , and perceived difficult temperament of the child , a limitation that partly stems from the fact that baseline data were collected over two decades ago . However , the confirmatory factor analyses do provide evidence of the construct validity of the childhood measures ( see also Rikknen , Katainen , &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 2000 ) . In addition , the subjective maternal evaluation has been shown to be relatively stable and to predict personality , as well as psychological and physiological well*being , in earlier reports using the current dataset ( Katainen et al. , 1999 ; Pesonen , Rikknen , Keskivaara , &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 2003 ; Ravaja , Katainen , &; Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 2001 ; Rikknen et al. , 2000 ) , which strengthens the validity of the measures . <p> Furthermore , the fact that child temperament was based on mother 's evaluations has to be kept in mind when evaluating the results . Maternal evaluations may reflect subjective perceptions rather than the child 's actual behavior . However , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ objective as well as subjective components of a mother 's evaluations . Furthermore , Bates ( 1983 ) has suggested that mother 's subjective perceptions as well as objective child temperament factors affect later developmental outcomes , and that such perceptions may be even more important to social development ( cf. self-esteem development ; Cooley , 1902 ; Mead , 1934 ) . Moreover , parental and observer ratings have been shown to correlate ( Matheny , Wilson , &; Thoben , 1987 ) . <p> Finally , some recent studies point to the multidimensionality of the self-esteem construct ( e.g. , DuBois &; Hirsch , 2000 ) . However , self*esteem in the present study was treated as unidimensional , because the total score from the shortened version of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory used here has previously been demonstrated to be more stable and valid than its individual dimensions in this Finnish dataset ( Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ) . Additionally , individual dimensions have been shown to overlap to a high degree in adolescence ( Keltikangas-Jrvinen , 1992 ) . <p> To summarize , this study provided evidence that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a child 's characteristics are important for understanding the development of adolescent self-esteem . Furthermore , in the development of self-esteem , these factors may transact . However , considerable gender differences were noted . <p> This research was financially supported by the Academy of Finland ( Grant 50907SA ) , by the Vainio Foundation , and by the University of Helsinki ( Grant 20550 ) . We express our thanks to Pertti Keskivaara for help with the statistical analyses . Table 1 . Mother 's Child-Rearing Attitudes , Role Satisfaction , and Perceived Temperament of the Child , and Adolescent 's Self-Esteem PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 2 Factor Loadings for Maternal Child-Rearing Attitudes , Role Satisfaction , and Perceived Temperament of Child at Baseline/3-Year Follow-up for All Age and Gender Groups PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 1 . Final Structural Model for 6-Year-Old/9-Year-Old Girls <p>

@@4019141 The kind of freedom I want to address is the most vital kind : political freedom . By that I mean the summoning and exertion of energy to engage one another on matters of collective government . What I have in mind specifically is democratic political freedom . By that I mean political freedom in a context shaped by three simple norms : political equality , popular sovereignty and , therefore , majority rule . <p> What should we make of identity politics as an exercise of democratic political freedom ? Let me respond with five connected theses . <p> Number One . All politics is identity politics . Political activity is -- and , at its best , is -- animated by efforts to define and defend who I am , or we are , or you are , or hope to be , or hope to be seen to be. ( n1 ) By extension , it is motivated by our imagination of what is or ought to be mine or ours or yours . It is not only about self-government . Nor does it always involve much in the way of public debate . What structures @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ unfinished enterprise of self-construction and self-presentation . <p> The reason , first of all , is that politics ( n2 ) involves making comparisons and choices among -- and commitments to -- values and interests and groups and individuals ( including choices not to choose among available choices ) . The choices and the commitments we make in politics are ones with which we mean to -- or by which we can not help but -- identify ourselves. ( n3 ) <p> What is more , politics involves comparison , choice , and commitment under conditions of conflict . There are winners and losers . Crucially , over time , it is an open-ended conflict : The first ones now may later be ( and often are ) last . And , over time , political conflict is open in another respect . It is without permanent bounds or rules . The most unexpected issues may one day become salient political issues ; allegiances and alliances shift ; and , at some point , any mode of struggle , even war , may turn out to be politically decisive . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ open up the enterprise of selfidentification that animates it -- keeping it on edge and , so , alive . <p> In democratic politics , moreover , the conflict is among putative equals . The norm of political equality not only destabilizes temporary victories . It also unsettles taken-for-granted hierarchies and , so , identities -- and thus renews the spring of political energy . <p> In this way , identity politics and democratic political freedom are , in principle and often in practice , mutually supportive , each of them enabling the vitality of the other . <p> Number Two . However , it can also work the other way around . Identity politics can dampen or smother democratic political freedom . And democratic politics itself sometimes seems to sponsor this tendency , undermining itself by fostering a perversion of identify politics . The question is : What accounts for that ? What sorts of identity politics , what aspects of identity politics , are pathological to democratic political freedom and where do they come from ? <p> Number Three . Certain familiar answers ( n4 ) to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ That the pathology of identity politics has to do with its promotion of a self-regarding ( rather than a public-regarding ) political culture . Or of " stereotypes . " Or that identity politics tends to portray and purvey differences and grievances ( rather than similarities and bonds ) among groups and individuals . Such diagnoses are wrong not simply because they flush out the baby with the bathwater , but because they seem not to recognize the baby -- to understand the value of identity politics -- in the first place . <p> Of course , identity politics is self-regarding . It is , after all , about the construction and presentation of oneself . That matters to everyone . That is what accounts for the energy , the motivation , which identity politics can infuse into democratic politics. ( n5 ) It should n't take Adam Smith to remind us that selfconcern is not necessarily antithetical to -- that it can accompany and foster , even be indispensable to -- promotion of the well-being of others . <p> Of course , identity politics involves construction and presentation of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like -- imagining and portraying particular individuals in terms of certain general traits . Needless to say , they distort " reality . " And they are often prefabricated . But so what ? That , as they say , is life . It is part and parcel of the life that identity politics contributes to democratic politics . In and of itself , nothing should be said against it . <p> That identity politics promotes difference and grievance is the most misguided complaint -- and , in the end , the least troubling -- of them all . Difference , of course , is vital to selfdefinition and self-assertion . And grievance is a fuel that motivates the exercise of political freedom . Neither is necessarily inconsistent with respect for one 's antagonists. ( n6 ) Indeed , in a nation like ours , the respectful democratic antagonism they can foster is woven into the patriotism that binds us together. ( n7 ) <p> If there is a problem here , it is not in the ills highlighted by these diagnoses . It is , instead , in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but the cure they imply -- a neo-Victorian regimen of highfalutin " deliberation " or " civic virtue " or " public reason " -- that would tend to stifle democratic political energy at its source . <p> Number Four . So , in what ways can identity politics become pathological ? Put simply : It becomes pathological insofar as it is perverted to stifle , rather than to animate , the openness of democratic political conflict . The irony -- a working-out of the old dialectic ? -- is that the very exigency of open conflict is what motivates tendencies to suppress it . Hence , any such tendencies of identity politics are likely to be , at once , resistant and vulnerable to revision . Let me point to three . <p> The first is a well known tendency to " essentialism . " The academic fashion is to treat this as just an " idea " -- the idea that individuals sharing a particular trait ( such as race or gender ) are essentially the same , share the same identity , in myriad other respects . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) professors are against it . But it is not just an idea . It is an embedded practice . It is embedded in the practice of elites who seek to establish and maintain a position as " spokesmen " or " advocates for " one or another " affinity group . " And it is embedded in the practice of some rank and file " members " of such groups who , by means of group opinion , seek to keep other " members " in line . No doubt , such practices can be rationalized as a necessary girding for battle in the wider political arena . But the effect is to truncate that conflict , erecting walls that keep some in , some out -- calcifying the arteries of democratic politics . <p> The second pathological tendency of identity politics arises as healthy grievance against others turns to consuming blame and then to taken-for-granted prejudice . This is what academics describe and deplore as " demonization . " Again , however , it is not simply a bad idea that can be calmly corrected or an emotion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ begins as what may seem a useful weapon in political struggle . Yet it ends as another , even more deadening , barrier to open political engagement . If " conservatives " or " religious fundamentalists " or " whites " -- or , more likely " white men " -- are dismissed as wrongdoers having no " identity " worth respecting , ( n8 ) the possibilities of political conflict ( including compromise , its concomitant ) tend to shrink . And politics turns into a sort of theater of self-righteous narcissism , segmented to gratify little clots of the like-minded and angry . <p> It is the third tendency that can be most devastating . An extension of the second , it arises when blame and prejudice against wrongdoers induce a conviction of impotence -- a conviction which then can become central to the group 's very identity . Ultimately , its identity may be sucked into such black-hole characterizations as " the powerless " or " the disenfranchised " or " the subordinate . " This is the " victimhood " syndrome . Like the other pathologies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , once entrenched , it is difficult to dislodge. ( n9 ) The reason , again , is that it is so useful a weapon in democratic conflict . It is a weapon with which to denigrate the terms of the conflict and then to short-circuit the political fray . This , however , is not the worst of it . The worst is its potential for self-fulfilling prophesy , the tendency of " victim talk " to undermine self-responsibility , even to sever the nerve of political action , among voters whose supposed impotence has been made to define who they are . <p> Number Five . It follows that one of the more problematic identities in today 's identity politics may be one of the most common . What I have in mind is the identification of a group not in terms of a trait such as race or ethnicity or sexual orientation , but as a " minority " group -- and , worse , the identification of an individual " member " of such a group as " a minority . " The banality of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it can exacerbate the three pathologies . <p> You might think there is no essentialist tendency to worry about in this case . How could so abstract and ambiguous a term excite that concern ? If , however , it is as a practice , rather than as an idea , that essentialism is worrisome , then things look different . For , compared with more concrete identity categories , the greater abstraction and ambiguity of " minority " -- even of " disadvantaged minority " or " discrete and insular minority " -- creates even greater leeway for political manipulation and discipline . Authorities hand down and enforce definitions of " minorities " and their " members , " definitions used , in effect , to keep some groups inside and others outside. ( n10 ) However useful this enterprise may be in the wider political struggle , it tends to accelerate the sclerosis of democratic engagement . <p> To that tendency , add the pathologies of demonization and victimhood . Shuffling the labels in order to construct and present certain individuals and groups , not as " Latinos @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but as " minorities " tends to do a subtle -- but deep -- kind of damage . The term does not point to any actual trait of a person ( ethnicity , gender , and so forth ) . Instead , it places a person in a group that is defined by its place in a larger structure . Not its place in a palpable social structure ( say , class ) . But in a political structure -- specifically , a democratic political structure , a system of majority rule . The implication of identification as " a minority " is that the group to which a person " belongs " is not , has not been , and will not be part of any majority coalition ( which is , of course , all that shifting majorities can ever be ) and , therefore , that she is bound to be ignored or abused ( victimized ) by that ( demonized ) majority . As to nearly all persons nowadays , this representation is absurd . How then to account for its currency ? It is useful @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . But the cost -- quite explicitly -- is the trashing of majority rule , political equality , and popular sovereignty . When educational and economic elites , who have much to gain from such trashing , take up the cause and massage " minoritarian " identity politics into high-minded conventional wisdom , democratic political freedom -- forever a threat to the privileged -- is undermined . <p> What should a Federalist make of this ? The Society 's logo is a silhouette of James Madison . Did n't he famously ( maybe too famously ) fret about " majority factions " ? Is n't he often ( if unjustly ) associated with Tocqueville 's snooty hysteria about the " tyranny of the majority " ? Have n't members of the Federalist Society often constructed and presented an identity as a suppressed minority in American law schools ? <p> All true . But consider the practice of the Society . Though spurred by a healthy sense of grievance , it has not insulated itself . It has not sought to short-circuit engagement with , or set up enclaves protected from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , thrown itself into the fray . Indeed , it has invited the fray into its own events . Most Federalist get-togethers , as far as I know , involve debate with non-Federalists and anti-Federalists . What 's more , they tend to include debate among Federalists , debate about the very identity of the group . Most everything is up for grabs . These are hallmarks of an identity politics that is open -- not obsessed with victimhood or with demonization of its adversaries , not defensive . It invites the heterodox into its meetings because it has taken to heart an old political secret , the secret of the power of optimism : believing that one day against present odds , it may prevail , it vastly enhances the odds that it may be right . <p> Hence , I offer a ( not very serious ) suggestion . It 's time to give up the Madison silhouette . Madison 's association with a depressive-defensive democratic politics really does n't fit the Federalist Society . With what logo , then , might that one be replaced ? <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ What about a silhouette of Lenin ? It would convey two messages . On one hand , a warning of the dangers of identity politics : When the construction and presentation of identities becomes a weapon of manipulation with which to stifle conflict -- especially if taken to the extreme of claiming to create a " new man " -- it becomes the deadly enemy of political freedom . On the other hand , Lenin 's silhouette might offer a lesson in political optimism : His faction was in the minority . Hence , the name he chose for it was nothing less than " Bolshevik " . which , of course , means " the majority . " Footnotes <p>

@@4019241 Section : Innovations <p> Tibiofemoral forces determine polyethylene wear and affect the longevity of total knee prostheses . Previously , investigators relied on theoretic data from mathematical models to predict mechanical forces in the knee . Predictions of tibiofemoral forces are highly variable because of the complex interplay of the muscles involved in activities . Ideally , knee forces should be directly measured . An electronic total knee prosthesis ( e-Knee ) was developed to directly measure tibiofemoral compressive and tensile forces in vivo . After 13 years of research and development , the e-Knee was implanted into a patient in 2004 . Tibiofemoral force data were collected intraoperatively and throughout the postoperative period during activities of daily living and during exercise . Direct measurement of knee forces can lead to a better understanding of the stresses seen following total knee arthroplasty . Information generated by the e-Knee will aid in the improvement of implant design and patient care . Background <p> Total knee arthroplasty ( TKA ) is a successful procedure for improving the quality of life of those afflicted with debilitating arthritic knee pain . Overall , the long-term results of TKA have been satisfying for both @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stability are increased with excellent relief from pain ( Kane , Saleh , Wilt , &; Bershadsky , 2005 ) . Although usually successful , TKA could be improved by increasing the longevity of the implants and by improving the rehabilitative process . Stresses at the articulation surface occurring between the tibial and femoral components ( tibiofemoral forces ) are a major factor in generating wear and radiographic lucency Tibiofemoral forces determine polyethylene wear , stress distribution in the implant and in the implant-bone interface , and stress transfer to the underlying bone . These factors all influence the longevity of the knee implant . Wear of the polyethylene insert can cause osteolysis , aseptic loosening , and ultimately TKA failure . Historically , mathematical models have been used to predict tibiofemoral forces . The theoretic estimates of tibiofemoral forces have varied between three and six times body weight depending on the mathematical models used and on the type of activity analyzed . Predicted forces across the knee joint do not always reflect actual forces due to the complex interplay of the numerous muscles and ligaments involved in activities . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Collection of in-vivo measurements of forces occurring from total knee prostheses would allow future improvements in implant design and postoperative rehabilitation . This information may clarify the benefits of preoperative treatments , such as lower extremity bracing , orthotics , and shoe design . An implantable telemetry system was developed to measure tibiofemoral compressive forces directly in vivo . This innovative system is called the e-Knee . The information generated by the e-Knee enables a direct comparison of measured joint forces with those that are theoretically predicted . The e-Knee has the potential to revolutionize both TKA research and practice . Development <p> Concept development of the e-Knee began at the Shiley Center for Orthopaedic Research and Education at Scripps Clinic in 1991 . Clinicians , scientists , and industry worked together to design the components inside the e-Knee and design the tibial implant to hold the necessary electronics . Cadaveric experiments were carried out in 1998 and 1999 with early prototypes . Intraoperative testing of the prototype was earned out in 2000 . In addition to providing revealing in-vivo force data , the e-Knee had to function @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was done in 2001 , where implants were put through 10 million simulated walking cycles to test the implant strength . Four of the six implants broke midway through the test . Thus , the original design was modified to enhance safety . Successful fatigue testing was accomplished in 2003 . The final tibial prosthesis was instrumented with force transducers , a power induction coil , a micro-transmitter , and an antenna ( see Figure 1 ) . Force transducers , located at the four quadrants of the tibial tray , are capable of determining the vertical loads , the location of the center of pressure , and the tension forces . The induction coil allows for remote powering of the transducers and the electronic components , including the micro-transmitter . The micro-transmitter transmits force data via the antenna inside the implant to a compute ' where data are presented in a readable format ( Morris et al. , 2001 ) . With the final prototype developed and thoroughly tested , the lime had come to find the right candidate for the implant . Subject <p> Thirteen years of hard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ only one implant was available for implantation . Therefore , selection criteria for subjects were stringent . It was imperative that the e-Knee be implanted into someone who would be capable of the post-operative activity tests planned . After going to the human subjects committee for approval and obtaining patient 's consent , the final e-Knee was implanted on February 27 , 2004 into a 67-kg , 80-year-old man with primary osteo-arthritis of the right knee . The selected candidate not only fit the body weight and age criteria but also surpassed the activity requirements . He is a retired engineer who is well versed in metal strength and the testing of new devices . Implantation and Testing <p> The TKA surgery was performed through a standard mid-vastus approach without complications . An exciting moment was shared and history was made when reasonable balance between the medial and lateral soft tissues was confirmed by the information intraoperatively provided by the e-Knee . The proper functioning of the prosthesis was tested after implantation and tibial forces were recorded during passive flexion and extension of the knee . Tibial forces were recorded @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ during the first postoperative year . Activities of daily living were measured , including level walking , rising from and sitting down on a chair , and stair ascent and descent . In addition , forces were measured while exercising on a stair-climbing machine and on a stationary bicycle and while playing golf . Results <p> Peak tibial forces increased substantially over the first 3 weeks during rehabilitation and then more gradually during the rest of the year , up to 2.8 times body weight when walking on level ground ( see Figure 2 ) . The contribution of each of the four force transducers when walking on level ground can be seen in Figure 3 . In treadmill walking at 2.5 km/minute to 5 km/minute , the peak tibial forces ranged from 1.75 to 2.03 times body weight . Tibial forces during chair rise increased from 1.56 times body weight to 2.64 times body weight from the 6-week post-operative period to the 1-year follow-up , respectively . Stand-to-sit activity generated greater tibial forces than rising from a chair at the 1-year postoperative period . Rising from a chair produced @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sitting down in a chair produced forces of 3 times body weight . Exercising on a stair-climbing machine resulted in peak tibial forces that ranged from 1.94 to 2.14 times body weight even when the level of difficulty was increased from level 1 to level 4 . Forces at the 1-year postoperative period were lower by 1 times body weight during stationary bicycling through a range of pedaling rates and levels of difficulty , which confirms that stationary bicycling is a relatively safe exercise for patients who have undergone TKA . Overall , the tibial forces recorded during walking and stair climbing were lower than most predicted values generated from mathematical models . A detailed report of the tibial forces measured in vivo during activities of daily living and during exercise was provided previously ( D'Lima , Patil , Steklov , Slamin , &; Colwell , Jr. , 2005 ) . Discussion <p> The knee is a complex joint that is difficult to model accurately . Measurement of knee forces can lead to a better understanding of the stresses seen in TKA . Better measurement and understanding of these knee @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ implant design and patient care . Until recently , knee forces have been predicted by mathematical models with variable outcomes . The e-Knee is the first device with the ability to measure in vivo tibiofemoral forces , a technological breakthrough , with the promise of aiding in the modification of implant design , intraoperative decisions , postoperative rehabilitation programs , and assistive devices ( Morris et al. , 2001 ) . The first e-Knee was implanted in a patient 2 years ago . Tibiofemoral force data have been collected intraoperatively and throughout the postoperative period during activities of daily living and during exercise . In-vivo forces have been compared with theoretical joint forces . Data are currently being collected during more strenuous and athletic activities . Thirteen years of research and development have proved successful . The Future <p> Scientists have developed the next generation e-Knee with the ability to measure shear and torque forces in addition to tibiofemoral compression and tension forces . The addition of shear and torque force data to compression and tension force data should lead to a more comprehensive understanding of all forces inside the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the new e-Knee design into more diverse patients who have undergone TKA . Implanting the new e-Knee into a few more patients should produce results more indicative of the general TKA population and hold greater external validity than a sample size of one . With more information , implant designs , rehabilitation programs , and assistive devices may be best tailored to different TKA candidate subpopulations . Current nursing care may not be directly affected by the data collected from the e-Knee . Postoperative care of the e-Knee patient does not differ from that of any other patient who has undergone TKA , except for the testing done by the research team while the patient is in the hospital . However , we noted that knee forces went up to the equivalent of 30% body weight during passive leg raising in bed . Nurses should be aware that passive leg raising , which is traditionally assumed to generate minimal forces in the knee , may in fact trigger a painful response . Active leg raising in bed generated forces equivalent to 70% of body weight . Thus , active leg @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's pain is under control , encouraging the patient to do active leg raises in bed is a useful preconditioning exercise before weight bearing . Information generated by the e-Knee may help nurses educate patients who have undergone TKA about activities that can be done without excess stress on the knee . For example , nurses can now confidently encourage their patients to ride a stationary bicycle and walk on a treadmill during the rehabilitation period . Nurses can inform their patients that greater knee stresses will be experienced when transitioning from standing to sitting in a chair and when descending stairs compared with the stresses experienced when transitioning from sitting in a chair to standing and climbing stairs . Future plans for the e-Knee include research for development of orthotics and knee braces for patients who have undergone TKA . The e-Knee has revolutionized TKA research . Knowledge of the forces generated in the knee both perioperatively and during rehabilitation with activities of daily living and physical exercise will support the evidence-based evolution of TKA . FIGURE 2 . Tibiofemoral forces were recorded during level walking up to 1 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ steps were averaged for each time point PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> GRAPH : FIGURE 3 . Forces were measured by the four load cells of the force transducer during one gait cycle to produce the total tibiofemoral force graph . Relatively balanced contribution from each load cell is depicted . <p> DIAGRAM : FIGURE 1 . The final electronic knee prosthesis has force transducers located at the four quadrants of the tibial tray . <p>

@@4019341 Canada 's health system is an important reflection of its values , principles , and its overall national character . It is said to be a " key distinguishing characteristic " of the country according to a Canadian Senate report in September 2001 ( Crossette 2001 ) . By most expert and unbiased assessments , Canada 's health system is among the most cost-effective and high quality in the world today ( Anderson and Hussey 2001 ; Anderson et al . 2003 ; Hussey et al . 2004 ; United Nations Development Programme 2001 ; Mathers et al . 2000 ) . Canada pays less and delivers more services per capita than does the U.S. ( see Romanow 2002 for a summary ) . By almost any criterion employed , it is a striking success . Its citizens live longer and are healthier than those of the U.S. where health care costs much more ( Anderson et al . 2005 ; Central Intelligence Agency 2005 ) . Experts suggest that Canada could well serve as an example for the ongoing U.S. health system reform ( Deber 2003 ) . Of course , Canada faces challenges in the organization and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with all industrialized countries . Many Canadians are involved in the debates surrounding these issues . White critical of some aspects of their health system , in general , Canadians remain highly supportive of it . In 2001 , 84 percent of Canadians preferred their own system to that of the U.S. ( Mendelsohn 2002 ) . <p> The part that newspapers play in public opinion formation is complex and difficult to determine , but it is likely that they influence a country 's national image ( Strouse 1975 ) . There is good reason to believe that , to some extent , the media influences how individual citizens of other countries , world political elites , decision-makers , and corporate investing institutions come to view Canada . Those in the general population are even more likely to be influenced by the press and opinion leaders because they do not hold strong and stable opinions about the Canadian health system and they have no personal experience with it ( Zaller 1992 ; lyengar 1991 ) . There is evidence that newspapers shape citizens ' perceptions and opinions by cueing the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ through which a story is presented to the public " ( Shah et al . 2002 ; Soderlund et al . 1980 ) . The details journalists select for their articles subtly construct reality and thereby influence readers . <p> While it is true that U.S. newspaper readership has declined slightly over the last several decades , it still remains the case that the better educated are more likely to read a newspaper than are the less educated ( Hagan 2005 ; Bonfadelli 2005 ; Tichenor , Donohue , and Olien 1970 ) . Those with more education are likely to play a disproportionate role in formulating policy ; they are likely to influence others , for example , in the " two-step flow " of public opinion leadership ( Strouse 1975 ) . <p> Historically , U.S. citizens have had a very high and positive opinion of Canada and its health system , but this may be changing . In 1985 , close to 80 percent of Americans rated Canada as " highly favorable " ( Gallup 1985 ) . There is substantial variation over time : 83 percent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ This fell to 65 percent in 2003 but moved back up to 76 percent in 2005 ( Few Global Attitudes Project 2005 ) . In the early 1990s a substantial majority of Americans preferred the Canadian health system to their own , but this has declined since that time ( Wirthlin Group 1995 ; Blendon 1988 ) . <p> The goal here is to examine how U.S. newspapers portray the Canadian health system . Research suggests that the Canadian health system constitutes about 10 percent of the Canada-related stories in four U.S. newspapers sampled in mid-2004 ( Belch 2004 ) . But is this news coverage fair , accurate , and complete ? Are U.S. citizens fully and fairly informed about the strengths and weaknesses of the Canadian health system ? These are important questions , particularly if Canada 's national image in the U.S. is related - even in some small part - to the U.S. newspaper coverage of the Canadian health system . Methods <p> To assess U.S. newspaper coverage of the Canadian health system a computerized bibliographic search of The New York Times ( NYT ) and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ period of January 1 , 2000 through mid-June 2005 . These two major national newspapers were chosen because they are among the top three in the U.S. in terms of circulation , and because both have a reputation for reliable , accurate journalism. 2 Together , these two newspapers offer political balance : The New York Times is viewed as more supportive of liberal views and of the Democratic Party ; while the Wall Street Journal is more conservative. 3 LexisNexis Academic Universe 's online archives of the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times was used to obtain full-text articles employing the below-mentioned indexed terms in combination with the word " Canada : " health care , health system , health policy , medicare , hospital , doctor , and physician . The time period was chosen to assure a fair and unbiased assessment of recent news coverage of the Canadian health system in these two newspapers . <p> Only articles with a minimum of five hundred words were retained for a complete reading and assessment . The rationale for the five hundred word minimum was that an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be significant in forming public opinion . Furthermore , if the Canadian health system did not play an important role in an article , then it was not retained for analysis . For example , an article entitled " Spending Does n't Give U.S. Edge on Health Care " had only a few lines about Canada because Australia , England , and New Zealand were also considered ( May 5 , 2004 WSJ ) . In another case , an article entitled " Private Doctors in Frantic Quest for Flu Vaccine " ( October 21 , 2004 NYT ) , was excluded because it was largely about the U.S. health system . Articles about U.S. re-importation of pharmaceuticals from Canada were excluded it they did not , at least indirectly , make reference to the Canadian health system . A few articles about Canadian elections were also excluded as they referred to the Canadian health system as an election issue only in passing , without any substantive discussion of these issues . However an article entitled " Health Care Leads Other Issues on Canada Vote " ( May 17 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ details of the candidates ' views of the health system . Because the goal of this research was to determine it U.S. news reporting was fair , letters to the editor , opinion essays , commentaries , and obituaries were excluded. 4 <p> Much of the research for this article is quantitative , based on a simple count of characteristics of the articles . Qualitative methodologies were also utilized , such as those proposed by Peter Goldschmidt 's " Information Synthesis , " to guide the analysis of these newspaper articles . Goldschmidt includes specific research steps to define the topic , to gather relevant information for studying the topic , to assess the validity of the information , and to present the results ( Goldschmidt 1986 ) . This research project follows these guidelines : a thorough database search of the two newspapers , comparison of the newspaper coverage with the information about the Canadian health system in peer reviewed journals , and the presentation of findings . In addition , efforts were made to uncover what was left out of newspaper coverage as well as to characterize what @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> The qualitative methodology used here is also interpretive ( Noblit and Hare 1988 ) . The articles in the database were obtained , chronicled , and appraised to produce narrative summaries and thematic analyses . Prominent or recurrent themes were identified . Accuracy and adequacy of U.S. newspaper coverage is based on how closely a newspaper article about the Canadian health systems aligns with established knowledge as evidenced in published , peer-reviewed journals . <p> Automatic , computerized content analysis was considered as a methodology but it was set aside. 5 The diversity of topics covered in the newspaper articles would make the " systematic application of rules , " required by this technique , almost impossible . In addition , the coding strategies that computerized systems of automatic content analysis employ often miss topics or themes ( Shah et al . 2002 ) . They can not be programmed to reveal the " nonevents " or " news selectivity " aspects of coverage that constitute a dimension of this study ( Fishman 1980 , pp. 76-77 ) . Characterizing U.S. Coverage of the Canadian Health System <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ New York Times articles and twelve Wall Street Journal articles that met the above outlined criteria for inclusion - i.e. substantive consideration of information about the Canadian health system . U.S. newspaper coverage of the Canadian health system can be described on several dimensions including : 1 ) the proportion of news events versus ongoing theme stories , 2 ) the role of evidence versus anecdote , 3 ) the incidence of **27;320;TOOLONG , 4 ) the appearance of material taken out-of-context , 5 ) the presence of incomplete information due to the exclusion of essential details , and 6 ) the degree to which reporting leads to confusion or factual errors . News Events or Ongoing Themes in U.S. Newspaper Coverage <p> Newspaper articles published during any time period depend , to a degree , on the editor and individual journalist 's judgment as to what is important and newsworthy ( Brindle 1999 , p. 40 ) . The stages involved in the news production process have been described as follows : detect occurrences , interpret the event , investigate the factual circumstances , and assemble the story ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or not also depends un whether an event is judged to be of interest to the newspapers ' readers . But in addition , editors and journalists have considerable discretion and may choose to cover non-event-related topics that are controversial in nature . <p> A descriptive timeline or newspaper coverage of the Canadian health system points to real world events that The New York Times and the Wall Street Journal covered : demonstrations protesting the privatization in Alberta ( May 9 , 2000 ) , the E. coli contamination of the public water supply in Walkerton , Ontario ( May 30 , 2002 ) , patent problems about antibiotics to treat Anthrax in case of a terrorist attack ( October 19 , 2001 ) , the Romanow Commission 's report ( November 29 , 2002 ) , the SARS outbreak ( April-June , 2003 ) , increased federal funding of health services ( September 17 , 2004 ) , health care as an issue in a specific election ( May 2004 ) , suspension of the sale of a medication that was linked to serious side effects ( February 12 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2005 ) , and the Supreme Court of Canada 's decision to permit the sale of private health insurance policies to cover services provided by the public system ( June 13 , 2005 ) . <p> There are articles published about the Canadian health system in U.S. newspapers that are not actually news . News is usually defined as event-relevant or episodic ( about an episode that has recently occurred or an event that is currently taking place ) . News " events " are assumed to be self-evident and to " exist independently of their knower " ( Fishman 1980 , p. 31 ) . These " political or disaster news " beats are considered harder work by most journalists ( Gans 2003 , p. 23 ) . Fifty-four percent of the articles in this database were event-related . But forty-six percent of these articles , ( all of substantial length ) published about the Canadian health system between 2000 and 2005 , were " soft news " - discretionary , about ongoing themes or controversial issues ( Williams 1999 ; Gans 2003 ) . This type of newspaper @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in U.S. newspapers about the Canadian health system . <p> For unspecified reasons , editors or journalists sometimes choose theme-related and controversial issues for their articles . Perhaps they believe the themes will interest the public and are likely to sell newspapers ( Rossides 2003 ; Hamilton 2004 ) . Such topics also conveniently provide stories that can be used to fill newspaper column space during periods when there are no news events ( Tuchman 1978 ) . Often these types of stories come " through established ' news nets ' or ' beat rounds ' that connect journalists to sources who are affiliated with business , government , bureaucracies , or other social groups that subsidize the preparation of news " ( Sumpter and Braddock 2002 , p. 541 ; Fishman 1980 ; Berkowitz and Beach 1993 ) . These relationships seem to be a mix of trust and distrust , cooperation and manipulation ( Schudson 2003 , chapter 7 ) . It affiliated sources prove to be dependable dispensers of information , reporters pick them more frequently while winnowing out those who are less dependable . " Sources @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ determine what will be news " ( Sumpter and Braddock 2002 p.541 ; see also : Soloski 1989 ; Berkowitz and Beach 1993 ; Grabe , Zhou , and Barnett 1999 ; Gans 1979 ; Sacco 1995 ; Hansen et al . 1994 ; Ramsey 1999 ; Ericson 1998 ; Brown et al . 1987 ) . Institutional sources , " trade press , the specialist weeklies or monthlies , and tip-offs from readers " are also sources used by journalists to gather information ( Brindle 1999 , p. 42 ) . <p> How and why a journalist chooses a specific controversial topic for reporting has received little attention . A topic may be chosen because the journalist 's editor is known to be very interested in it ( Johnson 1998 , p. 89 ) . Economic incentives are important , too ( Hamilton 2004 ) . The need for a newspaper to make a profit means that a news operation is vulnerable to influence by advertisers ( Schudson 2003 ) ( McManus 1994 ) . Certainly the general commercialization of medical research has an impact on why some topics @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ type of topic provides an opportunity to leak negative information about one 's competitors or overly positive information about one 's own product , research , or procedure . <p> Choice of a specific topic for a news story is sometimes the result of what journalists identify as a bias toward passive news rather than active news . Passive news is defined as " news that is brought to the journalists " by public relations departments of private companies , government departments , universities , etc . It depends entirely on what the sources want to make public . The risk with passive news is that the newspapers end up as a mere publicist for their sources ( Gans 2003 ) . <p> Research in Britain found that some journalists see themselves as watchdogs for the public , and this is another incentive for choosing discretionary topics for newspaper articles . The same may be true in the U.S. , where motivation for writing about a thematic topic include the journalist 's desire to " scrutinize the activities of health-care providers and to report on the availability and effects of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ownership " about a specific theme and end up campaigning for it . Examples include more services in a geographical area or more funds for a local hospital . A journalist 's values shape the choices he or she makes regarding which theme topics to cover and which to avoid . It is their values that influence whom they consult as a source and what they write in their article . " Their perceptions of the motives , credibility , and public authority of information sources are likely to favour some over others " ( Entwistle and Sheldon 1999 , p. 124 ) . <p> In the case of the Canadian health care system , such thematic topics covered in U.S. newspapers included : waiting lines for treatment , jumping cues for care , privatization of health care , doctor shortages , Canadian doctors moving to the U.S. , Canada encouraging doctors from developing countries to move to Canada , patients traveling from Canada to the U.S. for health services , easing medical marijuana use , ongoing problems with paying for universal health care coverage , importing prescription drugs from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . <p> Sources of inspiration for such stories could well be in line with those indicated in the literature and reviewed above . Almost all the discretionary themes covered in this study reflect what one journalist describes as " the constant stream of people dissatisfied , and very often angry , with the treatment they have received from public services " ( Brindle 1999 , p. 43 ) . This fact may leave newspaper readers with the mistaken impression that the majority of Canadians are fundamentally dissatisfied with their health system ; however this is not the case ( McMurray 2004 ) . The Role of Anecdotal Information <p> Anecdotal information plays a large role in U.S. coverage of the Canadian health system . U.S. newspaper reports of public debates and policy decisions concerning the health system in Canada are heavily dependent on anecdotal information rather than studies with verified findings . Approximately 42 percent of the articles in The New York Times and 50 percent of those in the Waft Street Journal included anecdotal information about the Canadian health system . <p> Anecdotal stories about individuals and their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ included in many newspaper articles . Readers enjoy these articles because human interest stories present a person with whom we can identify and something concrete to which we can relate ( Tuchman 1978 , p. 47-48 ) . Newspapers are said to be " better at telling an individual story rather than providing meaningful social analysis " and this accounts , in part , for the prevalence of anecdotal material in the newspaper coverage . Journalists believe that anecdotes improve the public 's understanding and the readability of news articles . When presenting these stories , as Platt ( 1999 ) says , there seems to be a " compelling need to keep things simple , to keep the story line straight , it for no other reasons than that this is what the reader wants . For those who deal in straightforward heroes and villains - the deserving and undeserving - there is no dilemma here . For those who would try to represent nuance and complexity , it is much more of a problem " ( p. 116 ) . <p> In coverage of any health system there @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ through the cracks or those who are miraculously cured - will receive disproportionate attention in the press . Where anecdotal information is merely illustrative and where its purpose is to increase reader interest , then scientific accuracy and ethical standards are not compromised . However , when proof-of-point rests solely on anecdotal information , there is a risk of bias and serious error . The methodological flaw results from the possibility that the case presented is not typical . <p> Anecdotal interviews with Canadian citizens who are unhappy with the Canadian health system play an important role in The New York Times and the Wall Street Journal coverage . Sometimes isolated cases of medical error are presented as routine in U.S. newspaper stories , and the reader is left with the impression that such errors are widely tolerated in Canada . Of the non-SARS related newspaper articles that used anecdotal information in our study ( seventeen articles ) , about half employed this type of coverage . The plight of those who fall through the cracks is clearly a tragedy . While such cases should not he excused , it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , typical , and widely tolerated . <p> It may be the nature of news media to conclude that if Canada 's health system is working well and routinely delivers care to the vast majority of that country 's population , it is not a " news story . " Ted Marmor 's study of how U.S. newspapers covered emergency room congestion in U.S. and Canadian hospitals during the flu epidemic in 1999 illustrates this point . He suggests that standards were not fairly applied to both the U.S. and Canada , and observes that while emergency room overcrowding was mentioned in reports about both the U.S. and Canada , only in the case of Canada did newspapers indicate that the health system was collapsing . He concludes that U.S. journalists tend to look for a shocking anecdote and then assume that it is a general principle ( Marmor 2000a ) . <p> In the end , while anecdotal information plays an exaggerated role relative to evidence , facts , and scholarly knowledge in many U.S. newspaper articles about the Canadian health system , this does not mean that evidence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an anecdote , only eight made no reference at all to sound evidence . Many articles , then , are a mix of the two . <p> Historically , the function of news media has been to educate and inform . Where this function is based on anecdote rather than evidence , as is often the case with thematic articles about the Canadian health system , U.S. newspapers are doing a poor job of educating their readers . Their coverage is not of the typical or representative case or about routine problems ; rather it functions to make the exception appear to be the rule . Oversimplification and Omission <p> There is broad oversimplification involved in U.S. news coverage to the effect that the Canadian health system is portrayed as a national single payer system , dominated by the Canadian federal government . It is generally presented by U.S. newspapers as a unified system without much province-to-province variation ; the importance of local and provincial input is scarcely mentioned . The differences between various provinces , especially as regards their relationship with the federal government , are almost never discussed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ viewed as simply administering the federally organized health system ( see for an example , Krauss 2004b ) , much like the relationship between the U.S. federal government and the states . <p> Scholars generally acknowledge that the Canadian provincial governments are much more powerful than the U.S. states vis--vis the U.S. federal government ( Cameron and Simeon 2002 ; Bakvis and Skogstad 2001 ; Rocher and Smith 2003 ) , but only a few journalists covering the Canadian health system appear to know that this is the case ( Wessel 2004 ; Crossette 2001 are examples ) . Those U.S. journalists who are aware of the enormous power of Canadian provinces are in the minority . Scholars , however , agree : " By constitutional dictate , Canadian provinces are dominant in the administration of social policies , including health insurance " ( Marmor 2004 , p. 53 ) . At present , Canadian federalism in the health sector is an amalgam often health systems with substantial variations between the provinces and territories . As testimony to this point , Canadian provinces can be observed to regularly defy the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sector ( Derfel 2005 ) . In the end Canada 's health system is complex ; federal and provincial government relationships are constantly changing . <p> The medicare agreement signed in Ottawa at the September 15 , 2004 First Ministers ' Conference between the provinces and the federal government in Canada illustrates the power of the provinces . It included special separate arrangements for Quebec and formally recognized the possibility of individual provincial-federal arrangements , possibly extended in the future to other provinces ( Globe and Mail September 17 , 2004 ) . While The New York Times covered this conference , no mention was made in its coverage of the precedent-creating nature of the agreement , " Asymetrical Federalism that Respects Quebec 's Jurisdiction , " or the importance of this aspect ( First Ministers of Canada 2005 ) . U.S. newspaper readers should have keen informed of this agreement because federal-provincial flexibility makes the Canadian example more relevant to successful U.S. health system reform . Canada 's achievements in federal-provincial health sector relations are not fully recognized and communicated in U.S. newspapers . <p> The Canadian health system @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ therefore it is no surprise if U.S. news reports are sometimes oversimplified . Recent polls suggest that many Canadians ( 70 percent ) believe that they should he able to buy services outside the public health system . The fact is that they can already do so in many provinces . Canadian federal law does not prohibit purchase of services from doctors who opt-out of the public system . The same poll , however , indicated that 57 percent of Canadians would be happy to sec a ban on private health insurance ( Ipsos-Reid 2005 ; Kennedy 2005 ) . The contradiction is indicative of the confusion and complexity of the health system itself . <p> One of the problems with U.S. newspaper coverage is that the health system in Canada is not only complicated , it is also very different from that of the U.S. Too often U.S. journalists appear to interpret what they observe in the Canadian health system based on what they know best and are familiar with - their own U.S. health system . This leads to oversimplification and to misunderstanding . <p> It is unrealistic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fields they have to cover , however , such expertise is exactly what is commonly assumed ( Hargreaves 2003 ) . In reality , " journalists have a very difficult time evaluating complex , major programs ( such as Canada 's medicare ) through particular stories " ( Marmor 2000b , p.85 ) . Marmor proposes that newspaper journalists covering Canada are stretched too far . They try to cover too broad a spectrum of topics because they must cover everything that happens in Canada from immigrants to gun control to beer production . As a result , they do not have the requisite knowledge or background experience necessary to probe beneath the surface of events and provide fair coverage of the health system in all its complexity ( Marmor 2000a ) . Out of Context <p> U.S. newspaper coverage is often incomplete because information about the Canadian health system is not presented in the context of other Western industrialized countries . Coverage is isolated from context and , because of this , reports are often misinterpreted . For example , while wait times in Canada may be an enormous @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ throughout Europe is not mentioned ( Hurst and Siciliani 2001 ) . The U.S. press also fails to indicate that patients with life-threatening conditions receive treatment immediately and are not put on wait lists ( http : //www.health.gov.on.ca ) . This is not to say that medical errors do not occur and that patients do not die while waiting for care . Such tragedies occur in Canada as they do in the U.S. and other countries. 7 <p> Another example of providing information about the Canadian health system out of context involves privatization as a solution to waiting lists . There is an implied assumption in several newspaper articles ( Beltrame 2000 ; Brooke 2000 ) that if Canada permitted more private sector participation in its health system , then waiting for care would be reduced . In the U.S. , wait times for service for insured patients or those who pay privately are lower than in Canada. 8 However , U.S. newspapers fail to discuss how the introduction of a private sector negatively affects hospital wait times , even though such effects are well-documented . Experiments in Canada , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ indicate that introducing a private sector increases the waiting time for those who remain in the public sector ( Sanmartin et al . 2000 ) . If Canadian policy-makers hesitate to introduce a private sector , it may be because they are aware of the results of this research ( Fishman 1980 ; Besley et al . 1998 ; Duckett 2005 ; Hughes et al . 2004 ) . <p> U.S. newspaper coverage is taken out of context , as well , when Canadian-based information sources - think tanks , for example - are nut adequately identified and their intellectual orientation is not provided . U.S. readers have a difficult time assessing the fairness and objectivity of the data reported and the analysis provided without some description of Canadian-based information sources . For example , several articles quote representatives and studies undertaken by the Vancouver-based " Fraser Institute " which favors market solutions to health system problems , privatization , and the establishment of a U.S. type health system in Canada . The Fraser Institute is a source for the conclusion in many U.S. newspaper articles that the Canadian health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and that the crisis is deepening ( Krauss 2004b ) . The Fraser Institute 's board of directors is largely private sector and includes representation from the Canadian branches of large U.S. companies , including the U.S. pharmaceutical industry studies. 9 Its research reports argue that the Canadian health system is " breaking down badly " and that its performance is inferior to that of most other OECD countries ( O'Grady 2004 ) . However , a wide range of independent health policy researchers and peer reviewed journal articles disagree with these conclusions , but this research is seldom consulted or quoted by the Fraser Institute. 10 Therefore when newspapers consult a source , it is important for readers to understand the context of that source . Otherwise the information provided will be taken out of context and likely misinterpreted . Incomplete : Essential Information Is Left Out <p> In the newspaper articles examined here , it was apparent that U.S. coverage favored certain geographical areas of Canada and neglected others . U.S. press coverage is incomplete because French-speaking Quebec and several other provinces are often left out . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the other provinces put together . In the five-year period studied , 38 percent percent of all of the newspaper articles published focused on the Ontario health system ( nineteen articles ) . Alberta , British Columbia , and Quebec were each the focus of one article . But the remaining provinces and territories were not the central topic of any article . The majority of the articles ( twenty-eight ) had a national focus . <p> The reason for the incomplete coverage of so many provinces was not entirely the responsibility of the U.S. newspapers . In fact , the majority of the event-related articles focused on Ontario simply because it was the geographical location of the breaking news that had to be reported : the Walkerton , Ontario water supply contamination and the SARS outbreak that hit Toronto harder than any other city in Canada . However , this said , Ontario was also the focus selected for many discretionary articles about thematic topics ; responsibility for this narrow focus lies with newspaper editors and journalists who cover the Canadian health system . <p> The incomplete coverage of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Only one article was primarily about Quebec in the five and one-half years of newspaper coverage analyzed here . It did receive passing mention in 18 percent of the fifty articles that qualified for inclusion in this study . However , it is surprising that this percentage was not greater because Quebec 's health system is quite different from that of the other provinces . It has its own public drug plan and a comprehensive childcare program while other provinces are less generous in these areas . Quebec 's success in controlling costs contributes to the overall high performance of the Canadian health system compared to other countries as regards cost ( Barer , Lomas , and Sanmartin 1996 ; Armstrong and Armstrong 1999 ) . An article in the Wall Street Journal suggested that Alberta was the leader in Canada regarding privatization and the integration of a private sector into the provincial health system , despite federal government opposition ( Beltrame 2000 ) . In fact , privatization in Quebec has gone much further than in Alberta or any of the other provinces . Quebec 's provincial government publicly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of medicare and practice exclusively in the private sector . Only two more provinces have done this in all the rest of Canada ( Derfel 2005 ) . Quebec had the first private emergency clinic in Canada ( Krauss 2004a ; Yaffe 2005 ) , and it has fifteen private radiation clinics ( Derfel 2005 ) . However , most of this information about Quebec escaped notice in The New York Times and the Wail Street Journal . <p> Adding content about Quebec back in to newspaper coverage contributes to making the picture of the Canadian health system more complex , but it also makes the picture more complete . So why is coverage of Quebec neglected by U.S. newspapers ? First , little is available in English about Quebec which is Canada 's only French province . U.S. journalists may have a hard time building up a network of long-term contacts and trusted sources in English Canada , but the task is even greater for them when it comes to Quebec , where both language and cultural differences come into play . Second , many U.S. newspaper reporters covering @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ read what is published about the Quebec health system in French. 11 <p> Newspaper coverage of waiting times in Canada is another topic that is often misunderstood because it is presented in an incomplete manner and essential information is simply left out . Almost all newspaper articles included in this study failed to mention important facts required for an adequate understanding of Canada 's waiting lists . For example , " one way hospitals restrain costs is by trying to always run at capacity . It 's more efficient to run a hospital that way just as its more efficient to fly an airplane with every seat filled " ( Cherney 2003 ) . Only one article described the efforts in any of the Canadian provinces to co-ordinate or centralize waiting times and treat patients in nearby geographical areas where there are no waiting list for services ( Cherney 2003 ) . No article discussed the Western Canada Waiting List Project that produces quantifiable criteria for establishing the optimal time for treatment for cataract surgery , general surgery , hip/knee joint replacement , and MRI scanning ( http : //www.wcwl.ca/tools/ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by the Health Council of Canada to establish benchmarks for waiting times , to require clear case prioritization , to encourage inter-provincial management of waiting lists , or to implement ongoing audits of waiting lists ( Health Council of Canada 2005a , 2005b ) . Additionally , the efforts of the Canadian Medical Association 's " Wait Time Alliance " ( http : //www.cma.ca ) have never been the subject of a report in these two major newspapers ( Eggertson 2005 ) . <p> One New York Times article ( Krauss 2004a , in this case ) presents waiting lists as a national problem when in fact , they are a provincial responsibility . Waiting times vary widely by province with some provinces pursuing successful strategies for managing waiting times and others not ( Treasury Board of Canada , 2005 ) . Statistics are kept by individual treatment facilities and by providers in most cases " so no one can say how many people in the country - or even in one province - are waiting for a given procedure " ( Canadian Health Services Research Foundation 2005a , p. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wait times and policies on its web page . In Ontario , detailed data is published and policies explained : " cardiac procedures and cancer surgeries take place within days or weeks , while it usually takes months for elective surgeries such as for cataracts or hip and knee " ( Ontario Ministry of Health 2005 ) . <p> Another case where coverage of the Canadian health system in U.S. newspapers is incomplete involves Canadians going to the U.S. for health services . Without full information this behavior is commonly misinterpreted . U.S. journalists observe that Canadians are obtaining treatment for cancer in the U.S. , 12 which is almost always reported to be because these services are not available in Canada or waiting lists are too long in Canada ( Brooke 2000 ) . Such is presented as testimony to the tact that Canada can not provide health care for its citizens ( Beltrame 2000 ; Krauss 2003 ) . <p> It is also almost always left out of these newspaper articles that health services in the U.S. are sometimes purchased by Canadian provinces for Canadians under direct contractual @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Canadian provinces purchase surplus U.S. health services at hospitals located just across the border for their citizens . These services come at a lower price than what it would cost the province to set up and outfit a clinic to provide such services in Canada for such excess , often temporary , demand . Two articles in the database misunderstood the Canadian provinces ' " make versus buy " assessments , concluding that healthcare services in the U.S. cost these provinces more than it would have cost to provide the services in Canada . The journalists offered a patient-for-patient price comparison as evidence for their point . However , it the number of patients sent to the U.S. is small , then building a new facility to treat them in Canada would have been very expensive . Sending the surplus patients to the U.S. , after already-existing Canadian capacity was reached , made good economic sense . The existence of surplus capacity in U.S. hospitals along the Canada-U.S. border meant the provinces were in a strong negotiating position vis--vis the U.S. providers . The " buy " decision was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ yet very few U.S. journalists understood and explained this to their U.S. readers . Confusion and Error <p> U.S. newspaper coverage of the Canadian health system is confused for several reasons . Most of the time , the articles in the Wall Street Journal and The New York Times did not make any reference to the political orientation of the Canadian health system . However , at least one quarter of the U.S. newspaper articles about the Canadian health system indicated that it is " leftist " or socialist . A socialist system could be expected to finance the health care of its citizens largely from public funds . Using this criterion , Canada is quite centrist when viewed in the context of the industrialized countries . Seventy percent of health spending comes from the public sector in Canada ( Economist 2004 ) . This is a lower percentage than Australia , Denmark , France , Germany , and Britain ( Anderson et al . 2003 ) . The U.S. is the outlier because only 45 percent of each health care dollar in the U.S. comes from public money . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ authentically socialist under the common definition of the term , health system personnel ( including doctors ) would have to be government employees and hospitals would have to be owned by the government . The Oxford English Online Dictionary defines socialism as " a theory or policy of social organization which aims at or advocates the ownership and control of the means of production , capital , land , property , etc. , by the community as a whole , and their administration or distribution in the interests of all . " In the case of the Canadian health system , very few Canadian doctors work for the government . Most doctors in all of the provinces in 2003 in Canada were paid largely on a fee-for-service basis , as individual entrepreneurs to some extent . This is a form of " piece work " payment . Doctors are paid according to how much work they do , how many patients they see , and how many procedures they perform ( Naylor 1986 ) . Less than 10 percent of Canadian doctors are paid a salary by the government ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rather than private-for-profit , but this form of ownership does not qualify as " socialist . " Ninety-five percent of acute care hospitals in Canada are in the not-for-profit , private sector . This means that they are owned by community groups , religious organizations , or lay organizations ( Canadian Health Services Research Foundation 2005b ) . Historically , many mental health care hospitals and military hospitals were owned by local and provincial governments ( Tully and Saint-Pierre 1997 ) , but most are being transformed into independently-governed institutions ( Armstrong 2005 ) . <p> The private sector 's role in the Canadian health system is asserted as unimportant in many U.S. newspaper articles . In fact , the role of the private sector in the Canadian health system is substantial and the delivery of medical care is predominantly private ( Bodenheimer and Grumbach 2005 , p. 143 ) . The problem is that many U.S. journalists fail to take into account that the private sector can also be nonprofit . U.S. journalists often mistakenly view the private , non-profit hospital sector in Canada as " government " owned @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hospitals do not pay dividends to stockholders or list shares for purchase on the stock exchanges , but they are still a private form of ownership . <p> Another inaccuracy in the U.S. press coverage has to do with the assumption that Canadians would like to trade their health system for the U.S. health system , or that they would never recommend the Canadian health system to those in the U.S. ( Brooke 2000 and Beltrame 2000 are examples ) . While Canadians are critical of their own health system , it would be a mistake to interpret this criticism as an approval of their country adopting a U.S. style health system ( Brooke 2000 ) ; there is simply no evidence to support that claim . In 2000/2001 , Statistics Canada found that only 13 percent of Canadians reported unmet health care needs ( Romanow 2002 , p. 20 ) . Sixty-one percent of Canadians are " ' very ' or ' somewhat ' satisfied with the availability of affordable healthcare " in their country while only 27 percent of U.S. residents answer the same with regard to their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the situation is likely to be the reverse of what U.S. journalists assume : " substantially more Americans feel very positively about the Canadian healthcare ( 49 percent ) system than about the U.S. healthcare system " 04 percent ) ( Taylor 2004 ) . Discussion and Conclusions <p> This research finds that U.S. newspaper reporting on the topic of the Canadian health system in The New York Times and the Wall Street Journal is poor . The complex reality of the Canadian health system would be better understood in the U.S. if coverage were fairer , more accurate , more complete , and not so often a source of confusion , oversimplification , omission , and error . Reporting is subjective and issue-oriented as much as it is event-related , " hard news . " The problem with the observed discretionary news coverage is that it reinforces preconceived , often mistaken ideas about the Canadian health system and does little to correct commonly held misconceptions . Heavy reliance on anecdotal information means that sophisticated social analyses , fine distinctions , and subtle differences are overlooked . Substantial gaps in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ adding to the confusion and misrepresentation surrounding the Canadian health system . <p> These findings are surprising because the newspapers studied are among the more highly respected in the U.S. today . The period of time analyzed extended over five years and the fifty articles assessed were substantial in length and importance . Each article was signed by the journalist who wrote it , indicating that these journalists were satisfied with their work and wished to receive credit for it . Opinion pieces and editorials were not included in the database , therefore the articles considered were purportedly objective in nature . <p> This study is nut the first to find U.S. newspaper coverage inadequate ; several general-level explanations are offered as to why this is the case . Some of these accounts may apply to this study of coverage of the Canadian health system , though almost all of them ate too general to test directly . Some explanations claim that newspapers , as with the media in general , are structured to protect the status quo ( Tuchman 1978 ) . Others emphasize that journalists manage public symbols @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Gans 1979 ) . Journalists ' values are thought to " influence their decisions about whether or not to report particular events , who to approach or use as sources , and how to package different viewpoints . " Their " perceptions of the motives , credibility and public authority of information sources are likely to favour some over others " ( Entwistle and Sheldon 1999 , p. 124 ) . More recently , scholars have pointed out that the need for newspapers to make a profit and to assure that the stock price increases may influence coverage and jeopardize objectivity . <p> While no argument is made here that U.S. newspapers consciously distort their reports of the Canadian health system , it is important to seek more specific explanations as to why U.S. coverage is inadequate . Journalists depend on expert sources and they must work with these informants if they are covering a specific topic on an ongoing basis . They become indebted , to some degree , to those sources they consult ( Rossides 2003 , p. 170 ) . In the case of Canada 's health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ need within Canada to get both sides of each story . For this reason , alone , they may be overly dependent on a U.S.-based network for information about the Canadian topics they cover . This means that coverage unconsciously incorporates the previously preconceived expectations of U.S. sources regarding the Canadian health system . <p> Marmor argues , " American interest groups provide a spur to critical stories , and the richest of such groups overwhelmingly want to attack the Canadian model .. To the extent these North American interest groups bring stories and documentation to the press , the media 's commitment to evenhandedness actually undermines a balanced view of Canadian medicare " ( 2000h , p. 85-6 ) . Highly reputable individuals such as Timothy Johnson , MD , Medical Editor for ABC for three decades and editor of the Harvard Medical School Health Letter , supports Marmor 's controversial contention that those in the field of health and medicine in the U.S. use the media for their own commercial advantage to the point of " secretiveness and even a cutthroat mentality . They encourage stories about the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ manipulate the media .. " ( Johnson 1998 , p. 89 ) . <p> Overall , it would be a serious mistake to dismiss the problematic coverage of the Canadian health system as unimportant . Public opinion may not blindly follow the press , but it is highly likely that the public is influenced by the press . While evidence is not unequivocal ( Golding 1999 ) , several studies indicate that beliefs , attitudes , and perceptions are shaped by the media ( Philo and Seeker 1999 , chapter eight ) , and that media sources are powerful because they sway how people think and behave ( Adams 1997 ; Maclure et al . 1998 ; Grilli et al . 1998 ) . Newspapers promote specific policy-related issues that would otherwise not receive much attention from the public and from policy-makers ( Muncie 1999 ) . They do , in some cases , have a decisive impact on policy , setting policy agendas ( Baumgartner and Jones 1993 ; Kingdon 1995 ) , and shaping government action ( Jordan 1999 ) . In the case of the Canadian health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ coverage may be misleading the U.S. public as well as policy-makers . This should be a matter of interest and concern on both sides of the forty-ninth parallel . <p> This study is not without limitations . Results can not be generalized to all other U.S. newspapers ; they apply only to those studied for the period of time sampled . No evidence is presented here that U.S. news paper coverage is better or worse than Canadian newspaper coverage . Finally , no evidence is presented here about how U.S. newspapers cover the U.S. health system . These topics are reserved for future study . <p>

@@4019441 This is the second part of a two-part report of a study about the instruction of children who are learning or using both braille and print simultaneously ( dual media ) . It explores the instructional methods and curricular decisions of teaching dual media to students with low vision and reports the students ' current literacy levels and reading rates and their teachers ' expectations for future levels of literacy . When an Individualized Education Program ( IEP ) team determines that a student with low vision should be taught dual media , several decisions need to be made regarding the methods of instruction , the curriculum , and the instruments for assessing the student 's acquisition of literacy skills . Generally , the teacher of students with visual impairments guides these decisions and facilitates their implementation , along with general education teachers and reading specialists or other special educators as appropriate . Koenig and Holbrook ( 2000 ) and Corn and Koenig ( 2002 ) conducted Delphi studies to develop frameworks for delivering instruction in literacy media to students who use braille and those with low vision , respectively . In both studies , panels of experts were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , time span , and duration of instruction that these groups need . For students in kindergarten to Grade 3 who are initially learning dual media and for print readers who are learning braille , high consistency ( daily contact ) , a long time per day ( one to two hours per session ) , and a long duration ( throughout at least one school year ) were recommended . In addition to how much time is allocated for a child 's instruction , other issues include whether initial instruction should be in contracted or uncontracted braille and when to start instruction in the second medium , depending on the student 's level of literacy in the first medium . If students are efficient print readers for their age who are adding braille , they will not require an approach that actually teaches them how to read . Students for whom receiving instruction in dual media is the inital decision for literacy media will require comprehensive reading instruction that includes tactile reading , as well as learning the print alphabet and the braille code . Although there are no @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ students in dual media , several types of curricula are available . Using the student 's grade- and age-appropriate basal reader or a whole-language approach has advantages because it is the same curriculum that the student 's sighted classmates are using , and braille instruction can be added to the print instruction . However , with these approaches , the introduction of braille contractions can not be controlled and , as with the whole-language approach , may be incompatible for some students . This may be especially true if a teacher of students with visual impairments is itinerant and unavailable for ongoing and sometimes immediate transcribing ( Holbrook &; Koenig , 1992 ) . Separate curricula have advantages as well , since they are specifically designed to teach the braille code , and contractions are introduced in a controlled and systematic manner , as in Patterns : The Primary Braille Reading Program ( Caton , Pester , &; Bradley , 1980 ) . However , these approaches have disadvantages , too . Patterns , a " basal reading program for young students who are blind " ( Holbrook &; Koenig @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are learning print in the regular classroom because of differences in vocabulary , punctuation , and spelling . Read Again ( Caton , Pester , &; Bradley , 1990 ) and Braille Too ( Hepker &; Cross-Coquillette , 1994 ) are also specifically designed to teach braille separately from print , but are to be used with older students who have an adventitious visual impairment or a progressive condition and are already established print readers . Therefore , some of the disadvantages with other braille-specific programs do not apply to these curricula . As with the decision to teach dual media , the choice of a curriculum and instruction should be based on each student 's instructional needs . Assessing a student 's current level of literacy is also important when deciding on curricula and instructional methods for a student who is learning dual media . While reading speed should not be the only criterion used , it is important that a student develop a functional and competitive reading speed in either print or braille . The reading speeds of students with visual impairments may be compared to those of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Wolffe ( 2000 ) stated that for any job in which literacy is used , a minimum reading rate of 150 words per minute ( wpm ) should be expected . Various studies have found that braille readers do not acquire reading rates that meet Wolffe 's ( 2000 ) estimate . In the 1960s , Lowenfeld , Abel , and Hatlen ( 1969 ) found that typical rates of braille reading were 84 wpm in local schools and 72 wpm in residential schools at the fourth-grade level and 149 wpm and 116 wpm in local and residential schools , respectively , at the eighth-grade level . In the 2001 Iowa Study of Braille Literacy ( K. Blankenship , personal communication , 2005 ) , 50% of the participants ( students who were reading only braille or both print and braille ) read at a rate of fewer than 30 wpm , with an average rate of 34.8 wpm . Trent and Truan ( 1997 ) studied braille readers who reached a minimum of a sixth-grade reading level on the Gilmore Oral Reading Test at the Tennessee School for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rate of 80% or higher , the fastest rate was 98 wpm , which is equivalent to the reading rates of sighted third graders ( see Guszak , 1985 ) . These studies combined students for whom braille reading was their sole reading medium with those who may have been reading both braille and print . Outcomes for braille readers who are dual-media readers have not been disaggregated from such studies . On the basis of data from Heinze ( 1986 ) and Lowenfeld et al . ( 1969 ) , Koenig ( 1996 ) discussed the range of typical reading rates and concluded that a rate of 100-125 wpm ( the expected third-grade silent reading rate for typically sighted students ) ( Carver , 1989 ) was a good starting point for reading print on the basis of the objective reading rates in braille . Therefore , if a student is reading print at 100-125 wpm , changing the student 's primary reading medium to braille may not result in an increase in reading speed . Koenig ( 1996 , p. 261 ) also suggested plotting a student 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of school " and then drawing a " prediction line . to determine whether a rate of 100-125 words per minute is achievable . " If a student is not expected to be able to attain a level of 100-125 wpm in print , a teacher may need to consider braille as an alternative medium . Although these studies had many drawbacks ( for example , they did not differentiate between students with and without additional disabilities and used many different assessments to measure reading speed or level ) , they all indicated that students ' reading performance was poor for competing in academic classes and for future employability . These measures can help teachers determine each student 's individual needs , so as to adjust the instructional program accordingly . There are also no data to document ongoing instructional practices for children who are learning or using dual media or the success with which dual-media learners become proficient in their primary or secondary medium or in both media if they are initially taught braille and print . These data would be helpful for designing curricula and predicting the acquisition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ students ' IEPs , teachers need to set short-and long-term expectations for students ' literacy levels and reading rates in each medium and to consider the purposes and future uses of literacy skills . Students with low vision may read standard print with or without standard optical corrections , standard print with optical devices , large print , electronically enlarged images , and braille . Expectations for Visual Function ( Corn &; Webne , 2001 ) is an instrument that is used to determine levels of expectations for independent visual functioning with or without optical devices . Of the 20 items , 17 involve reading print at a near or far distance and are related to such tasks as reading print in standard sizes on maps and books , reading street signs at specific distances , and reading for specific periods of time . Corn , Wall , and Bell ( 2001 ) used this instrument with students who were reading print or dual media and who received clinical low vision evaluations , prescribed optical devices , and instruction in their use over a six-month period . During that period @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their teachers ' expectations for the students ' ability to use vision increased , whereas the parents ' expectations remained the same . To date , there have been no studies of the expectations of students who are learning braille or dual media . This second part of a two-part series of articles -- the first of which appeared in the October 2006 issue of the journal -- presents data on the methods and instructional practices used by teachers of students who are learning or using dual media and the students ' current reading levels and reading speeds . It includes an analysis of the portions of the questionnaire that focused on curricular decisions and instructional methods for teaching dual media , as well as literacy outcomes and future expectations and levels of literacy for dual media learners . Methods The study used a 66-item questionnaire that was distributed through flyers , e-mail , and word of mouth . The questionnaire and all procedures were approved by Vanderbilt University 's Institutional Review Board before any data were collected . Questionnaires were received electronically . For more detailed information on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2006 ) . Results The participants included 95 teachers from 21 U.S. states and 1 Canadian province who gave information on 108 students who were learning or using dual media . These students ranged in age from 4 to 21 and in grade level from prekindergarten to the 12th grade . Further demographic data can be found in Lusk and Corn ( 2006 ) . CURRICULUM AND TEACHING STRATEGIES The teachers were asked to describe their strategies for teaching braille code to their students who were learning dual media and could choose from multiple techniques listed on the questionnaire . More than one technique was used with several students ; contracted braille was initially taught to 54 students , uncontracted braille was taught to 49 students , and braille was taught to 39 students through the Patterns ( Caton et al. , 1980 ) curriculum . Other techniques were used to teach 27 students . There were also multiple possible techniques for teaching a student to read and write print . Again , the teachers used a combination of visual displays . Thus , 65 students learned or were learning @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ did so with closed-circuit televisions ( 57 students ) , standard print and optical devices ( 34 students ) , standard print ( 26 students ) , added illumination ( 15 students ) , eccentric viewing techniques ( 9 students ) , other techniques ( 5 students ) , and diminished illumination ( 2 students ) . The teachers were also asked how their students learned to write in print and braille . The most popular tools for writing print were using bold-lined paper ( n = 70 ) and standard writing implements ( n = 61 ) or bold markers ( n = 58 ) ; many students also used standard notebook paper ( n = 40 ) and keyboarding with a print image ( n = 44 ) . The most popular tool for writing braille was a Perkins Braillewriter ( n = 77 ) ; some students used an electronic brailler ( n = 28 ) or a slate and stylus ( n = 11 ) , and 14 students used other tools . The best practice for teaching reading through braille to students with low vision @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The teachers were asked how they teach braille to their students who have low vision and could give more than one answer for each student . Most teachers ( n = 82 ) allowed the students to see their hands and the braille while reading . Other techniques included blindfolding during instruction ( n = 4 ) , allowing the students to see their hands through a clear or translucent partition ( n = 3 ) , and showing the students print in a book or on a screen while reading braille tactilely ( n = 3 ) . Twenty-two teachers listed various other techniques . No teacher reported blindfolding students for an extended period . The teachers were also asked to describe their students ' visual behaviors while learning to read and write braille and could list multiple behaviors for each student . Many students ( n = 49 ) read or wrote with their eyes open , but the teachers did not think they were actively using their vision . Other students looked at their hands but could not see the dots ( n = 36 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 31 ) , used vision but did not appear to focus on anything in particular ( n = 25 ) , looked at the dots to try to check for mistakes while brailling ( n = 23 ) , or seemed to focus on an object or a person ( n = 15 ) . Five students were listed as exhibiting other visual behaviors during braille reading or writing . As another component of instructional methods , the teachers were asked to report how much print and braille instructional time their students received each week and who provided this instruction . Although the questionnaire did not ask how long each student had been learning each medium , it did ask how much instruction was provided by persons other than the teacher of students with visual impairments , especially in braille . See Table 1 for more information . The teachers were asked to give the grade of their student when the decision was made to teach dual media , so as to determine the length of time each student had been learning or using both media . Students who were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ two would not be expected to be as proficient in both media as would students who were learning or using dual media for six or seven years . Data on students for whom the decision was made before or during kindergarten were analyzed further because this group shares similar experiences in learning each medium simultaneously . Data were available for 36 students . However , for 5 additional students , although the grade for the initial decision was not given , the current grade level was either prekindergarten or kindergarten . Therefore , if these students were currently dual media learners , the decision had to have been made before or during their kindergarten year . Thus , the decision to teach dual media was made before or during kindergarten for a total of 41 students . Data on the amount of instruction in print and braille that these students received per week , differentiating for grade levels and the person giving the instruction , are presented in Table 2 . CURRENT LITERACY LEVELS IN PRINT AND BRAILLE The teachers reported the current literacy levels in print for 76 students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ print reading levels , 26 of the 76 students were reading below their grade level ; 12 were reading one year below their grade level , 10 were reading two years below their grade level , and 4 were more than two years below their grade level . Of these 26 students , we determined the length of time that 22 had been dual-media learners -- an average of 3.45 years ( range : less than 1 year to 9 years ) . With regard to braille reading levels , 36 of the 63 students were reading below grade level ; 11 were reading 1 year below their grade level , 8 were reading 2 years below their grade level , and 17 were reading more than 2 years below their grade level . Of the 36 students , we determined the length of time that 32 of them had been dual-media learners -- an average of 3.33 years ( range : less than 1 year to 11 years ) . From the data on print and braille reading levels , we determined that 15 students were reading below their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had been dual media learners for an average of 3.33 years ( range : less than 1 year to 9 years ) . Of the 41 students for whom the decision to teach dual media was made before or during kindergarten , print reading levels were given for 29 students , and braille reading levels were given for 24 students . In print , 21 students were reading at their grade level , 6 were reading below their grade level ( 4 at one year below their grade level and 2 at two years below their grade level ) , and 2 were reading above their grade level . In braille , 11 students were reading at their grade level , 12 were reading below their grade level ( 7 at one year below their grade level , 4 at two years below their grade level , and 1 at three years below the grade level ) , and 1 was reading above the grade level . Current reading rates are also a factor in dual-media learning because of their use in the choice of reading media and in tracking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were given for 38 ( 35.2% ) students , and for braille , reading rates were given for 39 ( 36.1% ) students ; the results were spread evenly across grade levels . In print , 26 ( 68.4% ) students read at 50 wpm or less , 9 ( 23.7% ) read at 51-100 wpm , and 3 ( 7.9% ) read at 101-150 wpm ; no student read at more than 150 wpm . In braille , 33 ( 84.6% ) read at 50 wpm or less , and 6 ( 15.4% ) read at 51-80 wpm ; no student read at more than 80 wpm . For more information on average reading rates by grade level , see Figure 1 , which shows averages of the sighted typical silent reading rates ( Carver , 1989 ) and the reported print and braille reading rates of the students in this study . EXPECTATIONS FOR FUTURE LITERACY LEVELS IN PRINT AND BRAILLE The teachers were asked to predict their students ' future levels of literacy in both print and braille . The projected levels from which they could choose @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( reading up to a third-grade level ) , intermediate ( reading from a fourth- to an eighth-grade level ) , and advanced ( reading at the ninth-grade level or higher ) . The teachers were also asked to note any additional disabilities or exceptionalities that their students had . The results presented here are grouped by reading medium and whether the students were reported to have one or more exceptionalities . The results indicated that while some students were expected to attain only emergent or beginning levels of literacy in print or braille , most students were expected to attain an intermediate or advanced level of literacy . That is , 53 ( 49.1% ) students were expected to attain advanced levels of literacy in print , and 47 ( 43.5% ) students were expected to do so in braille . See Table 3 for more detailed information . Discussion Although we did not draw conclusions regarding the best way to decide if dual-media instruction is appropriate or the best teaching technique to use , our study provides a foundation upon which to take a more in-depth look at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ results from the questionnaire are discussed and the limitations of the study are noted . STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING When we reviewed the strategies that the teachers used for teaching print reading to students with low vision in light of the visual statuses of the students , the efficiency with which the students were learning to read print was called into question . For example , the findings revealed that 11.3% of the students with restricted visual fields who were reading large print had less than 20 degrees of their central visual field ( see Lusk &; Corn , 2006 ) . This situation is worrisome because , as the visual field decreases and the print size increases , the amount of text that can be read without head or eye movement also decreases . Therefore , we question the effectiveness and efficiency of using large print as a primary reading medium with this population . According to Delphi studies by Koenig and Holbrook ( 2000 ) and Corn and Koenig ( 2002 ) , instructional time in braille for dual-media learners who are in kindergarten to Grade 3 should range @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ basis of the number of sessions ( daily ) and the length of each session ( 1-2hours ) . According to this study 's findings , the students in Grades 1-3 who began learning dual media in or before kindergarten were receiving adequate instructional time in print ( 9.7 hours per week ) , but were not receiving the recommended amount of instructional time in braille ( 4.6 hours per week ) . Because of grade levels and levels of literacy in each medium , instructional time varies for each student in print and braille . However , for the students in this study , instructional time in print was far greater in each grade level than instructional time in braille . Although some students may have been learning braille at a slower pace because of a noniminent but anticipated future need for a tactile medium , many of these students could be expected to use both media daily to complete educational and other tasks . These students spent far less time learning the braille code , writing braille , and doing tactile reading . How this difference in instructional @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . One explanation for this difference in instructional time may be that certain skills need to be taught only in one medium , and print is the easier medium because the student 's classmates are learning through print . For example , capitalization rules may be taught in print by the general education teacher , and a student who is visually impaired may then be expected to generalize these print skills to braille as needed . We realize that the concept of composition signs , such as the capital sign , is unique to braille and must be specifically taught . However , when to use capitalization ( for example , for names , months , and holidays ) may be learned as a print skill and generalized to braille . Another explanation may be that a student 's teacher of students with visual impairments is not available for more instruction because of his or her high caseload . One finding of this study was that a wide age range of students were learning dual media , from early childhood to late adolescence and early adulthood . Most of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ readers who were learning braille . Therefore , a sufficient number of curricula and curriculum materials to address the learning needs of this wide range of age groups is needed , as well as various curricula for learning dual media . OUTCOMES The amount of time a student has been learning to use a new medium is important because even an advanced print or braille reader can take several years to become proficient in the new medium and may never reach his or her level of proficiency in the first medium . One disturbing finding was the low reading rates of students whose reading rates were known . No students were reported to read more than 150 wpm in print , which is the level of a typical fifth grader ( Carver , 1989 ) , and no students were reported to read more than 80 wpm in braille , which is the level of a typical first grader . It is difficult to compare these results to previous studies ( Lowenfeld et al. , 1969 ; Trent &; Truan , 1997 ; also K. Blankenship , personal communication ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ only braille and students who read dual media . However , it appears that the reading rates reported in all the studies reflect noncompetitive reading rates when using nonauditory media . On the basis of Wolffe 's ( 2000 ) estimate , any person who has a job in which literacy is used needs to have a reading rate of at least 150 wpm . Based on their reading rates , these students do not have the skills that are necessary to compete in the workplace for jobs that require literacy . It was also surprising to find that only roughly a third of the teachers reported reading rates ( silent or oral ) for their students . If teachers are not taking measures of their students ' reading rates , they have no way to tell how the students are progressing in their acquisition of literacy skills or how competitive the students can be expected to be with their peers at the present time or in future employment situations . Although a review of these data may lead one to question the viability of teaching dual media to students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conclusions . Although the reading rates of dual-media learners may not be competitive with those of their peers , one of the many unanswered questions is : How would their reading rates compare if these students were learning or using only one medium ? Also , if decreasing vision is the main reason for learning braille in addition to print , learning dual media may be the only feasible option for future literacy experiences . Therefore , dual media may not be the best option for students with low vision , but it may be a better option than the alternative of not being competitive in one medium or worse , not being proficient in any reading medium . For students with stable vision conditions who are clearly readers of either print or braille , these concerns may not be warranted . EXPECTED FUTURE LEVELS OF LITERACY The majority of the respondents to the survey reported that students with only visual impairments and students who are visually impaired and gifted are expected to attain intermediate or advanced levels of literacy in print and braille . This expectation is encouraging . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study , one must question whether high levels of reading ability will result in functional reading ability for work purposes without adequate reading rates . LIMITATIONS The portion of the questionnaire discussed in this article had several limitations . When the teachers were asked to report the students ' reading rates , they were not asked specifically for silent or oral reading rates , nor were they asked to indicate whether the reading rates they reported were silent or oral . In addition , the teachers were not asked to list the name of the reading inventory or other method that they used to obtain the reading rates . Finally , the teachers were not asked to give information on the point of progress in each medium for their students . Therefore , the number of students who had completed instruction in one or both media and the number of students who were learning to read and write in print or braille could not be determined . In this article , curricular decisions and instructional strategies that the teachers used to teach students who were learning dual media and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . At this time , there is no guidance for determining which curricula or methods to use in providing instruction . In light of the concerns about the outcomes indicated by these data , better outcomes for students who are learning dual media can not be expected unless such guidelines are developed . Recommendations In light of the findings discussed in this article , this section presents recommendations for teachers and questions for further study . RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TEACHERS Ensure that the print sizes that are used with dual-media learners are based on objective data that include considerations of optical and electronic enlargements . Use the guidelines presented by Koenig and Holbrook ( 2000 ) and Corn and Koenig ( 2002 ) regarding literacy instruction for students reading braille and those with low vision , respectively . Assess the reading rates of students who are learning dual media to track the students ' progress in print and braille . QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Is there an underrepresentation of students from minority groups and special schools who are learning dual media ? If so , is this underrepresentation unique to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is it a problem within the larger population of all students with visual impairments ? Is there a threshold of visual acuity and visual field when dual media becomes a more appropriate instructional practice ? What evidence is there for or against the use of assessments in making decisions regarding reading media , including formal and informal learning media assessments , informal reading inventories , and measures of reading stamina ? What are parents ' and students ' attitudes and experiences regarding learning dual media compared to teachers ' perceptions ? What are the minimal and average reading rates of those with and without visual impairments who are successfully employed in various job categories ? Is there evidence for using one or more specific curricula for teaching braille to students with low vision ? Are there one or more techniques ( such as blindfolding or having students focus on print while reading braille tactilely ) that should be used when teaching braille to students with low vision ? What are the differences in the acquisition of literacy skills for students with low vision who are learning print only , braille @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ interventions to improve the acquisition of literacy skills for dual-media learners ? Conclusion Educators of children with low vision continue to seek the best literacy outcomes for their students . The data presented in Parts 1 and 2 of this study are only a beginning to further studies that are needed to ensure that children learning to read both braille and print acquire literacy skills . Educators should hold high standards for students of various ability levels so their literacy will facilitate to the greatest extent possible independent living and employment . The authors thank Sharon Sacks and Robert Wall Emerson for helping to frame the study and to revise the teachers ' questionnaire . Table 1 Instructional time provided by teachers of students with visual impairments and others in print and braille ( N = 108 students ) . Table 2 Instructional time provided by teachers of students with visual impairments and others for students who began learning dual media before or during kindergarten Table 3 Expected levels of future literacy in print and braille . GRAPH : Figure 1 . Trend lines of reading rates of students who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reading rates . Source : Data on sighted typical reading rates are from Carver ( 1989 ) . References By Kelly E. Lusk and Anne L. Corn Kelly E. Lusk , M.Ed. , instructor and doctoral candidate , Department of Special Education , Vanderbilt University , and teacher of students with visual impairments , Providing Access to the Visual Environment ( Project PAVE ) at the Vanderbilt University Medical Center . Address correspondence to her at Department of Special Education , Peabody College , Vanderbilt University , Box 328 , Nashville , TN 37203 ; e-mail : **33;1744;TOOLONG . Anne L. Corn , Ed.D. , professor , Department of Special Education , Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences , Vanderbilt University ; <e-mail : **28;1779;TOOLONG

@@4019541 Section : FEATURE ARTICLE <p> THE READ/WRITE WEB , ALSO CALLED WEB 2.0 , OFFERS POWERFUL TOOLS TO AID IN THE COLLABORATIVE PROCESS . APPLICATIONS SUCH AS BLOGS AND WIKIS ALLOW USERS TO ADD CONTENT TO A WEB PAGE ON THE FLY , GENERALLY WITH LITTLE OR NO KNOWLEDGE OF HTML CODING REQUIRED . AND ALTHOUGH BLOGS HAVE GAINED SOME POPULARITY AND USE IN SCHOOLS , THE POTENTIAL OF WIKIS AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL REMAINS LARGELY UNTAPPED . THE POWER OF A WIKI LIES IN ITS ABILITY TO PROVIDE A FORMAT FOR COLLABORATIVE CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE . CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF A WIKI INCLUDE EASE OF USE ; ABILITY TO CREATE NONLINEAR DOCUMENT STRUCTURES THROUGH HYPERLINKS ; A BUILT-IN MECHANISM FOR REFLECTION AND METACOGNITION ; A MEANS OF TRACKING INDIVIDUAL , SMALL GROUP , AND WHOLE GROUP PROGRESS ; AND SPACES FOR CREATING INDIVIDUAL , SMALL GROUP , AND WHOLE GROUP PRODUCTS . TEACHER-LIBRARIANS AND CLASSROOM TEACHERS CAN USE THESE FEATURES TO DESIGN NEW AND IMPROVED COLLABORATIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCES . THIS ARTICLE PROVIDES SAMPLE ASSIGNMENTS AND DESCRIBES FREE WIKI WEB SITES . BEYOND WIKIPEDIA : USING WIKIS TO CONNECT STUDENTS AND TEACHERS TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND TO ONE ANOTHER @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ without believing in the power of constructivist learning . Every day teacher-librarians facilitate the process of articulating research questions , locating resources , organizing information from a variety of sources , and synthesizing that information to create new understandings . Some of the most exciting research happens when students collaborate to pool their research and analyze their data , forming a kind of understanding that would be difficult for an individual student to achieve . <p> The Read/Write Web , also called Web 2.0 , offers powerful tools to aid in this kind of collaborative process . Applications such as blogs and wikis allow users to add content to a web page on the fly , generally with little or no knowledge of HTML coding required . And although blogs have gained some popularity and use in schools , the potential for wikis as an educational tool remains largely untapped . While the reasons for this are open to question , it is clear that it is not because students are uncomfortable with these new technologies . In fact , about half of all teens in the United States create @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ include creating web pages , blogs , and wikis , as well as remixing content found online into something new ( Lenhart &; Madden , 2005 ) . IN THE IMAGE OF WIKIPEDIA <p> Many of the suggestions for using wikis are imitations of the general concept of Wikipedia : The Free Encyclopedia , an organic , loosely structured process to produce encyclopedia-type content . NeighborhoodWiki ( http : **42;7596;TOOLONG ? title=Main%5fPage ) , for example , features elementary students ' encyclopedia entries on hundreds of topics , ranging from alligators to zxcvbnm , . / ( the bottom row of the keyboard ) . Will Richardson ( 2006 ) suggested that teachers and students collaborate to create wiki textbooks for individual courses and that each year new classes might add to or edit content . Westwood Schools , in Camilla , GA , maintains a wiki that includes collections of student work , class blogs , student-created study guides , and spaces for students to post pages of interest to other students ( Jakes , 2006 ) . <p> In addition to allowing users to add and edit content @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Many wiki applications feature a back page , usually labeled Discussion , which can be used for reflection and feedback . On Wikipedia , users often use this space to post explanations of edits they have made , to evaluate content , or to disagree with other contributors . This feature is being put to good use by teachers who create wikis for their writing courses . Borja ( 2006 ) cited Paul Allison 's High School Online Collaborative Writing Wiki ( http : **36;7640;TOOLONG ) as an example , on which students used the " Discussion " page to create modern versions of scenes from Macbeth , including 20 versions of the opening witch scene . <p> Many supporters of wikis in education suggest that there is an inherent underlying philosophy that accompanies use of the tool . Richardson ( 2006 ) claimed that " early implementations of wikis in educational settings have shown that the more autonomy teachers give to students in terms of negotiating the scope and quality of the content they are creating , the better " ( p. 65 ) . Heather James ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in part , the result of assuming too much control . " To really use a wiki , " James said , " the participants need to be in control of the content -- you have to give it over fully . " And Brian Lamb ( 2004 ) asserted that wikis are most effective when " students can assert meaningful autonomy over the process . It is not that authority can not be imposed on a wiki , but doing so undermines the effectiveness of the tool " ( p. 45 ) . WIKIS AND INFORMATION LITERACY <p> Although it is hard to argue with the goal of independent , self-directed learning , this is often more an ideal to strive toward than it is a reality . In fact , there is evidence that careful structuring and scaffolding of concepts and skills have led to some successful wiki collaborations . Moreover , many of the considerations in effectively setting up a learning wiki are related to the information literacy skills that fall within the teacher-librarian 's expertise . For example , in a study of undergraduate engineering students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nicol , Littlejohn , and Grierson ( 2005 ) noted that the organization and structure of information and resources affected team sharing and the learning of design principals . In one of two case studies that this team completed , the authors concluded that requiring teams to make their knowledge structures transparent helped teams solidify their ideas about how their ideas were inter-related . The authors also suggested that requiring students to create concept maps of how their resources related to their central design concepts would have deepened students ' application of those resources . In debriefing their project , one student stated that it would have been beneficial if they had been required to use the wiki to rank the value of each source that they uploaded to the shared space . Nicol and colleagues ( 2005 ) last suggested that some information literacy skills do not come naturally to students and that building in mechanisms to the wiki to assist students through their problem solving is an important role for the instructor . <p> Phillipson and Hamilton ( 2004 ) reflected on a similar issue in relation to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ College , Brunswick , ME , exploring the Romantic poets . In this open-ended project , students analyzed and responded to poetry through annotating the original poems . Words and phrases were linked to pages of explication and reaction ; images related to poems were uploaded ; poems on similar themes were interlinked ; and biographical information was created about influential authors . In spite of students ' enthusiasm , there were difficulties . " Wikis lead to dispersion , " the authors stated . " It is easy to click around and wander off into paths that feel tangential or idiosyncratic . To a point , such an environment can feel liberating .. But disorientation is quickly frustrating , especially in a pedagogical setting . " <p> Phillipson and Hamilton chose a wiki software with navigation features that they thought would help their students . They took an active role in deciding which pages to highlight on the navigation bar , and they barred students from deleting each other 's posts . Once again , these instructors intervened in the operation of the wiki in response to their students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's middle school wiki project ( 2005 ) , in which students investigated the long-term consequences of six Missouri River dams , yielded similar conclusions in terms of the need to build in information literacy skills . Teachers realized on reflection that they needed to model and facilitate the exchange of ideas and that students needed some explicit instruction in the inquiry process to help them provide meaningful interactions with each other and the data they were uncovering . <p> As a matter of pedagogy , Richardson ( 2006 ) , James ( 2004 ) , and Lamb ( 2004 ) are correct to push for using wikis in the least restrictive environment , giving over control of content and process to students . But providing students with support , structure , and instruction when they lack the skills to assume complete control in no way undermines the effectiveness of the wiki as a tool . Richardson wrote that , in fact , the use of the wiki is as much about collaborative skills as it is about the production of content : <p> The collaborative environment that wikis facilitate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , how to create community , and how to operate in a world where the creation of knowledge and information is increasingly becoming a group effort . ( p. 74 ) <p> Let us take a closer look at five features of wikis that can make them an effective tool in facilitating such collaborative efforts , including examples from my partnerships with classroom teachers . <p> Feature 1 : Ease of use . Contributors simply go to a wiki site and add a new entry or edit an existing one following simple directions . Many wiki sites provide a " what you see is what you get " ( WNYSIWYG ) editing interface with options similar to those seen in a basic word-processing application , such as Microsoft Word . Users click on " Edit , " and add or change content , then click on " Save This Page . " That is all there is to it . Instant publishing . <p> Example . At the beginning of the school year , sophomore world studies students come to the library for a minilesson on determining the authority of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and classroom teacher , students generate a set of criteria that they will use to evaluate authority . Working in groups of three , students explore a single site and use the criteria to decide if the site is authoritative . Students record their answers on a wiki page that includes a link to the site . Because students have no difficulty learning to use the wiki after a 1-minute demonstration , they are able to record their answers and share with the whole group right away ( Figure 1 ) . <p> Feature 2 : Spaces for students to create products individually , in small groups , and as a whale group . Any wiki can be designed to contain separate work spaces for individual , small group , and large group products . The digital environment creates an easy means for students to move from one space to the next , taking notes , analyzing , and synthesizing information along the way . <p> Example . Students in a remedial science class are exploring the similarities and differences between human beings and other primates . Each student locates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ her own page provided by the teacher-librarian ( Figure 2 ) . The student records answers on that page . Then , a group leader copies all group members ' work into a matrix . Together , the group members answer the question , " Based on the data here , what does it mean to be human ? " ( Figure 3 ) . <p> Each group shares its data and answers with the class , comparing and refining answers . In a short period , students are able to collect , organize , and analyze a large amount of data to produce original conclusions and create authentic understanding . <p> Feature 3 : Ability to create a nonlinear document structure through hyperlinks . Hyperlinking allows for the creation of assignments whose steps need not be followed in a single order , offering flexibility and choice to students while maintaining clear paths to follow . Again , neither students nor instructors need to know any HTML coding to do this . <p> Example . Students move easily through all the information and work spaces of the primates wiki mentioned @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mechanism for reflection and metacognition . As mentioned earlier , many wikis offer an option called " Discussion " -- some wiki sites call it " Comments " -- on which students can engage in conversation about the entry , explaining why they made changes , agreeing or disagreeing with what has been posted , and sharing personal feelings about a topic . <p> Example . Students work in pairs to explore both sides of a controversial issue before deciding which side to support . On Day 1 , one student researches the " pro " arguments while the other researches " con " arguments . The next day , students switch , completing the Day 2 chart by adding concrete details in support of the original arguments or by finding different arguments and support . Students then use the " Discussion " page to communicate with each other ( and to the teacher ) about which arguments and details are best and why . The teacher may participate in these discussions , too ( Figure 4 ) . <p> Feature 5 : A means of tracking individual , small @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Wikis have a " History " option that allows users to view each change that has been made to an entry since its creation . This makes it possible for the teacher-librarian and classroom teacher to chart progress and identify places in the learning process that require more or less intervention -- a useful feedback tool in instructional design . <p> Example . In the " Writing a Persuasive Essay " assignment , each change to a page automatically creates a link on the " Versions " page -- sometimes called the " History " page ( Figure 5 ) . Some wiki software even allows you to compare new and old versions of a page side by side . This allows both student and teacher to chart progress through an assignment , and it provides opportunities for the teacher to intervene when necessary to keep collaboration on track . It also discourages vandalism because pages can easily be restored to an earlier version . <p> Each of the examples provides structure and support to meet students ' information literacy needs while honing collaboration skills . The collaborative context frequently @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ perspectives , increased data points , and the heightened demands of clear communication among group members , among other factors . Wikis can help teachers and students negotiate that added dimension . PRIVACY AND SECURITY <p> Many educators have concerns about privacy and security in relation to wikis and other Web 2.0 applications . A single response to both is to install wiki software on a school 's server and run it inside the firewall . This way , unwanted intruders can neither view nor tamper with students ' work . This requires some technical expertise and , perhaps , a relationship with a school district 's network administrators -- something that is all too rare . There are free wiki sites , however , that can be set up with a password so that only invited guests may visit the site and participate in it . Other sites allow user groups in which only designated registered users gain access to the site . DELETING ONLINE PREDATORS ACT <p> Perhaps a greater obstacle is some districts ' refusal to allow any social software applications into its schools . In fact @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ House of Representatives ( H.R. 5319 , 2006 ) and currently before the U.S. Senate , would deny federal aid to any school library that did not block commercial social networking sites . Although the greatest fears center on MySpace and similar sites , the language of the Deleting Online Predators Act prohibits access to any commercial site that " enables communication among users , " a sledgehammer solution that actually denies students and educators some of the best new learning tools available . It is important that we as information specialists educate our school communities about the far-reaching ramifications of this proposed law . GETTING STARTED <p> If you are able to use wikis in your school setting , one final consideration is to choose the best wiki application for your needs . All of the following wiki sites offer free accounts with registration . Each also offers subscription accounts with more powerful options for the account holder . <p> Seedwiki ( www.seedwiki.com ) and Wikispaces ( www.wikispaces.com ) offer free wikis with WYSIWYG editors that make them the easiest to use . Seedwiki has a slightly more powerful @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wikis in their free packages , so make certain that students do not include their full names or any personal information on the site . <p> PeanutButterWiki ( www.pbwiki.com ) and Schtuff ( www.schtuff.com ) are a bit more complicated to use , because they require some simple formatting . PeanutButterWiki allows for passwording of sites , affording teachers and class members some privacy when needed . For this reason , PeanutButterWiki is popular with school staff who are planning and drafting School business . Schtuff incorporates blogs into their spaces and allows changes in permission rights so that different users have different abilities to access or change documents . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : FIGURE 1 Example of Feature 1 : Ease of Use <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : FIGURE 2 Example of Feature 2 : Spaces for Students to Create Products <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : FIGURE 3 Example of Feature 3 : Ability to Create a Nonlinear Document <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : FIGURE 4 Example of Feature 4 : A Built-In Mechanism for Reflection @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ FIGURE 5 Example of Feature 5 : A Means of Tracking Progress Through an Assignment <p>

@@4019641 Section : Features : Ecuador Race and politics in Ecuador <p> In August 14 , Salvador Quishpe , an indigenous member of the Ecuadorian Congress representing the Pachakutik indigenous political movement , was publicly punished with a cold bath and beaten with the sharp-edged ortiga plant for not voting with the Pachakutik bloc in Congress . The nightly news showed images of Quishpe in his underwear silently looking down while dozens of activists carried out the punishment for all the country to see . His offense was voting with President Lucio Gutirrez 's Sociedad Patriotica Party ( PSP ) for a bureaucratic labor reform that Pachakutik opposed . In addition to the bath and the beating , Quishpe was forced to sign a document accepting that he would be removed from Pachakutik if he goes against the movement again . Manuel Cholanga , an activist with the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador ( CONAIE ) , stated , " we will not permit acts of indiscipline . " <p> While the mainstream media viewed this incident as an example of the indigenous law of customs , a display that simultaneously horrified and fascinated mestizos , clearly much more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ same week that Gutirrez broke off his pact with Pachakutik and asked all of the movement 's ministers and other public officials to step down . Quishpe 's support of the PSP 's position was , at the very least , a public embarrassment to a party that had just been shunned by the president . <p> More important , Quishpe 's action and the punishment itself should be read as events that played out , or " staged , " two important and interrelated tensions that have plagued the national indigenous movement since its inception : the difficulty of maintaining alliances with mestizos that do not ultimately disempower Indians , and the representativeness of indigenous leaders who acquire national power . A History of Tense Alliances <p> The first institutionalized efforts to mobilize indigenous political participation in the twentieth century were the result of the relationship established between urban mestizo socialists and indigenous hacienda workers in the northern Ecuadorian highlands . In the 1930s , the Ecuadorian Federation of Indians ( FEI ) was created under the umbrella of the Communist Party . The FEI focused its efforts on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , they were characterized by limited indigenous leadership and mestizo control over most planning and decision-making . <p> In the 1960s and 1970s , leftist unionism and the Catholic Church played an important role in helping create local and national organizations . The first highland organization , ECUARUNARI , emerged under the tutelage of Catholic activists and the Christian left . From the start , however , indigenous leaders were troubled by conflicts between the Catholics and the leftists and by the perceived paternalism of mestizo leaders from both groups , who were pressuring Indians to take their side in the dispute . Young indigenous activists grew tired of what they called ideological paternalism and decided to exclude mestizos from organization meetings and high-level leadership positions . This marked the creation of the first national-level organization with exclusively indigenous leadership . <p> In the late 1970s and early 1980s , Indians experienced similar difficulties with mestizos in their relationships with labor unions and leftist political parties . Controversies erupted over political platforms that privileged class over ethnic demands and urban concerns over rural issues , and usually relegated Indians , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and electoral campaigns . Even in local elections , Indians were often expected to deliver mass votes to the left but were not themselves placed on the ballot . The irony was not lost on the activists : Indians were struggling for equality but confronted deeply embedded structural and cultural inequalities in that struggle . <p> These experiences help explain the creation in 1986 of CONAIE as an exclusively indigenous organization that sought to create a separate political space to preserve some political autonomy . In its early years , CONAIE organized workshops , conferences and meetings to assess the social and political conditions that specifically affected Indians . CONAIE also sought to develop political strategies . But despite its enormous success in spearheading several national uprisings in the 1990s , the organization remained absent from electoral politics for 10 years . Its leaders considered electoral politics tainted and corrupt , and they distrusted mestizo politicians ability to fulfill their commitments to Indians upon being elected . <p> Efforts to organize with mestizos occurred in the early 1990s , as CONAIE joined with workers ' movements and other social forces @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were different from the earlier ones . They were confined to specific events and , more important , they were based on mutual respect and equal power sharing in decision-making . This change was due in large part to the growing clout of the indigenous social movement . Finally , in 1996 , Pachakutik-Nuevo Pas was created as a political movement to support candidates in elections . While Pachakutik relies primarily on indigenous votes , it has also placed numerous non-indigenous candidates on the ballot . In 1996 , Pachakutik won 80 local elected offices and five congressional seats . The 1998 and 2000 elections resulted in additional electoral gains . As mayors , council representatives and members of Congress , indigenous leaders established political coalitions with mestizo politicians and worked on broad policy issues that affected all racial groups in Ecuador . Throughout these experiences , Pachakutik representatives have insisted on power sharing on an equal basis and underscored the importance of indigenous participation in all Ecuadorian affairs , and not only " indigenous issues . " <p> Once Pachakutik went beyond these initial efforts and created a coalition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ January 2000 , new limitations of indigenous-mestizo alliances became apparent . The temporary government created with a cadre of junior military officials ( including Gutirrez ) and indigenous leadership lasted only a few hours . High-ranking members of the military undermined the temporary government and elevated the former vice president , Gustave Noboa , to the presidency . Indigenous leaders learned that that the military , like other mestizo sectors and parties , was easily divided and did not represent a collective whole . They also saw that others , including the right , had benefited from their labor without incurring any of the cost . The Noboa administration was more right leaning and repressive than the one that Indians had helped remove . Dual Identities <p> The rise of Pachakutik has added complexity to the second important source of tensions within the indigenous movement : representation . The question of who represents Indians in Ecuador is not an easy one . The role of syndicalism and religion in the creation of indigenous organizations has led to the emergence of two other national federations : the Ecuadorian Federation of Evangelical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Indigenous and Black Organizations ( FENOCIN ) . Both have played an important role in organizing mass mobilizations and supporting Pachakutik and its candidates . However , they conflicted with CONAIE when this organization nominated its own leaders to be the movement 's representatives in the Council for the Development of the Nationalities and People of Ecuador ( CODEN PE ) , a publicly funded national committee that overviews indigenous development projects carried out by the Ecuadorian Indigenous People 's Development Project ( PRODEPINE ) with World Bank funding . FENOC and FEINE complained that CONAIE was excluding their leadership and therefore not representing the different indigenous constituents . This bitter struggle was resolved when activists decided to drop institutional affiliations and elect leaders of each ethnic group . This has proved to be a complicated change , because many Indians of Quichua origin , especially , had not previously self-identified or organized as Quichuas but rather as members of local indigenous organizations . <p> The creation of Pachakutik adds another layer to the question of representation . Pachakutik is the political arm of CONAIE , FENOC and FEINE , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have opted not to transform the social movement into a political movement , but rather to have both coexist separately . For example , once CONAIE leaders make the transition to Pachakutik , they no longer remain active in the social organization . At different moments , Pachakutik and CONAIE activists have disagreed about political strategies . However , Pachakutik leaders , in order to remain representative , must be supported by the indigenous social organizations . In exchange for this support , Pachakutik representatives are held accountable to these organizations . They are expected to keep their best interests in mind and to negotiate any differences directly with movement leaders . Rather than individual politicians elected by aggregated votes , they are viewed as the representatives of a collective . For many indigenous activists , this distinguishes indigenous forms of politics and indigenous politicians from nonindigenous ones . <p> The unusual coexistence of separate indigenous social and political movements reflects leaders ' acknowledgement of the fact that indigenous power in Ecuador relies on the potential for mobilization and disruption . Since 1990 , indigenous mobilizations have challenged neoliberal reforms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Elected politicians must now consider the threat of indigenous mobilization before making policy decisions . Unlike many civil rights movements and armed insurgency groups in other countries , the Ecuadorian indigenous movement has no plans to relinquish mobilization politics for electoral politics . Instead , it has adopted a dual political path . This decision can lead to the unusual situation of being in power and in the opposition at the same time . A local example of this is the case of Pedro de la Cruz , president of the Peasant and Indigenous Organization of Cotacachi ( UNORCIC ) and an elected city council member , who occupied the Cotacachi municipality building in 1991 to protest discrimination against indigenous elected officials . His experience reminds us that the need to rely on the power of disruption is evidence of the incomplete inclusion of Indians in the Ecuadorian polity . Like the events following the 2000 coup , it also indicates the reluctance of nonindigenous Ecuadorians to accept increased indigenous power . The Collapse of Power Sharing <p> Fast forward to 2002 . The electoral alliance established between indigenous leaders @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ November of that year . The election was considered an unprecedented political victory for Pachakutik and the indigenous movement as a whole . Finally , Indians were going to participate in a governing coalition . However , the Gutirrez-Pachakutik electoral alliance never became an effective governing alliance . From the outset , it was riddled by internal conflicts that ultimately led to Pachakutik 's departure in August 2003 , barely seven months after Gutirrez 's inauguration . <p> Why did this alliance go sour so quickly ? Clearly , Gutirrez and indigenous political leaders had very different assumptions about how power would be shared . Before his election , Gutirrez and PSP leadership held regular meetings with indigenous leaders from Pachakutik , CONAIE , FEINE and FENOCIN to discuss future public policy . After leading the first round of voting with massive indigenous support , Gutirrez reduced these meetings to a minimum and assumed that occasional communication with Pachakutik representatives was sufficient . He concentrated on establishing links with business elites and the political right in an effort to gain their support in the run-off election and win the trust @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ victory , Pachakutik leaders publicly reminded Gutirrez to incorporate them in his plans . As part of their project for indigenous co-government , they insisted on several ministries for Pachakutik , and the negotiations that followed resulted in three ministries and several intermediate positions in the state bureaucracy for the movement . As far as Gutirrez was concerned , these positions settled the score with Pachakutik . In return , he expected complete loyalty at the executive and congressional levels . <p> Indigenous leaders , however , saw the sharing of administrative positions as only the beginning of joint decision-making and a shared policy platform . Gutirrez and his advisors in the PSP never fulfilled these expectations . As a consequence , Indians were placed in the position of being simultaneously in government and the opposition . Differences among indigenous activists surfaced , with more moderate leaders wanting to give the Gutirrez presidency some time to allow Pachakutik leaders to carry out their mandate in office . Others began to react negatively to what they considered Gutierrez 's undemocratic and unconditioned negotiations with the IMF and his continued approaches to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ long-time nemesis of the indigenous movement . At the executive level , Gutierrez 's agreement to allow PSC Mayor Jaime Nebot to municipalize social security in the port city of Guayaquil was the last straw for indigenous leaders . The president himself lost patience in Congress , where Pachakutik voted against the public labor bill necessary for IMF disbursement of funds . On August 6 , 2003 , he declared the alliance broken . <p> What caused the alliance to fail ? For most experts on Ecuadorian politics , the question is rather , how could it not fail ? The alliance was extremely vulnerable from the beginning . Gutirrez faced the challenge of straddling those forces that support neoliberal reforms , open markets and privatization , and those that vehemently oppose these initiatives , in what is becoming an increasingly polarized society . The conflict is compounded by the fact that the opposition is regionalized and racialized : The PSC 's stronghold is in the racially mixed Ecuadorian coast , while Pachakutik 's support lies in the indigenous highlands and certain lowland areas . <p> On a deeper level @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ politics of indigenous mestizo-alliances and indigenous representation in Ecuador . Gutirrez gained power because of indigenous backing , and his ability to sustain it has also been conditioned , in part , on that support . However , he refused to share power equally with the indigenous movement , and was unwilling to recognize that co-governing included the social movement organizations and not solely the individuals from Pachakutik selected to join his cabinet . Moreover , he would not recognize the dual dimension of indigenous power or learn to work with it . He demanded to know how Indians could be both in the government and in the opposition , and used this apparent contradiction as the basis to ask for their departure . <p> The indigenous position , in contrast , is illustrated by Salvador Quishpe 's punishment . In siding with the mestizo PSP and the mestizo president who had betrayed the movement , he was voting not only against Pachakutik but also against CONAIE , FENOCIN , FEINE and multiple provincial and local activists . From the perspective of his punishers , in making an individual choice @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ legitimacy and opting for the mestizo political path of " each for his own . " His act called up memories of an era in which Indians could not express their own voices , but were represented by non-indigenous liberal thinkers - the " ventriloquists , " as Andres Guerrero has called them . It also alluded to a more recent period of leftist paternalism and unequal power sharing , reproducing the political subordination that indigenous activists had struggled so hard to escape . Punishing Quishpe was a reminder to all that Indians as a political collective must be represented by Indians who uphold that ideal or else be prepared to face the consequences . <p> In Ecuador , where indigenous identity is deeply politicized , political actions have become markers of race . Quishpe 's denial of the collective constituted as much a betrayal as if he had cut off his braid and worn mestizo clothing . The use of a traditional punishment was a reminder to him and to all Ecuadorians not only of his Indianess , but also of the importance of indigenous political ideals at a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ further apart . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) <p> By Amalia Pallares <p>

@@4019741 Providing an effective defense for individuals charged with capital crimes requires a diligent , thorough investigation by a mitigation specialist . However , research suggests that mitigation often plays a small role in the decision for life . Jurors often make sentencing decisions prematurely , basing those decisions on their personal reactions to the defendant ( for example , fear , anger ) , their confusion about the rules of law , and their lack of understanding regarding their role and responsibilities . This article proposes an evidence-based conceptual model of the complicating problems surrounding mitigation practice and a focused discussion about how traditional social work mitigation strategies might be evolved to a set of best practices that more effectively ensure jurors ' careful consideration of mitigation evidence . <p> KEY WORDS : capital mitigation ; death penalty ; forensic social work <p> Social workers are increasingly assuming the role of mitigation specialist and becoming central figures in multidisciplinary capital defense teams ( Guin , Noble , &; Merrill , 2003 ; Schroeder , 2003 ; Stetler , 1999 ) . Those who advocate for social workers ' entry into this emerging field argue that the profession is rooted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and working for social justice ( Roberts &; Brownell , 1999 ) . Advanced clinical skills ( Alfonso &; Baur , 1986 ; Andrews , 1991 ; McCoy , 1999 ) as well as training in systems and ecological theoretical approaches ( Schroeder ) appear to be very useful in uncovering and interpreting the biopsychosocial realities of individuals charged with capital offenses . In fact , the gold standard for mitigation practice is reliance on focused investigation and presentation of evidence about a defendant 's life and character that is sufficient to compel jurors to consider a complexity of personal , social , and ecological issues in deciding attribution of responsibility that mitigate defendants ' legal accountability in capital offenses . This article presents a conceptual framework of problems that surround mitigation practice and argues that better practices can be crafted from a broader systemic approach that is grounded in empirical evidence and practice and goes beyond current parameters of mitigation practice . EMERGENCE OF CONTEMPORARY MITIGATION PRACTICE STANDARDS <p> In the incidence of capital cases , the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized what research has long shown : Jurors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their decisions on their personal reactions to the defendant , their confusion about the rules of law , and their lack of understanding regarding their own role and responsibilities ( Bowers , Sandys , &; Steiner , 1998 ; Sandys , 1995 ) . In an effort to safeguard against jurors ' " unguided emotional responses " when determining punishment for capital defendants , the Court set forth a legal standard that requires defense teams in capital cases to conduct thorough investigations into the defendants ' backgrounds . If the defendant is found guilty , the information gleaned from that investigation must then be presented as mitigating evidence during the penalty phase of the trial ( Furman v. Georgia , 1972 ) . The Court 's monumental decision has led attorneys to seek the aid of social workers to conduct extensive social history investigations on clients who are defendants in capital cases . As noted by Schroeder ( 2003 ) : PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> The life history model relies on traditional practice methods including case history development , multidimensional assessment , record review , mediation , and multidisciplinary teamwork . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ then considered in light of factors empirically linked with criminal behavior . This method provides the legal team with a consistent defense theme that is infused throughout both the evidence and penalty phases of the trial . A mitigation outcome is considered ineffective when the jurors fail to comply with the rules and the roles that are imposed on them as jurors , for example , in making premature decisions . CHALLENGING TRADITIONS <p> The established mitigation strategy that relies on social histories and life-stories survives and thrives as a legal mandate and preferred approach in capital cases despite of a lack of empirical research that demonstrates it is an effective strategy . In fact , available empirical legal research suggests the contrary : Jurors often disregard or misunderstand mitigating circumstances when making sentencing decisions ( Diamond &; Levi , 1996 ; Eisenberg , Garvey , &; Wells , 1996 , 1998 ; Garvey , Johnson , &; Marcus , 2000 ; Luginbuhl &; Howe , 1995 ; McDongall v. Dixon , 1990 ) . The evidence against the potency of presenting defendants on the witness stand to influence sentencing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ specialists that current legal and practice standards are perhaps too unreliable and ineffective to be considered the best possible practice . When practice and empirical evidence from a range of disciplines that hold stake in jurisprudence is considered , problems with currently preferred tactics are more visible , and a more complex set of practice methods and strategies is suggested . Furthermore , the literature suggests certain implications for research and practice , including how mitigation activities are conceptualized and conducted and the effectiveness of the social work mitigation specialist in presenting the information that has been developed . PENALTY-PHASE JUROR DECISION MAKING <p> Professional literature demonstrates that many disciplines have an interest and a stake in the legal process and outcomes related to capital offenses . The existing body of knowledge , however , is at once complex and disjointed , but provides a conceptual framework of the problems that surround mitigation work and potential best practices to evolve effectiveness . From one perspective , cognitive psychologists seek to understand the role that strong emotions play in creating feelings often tied to pre-existing beliefs , which in turn lead @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Werner , 1986 ) . In addition , attribution theorists examine the manner in which people interpret and explain events ( Fincham &; Jaspars , 1980 ) , leading to their assignment of responsibility and blame ( Coates &; Penrod , 1981 ) . This provides a foundation for understanding how and why jurors decide to impose the ultimate punishment . These processes are elaborated by descriptive studies that identify how jurors ' strong emotional reactions to capital defendants often result in a death verdict ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 , Steiner 1999 ; Sundby , 1998 ; Tomes , 1997 ) . At times made prematurely , jury decisions appear to be based largely on personal values and emotional responses that rarely relate to the facts of the case and the potential mitigating influences on criminal behavior . Jurors often make decisions on the basis of their personal reactions to the defendant that are developed during the guilt phase of the trial ( Garvey , 1998 ; Garvey , 2000 ) . Furthermore , there appears to be misunderstanding of the statutory obligations that specifically dictate juror roles @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ full range of emotional responses , from fear , anger , and disgust to sympathy and positive regard ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 ; Garvey , 2000 ; Slobogin , 2003 ; Sundby , 1998 ; Tomes , 1997 ) . Such a complicated mixture of emotions combined with the often-incomprehensible language of capital punishment statutes often results in a recipe for errors in judgment on life and death decisions ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 ; Steiner , 1999 ) . In attempting to understand the interaction of personal values and emotions with decision making , the field of cognitive psychology offers a possible explanation for the complex activities that may take place in the mind of the juror . Taken together , these findings advise social work practitioners who act as mitigation specialists to consider the role personal values and emotional reactions play in jury decision making as well as the effect juror ignorance of process may produce . <p> The literature demonstrates that other factors complicate jury decision making . For example , Luginbuhl and Howe ( 1995 ) found that jurors expressed fear about making @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ about the statues regarding sentencing options . Jurors ' fear about a defendants future dangerousness mixed with erroneous beliefs concerning sentencing limits was found to lead to an erroneous belief that capital defendants may serve a sentence of less than 20 years and may be afforded parole opportunities . Similarly , Eisenberg and colleagues ( 2001 ) and Sandys ( 1995 ) found that fear about parole was cited as an important rationale behind some jurors ' vote for death . As a whole , these findings suggest that part of mitigation process and practice should involve clarifying , in practical terms , the actual consequences of sentencing options and other complex legal considerations surrounding death penalty decisions . Juror Perception <p> Defendant behavior while in custody ( Sundby , 1998 ) and demeanor during the trial ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 ; Tomes , 1997 ) have been demonstrated as additional complicating features of the problems that surround death penalty decisions and that often give rise to anger among jurors . In fact , these two factors were shown to receive jurors ' greatest consideration during deliberations . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or uninterested in the trial proceedings , and their anger often translated into a belief that the defendant lacked remorse . These perceptions that defendants lack remorse invoked anger , often mixed with disgust , regarding aggravating circumstances and were associated with death verdicts , regardless of the mitigating evidence produced during the penalty phase ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 ) . A remorseful defendant , who appears to take responsibility for his or her actions , evokes juror sympathy and support ( Tomes ) . Remorse appears to work in the defendant 's favor in two ways . First , jurors view defendants ' apparent remorse as being the correct moral reaction to the crime . Second , perceived remorse on the part of a defendant is viewed as evidence that the defendant will not be dangerous in the future ( Eisenberg et al. , 1998 ) . Sundby hypothesized that some jurors determine remorse by the manner in which the case is presented to them , rather than the actual remorse shown by the defendant in the courtroom . Nonetheless , remorse is a significant issue to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ together , evidence from these studies cautions those who act as mitigation specialists to help defense teams find ways to frame evidence and highlight reported and observable behavior in ways that suggest and underscore a defendant 's remorse . Statutory Disregard or Confusion <p> Luginbuhl and Howe ( 1995 ) , Tiersma ( 1995 ) , Ritter ( 2004 ) , and Wiener and colleagues ( 2004 ) argued that jurors do not understand mitigation because the instructions they receive are presented in legal language that is difficult for laypeople to understand . When jurors can not rely on the guiding legal principles , they often fall back on prior or folk knowledge as a basis for decision making ( Steiner , 1999 ; Wiener et al . ) . <p> Furthermore , capital jurors report frequent confusion over the issues of aggravating and mitigating circumstances and the level of agreement needed for each . Such confusion often results in a death verdict ( Eisenberg Wells , 1993 ; Wiener et al. , 2004 ) . When Garvey ( 1998 ) queried jurors about what , according to statute , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reported that especially brutal murders , child victims , future dangerousness , and lack of remorse were the most salient aggravating circumstances . The defendant 's prior criminal record and history of alcohol or drug abuse were lesser , yet pertinent , aggravating circumstances . <p> The legally required level of agreement about aggravating circumstances has been found to be especially confusing to jurors when weighing them in the punishment phase of a trial . Legal scholars have found that jurors incorrectly believed aggravating factors did not have to be proven beyond a reasonable doubt ( Eisenberg &; Wells , 1993 ) , and they mistakenly believed anything could be considered aggravating , even evidence not put forth in the state 's argument ( Luginbuhl &; Howe , 1995 ) . Furthermore , many jurors believed that the death penalty was absolutely required when crimes were considered heinous ( Eisenberg et al. , 1996 ; Garvey , 2000 ; Garvey et al. , 2000 ; Sandys , 1995 ) . <p> Jurors ' confusion about aggravating circumstances is also evident in research on the effect of mitigating evidence . Jurors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , including residual doubt about the defendant 's guilt , mental retardation , and youthfulness of the defendant at the time of the crime , circumstances out of the defendant 's control , and circumstances that diminish the defendant 's responsibility for the crime ( for example , multiple defendants ) . Factors receiving less consideration , yet still considered to be mitigating , include victims with criminal histories and defendants with histories of mental illness , child abuse , poverty , and time spent in state institutions ( Garvey , 1998 ) . Many jurors incorrectly believe mitigating factors must rise to the reasonable doubt burden of proof when in fact mitigating factors need only outweigh the state 's presented aggravating circumstances ( Luginbuhl &; Howe , 1995 ) . Jurors also mistakenly assume mitigating circumstances require the jury 's unanimous vote when in fact , only one juror need consider a life circumstance to be mitigating ( Garvey , 2000 ; Luginbuhl &; Howe ) . <p> In theory , legal process in capital cases is expected to proceed in a stepwise fashion . In practice , jurors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ intent of prescribed process and significantly influence juror decision making . For example , the law requires jurors to withhold consideration of punishment during the guilt phase and make this decision after aggravating and mitigating circumstances are presented during the penalty phase of the trial ( Furman v. Georgia , 1972 ) . Yet , nearly one-half of jurors in one study ( Bowers et al. , 1998 ) , and 70 percent of jurors in another ( Sandys , 1995 ) indicated they had decided on punishment during the guilt phase of the trial before aggravating and mitigating circumstances were presented . Of those jurors who decided the punishment during the guilt portion of the trial , more than half of them maintained that decision throughout the trial . Jurors who reported reaching early decisions about punishment did so because of their predisposition about crime , punishment , the death penalty , and experiences during the guilt phase . Surprisingly , on hearing the state 's evidence , a significant number of jurors decided that the death penalty was not only acceptable punishment for first-degree murder , but also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ advise mitigation practices that ensure jurors ' thorough understanding of the legal issues that surround individual cases and options of legal response and , as important , trial strategies that remind jurors over and over again of their specific responsibilities associated with each step of the judicial process . Abdication of Responsibility <p> Jurors who do not understand what is legally expected of them in capital trials are more likely to abdicate the responsibility for their decisions to others . When jurors fail to maintain a sense of responsibility for deciding verdicts and sentences , they are also less likely to critically consider the influence of mitigating circumstances on criminal behavior . Jurors tend to abdicate independent responsibility in a number of ways . For example , it is the sole responsibility of each juror to independently vote for life , life without parole , or death . Empirical evidence suggests however , that some capital jurors who vote for the death penalty are likely to rationalize a death vote by abdicating responsibility for that decision to the trial judge , the community , other jurors , the law , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Hoffman , 1995 ; Sherman , 1995 ) . <p> Abdicating independent responsibility to the judge occurs more frequently among premature decision makers ( Eisenberg et al. , 1996 ) , who believe that their verdict is merely a recommendation ( Hoffman , 1995 ; Sherman , 1995 ) . Sherman also argued that when jurors consider the judge as the final decision maker , they feel less responsibility for the verdict . Moreover , jurors who believe that they are merely representatives of the greater community feel less responsible for their decisions about punishment . Yet , they may paradoxically see themselves as only one vote and look to the voting behavior of their fellow jurors as a means of relinquishing personal responsibility . <p> There are a number of other risky situations when jurors abdicate their independent responsibility in decision making that should concern practitioners and legal advocates . One risk is that jurors may rely on the legal system to avoid taking personal responsibility for their decision . For example , jurors who falsely believe that the law requires a verdict of death for certain types of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1995 ) frequently feel that the responsibility for a death sentence belongs to the legal system . In addition , beliefs about how the judicial system 's appeal process operates have also been found to influence jurors ' the level of personal responsibility . The appeals process is touted as a lengthy , time-consuming procedure , and jurors who do not think executions are actually carried out on a regular basis are less likely to accept responsibility for the verdict . Finally , research indicates that two critical factors appear to be associated with the ease with which a juror abdicates responsibility for his or her decision . These are when the juror views the crime as being especially brutal or premeditated ( Sherman ) . Because crimes that lead to capital charges often dehumanize defendants proportionately to the crimes against their victims , it is especially important that social workers serving as mitigation specialists present evidence with some finesse that humanizes defendants and clearly informs jurors about the scope of consequences that will arise from their decision . <p> In summary , it is clear that life and death @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the actual facts of the case , the legal responsibilities of the jury , and the weight of the mitigating evidence that is presented . The literature clearly delineates the problem areas that can guide the interventions by social work practitioners involved in mitigation work and suggests important areas for forensic social work education and training . A MODEL TO INFORM PRACTICE <p> When practice and empirical evidence is considered , the problems that surround juror decision making and mitigation practice are more complex than implied by the legal remedy ( Furman v , Georgia , 1972 ) that requires evidentiary presentation of a thorough investigation of a defendant 's background . Based on issues identified in a broad body of literature , the conceptual problem model shown in Figure 1 demonstrates the complicating feature of the problems that surround death penalty decisions . During preparation for trial , social workers must remain cognizant of how jurors ' personal values and emotions will likely affect their decision making . Research and Practice Implications <p> The model delineates the areas that social work mitigation specialists are advised to consider when devising @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . It is clear that practice and empirical evidence on juror decision making suggests certain practical implications for social work mitigation specialists and legal professionals , allowing us to expand on traditional methods of inquiry and investigation and develop ways to use social work skills and advanced professional competencies to counter the effects of juror emotion , confusion , and abdication of roles and responsibilities . By broadening the focus of intervention beyond a psychosocial investigation of mitigating factors in a defendant 's background , social workers create possibilities for intervening at multiple points in the legal system and process . A more systems-oriented approach requires social workers who act as mitigation specialists to take a more proactive role in the entire defense process . Going beyond the interpersonal work required to develop mitigating evidence to using education and advocacy strategies that provide richer , more fruitful consultancy to attorneys and the courts . A multidimensional , systems-oriented approach should help social work mitigation specialists apply the practice and empirical evidence discussed earlier to carve out a larger role in capital cases and improve both the mitigation investigation and work @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ multiple points in the system and in the legal process promises better prospects for creating a link among the client , the defense team , and the jury . In the end . a larger role that applies practice and empirical evidence to social work and legal processes can help protect against the possibility that the evidence-based factors identified in our model will prevent jurors from concentrating on the mitigating circumstances detailed in the defendant 's life story . Intervening in the System <p> Intervening with Defense Attorneys . To ensure that defense strategies that neutralize factors negatively influencing juror decision making , we advise social workers to use relationship-building strategies that encourage a larger advisory role . Educating attorneys about the full range of social work skills and qualifications facilitates a more maximal social work role in the defense process . Informing attorneys about the risks outlined in professional literature and depicted in our model helps them plan trial strategies that may offset undesired decision-making factors and processes . Likewise , helping defense attorneys to develop improved relationship-building and interviewing skills not only enhances their ability to connect with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but also results in thoughtful answers during voir dire on potentially life-threatening issues . This personal connection , and the resultant information gleaned from potential jurors , could assist the defense team in selecting individuals who will remain cognizant of the impact that their emotions have on their ability to make decisions . Jurors relate to the best communicator , and social workers can assist attorneys in learning how to communicate to the laypeople who will eventually become jurors ( Caldwell , Perrin , &; Frost , 2002 ) . <p> Intervening with the Team . Through relationship building and education strategies , social workers can increase their role as a vital link between the defendant and members of the defense team ( Schroeder , 2003 ) . Using basic and advanced interpersonal skills , social workers acting as mitigation specialists can expand their role by facilitating communication and collaboration and helping counsel recognize the effects of the existing power differential among themselves , the defendant , and jurors ( Alfonso &; Baur , 1986 ) . Affecting inherent power differentials , social workers must model advocacy skills to help @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ clarification as well as assist in creating an atmosphere that promotes supportive development of relationships . It is vital that judges provide clear instructions , and if they do not , jurors must be empowered to keep asking questions until they fully understand their obligations under the law . Attorneys must also advocate for the defendant , and this commitment must be clear to the defendant so he or she will cooperate with the attorney and the mitigation specialists during the trial . Finally , social workers must model advocacy skills to help attorneys identify with and advocate for changes in the legal system that must be made to deal with problems such as juror confusion and misunderstanding . The practitioner 's role as advocate should extend to state legislatures where court procedures regarding jury instructions , jury questioning of the judge and witnesses , and juror note taking must be addressed by statute . Intervening with the Jury <p> Selecting the jury . Like their highly trained forensic psychologist counterparts who have been working with attorneys to select juries for many years ( Cutler , 1990 ; Fischoff , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ - as a group - have been long employed to complete legally mandated defendant background investigations are increasingly being used by public defenders . Consequently , a growing number of social workers will undoubtedly find themselves in the position of assisting defense attorneys in jury selection . Social workers can most effectively intervene in this point of the legal system by applying best practices in assessment and in questionnaire development to the jury selection process to identify and screen out jury candidates who will be most likely to demonstrate potential for severe or erroneous decision making identified in the literature and our proposed model . For example , a large body of research suggests that early decision makers are more likely to vote for death , largely because they have not considered mitigating factors . So , it is vitally important to identify people with these tendencies during voir dire . <p> Using best research practices , survey questions should be structured in ways to identify jurors who have authority and compliance issues . These qualities can be determined by asking questions about issues not related specifically to the law @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ readily and comfortably , such as medication compliance , paying taxes , and dealing with coworkers or neighborhood associations . To be sure , many potential jurors with compliance issues will be deemed appropriate ( death qualified ) for service . Therefore , it is vital for the defense team to identify the most " dangerous " of that group using peremptory challenges to exclude them from service . Being close to the jury selection process also helps mitigation specialists when developing the penalty phase testimony of experts , family , and friends . Knowing the jurors ' attitudes , values , and personal life experiences provides details that can be used to personalize the penalty phase testimony . <p> Educating the jury . Social work mitigation practitioners should develop educational interventions for the defense team to use to improve juror understanding of confusing issues , such as aggravating and mitigating circumstances . Clear language and rephrasing techniques should be used to guarantee that each juror has a clear understanding of and can explain , in his or her own words , what constitutes mitigating and aggravating circumstances . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ behavior , and photographs are commonly used to help jurors come to know the defendant during the penalty phase ( Guin &; Merrill , 2000 ) . Ogloff 's ( " Jurors Ca n't Understand , " 1998 ) preliminary use of decision trees to help jurors understand substantive instructions in making their decisions offers promise and could prove useful in assisting jurors in using mitigating evidence in their decision making in capital trials . Visual reinforcement of the rules and their application helps jurors use all of the information presented to them in an objective manner and promotes the integration of mitigating evidence into their overall deliberations . Decision trees can provide structure and organization to illustrate , explain , and simplify the penalty phase evidence and issues guiding jurors ' decisions with clarity that words alone can not accomplish . <p> Furthermore , by sharing with the defense team knowledge of human behavior , social workers can help the team predict and develop trial strategies that are likely to minimize or neutralize jurors ' responses to complicated and often gruesome information about violent criminality and victimization . In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ discuss troublesome issues that often result in confusion and misunderstanding . For example , identification and recruitment of a correctional expert to testify about the realities of sentencing ( life without the benefit of parole ) and prison security issues during the penalty phase of the trial should alleviate juror confusion , frustration , and the desire " to know what the punishment would actually be if they did not impose a death sentence " ( Bowers &; Steiner , 1999 , p. 605 ) . <p> Intervening with Defendant Clients . Work with the defendant must include efforts to address negative pretrial demeanor and trial behavior that negatively affect juror 's decisions . Remorse and responsibility are exceptionally difficult issues for many defendants to demonstrate , particularly defendants who suffer from mental illness or retardation and those who maintain their innocence . Helping clients understand the effects of their verbal and nonverbal communication styles and the defendant 's active involvement in improving on those elements may increase the likelihood that he or she might build a more positive relationship with jurors . Bem 's ( 1978 ) pioneering research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ two-thirds of the emotional meaning of a message . It is vitally important that social workers help defendants understand what their nonverbal behavior communicates to jurors and that those jurors may ascribe meaning to each and every gesture or expression both intentional and unintentional . <p> Often defendants admit to having some involvement in the crime for which they are being tried . It is important that the client admit being present or partially responsible for the outcome of the incident , if this is consistent with the legal strategy . Clients must understand the gravity of their behavior and the feelings of loss that the victim 's loved ones are experiencing . In this way , jurors can see that although the client maintains that he or she did not kill the victim , he or she admits to playing some role in the victim 's demise . Honest and sincere client reaction to the aggravating circumstances must reflect feelings of sadness , regret , remorse , and responsibility . <p> Attorneys often have difficulty working with clients to develop these feelings so they can be appropriately displayed on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dealt with very early in the investigation and relationship-building process . Investigating the clients feelings regarding the crime may help elicit genuine responses that can be developed through journaling , artwork , and frank discussion later taken into the courtroom to mitigate the effects of the aggravating circumstances . <p> The defendants themselves often do not understand how they can participate in their own defense . Social workers who have developed a solid relationship with their client can assist him or her in understanding what he or she can do to affect the sentencing outcome . Some will have little problem with this ; however , many capital defendants are poorly educated , have borderline intelligence , or are mentally retarded or mentally ill . They will not make a positive impression in the courtroom without a great deal of education on the courtroom setting and roles and responsibilities of various court personnel , followed by practice or role playing . Role playing is especially helpful for the undereducated or disabled client to assist him or her in speaking clearly with proper tone and rate . Public speaking skills will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ if the judge speaks directly to the defendant . Proper grammar and syntax will give the client confidence and work to humanize him or her . <p> Later , during voir dire , if the defendant has the opportunity to speak before the jury selection pool , proper elocution gives potential jurors the opportunity to develop a larger construct of who this individual is . A person without a voice remains a mystery . A person charged with a heinous killing who is not allowed a voice becomes a silent beast to jurors as the evidence is put forth during the trial . Judgments are often made about people based on their physical appearance and verbal communication skills . The social worker is well equipped to assist difficult clients in presenting themselves in a manner that could be helpful to their defense . CONCLUSION <p> Because of the advocacy and social justice traditions of the profession as well as their specialized education , training , and experience , social workers are particularly well suited to work as part of a defense team in capital cases . Increasingly , social workers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ investigations , convey relevant information to officers of the court , and provide evidentiary presentations of death penalty defendants ' background to juries . In this respect , social workers have gained entry into an area of practice that can be significantly improved by expanding their role to include interventions at multiple points in the legal system and process . <p> However , most social workers are added to defense teams composed of public defenders representing indigent clients . Consequently , there is a risk that social workers ' role will be restricted because of misconceptions about the full range of their potential as defense team members . In contrast to higher paid psychologist - often in private practice - who act as trial and jury selection specialists , social workers may suffer the social bias and prejudice about competency and range of skill that comes from being viewed as public servants . We advise social workers to use their professional skills to gain the standing - enjoyed by too few in our profession - that is necessary to engage fully in mitigation practice that applies a systems approach and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ delineates how juror emotion , confusion and disregard , and abdication of responsibility can lead juries to overlook mitigation evidence in capital trials . We propose a greater role for social workers as mitigation specialists in death penalty cases by using a systems approach that is informed by practice and empirical evidence to intervene at multiple points in the legal system and process . To accomplish this aim , social workers must be cognizant of the factors that influence juror decision making and the skills required to intervene to ensure a just legal process . A critical requirement of best practice in this arena is that social workers remain up to date on current legal research on juror decision making in capital trials , use traditional social work methods most effectively , and develop new competencies to meet the needs of the defense team , the client , and society . <p> Armed with an intellectual understanding of the value of mitigating circumstances , the practitioner must build relationships with the client and the clients friends and family to dig deeply into the recesses of : spoken and recorded history @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ court process . Strong relationships must be built among defense team members and everyone involved in the client 's life . These relationships may place the client at greater ease , improving his or her demeanor with resultant interactions witnessed by jurors working to humanize the defendant . By developing the conceptual problem model depicting the causal factors underlying the ineffectiveness of mitigation evidence in capital trials , it is hoped that social workers serving as mitigation specialists begin to link traditional social work skills to these points of intervention . From the initial meeting with the client until the last appeal is denied in a capital case , social workers must use their skills to educate , advocate , and build important relationships to ensure that the critical human issues that propel a person into criminality are made very clear throughout each phase of the trial This may include the use of pictures , graphics , compelling expert testimony , and life history information that demands the undivided attention of jurors so they will retain key facts and carefully consider the issues . <p> The problem conceptual model must @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ formalized and tested using multivariate analysis to determine the effectiveness of mitigation when the issues identified in this article are actively addressed . Effective interventions will create opportunities for classroom instruction , field placement , and interdisciplinary collaboration among social work and law students , as well as much needed postgraduate and continuing education for the social work mitigation specialists and attorneys who currently fight for just decisions in capital trials . <p> Remorse is a significant issue to consider when communicating mitigating influences to a jury . <p> Social work mitigation practitioners should develop educational interventions for the defense team to use to improve juror understanding of aggravating and mitigating circumstances . <p> Original manuscript received September 9 , 2002 <p> Final revision received July 29 , 2004 <p> Accepted August 15 , 2005 <p> c 2006 National Association of Social Workers <p> DIAGRAM : Figure 1 : Factors Influencing Sentencing Decisions Problem Conceptualization <p>

@@4019841 The purpose of the study is to explore the patterns of personal and academic stressors reported by Korean college students . The survey items included types of stress factors in academic and personal stressors and demographic variables ( i.e. , gender and school year ) . The participants were asked to provide the academic and personal stressors as the first and the second stressors . The responses were qualitatively analyzed using the method provided in the previous studies exploring college students ' stressors ( Archer &; Lamnin , 1985 ; Murphy &; Archer , 1996 ) . Discussion and implication on the results of the present study are provided . <p> Studies on college students ' stress have been on ( 1 ) stress and coping behaviors ( Kim , Won , Liu , Liu , &; Kitanishi , 1997 ; Naquin &; Gilbert , 1996 ) , ( 2 ) the stress in relation to health ( Roth , Wiebe , Fillingim , &; Shay , 1989 ; Ryan &; Twibell , 2000 ) , ( 3 ) the outcomes of stress management and stress reduction program ( Hirokawa , Yagi , &; Miyata , 2002 ; Lumley @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Mangold ; 2003 ) . <p> Although investigating specific areas relating to college students ' stress such as coping behaviors , stress in relation to health , and stress management is useful , a more holistic assessment needs to be adopted to understand college students ' patterns of stressors in relation to personal and academic tasks that college students deal with . One way to meaningfully examine the pat terns of stressors is to assess the personal and academic stressors qualitatively ( Archer &; Lamnin , 1985 ; Murphy &; Archer , 1996 ) . A qualitative measure in college student stress research is widely used to increase the authenticity of the participants ' responses ( Archer &; Lamnin , 1985 ; Cahir &; Morris , 1991 ; Carney , Peterson , &; Moberg , 1990 ; Murphy &; Archer , 1996 ) . <p> The purpose of this study is to investigate the patterns of personal and academic stressors reported by Korean college students . As cultural values are influenced by historically and politically determined experiences ( Markus &; Kitayama , 1991 ) , it is expected that Korean @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that are shaped by cultural norms and societal expectations ( Kang , Youn , &; Stilwell , 2004 ) . In this regard , exploring the patterns of stressors among Korean college students would provide a meaningful understanding of personal and academic tasks that might be patterned by cultural norms and expectations . Method <p> Participants and Procedure <p> The sample was drawn from a large regional university in Korea ( N=146 , male=54 , female=92 ) . Of 146 participants , 71 were enrolled as 3rd or 4th year students and 75 were enrolled as 1st or 2nd year students , and they were coded as senior and junior students in this study . The surveys were distributed through lower level introductory classes in the college of education . Participants were asked to write the two most frequent personal and academic stressors ( i.e. , the first stressor and the second stressor ) in personal and academic areas . The survey took about ten minutes to complete . <p> Survey <p> The survey consisted of two demographic questions on gender and the school year . The survey instrument consisted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stressors ) in personal and academic stressors , respectively . <p> Analysis <p> The personal and academic stressors described by participants were examined to produce categories . The responses were categorized based on the categorization methods developed by other researchers ( Archer &; Lamnin , 1985 ; Murphy &; Archer , 1996 ) . The members of the research team who were trained and familiar with the categorization method created the categories and reached agreement on the categories produced . Excluding the categories " other " and " no response " , the responses were coded into 14 personal and 16 academic stressor categories . The coded data were perused by the researchers of the present study to enhance the accuracy of the responses in personal and academic stressors . The frequencies in percentages of the combined stressor responses were computed for academic and personal stressors . Results <p> The percentages of frequently reported stressors were computed in both personal and academic stressors . The categories are presented in the order of frequently reported stressors . In the personal stressors , the most frequently reported stressor ( i.e. , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which contained 18.24% of personal stressors reported by participants . The second category , " finance " included 17.91% of personal stressors . The third category , " interpersonal relationships " accounted for 11.15% of the personal stressors . The fourth category , " personal appearance " contained 7.77% of the personal stressors . The fifth category , " intimate relationship " included 7.43% of the personal stressors reported . The sixth category , " personal achievement and goal setting " accounted for 5.41% of the personal stressors . The seventh category , " general concerns about academic issues " accounted for 4.39% of the personal stressors reported . The eighth category , " family issues and parental conflicts " included 4.05% of the personal stressors . The ninth category , " approaching/meeting other students " accounted for 3.04% of the personal stressors . The three categories , " not enough free time " , " health " , and " **29;111;TOOLONG by peers and senior students " co-ranked as the tenth categories and accounted for 2.03% of the personal stressors , respectively . The eleventh category , " serving @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The twelfth category , " fatigue and lack of sleep " accounted for 1.35% of the personal stressors . Other responses reported as personal stressors are grouped and presented together . <p> In the academic stressors , the most frequently reported stressor ( i.e. , the first category ) was , " grades and competition " which accounted for 18.75% of stressors reported by participants . The second category , " career and future success " accounted for 13.89% of academic stressors . The third category , " too many demands and meeting deadlines , " contained 10.76% of academic stressors . The fourth category , " interpersonal issues in school " accounted for 9.03% of the academic stressors . The fifth category , " issues related to taking classes and selecting majors " accounted for 6.60% of the academic stressors . The sixth category , " physical environment in school " accounted for 5.21% of the academic stressors . The seventh category , " studying " , showed 4.86% of the academic stressors reported . The eighth category " professors and learning environment in class , " accounted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ papers and project-based reports " and " tests and finals " co-ranked as the ninth categories and accounted for 3.82% of the academic stressors , respectively . The tenth category , " educational and school policies/systems in higher education " accounted for 3.13% of the academic stressors . The categories , " distance to school " and " procrastination " co-ranked as the eleventh categories and accounted for 2.43% of the academic stressors . The twelfth category , " general adjustment " showed 1.39% of the academic stressors . The thirteenth and the fourteenth categories were " educational costs " and " presentation " , which accounted for 1.39% of academic stressors , respectively . Other responses reported as academic stressors are grouped and presented together . The percentages of the personal and academic stressors are presented in the order of frequency in Table 1 and Table 2 . Discussion <p> The two most frequently reported stressors in personal and academic dimensions , respectively , were " finance " and " future career plan , " ( personal stressors ) and " grades and competition " and " being equipped @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . In interpreting these results , considering a review of educational politics and history in Korea might be useful . For example , Seth ( 2000 ) noted that Korean students might be concerned about their grades to increase the opportunity for the future employment and the social status . The results on frequently reported stressors also seem to indicate that Korean college students are aware of the uncertain aspect of their future and career , which seems to indicate that their beliefs and attitudes about career-seeking might be influenced by recent cataclysmic events such as national financial crisis ( Kang et al. , 2004 ; Kwon et al. , 2003 ) . During the national financial crisis , high unemployment rate and company bankruptcies impacted many Korean families . Many college students are also reported to have experienced emotional distress related to this economic crisis in Korea . ( Kwon , Reuter , Lee , Koh , &; Ok , 2003 ; Lee , Koh , &; Kwon , 2000 ; Park , 1998 ) . Therefore , the high frequencies reported as personal stressors in future and career @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ success seem to indicate that college students are conscious about uncertain aspect of their future . <p> Although there are similar stressor types to those found in the previous studies ( Archer &; Lamnin , 1985 ; Murphy &; Archer , 1996 ) , the unique stressor types indicative of cultural norms and societal expectations were also found . For example , the stressor , " mandatory serving in military , " appeared exclusively among male students as one of the personal stressors . The stressor , " pressure from peer and/or senior students , " also appeared as one of the personal stressors , which might be indicative of cultural and societal expectations of hierarchical relationships prioritizing seniority . It is also noteworthy that participants frequently reported , " interpersonal issues in school " as an academic stressor rather than a personal stressor . This finding may be due to the cultural manifestation of school as a social and academic place . That is , Korean college students might view their school as a place where they not only pursue academic attainment but also interact with significant group members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and professors ) in culturally prescribed and meaningful ways ( Kang , 2004 ) . Findings should be interpreted with the consideration of the political system and historical influence in Korea ( Yamashita et al. , 1999 ; Kang et al. , 2004 ) . Directions/Implications <p> The present study explored the patterns of stressors expressed by Korean college students . The study revealed that stressors among college students in a particular culture come from having to face not only developmental tasks but also societal trends ( e.g. , national financial crisis ) and cultural norms . In this regard , college students ' stressors need to be continuously assessed and identified descriptively and qualitatively to explore the college students ' stressor patterns in relation to societal trends and cultural norms . Future studies should explore the relationships between the variables and the stressors reported by participants . The sample of the present study predominantly consisted of female students . Future study should extend with roughly equivalent gender ratio so that the generalization can be assessed fairly . In order to understand the dynamic aspects among the stressor types @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stressor types ( e.g. , causal relations among the stressor types ) . <p> Author Note <p> Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to dhlee@ufl.edu or skang0@uky.edu . Table 1 . Personal Stressors Listed as First or Second Response Stressor PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 2 . Academic Stressors Listed as First or Second Response Stressor PREFORMATTED TABLE <p>

@@4019941 The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ( NCLB ) is without peer in the annals of federal education legislation . Prior to the passage of NCLB , no law had ever inserted the U.S. Department of Education directly into the sacrosanct areas of state and local responsibility for ensuring student achievement , using research-validated practices , and dictating the qualifications of our nation 's teachers . Teacher quality and the " highly qualified " standard is at the forefront of the NCLB promise ( some would say " threat " ) that all students will learn more than they are currently learning ; if not , schools and teachers will be held accountable for their failure . As a means to increase student achievement and hold teachers more accountable , NCLB applies pressure to every sector of the education community . Nowhere has that pressure been felt more than in special education programs for students with high incidence disabilities in rural areas where one-third of the nation 's school districts are located . <p> The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the current status of the federal requirements for highly qualified special education @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . As adopted in NCLB and the newly reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act ( IDEA 04 ) , we analyze the impact of the highly qualified standard on recruitment and preparation of special education teachers in rural areas and address alternative approaches for meeting federal requirements . The Federal View of a Highly Qualified Special Education Teacher <p> Signed into law in 2001 , NCLB was very explicit about what constitutes a " highly qualified " elementary or secondary teacher . An individual is considered highly qualified if he or she has obtained full state certification/licensure , or successfully passed a state 's teacher licensing examination . A highly qualified teacher is certified or licensed to teach in a given state and must not have had state requirements waived on an emergency , temporary , or provisional basis . New elementary teachers must hold a bachelor 's degree and demonstrate subject knowledge and teaching skills in basic elementary school curriculum , including but not limited to , reading , writing and mathematics . Subject matter competency and teaching skills must be measured by " a rigorous state test @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a bachelors degree and demonstrate a high level of competency in the academic subjects they teach . Subject matter competence must be measured by " a rigorous state subject matter test , " or by completing an undergraduate major in the subject area , a graduate degree , or by completing coursework equivalent to an undergraduate academic major . <p> Effective 2002-2003 , the law required that all new Title I teachers must have met the above requirements . Additionally , a state 's Title I plan must include measurable objectives to ensure that all teachers providing instruction in " core subjects " ( such as English , math , science , social studies , foreign languages , or art ) meet the highly qualified definition by the end of the 2005-2006 school year . Qualifications for veteran teachers were also specified in statute . Veteran teachers must hold at least a bachelors ' degree and be held to the same standard as new elementary , middle , and secondary teachers . They may , however , demonstrate their competence in the teaching of academic subjects based on " a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . ( For more information on HOUSSE criteria , See U.S. Department of Education 2004 , The Secretary 's Third Annual Report on Teacher Quality . ) <p> Although explicit regarding the expectations for elementary and secondary teachers , NCLB requirements to be a " highly qualified " special education teacher were nowhere to be found . In fact , it was n't until December of 2002 that the Department of Education promulgated federal regulations that were intended to clarify that the standard really does apply to all teachers , including special educators ( 34 CFR Part 200 , December 2 , 2002 ) . As per the federal rule , any special education teacher who directly instructs students on core academic subjects must meet the highly qualified standard . However , the rule further stipulated that any special educator who is not directly instructing students with disabilities in core academic subjects , or who is only providing consultation to teachers who are highly qualified , did not have to meet the same subject-matter competency requirements under NCLB . In other words , some special education teachers would be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , regardless of whether they held full state certification/licensure or had successfully passed a state 's teacher licensing examination . Schools received additional policy guidance from the Department of Education on special education teachers and the highly qualified standard in September 2003 . This policy stated that any special education teacher who is providing instruction in core academic subjects must be highly qualified in each subject , regardless of the instructional setting . <p> In November 2004 , Congress passed H.R. 1350 , the Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act ( herein referred to as IDEA 04 ) . A major purpose in amending IDEA 97 was to align current law with the accountability provisions in NCLB , including what it means to be a highly qualified special education teacher . IDEA 04 states that the term " highly qualified " has the same meaning as applied to elementary , middle , and secondary teachers in NCLB ( H.R. 1350 Section 602 10AJ ) . This means that new and veteran special education teachers at the elementary level must have subject knowledge and teaching skills in reading , writing , mathematics @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ New and veteran special education teachers at the middle and secondary level must have subject knowledge and teaching skills in academic subjects in which the teacher has responsibility for instruction ( teacher of record ) . <p> Specifically , IDEA 04 requires that special education teachers must hold a bachelors degree and " . obtain full State certification as a special education teacher ( including certification obtained through alternative routes to certification ) or passed the State special education teacher licensing examination . " ( H.R. 1350 Section 602 10Bi ) . As is true with elementary and secondary teachers , highly qualified special education teachers must not have had their certification or licensure requirements waived on an emergency , temporary , or provisional basis . <p> In addition to the above requirements , special education teachers who are teaching core academic subjects " exclusively to children who are assessed against alternate achievement standards " must meet the same requirements as highly qualified elementary teachers unless the instruction is " above the elementary level . " In that case , the special education teacher must have subject matter knowledge appropriate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ veteran special education teachers who teach two or more subjects at the middle or secondary level must also meet the applicable requirements in NCLB . New special education teachers who teach multiple subjects must be highly qualified in one subject area ( mathematics , arts , or science ) and will have two years from the date of employment to demonstrate competence in the additional core academic subjects they teach by passing a state 's HOUSSE or meeting NCLB content requirements . Veteran special education teachers at the middle or secondary level who teach multiple subjects must also demonstrate competence in all core academic subjects they teach by passing a state 's HOUSSE or meeting NCLB content requirements . However , these teachers are not provided a two-year grace period to demonstrate competence in the core academic subjects they teach . <p> Finally , there is no statutory language in IDEA 04 regarding special education teachers who only provide consultative services to a highly qualified teacher . However , report language for H.R. 1350 clarifies it is the intent of Congress that special education teachers in consultative roles be considered @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ under Section 602 . Applying the Highly Qualified Standard to Rural Special Education Teachers in High Incidence Areas <p> Several factors must be considered in examining the impact of the highly qualified standard for rural special education teachers working in high incidence areas . First and foremost is the need to ensure that all students with a disability in rural schools have access to special education teachers who are able to meet their unique instructional needs as required by IDEA . On this point , there is considerable disagreement among educators as to whether NCLB 's highly qualified standard is synonymous with the concept of " high quality . " As stated by Brownell , Sindelar , Bishop , Langley , and Seo ( 2002 ) , the NCLB emphasis for general educators is on a thorough knowledge of the content being taught and the verbal ability to deliver that content . It is not on pedagogy . The need to shift from pedagogy to content knowledge and verbal ability is a central theme in the first annual Secretary of Education 's Report on Teacher Quality ( U.S. Department of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pedagogically-oriented courses and student teaching experiences within colleges of education are not requisites for becoming an effective teacher . This position is reinforced in the Title II requirements of the Higher Education Act ( HEA ) . Title II requires that states must have in place requirements for content-specific bachelor 's degrees and assessments that measure prospective teacher 's academic content knowledge . In the third annual report on teacher quality , the Secretary of Education reiterates that " overall , state progress in raising standards for prospective teachers is mixed , and significant barriers still exist for teachers pursuing traditional routes to certification and licensure . " ( U.S. Department of Education , 2004 ) . <p> The disproportionate emphasis on content knowledge as espoused within NCLB and by the Secretary of Education runs contrary to the views of many special education professionals . Special education as a field is based on pedagogical expertise , including " continuously assessing student performance , adapting curricula to individual needs , modifying instructional approaches , using positive behavioral interventions , and selecting and implementing appropriate accommodations to facilitate access to the general @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children ( TED ) , 2004 , p. 1 ) . In espousing this view , HECSE and TED argued that any application of the highly qualified standard to special educators should take into account the importance of pedagogical expertise in meeting the instructional needs of students with disabilities . They strongly suggested that any new provisions in IDEA that allowed special education teachers to become fully licensed or certified by simply passing a content knowledge test " would not be sufficient to meet the diverse needs of students with disabilities . " Special educators must demonstrate their specialized knowledge and skills in actual field settings . ( HECSE/ TED , 2004 ) . Obviously , Congress rejected the HECSE/TED recommendation and provided an option in IDEA 04 whereby an individual with a bachelor 's degree and no field experience can become a highly qualified special education teacher by simply passing a state licensing exam . <p> A second factor to consider in examining the impact of the highly qualified standard on rural schools is the critical shortage of special @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Menlove and Lignugaris/Kraft ( 2004 ) report that while special education teacher shortages are critical nationwide , they are " most critical in rural areas of the country " ( p. 18 ) . Thurston and Sebastian ( 1996 ) suggest that an entire small school district can be jeopardized by the lack of a qualified special education teacher and that filling these positions in rural areas is often more problematic than in urban areas . Rural districts often have yearly attrition rates in excess of 30% and may experience a 100% turnover within three years ( Williams , Martin , &; Hess , 2002 ) . <p> Given the existing crisis in the number of qualified rural special education personnel , a logical question is whether the implementation of the IDEA 04 " highly qualified " standard will help or further exacerbate the problem ? The issue is complex and dependent upon several interacting variables , including service delivery options in small school districts ( particularly at the secondary level ) and alternative teacher preparation programs that maintain quality while facilitating access to a career in special education . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rural areas , subject matter competence for special educators will be particularly burdensome in secondary schools where a teacher may be responsible for most , if not all , core academic subjects for students in high incidence disability areas . Given that rural areas are already facing the most critical special education teacher shortages nationwide ( Menlove &; Lignugaris/Kraft , 2004 ) , the additional subject matter requirements could easily become a further disincentive to a career in the field . A potential way around this disincentive is to modify service delivery . As addressed earlier , the IDEA 04 requirement for subject matter competency applies only to special education teachers who have the responsibility for instruction ( teacher of record ) and not to " consultative teachers . " As such , rural districts may choose to use special educators more in a consultative role in which they work directly with or support highly qualified general education teachers who have subject matter competence . This option alleviates the need for highly qualified special educators to become proficient in multiple subject areas and is consistent with the view that pedagogical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instruction , etc ) is the hallmark of an effective special education teacher . However , if rural schools choose to modify service delivery and use special educators in consultative roles , they must also ensure that every student 's instructional program meets the requirement for a free and appropriate education ( FAPE ) in the least restrictive environment . Meeting the Highly Qualified Challenge : Alternative Routes ( AR ) to Teacher Preparation <p> In aligning IDEA with NCLB , Congress continued its emphasis on alternatives to traditional teacher preparation as a strategy to reduce teacher shortages . As suggested by the U.S Department of Education ( 2003 ) , states may " streamline their certification processes and . target talented people who would be turned off by traditional preparation . " The logic underlying this strategy seems to apply best to shortages of math and science teachers . It holds that content mastery and verbal ability are more important to effective teaching than is training in pedagogy . By eliminating formal requirements , it is argued , we may recruit into teaching scientists , engineers , accountants , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " by teacher preparation . Although the issue of whether this logic is borne out by research need not be addressed here , suffice to say that it has been hotly contested ( see Darling-Hammond &; Ducommun , 2001 ; Progressive Policy Institute , 2001 ; The Abell Foundation , 2001 ) and that math and science educators have questioned its validity , even within those disciplines . They cite the importance of pedagogical content knowledge and the problems some untrained novice teachers experience in representing what they know in ways that are meaningful to children and adolescents ( cf. , Nathan &; Petrosino , 2003 ) . <p> In special education , the logic fits poorly . For one thing , our field is not a content area in the same sense as math and science . There is no source of prospective special education teachers who , like scientists and mathematicians , have special education content expertise , and , it is unclear what population of prospective teachers this strategy would tap . Second , as argued before , in teaching students with disabilities , pedagogical expertise is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . It is an essential element of a special education teachers ' repertoire of skills , knowledge , and dispositions . Nonetheless , NCLB policy promoting fast-track teacher preparation has been extended to special education ( and elementary education ) , and special education alternative preparation is a growth industry . <p> Although alternative route ( AR ) programs differ from one state to the next ( and even within states ) , the defining characteristic of AR programs is access to a teaching credential that bypasses conventional college and university preparation requirements ( Hawley , 1992 ; Zeichner &; Schulte , 2001 ) . AR programs are best viewed as existing on a continuum ranging from abbreviated , fast-track training ( of the NCLB ilk ) to more conventional training that builds on participants ' life experiences ( Hillkirk , 2000 ) . Typically , what makes a program alternative is the length and structure of the program , how the program is delivered , and the characteristics of the participants ( Rosenberg &; Sindelar , 2001 ) . AR programs are often shorter than traditional programs and often @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is facilitated by intensive field-based instruction and feedback . Eschewing much of the pedagogical coursework typical of most traditional initial preparation programs , AR programs emphasize enhanced supervision of candidates who receive on-the-job training as classroom teachers . It is believed that on-the-job training substitutes for the pedagogical training required by traditional programs ( Leal , 2004 ) . Finally , because AR programs are designed to supplement supply , they should ( and do ) recruit different types of teacher candidates than traditional programs : higher proportions of males , persons over 25 , members of culturally and linguistically diverse groups , and people who have had business and military experience ( Shen , 2000 ) . Finding a population of trainees is important for rural school districts because a program may be tailored to an idiosyncratic homegrown population . As we shall see , homegrown trainees are more likely to be committed to remaining in their communities and addressing the challenges of teaching in rural schools . <p> There has been rapid growth in AR programs , in both general and special education . Feistritzer , Haar , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 200,000 persons have been licensed as teachers through AR programs . Currently , 43 states plus the District of Columbia ( DC ) offer AR programs ; in 1983 , by contrast , only 8 states offered such programs . Currently , in special education , 36 states and DC offer 225 programs , over 92% of which lead to generic special education certificates . Nationally , California ( 32.8% ) and Texas ( 16.6% ) account for most programs ( Rosenberg , Boyer , Sindelar , &; Misra , 2003 ) . Over 15% of currently certified special education teachers earned it through an AR ; among those who are unlicensed and seeking certification , 24% are enrolled in AR programs ( Connelly , 2003 ) . <p> Three overlapping factors have contributed to the growth of AR programs in special education . First and foremost is the continuing shortage of qualified teachers . Currently , over 50,000 special educators are less than fully certified for their work , and they are responsible for more than 800,000 students with disabilities ( U. S. Department of Education , n.d. a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , most notably college and university degree programs , are unable to meet the demand for qualified teachers , and alternative routes are most common in states with significant shortages . In California , Texas , Georgia , and Louisiana , four states with large numbers of special education AR programs , shortages average 20.2% ; by contrast , in states that offer no AR programs , shortages average 5.76% ( Rosenberg et al. , 2003 ) . <p> Second , many AR programs have proven successful in increasing the number of teachers from culturally and linguistically diverse ( CLD ) groups . Over 86% of special education teachers and those in the traditional preparation pipeline are White , while the student population requiring special education services is approximately 38% nonwhite ( Tyler , Yzquierdo , Lopez-Reyna , &; Flippin , 2002 ) . AR programs help address the need for greater diversity in the teaching force by recruiting a higher percentage of CLD teachers than traditional training programs ( Connelly , 2003 ) . Moreover , of particular relevance to those in rural areas , those trained in AR @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in schools where CLD students make up the majority ( Shen , 2000 ) . <p> The third factor contributing to the proliferation of AR programs is the strident criticism of the education establishment that questions the validity and usefulness of what is termed an over-regulated , self-serving , and exclusionary system of teaching preparation and licensure ( Goldhaber , 2004 ; Thomas B. Fordham Foundation , 1999 ) . These sentiments , also present in the language of NCLB , reflect the view that the education establishment mandates too many pedagogically based requirements in its training programs and that such requirements discourage talented , highly verbal , well-educated , liberal arts graduates from entering teaching . Although viewed by some as a means of de-professionalizing teaching ( Berry , 2004 ; Cochran-Smith &; Fries , 2001 ) , these criticisms have propelled many states to empower multiple providers to open a variety of paths to teaching . Not surprisingly , large numbers of individuals who have had limited contact with schools of education have entered the teaching force . <p> What we know about AR programs in special education @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teacher preparation programs generally , no less about how alternative routes might compare to traditional preparation . Only recently has systematic information on special education AR programs begun to accumulate . Based upon a review of the few empirical studies of AR programs , Rosenberg and Sindelar ( 2001 ) concluded that for such efforts to be successful , there must be ( a ) meaningful school/university cooperation with time allocated to sustain partnerships ; ( b ) instructional content that is substantive , rigorous , and programmatic ; and ( c ) substantial use of on-site supervision and mentoring incorporating both university supervisors and building-based coaches . In an analysis of 101 current programs , we ( Rosenberg et al. , 2003 ) found that most programs ( 71% ) involve partnerships among universities , state departments of education , and school districts . For the most part , these programs deliver instruction through a mix of university coursework , district-sponsored professional development , supervised fieldwork , and distance education . Financial support is provided through stipends and salaries , and programs are attracting non-traditional populations to the profession @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there is great variability in the length and intensity of AR programs . Nearly half ( 45.3% ) of current programs require less than 3 months of preparation before trainees enter the classroom as teachers of record , and nearly 13% require no training at all . About 30% of the programs require no more than 18 months to complete , but most ( 60% ) require 19 to 36 months . Thus , while many programs offer adequate support , many rush candidates into challenging teaching situations with little preparation and few requirements for on-going professional development . Because of the potential for high attrition , fast-track programs may fail to increase the supply of special educators over the long term , thus exacerbating critical shortages by consuming limited training funds ( Billingsley , 2003 ; Katsiyannis , Zhang , &; Conroy , 2003 ; Miller , Brownell , &; Smith , 1999 ) . <p> Designing AR programs for rural schools . Rural districts face particular challenges in recruiting teachers , and their small and declining populations are an important element of the problem . In recent research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and Wyckoff ( 2003 ) found that beginning teachers were highly likely to return to schools near their home towns . In that state , from 1998-99 to 2001-2002 , over 80% of beginning teachers took jobs within 40 miles of the high schools they attended . This phenomenon works to the advantage of larger districts with high proportions of high school graduates who go on to college . It works to the disadvantage of very small districts , where small numbers of high school graduates go on to college - and presumably even smaller numbers complete professional preparation and come home to teach . ( It also works to the disadvantage of large urban districts , where smaller than expected percentages of high school graduates go on to college . ) In rural districts , subsidizing the college education of local high school graduates in exchange for a promise of completing teacher preparation and returning home to teach seems like a promising policy strategy . However , the cost of subsidizing college education may be more than most districts can afford , and although statewide programs are commonplace @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Knapp , 2001 ) , service requirements typically stipulate that recipients teach in the state - but not necessarily in high needs schools . <p> The initial cost of providing a highly qualified teacher should not be the only consideration in deciding on how best to invest the training funds available to districts . The teacher 's skill and impact on student achievement are critical , of course , as is their persistence in the field . An initial investment , however costly in the short term , may be increasingly cost effective as a teacher continues to work - and work effectively - in the district . An initial investment of $20,000 , say , may seem costly . However , if the investment yields a capable teacher who works in the district for 10 years , the annual cost of $2,000 seems more reasonable and affordable , particularly in contrast to the cost of repeated recruitment and hiring ( Texas Center for Educational Research , 2000 ) . <p> One problem with relying on graduates of traditional programs is that their supply has never been sufficient to meet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are likely to be recent graduates of teacher education programs ( Boe , Cook , Bobbitt , &; Terhanian , 2000 ) . Furthermore , younger teachers are more likely to move from job to job , and more likely to leave teaching entirely ( Hanushck , Kain , &; Rivkin , 2004 ) . Alternative routes may be designed to address the particular needs of rural districts , and some elements of design seem more promising for rural districts than others . For example , programs for people who reside in the community seem more likely to succeed than programs that require recruitment of either teachers or trainees from outside the community . Prospective teachers are more likely to remain in schools in communities where they reside ( Dai , Denslow , Dewey , Sindelar &; Rosenberg , 2005 ) . For a number of reasons , paraprofessional step-up programs offer good potential for hard-to staff-schools . However , small rural districts may have few potential trainees ; moreover , because participants typically must complete an undergraduate degree program to be considered highly qualified , paraprofessional step-up programs take @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ readily available to most rural districts , and the small number of potential trainees there makes them undesirable as a target for remote program delivery . ( In fact , paraprofessional step-up programs have worked best in larger districts within easy commuting distance of a campus ( Epanchin &; Wooley-Brown , 1993 ; Sindelar , Daunic , &; Rennells , in press ) . Moreover , step-up programs may be hard to replicate in the short term , particularly if all qualified trainees have been tapped for an initial training cohort . <p> Mid-career changers represent a second potential source of local participants for alternative teacher preparation . Because no degree program would be required and training would be shorter and more focused , this option may offer better potential to rural districts than programs for paraprofessionals . On the other , in a rural district , the available supply of professionals seeking new opportunities may be small ( and the proportion of adults with bachelor 's degrees is smaller in rural areas than is true nationally ( U. S. Census Bureau , n.d . ) ) . Furthermore , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ may be poorer bets for persisting as teachers than paraprofessionals . For one thing , individuals taking large pay cuts may return to their original careers when opportunities come available , and individuals whose original work had little in common with teaching are at greater risk for attrition than individuals who have experience in closely related fields ( Dai et al . ) . Generally speaking , districts are well advised to learn as much as possible about mid-career changers and to use such information in making decisions about whose training to support . In small towns and rural areas , however , this issue may be less of a problem in that applicants ' potential and motives for changing careers may be widely known . <p> Distance education and web-based courses have been touted as solutions to the program delivery problem ( Ludlow , 1999 ; Rosenkoetter , Irwin , &; Saceda , 2004 ) , but in the special education literature evidence of their efficacy is scarce . Western Governor 's University ( Garlett , Rosenberg , &; Madigan , 2004 ; U. S. Department of Education , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ courses , extensive field work , and on-site supervision . WGU currently offers a program leading to K-8 certification and a mathematics endorsement , and soon will expand into special education . We see great promise in programs delivered remotely to candidates who are invested in both their communities and in teaching as a career . Conclusion <p> The passage of IDEA 2004 and the act 's alignment with NCLB has further solidified the federal role in defining what it means to be a highly qualified special education teacher . As the new IDEA comes on-line , several questions must be addressed . Will " highly qualified " actually translate to " high quality ? " Will the federal requirements to become a highly qualified special educator decrease the critical shortage of special education teachers in rural schools ? Or , will these shortages be exacerbated by driving away potential teacher candidates who do n't see the cost-benefit in meeting the additional subject matter requirements ? Will service delivery in rural areas for students with disabilities in high incidence areas have to be modified with increasing dependence on highly qualified @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ special educators serve in consultative roles ? What impact will service delivery modifications have on students ' access to FAPE and their overall academic achievement ? Will the federal emphasis and the rapid growth of alternatives to traditional teacher preparation produce high quality as well as highly qualified special education teachers in rural areas ? Or , will AR programs produce teachers unprepared to deal with the unique needs of students with disabilities in high incidence areas , and thus contribute to the already high attrition rates in rural schools ? <p> As a tandem , NCLB and IDEA 2004 are ushering in a new era in the recruitment , preparation , and retention of special education teachers for rural schools . The stage is set , the actors are in place , and the curtain is going up . We anxiously await the reviews . <p> Michael L. Hardman <p> California State University , Los Angeles <p> ( On leave from the University of Utah ) <p>

@@4020041 SAFETY IN HEALTH CARE <p> Health care facilities can be hazardous to your health ! The safety of hospital patients ( or rather the lack thereof ) has been well studied . In 2000 The Institute of Medicine report , " To Err is Human , " stated that the annual number of patient deaths due to medical errors could be as high as 98,000 , most of which could have been prevented ( Kohn et al ) . <p> Patients are not the only ones subject to health and safety risks . Health care providers have four times the risk of incurring musculoskeletal injuries ( MSIs ) compared to workers in other industries ( Charney and Hudson , 2004 ) . Injury rates to nurses and other caregivers run as high as 83 injuries per 200,000 work hours ( Garg and Owen , 1992 ) . Injured nurses suffer emotionally , socially and financially ( Charney and Hudson , 2004 ) . The costs resulting from MSIs in the Unites States are estimated at $13.2 billion ( Liberty Mutual , 2004 ) . WHAT IS A SAFE ENVIRONMENT ? <p> Safety has become a buzz word in health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ articles discussing this topic in one way or another . It is hard to find a hospital , long-term care facility , or clinic without multiple safety initiatives . Safety projects with creative names such as " Safest in America , " " Pause for the Cause , " and " 100,000 Lives " are just the tip of the iceberg . Safety has also become a key criterion for accrediting bodies such as the Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Health Care Organizations ( JCAHO ) , regulating bodies such as health departments , and third party payers such as insurance companies and Medicare . <p> Unions representing nurses have taken a strong stand in support of initiatives to decrease injuries , particularly back injuries , by incorporating safety measures into their contracts . Contract language can include initiatives such as requiring hospitals to install lifting equipment or implementing educational programs for staff safety . <p> Historically , an unsafe environment was seen as caused primarily by human error . In this view , errors were explained as failures in the actions performed by caregivers ( Dekker , 2002 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ caregiver whose performance violated a certain guideline , policy , or standard . For instance , medication errors were considered the result of a nurse not following the " 5 Rights . " The belief was that these errors could be controlled or eliminated by blaming the caregiver for not following the guidelines , policies or standards . Punitive action was frequently a logical result ( Marx , 2001 ) . This approach has been shown to be ineffective because it leads to underreporting and hiding of errors for fear of retaliation ( Dekker , 2002 ; Krause , 2006 ) . <p> Sidney Dekker ( 2002 ) presents a more contemporary view of what factors create a safe environment . Key components include the principle that error is a symptom of deeper system problems , not necessarily the result of an individual 's erroneous actions . Safe care can only be delivered in an environment in which safety is the goal of all , and errors and injuries can be discussed without fear of negative consequences . This environment is a climate free of blame in which all people @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ safety -- in which the focus is on creating safety . It is also an environment in which patients , caregivers and administrators function with a common understanding of what safety is , and lessons learned from near misses , good catches , errors and injuries are hardwired into the system ( Dekker , 2002 ; Krause , 2006 ; Marx , 2001 ; Reason , 2000 ; Reason , 1990 ) . <p> With all the work being done in the areas of patient safety and caregiver safety , we might assume that these two sets of initiatives are closely intertwined . Unfortunately , this is frequently not the case . Caregiver and patient safety initiatives use different paradigms and are based on different assumptions . PATIENT SAFETY <p> In most health safety initiatives , the patient is the main focus . Objectives include decreasing patient falls , bedsores , medication errors and other negative outcomes . Approaches to addressing these types of problems are based on an environment which is free of blame and in which reporting of errors is transparent . Most health care institutions have abandoned @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in-depth analysis follows incidents of error or patient injury . No stone is left unturned as all factors that contributed to the error are analyzed by a multidisciplinary team including caregivers , managers , administrators , and other key players . <p> Once the analysis is complete , a plan to prevent similar injuries/errors is created and implemented . Information that can lead to injury prevention is shared with other areas and , in some cases , other institutions in an effort to prevent similar injuries in the future . To promote this process , health care institutions are protected by peer review guidelines , meaning that information discovered during the analysis of errors can not be subpoenaed or used against the organization in a court of law ( Marchev , 2003 ) . CAREGIVER SAFETY <p> Nurses and other caregivers are vulnerable to injuries at work . MSIs have historically been considered a risk inherent in nursing work , caused by poor body mechanics ( 0wen , 2000a , 2000b ) . <p> The typical approach to addressing staff injuries is markedly different than for patients injured through errors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ manager and their employer 's occupational health department . The injured nurse is treated for the injury and , if possible , returns to Work after having recovered . An in-depth analysis such as occurs when a patient has been injured is uncommon or nonexistent when the injured person is a caregiver . <p> Addressing injuries in caregivers commonly uses traditional occupational health models based on the premise that employee injuries occur because of exposure to risk factors . According to this premise , nurses can avoid injury by not exposing themselves to those risk factors ; thus , when nurses stop performing certain high-risk tasks , injuries will stop occurring ( DiBenedetto , 1995 ) . This model has been very effective in decreasing injuries in industrial settings . In the early 1900s , Alice Hamilton documented the strong correlation between the presence of lead in the workplace and occupational illness and even death . The elimination of lead was a dramatic improvement for workers ( Hamilton , 1911 ) . Unfortunately , many employers were reluctant to make changes until legislation and enforcement were introduced ( MacLaury , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was so successful , this occupational health model continues to be used today . <p> When attempting to solve the problem of MSIs in nursing , the occupational health model is the primary model implemented . Based on the assumption that eliminating risks will decrease injuries , a seven-point strategy can be identified in the literature : <p> -- Manual handling of patients should be avoided except for life-threatening situations ( State of Texas , 2005 ) . <p> -- Proper lifting equipment should be available and used when patients are handled ( Nelson , 2006 ) . <p> -- Nurses should be educated on the use of lifting equipment ( Nelson , 2006 ) . <p> -- Transfer techniques should be standardized and focused on the elimination of manual handling ( Patient Safety Center of Inquiry ( Tampa , FL ) , Veterans Health Administration and Department of Defense , 2001 ) . <p> -- Punitive policies should be implemented that hold nurses/caregivers accountable for using equipment ( Charney and Hudson , 2004 ; Garg , 2006 ) . <p> -- Legislation requiring the implementation of safe patient handing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Hudson , 2004 ) . <p> -- Incentive programs should be implemented for leadership that demonstrates a decrease in the number of injuries ( Wu , 2006 ) . <p> The financial benefits of decreasing the number of reported injuries have been shown to outweigh the cost of training and equipment ( Charney and Hudson , 2004 ; Chhokar et al. , 2005 ; Nelson , 2006 ) . Currently , the actual number of injuries can be measured only by tracking the number of reported injuries . THE PARADOX <p> Even though safety in health care institutions is being addressed , patient and staff safety are addressed using different paradigms . Errors and injuries including patients are being used as learning opportunities and as a means to understanding factors that can improve safety . Patient safety officials focus on the individual case while establishing procedures and guidelines that might benefit other patients . When a similar patient error/injury recurs , the health care team goes back to the drawing board to adjust the system . <p> The approach for care provider injuries , in contrast , is very different @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are known -- namely , an individual nurse not acting correctly . Thus , individual analysis is unnecessary ; implementation of policies and corrective actions are the logical next step . Yet blame and punishment have been shown to decrease or even totally stop reporting . Offering managers financial incentives to decrease the number of injury reports promotes underreporting . Reporting an injury to one 's superior who is financially affected by that report could easily become an unpleasant experience . Research on decreasing MSIs has shown that the largest decreases in injury reporting occurred when the use of equipment was legally mandated . <p> The current rule-based approach to workplace safety for nurses can lead to several problems : INTENT VERSUS RESULT <p> The intent of the implemented safety measures is undoubtedly to decrease staff injuries , which would benefit both the institution and individual nurses . But the results of those measures should be monitored closely . The following areas are especially prone to unintended and/or undesirable results : <p> -- Implementing punitive policies with the intent to encourage nurses to protect their own safety could result in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be injured , but also would lose compensation for their injuries . <p> -- The intent of giving managers financial incentives to decrease reported injuries is to foster highly involved leadership , but the effect could be an environment in which reporting injuries becomes difficult . <p> -- Creating policies on lifting with the intent to create a safe environment could promote the message that nurses do not or should not have the ability to make choices that are best for themselves . <p> -- Providing lifting equipment has the intent of creating a safer environment , but numerous patients are injured or killed every year in mishaps related to the use of lifting equipment . <p> The relationship between patients and nurses is very complex , involving individual needs , communication , power dynamics , expectations , and other factors . Algorithms and standards can be helpful in determining the best care , but these must not eliminate the nurse 's ability to make knowledge-based decisions . The implementation of algorithms and policies from which nurses are not allowed to deviate except in life-threatening situations leads to nurses and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ situations and personalities are not taken into consideration . Enforcing algorithms makes nurses ' work " invisible " by neglecting the value of nurses ' knowledge of the patient and his or her care . The patient is made " invisible " by ignoring specific problems such as pain , anxiety , and previous experiences . ETHICAL/MORAL ISSUES <p> The current approach to preventing injuries to nurses also raises ethical issues , including : <p> -- Is it acceptable for patients to be exposed to increased pain , discomfort , and/or risk injury in order to protect nurses ? <p> -- Should nurses have to expose themselves to the risk of injury as part of delivering patient care ? <p> -- If a policy is in conflict with a nurse 's professional judgment what should the nurse do ? <p> The dilemmas described above can lead to a " grey zone " in which whatever action the nurse chooses could have negative moral consequences . For instance , deciding not to use lifting equipment when transferring a highly anxious patient in order to minimize the negative impact on that patient @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could lead to termination . On the other hand , if the nurse does use lifting equipment but perceives that he or she is inflicting avoidable discomfort or even terror on a patient , this action could lead to moral distress . Knowingly placing people in the " grey zone " is wrong - It strips people of their personal integrity ( Card , 2002 ) . SOLVING THE PARADOX <p> One solution to the paradoxical approaches to safety would be to adopt the same models for staff safety and patient safety . Nursing safety initiatives appear to focus on trying to create order out of chaos - that is , trying to gain control of a complex , multi-faceted situation . However , thinking that we can gain control over nursing staff injuries may be oversimplifying the complexity of what it means to offer care . A more fruitful approach is recognizing all the factors involved in transferring patients . This would be a model in which each injury is analyzed in a non-punitive manner , and events are used as lessons learned . Nurses ' and patients ' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ outweigh the other . Frameworks such as Margaret Urban Walker 's expressive-collaborative model of creating moral understanding in interpersonal dynamics and power structures can help nurses understand their own safety needs as well as those of their patients . Each person 's integrity would be taken into consideration and respected . Interventions would take interpersonal relationships , power dynamics , and contextual factors into account . <p> Whatever safety model is adopted should focus on helping nurses understand how to judge unsafe situations in real time , maintaining the emotional , social , and physical integrity of both patient and nurse and simultaneously allowing nurses to maintain their professional autonomy . SUMMARY <p> Creating an environment that is truly safe for both nurses and patients requires the elimination of disparities in approaches to staff safety and patient safety . Patient safety approaches based on transparency and blamelessness are effective tools in developing an environment that is constantly improving itself . <p> In addition to creating a safe and blame-free environment , creating a new model that nurses can use in real time would allow for rapid decision-making that maintains the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4020141 The established professional practice requiring informed consent for the disclosure of personal health information with its implied right to privacy suffered a serious setback with the first federal privacy initiative of the Bush administration . The new Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act ( HIPAA ) of 1996 ( P.L. 104-191 ) privacy regulations supplant the patient 's veto regarding disclosure with the requirement that the patient simply receive a written notice of the provider 's policy on disclosure of personal health information . As the privacy paradigm shifts to balance the business interests of the health care industry with those of individual patients , this policy presents new challenges for protecting the confidential relationship between the practitioner and the patient . This article reviews the significant modifications in the new HIPAA regulations , briefly critiques these changes , and suggests strategies for practitioners to manage these changes . KEY WORDS : confidentiality ; ethical practice ; HIPAA ; personal health information ; privacy The vital importance of clients ' right to make their own decisions about disclosure of their health information suffered a serious blow with a highly significant policy shift affecting the way in which health care @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Clinton policy ensuring informed consent for disclosure of any health care information , thereby abrogating the patient 's right to veto the transmission of this information ( Pear , 2002 ) . The new privacy regulations of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act ( hereinafter , HIPAA ) ( P.L. 104-191 ; Standards for Privacy , 2002 ) replace the requirement for patient authorization with only a notice of the provider 's privacy policy . The supplantation of the patient 's right to control the disclosure of information with a privacy policy notice , along with other modifications in the new HIPAA regulations , promises to have a far-ranging impact on health care delivery in this country . This policy shift requires social workers to develop new ways of managing client information and to respond strategically to the way in which client health information is managed in the health care industry . HISTORY OF PRIVACY AND PRIVACY REGULATION The genesis of medical privacy and confidentiality is found in the Hippocratic Oath , which directs the physician not to reveal private patient information ( Resier , Dyck , &; Curran @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ testimonial privilege in New York State in 1828 ( Nye , 1982 ) , there had already been a long-standing and widespread acceptance of the physician 's duty to maintain patient information as private and confidential . The importance of protecting patient health information by nonphysicians was prompted by the growth of health care in the mid-20th century and was acknowledged by the expansion of testimonial privilege to other health and mental health professionals . This privilege was first established in the state court systems ( Foster , 1982 ) and was later introduced to the federal judiciary for social work psychotherapists in the Jaffee v. Redmond ( 1996 ) decision . The regulation of confidentiality in health care was extended to conditions such as AIDS and substance abuse , then to public health and research . Although confidentiality protects the patient from harm caused by disclosure , exceptions may require disclosure to protect third parties from harm ( Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California , 1976 ) . The importance of maintaining confidentiality can be seen in the sanctions and penalties provided by law ( Dickson , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ has given rise to reorganization of service delivery into new forms , including preferred provider organizations , health maintenance organizations , large group practices , and multiple-hospital corporations . As a result , more people have access to patient medical records than previously . Not only has computerization of patient records expanded access , it has increased the potential for breaches of privacy to a level that was previously impossible ( Rice &; Katz , 2001 ) . Access continued to expand with the growth of third-party payer systems and their demands to justify payment . The compilation of patient records in large databases made possible large-scale public health research into patterns of illness , effective treatments , and improved quality of care . The benefits associated with patient data banks encouraged the creation of a national health information infrastructure ( Committee on Maintaining Privacy , 1997 ) . In 1996 the drive to establish this infrastructure received a boost with the establishment of HIPAA . Before HIPAA , employee benefits terminated with employment . HIPAA established the continuity of these benefits for an 18-month transition period to new employment @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ health identifier to track the medical services provided throughout a person 's lifetime . Furthermore , this requires the development of a national health infrastructure , which quickly raised public concerns regarding privacy . HIPAA provided that if Congress did not enact privacy legislation within three years , the Secretary of Health and Human Services ( HHS ) was directed to issue the privacy regulations governing identifiable personal health information ( PHI ) . To strike a good balance between an individual 's need for privacy and the health care system 's need for the appropriate flow of information , the Secretary of HHS recommended a relaxation of consent procedures and their replacement by federal regulation . After a process of public comments , HHS finalized the privacy guidelines that became effective on April 14 , 2003 ( Appelbaum , 2002 ; Cady , 2003 ) . AN OVERVIEW OF THE HIPAA CHANGES The intent of the HIPAA privacy regulations is to clarify and limit those situations in which a person 's PHI may be used by health care providers , health plans , and health care clearinghouses . Any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ HIPAA ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502 ) . " PHI " refers to any demographic information that identifies the patient , thereby revealing her or his health status or history ( 45 C.F.R. 164.501 ) . However , HIPAA does not restrict the use of health information that has been de-identified ( 45 C.F.R. 164.514 a-c ) . A central tenet of HIPAA is the requirement to provide patients with a written notice of the provider 's privacy policy regarding disclosure of PHI . Under the new regulations , the notice of privacy practices is applicable only to information released for the purposes of treatment , payment , or health care operations ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502 ) . The new privacy regulations cover certain routine uses of information such as health care information sent to insurance companies , to providers involved in the care and management of the patient , and for other administrative uses that were previously protected . The nonroutine uses for which a specific authorization is still required include health care information sent to employers or information used for sales and marketing purposes ( 45 C.F.R. 164.508 a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the regulations that allows the patient access to her or his records , to object to the content , and to request an accounting of any nonroutine disclosures or uses of that information ( 45 C.F.R 3164.524 , 164.526 , 164.528 ) . For practitioners in the business of health care , HIPAA contains additional administrative requirements , strategies , and organizational options . Consent Replaced by Privacy Notice All providers of health care services must now notify their clients in writing regarding their policies on the release and transmittal of PHI . The privacy notice must include the provider 's duties to protect privacy , a notice of the provider 's privacy practices , and the individual 's right to complain to the HHS Office of Civil Rights . Providers must make a good-faith effort to obtain the client 's written acknowledgment of having received that notice before services begin , whenever possible ( 45 C.F.R. 164.520 ) . Client consent is not required unless state law mandates it . However , the provider may choose to continue seeking the patient 's formal consent . Although the federal requirement @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ protect confidentiality by establishing their own policies , protocols , and procedures . HIPAA allows providers to shape these policies in accordance with their business needs ( 45 C.F.R. 164.530 ) . Disclosures Permitted for Treatment , Payment , and Health Care Operations No client consent is required for routine disclosures , although all other uses of information are prohibited without a specific consent . The information that may be disclosed is based on professional judgment regarding what is the minimum necessary information for its intended use ( 45 C.F.R. 164.514 d 1 ) . Limited , unavoidable , incidental disclosures that occur in the course of routine operations do not constitute violations of HIPAA ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502 ) . All providers who have a patient in common may share that patient 's PHI among themselves for the purposes of treatment and payment . However , when providers in the course of their business need to disclose PHI with business associates ( subcontractors or others ) , the new regulations require them to ensure the same HIPAA privacy standards by entering into a formal contractual agreement ( 45 C.F.R. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exclusions to disclosure of PHI still requiring patient authorization : one is for marketing ( 45 C.F.R. 164.501,164.508a 3 ) ; the other is for employment records ( 45 C.F.R. 160.103 ) . For any marketing-related purpose that does not directly pertain to treatment , written patient consent is still needed . When employers are also providers covered under HIPAA , any medical and employment records must be maintained separately . In this case , the medical records are covered under HIPAA , whereas the employment records are not . Safeguards to Privacy New safeguards have been built into the HIPAA regulations to ensure protection of health care information . First , to ensure the security of electronically transmitted health data , HIPAA requires the establishment of administrative , technical , and physical safeguards ( 45 C.F.R. 164.530c ) . Another safeguard pertains to hybrid businesses , those that provide both health care functions and additional unrelated business functions . Hybrid businesses have two choices : to designate all health care and non-health care functions separately or to consider the entire business as a health care business . If the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ functions separately , then the entire business must comply with the HIPAA privacy rules ( 45 C.F.R. 164.103 , 164.105 ) . A third safeguard pertains to how much information is disclosed . The minimum necessary rule for disclosure implies different standards of compliance depending on the specific purpose for sharing that information . This rule requires providers to develop separate policies , protocols , and procedures for the internal , the routine , or the nonroutine uses of information ( 45 C.F.R. 164.530i ) . A fourth safeguard applies to actions patients may take to ensure the protection of their privacy . Patients may request access to their records and a list of all the nonroutine disclosures of their PHI . They also have the right to disagree with the information contained in their records and to have errors corrected ( 45 C.F.R. 164.524 , 164.526 ) . Research , Psychotherapy , and Practice with Minors For practitioners who engage in research , engage in psychotherapy , or whose practice involves minors , there are additional provisions of special interest . HIPAA relaxes the earlier requirements for patients ' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ data sets and also forbids the re-identification of patients . Decisions regarding the appropriate use of de-identified data may rely on professional judgment ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502d 2 , 164.514a-b ) . PHI may be used for research when there is documentation of a waiver of individual consent granted by an Institutional Review Board and also for preparation of a research protocol that specifies that PHI data will not be removed from their source . Limited data sets with PHI may be used , providing that the researcher enters into a data-use agreement . The previous limited time frames for the expiration of a research authorization are now less specific . These changes are intended to open new avenues of research in public health and epidemiology and in the identification of actuarial patterns ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502a , 164.514e ) . Psychotherapy notes ( 45 C.F.R. 164.501 , 164.508a 2 ) always require a specific patient authorization for their release , which is an exception to the HIPAA regulations . Psychotherapy notes may be used for in-house training purposes . All exceptions to requiring authorization for psychotherapy notes are governed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mandatory reporting laws . For practitioners who work with minor children , minor children 's privacy rights continue to be defined by relevant state law ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502g ) . In those cases where the parent of a minor is not his or her legal representative or where the minor may exercise consent , the minor 's privacy would be protected by the HIPAA regulations . If state law is silent concerning parental access to PHI , providers who are licensed health care professionals have the discretion to provide or deny that access ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502g ) . A BRIEF CRITIQUE OF THE NEW REGULATIONS The implications of the policy changes outlined are subtle and significant . Rather than providing statutory protection for the right to privacy of health care information , the new regulations severely reduce a patient 's control over her or his own health care information in favor of a written notice regarding the disclosure policy for routine uses . Without the control of PHI through the right to veto any specific disclosure , the individual patient is in actual practice subject to potentially unintended @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ becomes potentially more damaging as the health care information becomes more sensitive , such as in the case of genetic testing , psychiatric treatment , drug testing , or HIV/AIDS status ( Cady , 2003 ; Dickson , 1998 ) . Although the regulations restrict access to PHI for specific purposes , the reality is that when more people have access to information , there is a greater potential for breaches of confidentiality . With the wide electronic availability of patient information and the increased dependence on electronic storage and retrieval systems , it would be reasonable to expect an even wider distribution of health care information . The amount of data transferred in the course of normal operations is voluminous and may be vulnerable to error and intrusion by others ( Committee on Maintaining Privacy , 1997 ; Dennis , 2000 ) . The shift of control of health care information from the patient 's having veto power to control by those who are not personally affected may increase the potential of misuse to the patient 's detriment ( Woodward , 2001 ) . This risk of misuse and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ potential benefits to society from new public health research . With increased access to large-scale databases , researchers can investigate the patterns of disease occurrence among different groups and the factors associated with them to a degree that was not possible before . Before HIPAA relaxed the consent requirements for research purposes , certain kinds of data were inaccessible , for example , when patient consent could not be obtained because of the cost or difficulty in locating patients . The current availability of such data broadens the scope of public health research . Large-scale databases permit the identification of those actuarial patterns that may lead to policies that increase cost-effectiveness for health care organizations . Although this may be beneficial to organizations , these policies can lead to detrimental effects for individual patients , such as restricting access to needed high-cost procedures . One of the strengths of the HIPAA regulations is limiting disclosures without authorization to those needed for the functions of treatment , payment , or health care operations . Although these functions are broad and pertain to the provider , control of information beyond the provider @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ agreements ensure that any business associates or internal departments with access to PHI follow exactly the same privacy provisions , regardless of whether they include any non-health care functions . The regulations permit each business to determine how to implement the privacy safeguards to meet that organization 's business needs . Although the system of privacy protections in the new regulations is theoretically sound , these protections are predicated on a complex system of business arrangements and industry standards ensuring data security . With a myriad of resulting structures , systemic failures may be difficult to identify quickly ( Committee on Maintaining Privacy , 1997 ) , and hence any failures may potentially compromise the safeguards promised in the new HIPAA regulations . To ensure the safety of health care data , HIPAA establishes a series of requirements for data security and penalties for both negligent and willful violation of its provisions . Penalties for violations of the HIPAA regulations include the right to private action , civil penalties , criminal sanctions where appropriate , and protection from retaliation . Criminal penalties for both disclosure and reception of PHI begin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( P.L. 104-191 ; 42 U.S.C. 1320d-5 , 1320d-6 ) . The minimum necessary rule stipulates that when any information is released , the extent of information disclosed is based on the intended purpose of the disclosure . HIPAA mandates that health care organizations develop policies and procedures to limit who has access , who may receive information , and how much information they may receive . All employees must be trained in the HIPAA requirements based on their roles in the organization ( 45 C.F.R. 164.530b ) . Whether practicing individually or in an organization , the health care professional who is responsible for the patient 's treatment decides what is the minimum necessary information to be transmitted . In deciding what is the minimum necessary information to transmit , the professional needs to carefully consider the intended purpose of the disclosure . Particularly in the case of information that can be compiled in large databases , there may be an underlying conflict of incentives between the practitioner and the receiving organization . The practitioner may be influenced by the desire to secure services in the client 's best @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ health care organization may be motivated primarily by financial considerations that include collecting data to assist in developing new cost-containment policies ( Rodwin , 1993 ) . The new regulations place providers in the difficult position of being the primary protector of patient privacy . The notice of the provider 's privacy practices , which replaces the authorization for disclosure form , is required only at the beginning of the relationship with the provider . Because there is no requirement to inform patients of any disclosure that is made , it is in patients ' best interest to review their records periodically , to correct misinformation , and to obtain an accounting of the nonroutine disclosures . Although this periodic review is necessary to ensure that one 's privacy is fully protected , this can be a formidable obstacle to less-educated or - empowered clients . A significant change in the new regulations is that all disclosures for the purpose of general marketing require prior authorization . Certain targeted uses are permitted , such as marketing about health aids for a patient 's specific condition ( 45 C.F.R. 164.501,164.508a 3 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the provider of health care is also the patient 's employer . The employee 's health care information is protected in the same manner as the medical record of any other patient and must be maintained separately from employment records ( 45 C.F.R. 160.103 ) . However , this may present a conflict of interest . For example , the employee may be required to release her or his PHI to justify an absence from work . When this occurs , he or she becomes vulnerable to any consequences flowing from this information becoming part of the separate employment record , which is not protected by the HIPAA regulations . As the preceding review of HIPAA suggests , there seems to be a subtle underlying conflict between the privacy interests of the individual and the business interests of the health care system . On the surface , this shift away from the primacy of individual privacy may appear benign . However , the impetus behind this shift lies in its underlying assumptions and in the policy thrust to support the economic interests of the corporate health care industry . Although @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this article , it does suggest that the subtle coercion of the professional practitioner may be necessary to achieve the industry 's financial goals ( Woodward , 2001 ) . The new HIPAA regulations ask practitioners to expand their focus from the interests of the individual to include those of the managerial health care industry . Practitioners are likely to experience this as an ethical conflict between the requirements of confidentiality in the NASW Code of Ethics ( NASW , 2000 ) and in state licensing statutes and the practical applications of the new regulations . The code of ethics and the licensing statutes require the practitioner to act in the best interest of the client , including protecting her or his confidentiality . The challenge for practitioners is to maintain their professional stance in an environment in which business incentives dominate and in which maintaining professional integrity may come at a personal cost to them ( Dickson , 1998 ) . WHAT PRACTITIONERS CAN DO TO PROTECT PRIVACY Practitioners , as an integral part of the health care system , need to devise strategies to protect client privacy , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ full implementation of HIPAA , the new health care environment will call for changes in practice that necessitate a rethinking of the mechanisms of maintaining confidentiality . Attention to Client Vulnerability Practitioners , cognizant of their clients ' dependency and vulnerability , especially those clients who are medically or psychiatrically compromised , also need to be sensitive to those disclosures that may have negative consequences . For this reason , clinicians assess clients ' current state and competence to assimilate information about confidentiality and disclosure . Securing informed consent before disclosing PHI is a professional responsibility . Other clients may also have special needs for reassurance and protection to ensure that their privacy will not be compromised . For example , those who are involved in custody disputes or divorce , who are at legal risk , or who are socially prominent may need special protection ( Dickson , 1998 ) . In addition to the inherent vulnerability of clients , particular stages in the clinical process tend to elicit more intimate and sensitive disclosures . These will most likely occur at the point where an assessment or reassessment is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their risks and benefits ( Cady , 2003 ) . Attention to the client 's state and to those times when new disclosures are most likely to occur will help ensure the continued protection of sensitive client information . Case Recording The discussion of sensitive information is the heart of clinical process ( Egan , 1994 ) . Only information that is transmitted is subject to being compromised . Therefore , an increased awareness of what content is or is not necessary to document is essential to protect the client and the privacy of her or his PHI . If practitioners limit their case recording to the minimum necessary to meet the clinical and fiscal requirements of the setting , then they also omit most sensitive information . Judicious recording not only protects clients from unforeseeable negative consequences , but also is a professional responsibility and good practice ( NASW , 2000 ) . Informing Clients on the Limits of Confidentiality Electronic Transmission of Information . Because judicious recording can not protect against all disclosures of sensitive information , the practice of informing clients of the limits of confidentiality has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ made the transmission of health care data easy , and consequently , it limits practitioners ' control over who may have access to clients ' information ( Rice &; Katz , 2001 ) . Although HIPAA requires all health care entities to develop systems to protect confidentiality and to enter into contractual agreements with all business associates , breaches can still occur . The control of information under HIPAA shifts from the control of the individual practitioner to the control of the system . Therefore , practitioners are obligated to discuss with their clients the real limits of confidentiality and to inform them that they can no longer ensure complete confidentiality ( Appelbaum , 2002 ; Dickson , 1998 ) . Client Rights and Options . Clients must understand where breaches of confidentiality may occur in the information disclosure process ( Cady , 2003 ) to be sufficiently informed to exercise their rights . Breaches may occur in organizations because of competing priorities . For example , business objectives can easily take precedence over privacy concerns within the medical records , patient accounts , or fiscal planning departments of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of these differing interests to communicate the privacy risks to their clients ( Dickson , 1998 ) . Various options to protect the confidentiality of their PHI remain open to clients . Some of these strategies include the nondisclosure of certain information , paying out of pocket rather than using insurance , and negotiating about the recording of sensitive information . Practitioners may , within the limits of the practice setting , continue to elicit client permission before disclosing any information and to negotiate the terms of disclosure with the client . Clients may object to the disclosure policy , but HIPAA does not guarantee that this objection will be accommodated . Practitioners may encourage their clients to exercise the options that HIPAA provides to monitor the dissemination of their PHI by , for example , reviewing their file at the Medical Information Bureau . Communication . Clear and open communication between practitioners and clients is always good practice ( Egan , 1994 ) . Clients may perceive that treatment is conditional on the acceptance of a practitioner 's privacy policy . Usually , a practitioner can mitigate against any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The practitioner should further encourage clients to discuss any privacy questions or concerns they may have , including how privacy is protected in the practice . That interchange opens discussion of the risks and benefits of disclosure in the client 's specific situation and ensures the client 's understanding . The dialogue about privacy provides the context and opportunity to empower clients by educating them about their prerogatives and the recourses that are available under HIPAA . Practitioner Education Continuing education is very important in a rapidly changing health care environment ( Committee on Maintaining Privacy , 1997 ) . Practitioners need to understand HIPAA 's privacy provisions and how these provisions affect their practice and their business associates regarding treatment , payment , and health care operations . HIPAA requirements include privacy notices , authorizations , how PHI is handled , and disclosure of the minimum necessary information . Practitioners need to increase their awareness and remain vigilant to stay informed about changing requirements related to HIPAA . Practitioners need to take advantage of the opportunities to share best practices through workshops , conferences , peer consultation , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ preempt state statutes that are more protective of privacy . Therefore , it is incumbent on practitioners to understand and educate themselves on the applicable state laws affecting privacy . The Business of Practice Practitioners who are in the business of practice need to review their policies to ensure that they meet at least the minimum privacy requirements of HIPAA . Practitioners who use contractors or have other business associates handling PHI are required to enter into business contracts that obligate the business to follow the HIPAA privacy standards ( 45 C.F.R. 164.502 el ) . Protecting client PHI is also an effective risk-management practice because it minimizes legal liability , reduces exposure to lawsuits , and thereby protects the assets of the practice ( Cady , 2003 ) . In summary , effective practice strategies , such as those discussed , can minimize the negative impact that the disclosure of PHI may have on clients in the new health care environment . CONCLUSION Although the unintended consequences of breaches of confidentiality can be devastating to the individuals involved , they can not be prevented in actual practice either by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of PHI to institutional and regulatory control necessitates monitoring to ensure the full implementation of the interlocking systems of business agreements , data security , and adequate employee training . Clients ' exercise of their statutory rights is pivotal to the protections promised by HIPAA . The need for vigilance on the part of practitioners to ensure maximum privacy protection for their clients in a changing health care environment requires an armory of potential strategies . Although practitioners ' strategies may offer some protection to clients , social workers also need to be cognizant of policy changes in the health care environment that affect privacy . In addition , social workers might consider becoming more active in support of reforming privacy regulations . REFERENCES By Julia A. Yang and Francis A. Kombarakaran Julia A. Yang , MSW , is adjunct instructor , College of Social Work , Ohio State University , Columbus . Send correspondence to Julia A. Yang , 5247 Griffen House Court , Columbus , OH 43235 ; e-mail : jyang@gcfn.net . Francis A. Kombarakaran , PhD , is adjunct faculty , School of Social Work , Adelphi @ @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4020241 Section : ORIGINAL ARTICLE <p> We conducted a study of 91 patients with severe-to-profound asymmetric hearing loss to assess their satisfaction with digital contralateral routing of signal ( CROS ) or bilateral contralateral routing of signal ( BiCROS ) hearing aids . Satisfaction was evaluated on the basis of the number of patients who elected to purchase their hearing aid following a free 30-day trial and on the results of a subsequent 8-question survey . We found that overall patient satisfaction was generally high . At the end of the 30-day trial , 66 of the 91 patients ( 72.5% ) elected to keep their CROS or BiCROS device , a percentage that is far greater than the acceptance rates of 10 to 20% that had been previously reported with older models of the CROS and BiCROS devices . According to the survey responses , those who kept their devices gave them an overall rating of 3.4 on a scale of 1 ( very dissatisfied ) to 5 ( very satisfied ) ; those who returned their devices gave them an overall rating of 1.9 . Introduction <p> Traditionally , the medical community has not demanded the same level @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deficits as it has for patients with symmetric bilateral deficits . In fact , a still common recommendation for such patients is nothing more than to sit close to and turn the better-hearing ear toward the sound source . However , we do know that individuals with unilateral or asymmetric hearing loss can experience a wide range of hearing difficulties . The seriousness of these hearing deficits varies , depending on the nature and degree of the loss and individual work and social hearing demands. ( n1-n6 ) Not all individuals who experience these hearing deficits complain about them or seek treatment , but those who do often report difficulty listening when speech originates on the side of the worse-hearing ear , difficulty understanding speech in a noisy environment , and difficulty in locating the source of sound. ( n7 ) The unilateral listener usually has no difficulty communicating with only 1 person in a relatively quiet environment , but many listening situations occur in environments that include multiple individuals . <p> Several approaches to aural rehabilitation in patients with unilateral or asymmetric hearing loss have been suggested . Each @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ear . These approaches include transcranial sound transmission via high-output in-the-ear or behind-the-ear hearing aids , semi-implantable bone-anchored hearing aids , and conventional contralateral routing of signal ( CROS ) or bilateral contralateral routing of signal ( BiCROS ) heating aids . <p> CROS and BiCROS devices traditionally have been used for patients with unilateral heating loss in an attempt to restore the " head shadow effect " and improve sound localization . However , these devices have not gained widespread acceptance for numerous reasons , including performance factors such as ineffectiveness in high ambient noise and distortion . Among the theories that have been proposed to explain the poor performance are inappropriate fitting , poor adjustment , and technical inadequacies . <p> The performance of CROS and BiCROS devices may improve as a result of developments in digital signal processing . In this article , we describe our study of patient satisfaction with the new digital CROS and BiCROS hearing aid systems . Our goals were to determine whether technologic advancements in digital signal processing have truly enhanced the efficacy of CROS and BiCROS devices and to identify any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conducted a case review of 104 patients at our institution who had severe-to-profound asymmetric hearing loss and poor speech discrimination scores ( <40% in the worse ear ) . Thirteen patients were excluded because they did not meet eligibility criteria . The remaining group of 91 patients was made up of 43 men and 48 women , aged 41 to 89 years ( mean : 70.6 ) . The causes of their hearing loss included Mnire 's disease , acoustic neuroma , autoimmune inner ear disease , temporal bone fracture , and noise exposure . All patients had undergone a full evaluation of their hearing loss , including audiometry , otoacoustic emission testing , electrocochleography , and brainstem-evoked response testing , depending on the individual 's underlying etiology . <p> Of the 91 patients , 9 were fitted with a corded CROS device and 82 with a BiCROS device ( figure 1 ) , either corded ( n = 73 ) or cordless ( n = 9 ) . No cordless CROS device was used in this study . The selection of the specific type of hearing aid was based @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and patient preference . <p> Figure 1 . Photographs show the behind-the-ear ( A ) and the in-the-ear ( B and C ) BiCROS hearing aid . <p> One week after fitting , patients returned for a follow-up adjustment . Modifications were based on sound-field testing and patient input . A second follow-up was conducted at the end of a free 30-day trial , at which time patients chose to either purchase their hearing aid or return it without being charged for its use . <p> Two weeks after the end of the 30-day trial , we mailed a questionnaire to all patients , regardless of whether they chose to keep their CROS or BiCROS device . Four weeks later , we mailed follow-up questionnaires to those patients who had not responded to the first questionnaire . Two weeks later , we placed telephone calls to those who had still not responded . <p> The survey was made up of 8 questions ( figure 2 ) . Responses were quantified on a scale from I ( very dissatisfied ) to 5 ( very satisfied ) . Results <p> At @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 72.5% ) elected to keep their hearing aid and 25 ( 27.5% ) returned it ( table 1 ) . Acceptance rates were high for both the CROS ( 66.7% ) and BiCROS ( 73.2% ) devices . The overall acceptance rate for the corded models ( 76.8% ) was high ; the acceptance rate for the cordless model was low ( 33.3% ) , but only a small number of patients had received a cordless device . <p> Among the reasons cited by the 25 patients for returning their device were ( 1 ) the new hearing aid was no better than their previous device , ( 2 ) the device was too complicated , ( 3 ) the device was too expensive , ( 4 ) use of the device was hindered by clinical circumstances such as otorrhea or otalgia ( meaning that the patient was not a good candidate for the device ) , and ( 5 ) the cord was bothersome . <p> Completed questionnaires were received from 34 of the 66 patients who accepted their hearing aid ( 51.5% ) and from 9 of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the remaining 48 patients , we were unable to contact 29 , and 19 declined to participate . Five of the 66 patients who had elected to purchase their hearing aid were not actually using it ; taking this finding into consideration , the true acceptance rate falls from 72.5 to 67.0% ( 61/91 ) . <p> The overall mean value for the responses to all 8 questions by all 43 respondents was 3.12 on the 5-point scale . The mean rating scores were 3.4 for those who kept their device ( table 2 ) and 1.9 for those who did not ( table 3 ) . The highest overall mean value was 3.6 for the BiCROS corded device , and the lowest was 1.1 for both the CROS and the BiCROS cordless models . Discussion <p> The original CROS hearing aid was described by Harford and Barry in 1965 as a prosthesis to assist hearing in patients who have one ear that is too impaired to be aided and the other that is normal or nearly normal. ( n8 ) One of the effects of the CROS device is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ been demonstrated that significant decreases in sound pressure level occur when signals are presented from the poorer-hearing side of the skull . The amount of reduction in sound pressure level is frequency-dependent ; the greatest decreases occur at high frequencies ( shorter wavelengths ) -- that is , frequencies above 1,500 Hz by 7 to as much as 30 dB. ( n8-n10 ) Because consonants are the most informative speech elements and are characteristically carried in the high frequencies , speech understanding is significantly degraded in patients with significant reductions in sound pressure level . Speech discrimination is further impaired in patients with asymmetric hearing loss by ambient masking noise and the absence of binaural summation . Individuals with asymmetric heating loss experience significant decreases in sound localization , as well as understanding , in noise or with sound presented to the poorer side because of the head shadow effect . The head shadow effect is theoretically restored by placing a microphone in the poorer ear and routing sound to the better ear . <p> Modifications of the CROS system have included the introduction of dual microphones to mix and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ better ear. ( n4 , n7 ) Important to this setup is the use of open ear molds in the better ear to attenuate low-frequency sounds and reduce occlusion effects in that ear . The acoustic benefit of open ear molds and the high-frequency emphasis produced have been shown to improve speech intelligibility. ( n11 ) The additional benefit of permitting greater gain secondary to increased microphone and receiver distance has been postulated. ( n4 ) <p> Vague preliminary selection criteria for CROS candidacy were originally defined by Harford and Dodds. ( n4 ) Their criteria include ( 1 ) the presence of severe unilateral hearing loss with some accompanying loss in the better ear , although not enough to warrant an ordinary hearing aid ; ( 2 ) a high demand on listening ; and ( 3 ) a high level of patient motivation. ( n4 ) Harford and Barry added that ( 1 ) a patient 's age at the onset of hearing loss is not a factor in the degree of success or failure of CROS aids , ( 2 ) mild-gain instruments should suffice for CROS @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ helping a patient decide whether to commit to a CROS device is his or her experience while actually using one during regular daily activities. ( n8 ) Additional research has been done in an attempt to better define the optimal CROS or BiCROS candidate and to improve methods of fitting these devices. ( n12-n15 ) <p> Despite system modifications , improvements in fitting methods , and some early reports ( n13 , n15 , n16 ) describing the benefits of CROS and BiCROS hearing aids , their use has remained limited , partly because other reports ( n12 , n14 , n17 ) and anecdotal accounts have detailed minimal benefits , numerous complaints , and low overall success rates . In addition , comparison studies of CROS and BiCROS with other methods of unilateral aural rehabilitation have found the former lacking. ( n18-n20 ) Common complaints include poor performance in high ambient noise and increased distortion . However , the relatively recent development of digital signal processing holds some promise for improving the CROS and BiCROS devices , although few studies have been performed . Although some problems have been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subsequent good-ear masking , the lack of success is most likely attributable to a complex set of variables that includes poor patient motivation , unrealistic expectations , limited impairment , and other as yet unidentified factors. ( n21 ) <p> Our study demonstrated that patient satisfaction with the new generation of digital CROS and BiCROS hearing aids was higher than that seen in previously reported studies . The acceptance rates in our study ranged from 33.3 to 78.1% , compared with only 10 to 20% for analog devices. ( n20 ) Furthermore , our study demonstrated that the corded devices are more popular than cordless models , which is consistent with other reports in the literature. ( n20 ) <p> In addition to the benefits of digital technology , the high level of acceptance of these hearing aids in our study can be attributed to appropriate candidate selection , proper fitting , and close follow-up . Therefore , we believe that CROS and BiCROS corded heating aids should again be offered as a viable alternative for patients with asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss . Acknowledgments <p> The authors thank Art Gagnon @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Corinne North for helping with the data . <p> Reprint request : Jessica Stevens , Cooordinator , Ear Research Foundation , Silverstein Institute , 1901 Floyd St. , Sarasota , FL 34239 . Phone : ( 941 ) 365-0367 ; fax ( 941 ) 556-4211 ; e-mail : **33;4584;TOOLONG Table 1 . Number ( % ) of patients who accepted and number ( % ) of patients who returned their hearing aid at the end of the 30-day trial PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 2 . Questionnaire responses ( mean values ) by 34 of 66 patients who kept their hearing aid(*) PREFORMATTED TABLE Table 3 . Questionnaire response ( mean values ) by 9 of 25 patients who returned their hearing aid(*) PREFORMATTED TABLE Figure 2 . The CROS and BiCROS questionnaire . Your experience with your new CROS/BiCROS hearing aid has been enjoyable ? You are able to locate where sound is coming from ? You are able to understand speech in background noise , groups , and restaurants better ? You are able to hear better in the car ? You are able to hear better using the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ feels you 're hearing better ? Are you satisfied overall with your new CROS/ BiCROS ? Would you recommend a CROS/BiCROS to other hearing-impaired people ? <p>

@@4020341 Although there is a growing body of literature on students ' transition from middle school to high school , much of the literature fails to take into consideration the distinctive racial and environmental circumstances of African American students . This article reviews literature related to the transitioning of African American students and discusses the unique challenges that African American students experience during adolescence . Counseling interventions are delineated and implications for school counseling professionals also are discussed . <p> The process of transitioning from middle school/junior high to high school is one of the many developmental challenges that students face in their adolescent lives . This process constitutes an " ecological transition " that involves changes in the environment as well as changes in the role of the student ( Newman , Myers , Newman , Lohman , &; Smith , 2000 ) . Research indicates that during this transition period , specifically in the school year following transition , many students experience a decrease in their academic achievement and grade point average ( Reyes , Gillock , Kobus , &; Sanchez , 2000 ) . Minority students , in particular , seem to be at a greater risk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Newman et al. ; Reyes et al . ) . The purpose of this article is to review the literature related to the process of transitioning from middle to high school for a particular minority population -- African American students . Also , implications for school counselors are provided . <p> The transition to high school has been found to bring about increased stress levels , decreased self-esteem , deteriorated academic performance , and heightened risk for maladjustment ( Alvidrez &; Weinstein , 1993 ) . In addition , the process of transitioning from middle to high school involves a new environment and new roles and behaviors for the student ( Reyes et al. , 2000 ) . These include increased student population size and heterogeneity ; changes in school day structure ; more teachers with a variety of teaching styles , rules , and expectations ; higher stakes grading ; and stricter school policies ( Reyes et al . ) . Research shows that a student 's grades , self-esteem , and sense of academic efficacy are likely to decline after the transition to high school ( Fuligni , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> In addition to academic demands , beginning high school students also may become distracted by the increased complexity , of social interactions that are fostered within the high school environment ( Newman et al. , 2000 ) . Peers emphasize fitting in and belonging , and this can be a great source of pressure and anxiety for many students ( Isakson &; Jarvis , 1999 ) . Further , due to the increase in the number of students , the high school environment can become a more anonymous setting than the middle school environment . For example , students who were top scholars and athletes in middle school may experience role loss when they arrive in high school ( Newman et al . ) . Although a slight drop in grades and other adjustment difficulties may surface post-transition , the long-term outcomes following transition are largely determined by the ability of the student to cope with and manage change in the new environment ( Isakson &; Jarvis ) . <p> The literature related to middle-to-high school transitioning pays special attention to how environments affect individuals and how interactions between @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Airman , &; Stelzner , 2000 ) . Using an ecological perspective , some authors ( Fraser &; Wahlberg , 1991 ) pointed to the importance of interdependence in the transitioning process . Changes in any part of an interrelated system , according to these authors , will affect changes in other parts of the system . Understanding the changes that adolescents encounter during school transition and the effects of these changes on students ' adaptation is facilitated through this person-environment interactive framework . As such , transition-related changes in the school environment will require adaptive changes in the students ' roles and behaviors ( Kelly et al . ) . <p> This person-environment interaction perspective in the literature has been found to depend greatly on school characteristics . For example , the difficulties that students encounter during school transition have been attributed to the significant differences they encounter between their primary and secondary school environments ( Eccles et al. , 1993 ) . The high school , when compared to elementary schools , typically has a larger student body and is more varied in terms of racial , socioeconomic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; Smith , 1990 ) . Factors such as more departmentalized curriculum programming and whole class instruction can create a more competitive atmosphere in high schools and therefore can complicate the adaptation of students , generate student passivity and irresponsibility , and decrease responsiveness to individual student needs ( Lee , Bryk , &; Smith , 1993 ) . <p> Teachers also play a role in the school transition process . As students ' primary contact in a school , teachers largely reflect a school 's ability to be responsive to students ' needs ( Fraser &; Wahlberg , 1991 ) . However , high schools typically are characterized by greater teacher control and authority , more rigid discipline , and less personal attention from teachers ( Reyes , Gillock , &; Kobus , 1994 ) . This is largely due to the large numbers of students taught at the high school level . Teaching and providing services to large numbers of students at the high school level usually requires more formalized rules and regulations ( Lee et al. , 1993 ) , which can in turn create a more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and increased numbers of students not attending school , failing , or dropping out ( Croninger &; Lee , 2001 ) . AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS TRANSITIONING TO HIGH SCHOOL <p> A limited number of studies have examined the effect that the transition process has on the academic adjustment and achievement of minority students , particularly African American students . Evidence suggests that minorities have the greatest academic difficulty following the move to middle-level schools and high school ( Simmons , Black , &; Zhou , 1991 ) . In 1996 , Gillock and Reyes examined the influence of school personnel perceptions and self-perceptions on the academic performance of 71 minority ( e.g. , Latino and African American ) eighth graders during their transition to high school . The authors noted that it was predominately students ' perceptions of their teachers that significantly affected their self-perceptions and their academic performance . In addition , they found support for the claim that students ' academic performance and attendance rates declined as part of the transition to high school . In another study , Reyes et al . ( 2000 ) tracked eighth-grade @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their final year of elementary/middle school ( K-8 ) through their transition to high school and up until their expected time of high school completion . They found that the minority students who eventually graduated from high school and the minority students who dropped out of high school both showed a decrease in grade point average following the middle-to-high school transition . In addition , the students who dropped out of school showed a sharper decline in grades and attendance in the ninth grade . <p> In a study of 22 African American high- and low-performing ninth-grade students , Newman et al . ( 2000 ) found that post-transition high performers had greater notions of what was needed for them to be successful in high school and had more friends who were supportive of academics when compared with low performers . Family support and adjusting to a new school also were noted as important variables to the high-performing and low-performing students ' achievement in ninth grade . Likewise , the students reported that adjusting to a new school with " more difficult " work , organization of classes , length @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ important aspects of whether or not they were successful in school . The low-performing students seemed to fall into three distinct categories : ( a ) students who were struggling with the fact that ninth grade was harder , ( b ) students who were distracted by the social aspects of the new environment , and ( c ) students who were showing a disconnection from school altogether ( e.g. , low attendance , not completing schoolwork ) . <p> These dramatic changes in school performance as minority students move to high school suggest that declines in engagement in school may not simply be a process of adolescence but may be shaped by the experiences and academic and social environments that African American students encounter in high schools . The next sections will address five unique challenges that may influence the transitioning of African American adolescents : stereotyping , scarcity of positive role models , lack of culturally competent schools , ethnic identity development , and emotional/behavioral reactions to discrimination . Stereotyping <p> In addition to navigating the developmental milestones of adolescence , African American students typically are exposed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Kao , 2000 ) . Solomon ( 1989 ) investigated the impact of racial stereotyping upon African American students ' high school experiences . He argued that schools foster the belief that African Americans are " sportsmen " and not academics . This inherently sends the message that African American students are not expected to academically excel , according to Solomon . In a similar manner , Hurst ( 1992 ) argued that students of different races receive systematically different treatment by their teachers based on stereotypes . He used the concept of the " self-fulfilling prophecy " to argue that stereotypes of different racial groups shape the ways in which teachers interact with their students , which in turn cause their expectations to become manifested in their students ' behavior . Consequently , Hurst posited that stereotyping leads to the increased use of tracking in high schools and tracking makes it more likely that African American students will be placed in classrooms that further increase academic and opportunity gaps between student groups . <p> The stereotyping of African American males in school settings has been heavily cited in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stereotypes include believing that African American males are hostile , volatile , academically inferior , and emotionally disturbed . As a result of these stereotyped beliefs , African American males are disproportionately affected by the increased emphasis on discipline in many schools . Simmons et al . ( 1991 ) found that African American males showed the greatest increase in the incidence of suspensions after the transition to middle school . Also , the trend in schools toward get-tough policies has disproportionately affected African American males . Thus , high schools are too often environments in which African American males are stereotyped and consequently marginalized and unsupported . <p> Negative stereotypes also can become internalized , which in turn undermines African American students ' motivation to achieve ( Swanson , Cunningham , &; Spencer , 2003 ) . The internalization of stereotypes places African American students in a vulnerable position and creates what Steele ( 1999 ) has called " stereotype threat . " Stereotype threat is essentially the fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm a negative stereotype . This phenomenon , according to Steele , either can @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ such extreme anxiety that he or she is incapable of performing . The influence of stereotype threat on African American students during the transition process is unknown . Scarcity of Positive Role Models <p> The salience of ethnicity in the shaping of behavior through modeling recently has been investigated and positive modeling has been determined as a significant factor in African American student achievement ( e.g. , Spencer &; Markstrom-Adams , 1990 ) . Nevertheless , the media is replete with negative images and models for African American adolescents . Often these images include African Americans suffering from substance abuse , delinquency , incarceration , homicide , low academic achievement , unemployment , and poverty . In addition to the lack of positive role models in the media , many African American communities are lacking appropriate role models as well . According to Ascher ( 1992 ) , the flight of middle-class African Americans from inner-city neighborhoods and the high incidence of unemployment among the African Americans who remain have resulted in a lack of appropriate mainstream role models in many African American urban communities . In addition , Ascher @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all teachers are African American men . High schools , therefore , are in need of acquiring more " positive " role models for young African American students , particularly African American males . <p> Assibey-Mensah ( 1997 ) conducted a national survey of 4,500 African American males , ranging from ages 10 to 18 , in order to determine whom African American boys perceive as their role models . A major finding of his study was the overwhelming choice of athletes or sports figures as role models by all age groups , ranging from 85% for the 10-year-olds to 98% for the 18-year-olds . Assibey-Mensah suggested that the lack of interest in choosing educators as role models could be explained by the students ' lack of exposure to African Americans in their schools . Hence , interaction between African American students and positive African American role models in schools is critical to the success of these students . Lack of Culturally Competent Schools <p> A school 's cultural insensitivity or lack of cultural congruence with minority students and their families also can influence the transition process . Researchers have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in their African American students , by perpetuating existing social inequalities between Whites and African Americans , and by their depreciation of African American culture and accomplishment . African American students ' cultural characteristics have been found to alter their experiences of school in that there tends to be a language and cultural schism between schools and students ( Fordham , 1996 ) . Fordham contends that schools invert African American culture by asking students to endorse such values as individual competition and autonomy . Such values , she contends , stand in opposition to African American values of kinship and group orientation . <p> Furthermore , much of the literature on African American student achievement has focused on the distrust between African American parents and school personnel . Many studies have indicated that African American parents feel as if their parenting skills and values are questioned or criticized by school personnel . Cultural or socioeconomic differences in verbal and nonverbal language may be contributing factors to these negative perceptions of African American parents . Kalyanpur and Rao ( 1991 ) found that low-income African American mothers of children with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as " experts . " The authors also reported that the mothers felt empowered when their input was valued . <p> In a study focused on the alienation of urban high school students , Fine ( 1991 ) found that schools alienated unsuccessful students ( many of whom were African American ) by silencing their cultures , norms , and practices . She concluded that low-performing minority students hear two opposing messages -- one from their families of hope and mobility and another from their school of deficiency and helplessness . In other words , minority students know the importance of education but feel humiliated by those who educate them . Ethnic Identity Development <p> Ethnic identity development can have a major impact on transitioning to high school for African American students . In middle school , many students are beginning to explore their identity by considering who they are and what makes them unique individuals ( Vernon , 1993 ) . They become more aware of their own capacity to make decisions and choices . They begin to focus in new ways on questions of identity development , such @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ I good at ? " and " What affiliations and activities make me feel valued and competent ? " Adolescents begin to look around them , to their status among their peers , to clues they receive from adults , and even to the larger society and media , for messages about who they are and what they could become . For adolescents who are members of racial or ethnic minority groups , this task is particularly complicated given the complex and confusing messages they receive about their identity . <p> In a study of 297 African American adolescents , McCreary , Slavin , and Berry ( 1996 ) found that high racial identity was a significant factor in the successful handling of stress , as well as in the lower rate of participation in problem behaviors . The process of ethnic identity development is important to the overall development of African American youth because it has been shown to be associated with the psychological adjustment of adolescents , including the development of their positive self-image and their sense of belonging ( Phinney , 1989 ) . For example , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of ethnic identity and global self-worth on aggression , coping , and adjustment among 209 urban African American students in grades 5 through 8 . They found that a greater sense of ethnic identity was significantly related to higher levels of cognitive decision-making , direct problem solving , seeking understanding , and positive cognitive restructuring in African American adolescents . Further , African American students may feel a disconnect between their sense of ethnic identity and expectations for their achievement ( Oyserman , Harrison , &; Bybee , 2001 ) . For instance , Kao ( 2000 ) found that high academic achievement was equated with " acting White " rather than " acting Black " among African American high school students . Emotional Adjustment to Discrimination <p> African American students ' transition to high school also might be influenced by their emotional adjustment to discrimination . African American adolescents ' poor academic performance and tenuous emotional adjustment have been documented extensively in the literature ( Bailey &; Paisley , 2004 ; Lee , 1996 ) . Depression ( Hammack , Robinson , Crawford , &; Li , 2004 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; Schoeny , 2004 ) , family dysfunction ( Cunningham , Swanson , Spencer , &; Dupree , 2003 ) , and community distress ( Noguera , 2003 ) all have been cited as possible variables in the lack of academic and social progress of African American students . Some researchers have even found that school-related stress is experienced more by African American students than White students ( Fordham &; Ogbu , 1986 ) . Munsch and Wampler ( 1993 ) suggested that school-related stress precipitates a particularly damaging process among African American early adolescents that disconnects them from the school environment and leads to additional problematic behaviors and a greater likelihood of eventually dropping out . <p> Other research has focused on racial socialization or how African American students cope with community and personal obstacles such as poverty , substandard housing , and inferior schools ( Sayfer , 1994 ) . Peters ( 1985 ) defined racial socialization as the " tasks Black parents share with all parents -- providing for and raising children . but include the responsibility of raising physically and emotionally healthy children who are Black @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " ( p. 161 ) . Spencer and Markstrom-Adams ( 1990 ) pointed out that if African American parents do n't socialize their children regarding racial issues and prejudice , they leave their children vulnerable to racial stress . In other words , racial socialization can act as a buffer against a hostile and discriminatory environment . IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS <p> In response to the need for African American students to meet the academic demands and challenges of high school , it is important for counselors to provide the needed academic support for African American students entering high school . Clearly , tutoring programs and academic support activities would be advantageous for African American students who are having academic difficulties . Because few schools have classes on how to study , counselors might want to provide study skills courses for ninth-grade students , particularly African American students . Many African American students lack study skills and need to be taught how to study . Their parents , likewise , may need to attend courses that explain how to structure routine study times and schedules for their children . These @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ African American students and parents in order to meet their specific needs . For instance , African American parents might be more receptive to having a local African American agency or church supply tutors for their children ; or students might prefer having study groups at a local community center on Saturday mornings as opposed to after school . In other words , the academic support activities should be developed in conjunction with feedback from African American parents and students . <p> As mentioned previously , given the lack of positive African American role models in many schools and communities , mentoring programs specifically designed for African American students provide an invaluable support for these students . Mentoring programs may focus on academic and personal/ social issues that are relevant to African American students . For instance , Utsey , Howard , and Williams ( 2003 ) developed a group mentoring model for African American at-risk male adolescents that increased their sense of self-concept and lessened their behavioral problems in school . According to Tucker ( 1999 ) , mentoring can play a major role in providing consistent help and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that finding African American adults who have the time to be mentors and who meet many of the traditional standards of mentoring programs can be problematic . <p> Counselors who work with eighth- and ninth-grade students also might want to hold orientation meetings with small groups of students before they leave middle school and during the beginning of their ninth-grade year . Ongoing support groups that emphasize ethnic identity issues as well as transition issues should be made available to ninth-grade African American students . In addition to support groups , counselors might initiate peer-mentoring programs for ninth-grade African American students . Matching ninth-grade African American students with African American students who have successfully transitioned to high school would enable the ninth-grade student to have a support system beyond the adults at the school . <p> Many African American students , especially those who do not transition successfully to high school , lack definitive goals or short-term school goals . Goals are important for self-motivation and they promote behaviors such as studying and doing homework ( Tucker , 1999 ) . Counselors should provide opportunities for African American students in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to achieve in school and in future careers . African American students will frequently be unaware of the connection between what they want to do and the time and energy that they expend . It is , therefore , important for counselors , teachers , and African American students/families to work together to provide opportunities for students to identify short- and long-term goals . <p> Research indicates that African American adolescents ' perceptions of the quality of their school environment and the quality of their relationships with peers and teachers decline markedly as they move into secondary schools ( Reyes et al. , 1994 ) . Teachers ' reliance on stereotypes and prior expectations causes African American students to be at a disadvantage . School counselors can improve the transition of African American students by challenging their colleagues ' stereotypes of African American students . One way to challenge colleagues is by utilizing data to highlight disparities between African American ninth-grade students and their White peers . These data might include grades , test scores , attendance records , discipline records , and extracurricular memberships . By monitoring and keeping @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ discussions on teacher expectations , the influence of stereotypes on instruction and school culture , and how staff can challenge " myths " about student ethnic groups . In addition , literature on topics such as the effects of teacher perceptions on African American students ' achievement and the transition of African American students to high school might be distributed to staff before professional development activities . In essence , the goal would be to emphasize the role that teachers play in the academic achievement and transition of African American students . <p> Research also indicates that adolescents whose parents maintain high involvement and support during high school do significantly better and are more likely to adopt positive coping strategies ill response to academic difficulty and stress ( Newman et al. , 2000 ) . Thus , it is crucial for counselors to educate parents and community members on the issues and challenges experienced by African American students . African American parents of middle school students should be invited and strongly encouraged to participate in informational meetings about high school policies . At these meetings , counselors , teachers , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ important information about the culture of high school and important policies that are different from the middle school . Information such as scheduling procedures , teacher expectations , class sizes , security issues , and attendance policies should be discussed with parents . Current African American high school students also should be invited to share their experiences and recommendations . In addition , information for parents on how to manage adolescent behavior and the influence of ethnicity on adolescent development should be shared . Counselors may want to invite experts on African American child development to speak at parent meetings . It is critical , however , that counselors invite African American parents to share their " success stories " at these meetings and gatherings . Having parents share their expertise and knowledge is essential for developing equitable partnerships and collaborative relationships . <p> Managing the stress and demands of transitions requires that students have coping resources that provide both motivation and strategies for working through problems associated with stereotyping and discrimination . Constantine , Donnelly , and Myers ( 2002 ) examined the relationships between dimensions of collective self-esteem @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ adolescents . They found that adolescents with higher public collective self-esteem ( i.e. , the belief that others feel positively about their cultural group ) reported greater use of spiritual-centered Africultural coping styles to deal with stressful situations . Their results also revealed that higher importance given to identity collective self-esteem ( i.e. , the belief that their cultural group is an important part of their self-concept ) was related to greater use of collective coping strategies . Clearly , counselors must facilitate African American students ' coping efficacy by promoting their public and identity collective self-esteem . <p> Counseling strategies that promote effective coping strategies might include ( a ) school-wide cultural/racial appreciation activities , ( b ) stress management and problem-solving training specifically tailored to African American students , ( c ) anger management activities , ( d ) sharing among African American students about strategies that they have found to be effective for coping with stress and feelings of incompetence , and ( e ) motivational discussions between African American ninth graders and African American students who have transitioned successfully . <p> Finally , negative stereotypes of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ students feeling less competent and less efficacious in shaping their school performance , and with negative coping reactions ( Steele , 1999 ) . Although many African American youth are clear about the negative payoffs of dropping out , the lack of clear payoffs to persistence and of well-defined pathways to success makes it difficult to invest in the future ( Oyserman , Gant , &; Ager , 1997 ) . School counselors must assist African American students to see a clear payoff to education by collaborating with African Americans in the community who are willing to mentor and guide young African American youth . Also , counselors can assist African American students by promoting the identification and recognition of their strengths and talents in their schools . School-wide initiatives in high schools in which African American students are consistently recognized for their strengths and accomplishments are needed in order to promote their self-worth and self-efficacy . By focusing on African American students ' strengths rather than their deficits , their coping with a new environment will be less difficult . CONCLUSIONS <p> It is paramount that schools , particularly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ students the best opportunities possible and that are not places in which only the resilient can be successful . There are many academic , personal , and social changes that adolescents undergo as they transition to high school . This article has highlighted the unique challenges of African American students who are transitioning to high school and has outlined counseling interventions that might be used for this population . The practice implications in this area are vast and warrant the immediate attention of school counseling professionals . Considering the widening achievement and opportunity gaps between African American and White students , it is critical that counselors address the issues and strategies raised in this article ( e.g. , stereotyping of African American students , low teacher expectations , peer mentoring ) . Clearly , if school counselors are aware of and act on these issues , African American students ' transition from middle to high school will be more of a seamless process . <p>

@@4020441 Section : FEATURE ARTICLE <p> SCHOOLCHILDREN WHO ARE GRIEVING MAY SUFFER FROM AN INABILITY TO FOCUS ATTENTION ON INSTRUCTION AND RETAIN LEARNING . HOWEVER , TRAUMATIC AND EMOTIONALLY PAINFUL EXPERIENCES BEAR SIMILARITIES TO AESTHETIC EXPERIENCES IN THAT THEY INITIATE QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WORKINGS OF THE WORLD . THE IMAGINATIVE MIND MAKES SENSE OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE THROUGH IMAGE , VISUAL AND LINGUISTIC RHYTHM , METAPHOR , AND SIMPLE NARRATIVE , WHICH ARE THE STUFF OF PICTURE BOOKS . PICTURE BOOKS , THEREFORE , MAY BE PARTICULARLY USEFUL TOOLS FOR REASSURING CHILDREN WHO ARE IN EMOTIONAL DISTRESS . RECOMMENDATIONS ARE MADE FOR PICTURE BOOKS THAT ADDRESS ISSUES OF SEPARATION AND DEATH , WAR AND HUMAN CONFLICT , AND NATURAL DISASTER . CHILDREN WHO ARE SUFFERING EMOTIONAL DISTRESS , AS WELL AS THEIR SYMPATHETIC CLASSMATES , MIGHT BENEFIT FROM DISCUSSIONS INSPIRED BY SENSITIVELY CONSTRUCTED PICTURE BOOKS . <p> In their efforts to focus student attention on academic achievement , educators aim to prepare classrooms as sheltered spaces where children may work undisturbed by the woes of the world beyond the schoolyard walls . Yet , however diligently educators may strive to prohibit worldly sorrows , disappointment and misfortune will spill into classrooms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ learn . Unhappiness adversely affects a student 's ability to focus attention on instruction , and it impedes retention of information ( Goleman , 1995 ) . Because visual and audible rhythms and sensitively constructed narratives have been found to have calming , therapeutic affects on emotional suffering , picture books may be particularly helpful resources for reassuring emotionally distressed children and redirecting their attentions back to classroom instruction . THE AESTHETICS OF SORROW <p> The notion of the picture book as potential agent of emotional healing is grounded in an understanding of emotionally painful experiences as characteristically similar to aesthetic experiences ( Csikszentmihalyi , 1997 ) . Csikszentmihalyi describes the aesthetic experience as unfolding in a sequenced order . A sensory stimulus triggers a powerful emotional response , which compels one to pose fundamental questions : " What does this mean ? " " Why did this happen ? " and " What do I do now ? " If one can put attention to work ordering and making sense of the triggering event , one may ultimately arrive at a sense of resolution or of being somehow qualitatively @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , curiosity is stimulated and learning occurs ( Manifold , 2005 ) . Picture books may play a role in this process , given that art images draw on feelings , abstract memories , and metaphoric associations whereas narratives spark the reader 's imagination to weave explanation and meaning . Images with narratives become tools of imaginative thinking in guiding young readers through and out of sorrow . STRATEGIES OF IMAGINATION <p> Egan 's stages of imagination ( 1997,2005 ) present a framework for making sense of emotionally painful experiences . Egan understands imaginative thought as the sine qua non of meaning making and argues that imagination awakens in evolutionary stages as somatic , mythic , romantic , philosophic , and ironic thought . From early somatic through mythic stages , the specialized cognitive abilities that contribute to meaning making and learning include ( a ) response to rhythm as a means of finding attunement with the natural world and with an intimate community ; ( b ) using metaphor as a bridging of abstract and logical thinking ; and ( c ) developing narrative as ordering , organizing , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time , space , and things . <p> Egan describes romantic thinking as the imaginative process used by elementary and middle school students between the ages of 7 and 14 to make sense of the world . During the romantic stage , children organize knowledge as narratives bound by binary opposites , such as good and bad or life and death . As romantic thinkers mature , these stories grow increasingly complex with multiple subplots and layered meanings . There is a need to explore extremes and depths of these opposites and to list , collect , and catalogue in minute detail the ground between opposing polarities . There is a sense of awe , wonder , and curiosity about what lies at the parameters of the ordinary ; these give clues to how the world works . The romantic imagination wonders how pieces of the world fit together . Puzzles , riddles , and metaphysical conundrums compel a pitting of wits against the logical universe ; to solve a puzzle is to see the universe as within grasp . <p> Youth beyond early adolescence are capable of engaging philosophic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ earlier stages , deeper and more complex understandings of the universe are sought . Dualistic distinctions and parameters are challenged and collapsed onto an ambiguous ground . The philosophic thinker searches beneath the surfaces of ideas and phenomena for subtleties and complexities ; he or she entertains multiple interpretations and seeks to know the viewpoint of others . Eventually , philosophic imagination may lead to an acceptance of the ultimate irony -- that secrets of the universe may never be known , yet life has meaning within this mystery . THE HEALING POWERS OF IMAGINATION AND PICTURE BOOKS <p> When a person encounters a deeply stressful situation , regardless of the imaginative developmental stage that he or she might normally be in , the human instinct is to call on the early , deeply rooted somatic and mythic tools of visual rhythm and metaphoric synesthesia to regain harmony with the world ; for example , an injured child may rock herself to internalize comfort . The most sensitively composed picture books allow narratives to unfold slowly in a rhythmic fashion similar to this physical motion or to the gentle cadence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and other meaning-making processes associated with somatic and mythic stages of imaginative work . Picture stories also may deal with life problems in ways that alternately highlight , then soften the romantic boundaries between dualistic opposites of good and bad , thus preparing a space between polarities that might be explored . The most sensitively designed books stimulate philosophic or ironic modes of imaginative thought in ways that can be appreciated by readers of all ages and in all the developmental stages described by Egan . SELECTING APPROPRIATE PICTURE BOOKS <p> Words and images of a thoughtfully composed book are woven in ways that lead readers along narrow paths toward an author 's notion of how that universal question that has been posed by the narrative tale might be resolved . Readers do not need to attend critically to details and nuances of the visual tale , because the imaginative mind responds intuitively to subtle rhythmic , metaphoric , and narrative cues as it is swept along toward the story 's finale . For this reason , parents , teachers , and teacher-librarians who share picture books with students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ illustrator provide . If picture books are to elicit the calming and healing effects of imagination , it is important that the answer proposed by the author and illustrator <p> -- treat the universal question with dignity ; <p> -- take an ecumenical approach to the answer ; <p> -- avoid presenting the answer as an absolute certainty , thereby allowing room for a reader 's imaginative interpretation ; and <p> -- carefully balance and harmonize the book 's imagery with its narrative text in a dance of synesthesia . <p> Because readers do not need to critically consider the interplay of image and texts to experience the messages of picture books , making therapeutic picture books available to all children as reading choices in the school library setting would allow any anxious child to explore personally painful topics in a private way . However , when it is known that a particular child is in emotional distress , teachers might be encouraged to engage the entire class indirectly in discussions of the stressful issue through the mediation of picture books . Children should be drawn to notice details of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Children in the romantic stage of imaginative development might be particularly responsive to comparing visual elements of extreme contrast , such as gently expressive facial features set against harsh colors or shapes . Attention might also be drawn to dreamy visual sequences that mirror the poetic consonance or alliterative rhythm of text , deeply toned or sharply outlined forms used as visual onomatopoeia , or stunningly beautiful images used to describe sorrowful emotions or events . Such close attention to detail permits the viewer/reader to identify with the story , project his emotional feelings and responses outward , consider these feelings intellectually , and reprocess them in an ordered way . Both the suffering child and her classmates may benefit as each is led to more empathetic understanding of self and others through the mediation of the picture book . PICTURE BOOKS ABOUT SEPARATION AND DEATH <p> When death separates a child from a loved one , in the child 's despairing loneliness , she may wonder , Where does the life essence of the loved one go ? How might the chasm of separation be spanned and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ I love and who will love me now that my beloved is gone ? The beautifully illustrated Carmine the Crow ( Holder , 1992 ) and An Angel for Solomon Singer ( Rylant , 1992 ) suggest passage into death as a subtle dreamlike refocusing of attention from unhappiness to a state of awakened joy and beauty . These are comforting images for the child whose loved one suffered before death . The Moon Quilt ( Warner , 2001 ) presents the subtle transition to death as one that occurs at the completion of a full and happy life . However , because these stories focus on the experience of death as a gentle conclusion to life , they offer no explanation for lives cut short , nor do they suggest how those left behind might address feelings of loss and separation . These issues are addressed in books such as A Pillow for My Mom ( Sgouros , 1998 ) , which looks at a child 's loss of her young mother ; Abuelita 's Paradise ( Nodar , 1992 ) , which suggests how one may remember the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Fraustino , 2001 ) , which reassures the continuance of love long after death . These books are appropriate for younger children . Granddad 's Prayers of the Earth ( Wood , 1999 ) , Waiting to Sing ( Kaplan , 2000 ) , and Through the Mickle Woods ( Gregory , 1992 ) are works that call on philosophic and iconic imagination and , therefore , might comfort older children . <p> Children who are temporarily separated from a parent may wonder if they are still loved . Zolotow ( 2002 ) and Vitale ( illustrator ) address this topic in the gentle storybook If You Listen . Temporary separation also is tenderly addressed in Coming on Home Soon ( Woodson , 2004 ) and the painfully beautiful Always My Dad ( Wyeth , 1994 ) . The exquisite mood picture-poetry of My Men Blue ( Grimes , 1999 ) is told in the voice of a fatherless boy . To children who have been abandoned or have never known a biological parent , the story offers hope that a caring adult might love them . These visual @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who long to be reunited with absent parents . As such , they challenge children 's romantic notions of what family life should or should not be . Although these stories do not pretend that the pain of missing or longing for a parent might be removed , they guide children to a philosophic acceptance of love under less-than-ideal circumstances . <p> The loss of a beloved pet may be traumatic for students and , for many children , may represent a first experience with death . Among the more sensitively developed books dealing with this topic are I 'll Always Love You ( Wilhelm , 1990 ) and Viorst ( 1971 ) and Blegvad 's ( illustrator ) classic work The Tenth Good Thing About Barney . Children also may deeply mourn the loss of familiar places and things . What You Know First ( MacLachlan , 1995 ) , My Name Is Yoon ( Recorvits , 2003 ) , and In the Small , Small Night ( Kurtz , 2005 ) remind us that self-identity is embedded in environment , culture , and language . Many children of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of self that might be comforted in knowing that others have suffered similarly and found resolution . <p> Sky Sash So Blue ( Hathorn , 1998 ) sets its story against the backdrop of 19th-century slavery . Yet , older elementary school readers may recognize this as having metaphorical significance . Sorrow may be a kind of enslavement , and the unsympathetic mistress of this tale may be an analogy of the indifferent world beyond one 's intimate local community . Children of the romantic stage who explore the book may -- with guidance from a caring adult , parent , teacher , or teacher-librarian -- come to understand the blue sash as a symbol of secretly held hopes , dreams , and wishes that might one day come true , not by magic outside of self , but through human efforts to bring them into being . PICTURE BOOKS ABOUT WAR AND HUMAN CONFLICT <p> War is especially problematic as a topic of classroom discussion , given that even within a single classroom or community , children and their parents may hold different points of view about the correctness @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disagree about how wars should be initiated or played out . In some instances , a parent or member of the extended family of a child may be involved in combat . Therefore , educators should be aware of the degree to which children within a given classroom might be personally affected by conflict , before initiating classroom discussions of the topic . The views expressed must quiet , not increase the fears and concerns of children about war ; however , the conversation must not sugarcoat the cruelties of human conflict . <p> Although as educators we hope that our students will never experience war firsthand or come to harm from its effects , it is important that schoolchildren be sympathetic to the suffering of those who have experienced such tumult . Through powerful narratives and understated imagery or through poetic descriptions of small details that serve as metaphors for overwhelming realities , books such as Sami and the Time of the Troubles ( Heide &; Gilliland , 1995 ) , The Roses in My Carpets ( Kahn , 1998 ) , and I Never Sow Another Butterfly : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1942-1944 ( Volavkova , 1994 ) deal with the awful consequences of war . Yet , these stories do answer the question of why or how people come to inflict such suffering on one another . <p> Like most adults , children are helpless to resolve the complex issues that escalate to war , incapable of processing the irrationality of war , and bewildered by the magnitude of suffering that war produces . They might , however , be led to recognize the genesis of all conflict and war as residing in individual decisions . Through somber colors that mirror the heartbreaking message of Terrible Things : An Allegory of the Holocaust ( Bunting , 1989 ) , young and old readers are led to see that the seeds of war lie in a lack of caring or concern for others . The wordless picture book Why ? ( Popov , 1998 ) , lushly illustrated Feathers and Fools ( Fox , 2000 ) , and child-centered I am I ( Fitzpatrick , 2006 ) appeal to romantic imaginations and , through analogy , suggest how extremes of violent behavior @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and intolerance . Picture stories that project ideals of acceptance , forgiveness , and compassion may empower children to see how reversals of injustice and intolerance defuse conflicts . Extraordinary works that present these concepts include The Other Side ( Woodson , 2001 ) , Henry and the Kite Dragon ( Hall , 2004 ) , and the subtle fairytale The Tomten and the Fox ( Lindgren , 1997 ) . Finally , the deeply moving yet gently told tale The Rag Coat ( Mills , 1991 ) demonstrates how integrally the stories of our own lives and sorrows are intertwined with the lives of others in ways that bind us into community . Children may be guided to understand that when we hurt another , we wound ourselves . PICTURE BOOKS ABOUT NATURAL DISASTERS <p> Natural disasters , from earthquake , fire , wind , and flood , are inevitable aspects of the earth 's changes and , as such , are beyond the power of humans to contain or control . Children must be prepared to accept that catastrophic events are woven into the history of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Great Flood , Noah 's Ark ( 1977 ) , which unfolds almost entirely through imagery , tells the store of an ancient , globally experienced calamity . Although Spier visually suggests war as the cause of the flood , there is room for the reader to ponder and imagine cause and effect , while repetitive motifs of animals , gathered into pairs of two by two , comfort the disrupted senses of a frightened child . Pinkney 's more recent version of the story Noah 's Ark ( 2002 ) relies on exquisite visual texture to convey a similarly calming effect . Stories of the Flood ( Krishnaswami , 1994 ) presents nine variants of the legendary event as recalled by cultures around the world . Each offers a somewhat different explanation for the cause of the Great Flood , thus leaving the definitive cause of global disaster unresolved . However , every version of the story describes an aftermath of renewed order . <p> Because those who suffer during natural disasters wonder why this misfortune has befallen them and because some myths suggest that such things occur @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ parents , teachers , and teacher-librarians help children understand that catastrophes can and do happen to anyone , including to those who have done nothing to warrant suffering . Although people can avert certain kinds of natural disasters by respecting the ecological balance of the earth , as is suggested by Shearer 's Praying Flute : Song of the forth Mother ( 2004 ) , cataclysms of earth , fire , wind , and water are cyclical , impersonal , and pay no respect to the innocence or righteousness of the people they affect . Picture books that provide soothing visuals and rhythmic beats combined with reordering mythic motifs may be helpful in calming children 's fears of devastation . Besides Shearer 's book , examples of calmative tales include Oughton ( 1996 ) and Desimini 's ( illustrator ) How the Stars Fell Into the Sky : A Navajo Legend . Storm in the Night ( Stoltz , 1990 ) quells younger children 's fears through a visual narrative of generational continuity melded by onomatopoeic verse and nocturnal color tones . Also , books that present allusions to recurring @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Mouse ( Barbey , 2005 ) relates a transformative tale that repeats in an endless loop that may be recognized as a metaphor for cyclical change . <p> Children in the romantic stage of imaginative thinking might need direct analogies to their personal experiences , because experiences of trauma would contrast sharply with their emerging senses of justice . The Fire ( Griessman , 2005 ) relates the story of a house fire from a child 's point of view . The softly focused faces of a terrified sister and brother are contrasted against dark smoke and the menacing colors of a furious blaze . This appositional visual effect may reinforce the reader 's awareness that great loss sometimes befalls the innocent . Without resolving the conundrum question of why , the story ends with reassurance that , so long as people cling together , lives may be mended . Similar themes run through several books dealing with survival from floods . Kurtz ( 2000 ) and Brennan 's ( illustrator ) unfolding poetic story River Friendly , River Wild , the muted imagery and powerfully understated lyricism of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of excited and crowded images With flowing text in Nora 's Ark ( Kinsey-Warnock , 2005 ) all present messages about the value of life over possessions . Yet , these books also downplay the fact that people 's lives may be lost as a result of natural events . Tsunami : Helping Each Other ( Morris &; Larson , 2005 ) is a stark photo essay of how the lives of two young boys were changed forever by the Southeast Asian tsunami of 2004 . Once again , the author and illustrator describe how a community comes together to address the wounds of broken families , and readers must reach beyond notions of ideal justice and simplistic rationales of good and evil to come to terms with the capriciousness of nature 's wrath and irrevocability of death . <p> Finally , although the terminal illness that the protagonist of Sadako ( Coerr , 1997 ) faces was brought about by human-induced nuclear holocaust , its inevitability , like that of all natural events , can not be averted . Nevertheless , through powerful imagery and text , readers are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of inexorable tragedy . THE HEALING AESTHETIC OF SORROW <p> Sorrow is an emotion that can not be avoided and should not be ignored , Because the intense emotions that result from trauma or misfortune have characteristics similar to dimensions of aesthetic experiences , sorrow that is properly addressed can resolve in learning , and the imaginative mind may lift the sufferer to profound understanding . The deepest levels of imaginative understanding make meaning of the world through image , visual and linguistic rhythm , metaphor , and simple narrative . These tools , which children use to reweave psychological places of safety amid chaos , are the stuff of picture books . <p> As the imagination unfolds , it considers increasingly complex narratives and reaches beyond its fascination with extreme oppositions to comprehend ambiguities and mysteries that are beyond logical explanation . Eventually , philosophic imagination may lead to an acceptance of the ultimate irony that ordered meaning is born of chaotic mystery . Carefully constructed picture books , which attend to the imagination not only in form but also in sensitively considered philosophic content , may guide and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ experiences . Yet , these literary tools should not be reserved for the suffering child . They should be shared with and discussed among all of the student 's classmates . In this way , children may be guided to feel and act with empathetic compassion toward one another . Then , having cairned the suffering child and brought the child into the caring community of learners , the attentions of students may be refocused on tasks of academic learning . RECOMMENDED BOOKS IN THIS ARTICLE <p> Barbey , B. ( 2005 ) . Meow said the mouse ( P. Ames , Ill . ) . Berkeley , CA : Plum Blossom Books . This cyclical story of a mouse that turns into a cat serves as a metaphor for change , interdependence , and a realization that one is a part of everything . <p> Bunting , E. ( 1989 ) . Terrible things : An allegory of the Holocaust ( S. Gammell , Ill . ) . Philadelphia : Jewish Publication Society of America . As terrible things come repeatedly to the forest , selecting a different group @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to defend those different from themselves-as a result , all perish . <p> Calhoun , M. ( 1997 ) . Flood ( E. Ingraham , Ill . ) . New York : HarperCollins . A girl 's excitement in watching the Mississippi River flood its banks gives way to her desperate efforts and those of her family and community to survive its raging fury . <p> Coerr , E. ( 1997 ) . Sadako ( E. Young , Ill . ) . New York : Putnam . A young girl dying from leukemia , " the atom bomb disease , " creates origami cranes as symbols of hope . <p> Fitzpatrick , M. ( 2006 ) . I am I. New York : Roaring Book Press . An argument between two proud and boastful little boys grows bigger and bigger , until it threatens to consume them and everything around them . <p> Fox , M. ( 2000 ) . Feathers and fools ( N. Wilton , Ill . ) . New York : Harcourt . Two flocks of birds began to fear each other because of their differences . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stockpiling weapons to protect themselves -- until panic strikes and the chance for peace seems lost forever . <p> Fraustino , L. R. ( 2001 ) . The hickory chair ( B. Andrews , Ill . ) . New York : Arthur A. Levine . A blind child , who is delighted in his grandmother 's scent , voice , and touch , lovingly recalls her when he discovers a message that she left for him in an old hickory chair . <p> Gregory , V. ( 1992 ) . Through the Mickle Woods ( B. Maser , Ill . ) . New York : Little , Brown . This story within a story offers three parables that bring comfort to a grieving man . <p> Griessman , A , ( 2005 ) . The fire ( L. Gore , Ill . ) . New York : Putnam . Two children and their mother survive a fire that destroys their home . <p> Grimes , N. ( 1999 ) . My men Blue ( J. LaGarrique , Ill . ) . New York : Dial . The story of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and caring surrogate father is told through poetry and deeply toned illustrations . <p> Hall , B. E. ( 2004 ) . Henry and the kite dragon ( W. Low , Ill . ) . New York : Philomel . Cultural misunderstandings between two groups of children are ameliorated when they learn to see a contentious situation from each other 's point of view . <p> Hathorn , L. ( 1998 ) . Sky sash so blue ( B. Andrews , Ill . ) . New York : Simon &; Schuster . A slave child sacrifices a treasured piece of ribbon for the happiness of her sister and experiences joy and hope in the midst of sorrow . <p> Heide , F. P. , &; Gilliland , J. H. ( 1995 ) Sami and the time of the troubles ( T. Lewin , Ill . ) . New York : Clarion Books . In this troubling description of children and adults trapped by conditions of war , there is little relief for the protagonist , but there is hope for the future , in his decision not to continue the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ H. ( 1992 ) . Carmine the crow . New York : Farter , Straus &; Giroux . By giving his last treasures to others , an ancient crow transcends his own sufferings of loneliness and illness . <p> Kahn , R. ( 1998 ) . The roses in my carpets ( R. Himler , Ill . ) . Toronto , Ontario , Canada : Holiday House . A young war refugee learns to weave carpets and dreams of finding a place the " size of a carpet " where no bombs will harm his family . <p> Kaplan , H. ( 2000 ) . Waiting to sing . New York : Penguin / Dorling Kindersley . Family members who shared music together are torn apart by the death of the mother and brought together again by playing the music that she loved to hear . <p> Kinsey-Warnock , N. ( 2005 ) . Nora 's ark ( E. A. McCully , Ill . ) . New York : HarperCollins . People and animals are driven into Grandma Wren 's house on the hill , by the rising waters of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tree . <p> Krishnaswami , U. ( 1994 ) . Stories of the flood ( B. Saflund , Ill . ) . Boulder , CO : Roberts Rinehart . Nine stories of a worldwide flood , told from different cultural viewpoints , interpret the reason for the flood differently , but all conclude with a sense of hope that the earth will continue to flourish . <p> Kurtz , J. ( 2000 ) . River friendly , river wild ( N. Brennan , Ill . ) . New York : Simon &; Schuster . Through a collection of poems , a child 's experiences of a flood that devastates her community are described . <p> Kurtz , J. ( 2005 ) . In the small , small night ( R. Isadora , Ill . ) . New York : Amistad . A sister comforts , and is comforted by , her frightened brother through the messages of two parables from their native homeland . <p> Lindgren , A. ( 1997 ) . The tomten and the fox ( H. Wiberg , Ill . ) . New York : Putnam . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fox by understanding the fox 's needs and by sharing his own meal with the creature . <p> MacLachlan , P. ( 1995 ) . What you know first ( B. Moser , Ill . ) . New York : Joanna Cotler . A young girl whose family must leave the farm mourns at losing the sights , sounds , and tactile sensations of the only life that she has ever known , but she is consoled that these experiences will always remain a part of her . <p> Mills , L. A. ( 1991 ) . The rag coat . New York : Little , Brown . When a kindly group of women make a quilt for a fatherless girl , her classmates ridicule her " rag " coat until she points out how the quilted rags are pieces of their communal lives . <p> Morris , A. , &; Larson , H. ( 2005 ) . Tsunami : Helping each other . Minneapolis , MN : Lerner . A photo-essay documents the experiences of two boys who survived the 2004 tsunami , as well as the efforts of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ C. S. ( 1992 ) . Abuelita 's paradise ( D. Paterson , Ill . ) . New York : Albert Whitman . A little girl wraps herself in happy memories as she cuddles in her dead grandmother 's rocking chair . <p> Oughton , J. ( 1996 ) . How the stars fell into the sky : A Navajo legend ( L. Desimini , Ill . ) . New York : Houghton Mifflin . First Woman sets about ordering the world and writing universal laws as stars in the sky for all to see , but Coyote 's impatient attempts to help send a cascade of stars hurtling into the night , creating chaos for all time . <p> Pinkney , J. ( 2002 ) . Noah 's ark . New York : SeaStar . The rhythmic arrangements of paired animals are emphasized in this beautifully illustrated rendition of a well-known story . <p> Popov , N. ( 1998 ) . Why ? New York : Michael Neugebauer . An idyllic forest scene is destroyed by the pointless warring of mice and frogs . <p> Recorvits , H. ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Ill . ) . New York : Farrar , Straus &; Giroux . An immigrant child feels homesickness and loss of identity in her new surroundings , until she discovers a way to maintain an inner sense of self . <p> Rylant , C. ( 1992 ) . An angel for Solomon Singer ( P. Catalanotto , Ill . ) . New York : Orchard Books . A lonely man wandering into a restaurant at night becomes an allegorical reminder that , in the face of staggering social problems , the kindness of a stranger may have great power . <p> Sgouros , C. ( 1998 ) . A pillow for my morn ( C. Ross , Ill . ) . New York : Houghton Mifflin / Walter Lorraine . A child who misses the happiness that she once shared with her now seriously ill mother prepares a gift for her that becomes a symbolic consolation for the child 's loss . <p> Shearer , T. ( 2004 ) . Praying flute : Song of the earth mother . Happy Camp , CA : Naturegraph . A little girl travels @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a praying flute that sings of harmony with the earth . <p> Spier , P. ( 1977 ) . Noah 's ark . New York : Doubleday Books . Except for an opening poem , this is a wordless visual presentation of the classic Judea-Christian variant of the Great Flood . <p> Stoltz , M. ( 1990 ) . Storm in the night ( P. Cummings , Ill . ) . New York : HarperTrophy . A frightened child rides out a terrifying night storm by listening to his grandfather 's comforting tale . <p> Viorst , J. ( 1971 ) . The tenth good thing about Barney ( E. Blegvad , Ill . ) . New York : Atheneum . A young boy comes to terms with the death of his beloved cat , Barney . <p> Volavkova , H. ( Ed. ) . ( 1994 ) . I never saw another butterfly : Children 's drawings and poems from Terezin Concentration Camp , 1942-1944 . New York : Schocken . Young children may need help from sensitive adults in dealing with these poignant images , poetry , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Camp . <p> Warner , S. ( 2001 ) . The moon quilt . New York : Houghton Mifflin / Walter Lorraine . An elderly woman stitches the fabric of her life into a quilt , as a waking and sleeping cat and a waxing and waning moon keep rhythmic counterpoint with her work . <p> Wilhelm , H. ( 1990 ) . I 'll always love you . New York : Knopf Books for Young Readers . A child grieves at the loss of a beloved little dog but comes to realize that his deep love for her will continue . <p> Wood , D. ( 1999 ) . Grandad 's prayers of the earth ( P. J. Lynch , Ill . ) . Cambridge , MA : Candlewick . A teenager 's mourning for his deceased grandfather is calmed when he recognizes the lessons that his grandfather taught him about the processes of nature as prayerfully embracing life . <p> Woodson , J. ( 2001 ) . The other side ( E. B. Lewis , Ill . ) . New York : Putnam . A fence that serves @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ determination of two young girls who climb the fence and become friends . <p> Woodson , J. ( 2004 ) . Coming on home soon ( E. B. Lewis , Ill . ) . New York : Putnam . Times are hard , and a young girl , consoled by her grandmother and a stray kitten , anxiously awaits her mother 's return from working in a distant city . <p> Wyeth , S. D. ( 1994 ) . Always my dad ( R. Colon , Ill . ) . New York : Knopf Books for Young Readers . A child who misses her often-absent father shares a few fleeting moments with him and comes to understand his profound love for her , even in his absence . <p> Zolotow , C. ( 2002 ) . If you listen ( S. Vitale , Ill . ) . Philadelphia : Running Press Kids . A child , longing for her faraway father , asks her mother , " If I ca n't see him , or hear him , or feel his hugs , how can I know he loves me @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Children 's Picture Book Database at Miami University . Retrieved November 13 , 2006 , from **27;13028;TOOLONG . Search by topic for annotated lists of children 's picture books . <p> Database of Award-Winning Children 's Books . Retrieved November 13 , 2006 , from www.dawcl.com.search.asp . Search by topic for annotated lists of children 's books that have been recognized with literary awards from Australia , Canada , Great Britain , and the United States . <p> Education World 's " Helping Children Cope : Teacher Resources for Talking About Tragedy . " Retrieved November 13 , 2006 , from **45;13057;TOOLONG . A list of web site resources . <p> Georgia Department of Education : Teacher Resource Center . Retrieved November 13 , 2006 , from **33;13104;TOOLONG ? **28;13139;TOOLONG . Web resources for students issues of loss , grief , and stress . <p> KIDSAID . Retrieved November 13 , 2006 , from http : //kidsaid.com/ . " A safe place for kids to share and to help each other deal with grief about any of their losses . " <p> Feature articles in TL are blind-refereed by members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2006 and accepted October 2006 . <p>

@@4020541 A 71-year-old male patient was admitted with methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus mediastinitis two months after coronary artery bypass grafting . Treatment with immediate surgical debridement , removal of sternal wires and use of vacuum-assisted closure device was started . Spiral computerized tomography and aortography revealed a false aortic aneurysm at the cannulation site . Active mediastinitis and patient 's objection , led us to perform percutaneous coil embolization . No postoperative complication was observed and one year later the patient is in an excellent condition . <p> Keywords : aortic pseudoaneurysm ; mediastinal infection Background <p> Though a rare complication of cardiac surgery , the management of false aortic aneurysms associated with mediastinal infection remains a challenging surgical problem with high associated mortality . Early diagnosis is essential due to the fact that false or mycotic aneurysms progressively expand , compress and erode the surrounding structures and the most important are associated with a high risk of sudden rupture . Case Presentation <p> A 71-year-old male patient with a history of diabetes mellitus type 2 , hypertension and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease presented with unstable angina . Coronary angiography revealed 3-vessels disease and an ejection fraction of 0.60 . Subsequently @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The postoperative period was uneventful and the patient discharged home on postoperative day 9 . <p> On the 60th postoperative day the patient was admitted to the hospital because of high fever ( 39 , 2C ) , dyspnoea , chest pain , fatigue , sternal instability and inflammation signs on the sternotomy wound . Laboratory findings were normal except for an increased leukocyte count ( 17.000/mm3 , 88% neutrophils ) . <p> The patient underwent urgent surgical debridement under aseptic conditions in the operating theater . After reopening the wound , sternal dehiscence with fragmentation was revealed . After removal of the sternal wires , severe suppurative mediastinal infection was confirmed . Probes for bacteriological cultures as well as sternal bone biopsies were taken . Then , aggressive debridement with removal of all necrotic tissue and irrigation with dilute povidone-iodine solution and H2O2 was done . Bony debridement was performed until healthy bleeding bone was revealed . Following the debridement procedure , the wound was fitted with vacuum assisted device . <p> Computed tomography revealed sternal fragmentation and loss of the integrity of the retrosternal soft tissue fat indicating @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1 ) . <p> Aortography confirmed the presence of a 20 mm false aneurysm at the cannulation site ( Fig 2 ) . <p> Advanced age , active mediastinitis and patient 's objection led us to propose a palliative percutaneous treatment . Via femoral access , through a 15 cm long 8F diameter sheath and a 7.2F diameter guiding catheter , a balloon catheter was placed so as to occlude the false aneurysm neck on balloon inflation ( Moret 's neurointerventional technique ) 1 . Through the catheter lumen , three long coils of spiroid shape were mechanically dropped . Stable homogeneous packing was achieved and the balloon was progressively deflated after testing the material stability by successful injection into the ascending aorta ( Fig 3 ) . <p> The patient did well with no postoperative complication . Serial quantitative wound cultures were positive for methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus and intravenous antibiotic therapy was started ( vancomycin 500 mg X 3 daily ) . Vacuum assisted closure system was changed every two to three days and used in total for 22 days . The system was removed when regional and systemic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Finally the patient underwent regional muscle flap closure ( pectoralis flap ) and a complete healing was achieved . One year later he is in an excellent condition and magnetic resonance imaging confirmed coil stability . Discussion <p> Infectious mediastinitis is a relatively common but potentially devastating complication occurring after cardiac operations that are performed through median sternotomy . Despite an incidence of less than 5% , the importance of this complication should not be underestimated 2 . Infectious mediastinitis and pseudoaneurysm formation is a very rare but highly morbid complication due to subsequent rupture 3 . Without an operation , aortic false aneurysms progressively expand , compress and erode the surrounding structures , or are a source of persistent infection and systemic embolism . Percutaneous embolization of large saccular aneurysms or pseudoaneurysms is also effective 4 5 . <p> In the case reported here , active mediastinitis and patient 's objection to undergo another operation led us to perform percutaneous treatment according to the Moret remodeling technique . This technique consists of inflating a balloon in front of the neck thus allowing to push the coils into the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ technique has been used successfully to treat 56 intracranial wide-necked or badly-shaped aneurysms with satisfactory occluder stability during follow up 1 . <p> In conclusion , the treatment of false aneurysms poses special challenges to the cardiothoracic surgeon . The optimal surgical management is a subject of controversy . Endovascular treatment with coils may be a good and safe alternative to surgery . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 1 : Sternal fragmentation and loss of the integrity of the retrosternal soft tissue fat indicating mediastinitis as well as a false aortic aneurysm . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 2 : Aortography confirmed the presence of a 20 mm false aneurysm at the cannulation site . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 3 : Stable homogeneous packing of the aneurysm after occlusion by coils . <p>

@@4020641 Radial head and neck fractures are the most common elbow fractures among adults , typically encountered in young to middle-aged individuals ( 1 ) . The treatment of these fractures depend on the degree of comminution , the percentage of articular surface involved , the presence of loose intra-articular fragments and the angulation between the radial neck and proximal shaft . We report a case of bilateral symmetrical radial head fractures in view of its rarity of presentation and also briefly discuss the management options of Type 1 radial head fractures . Case Report <p> A 24 year old female , a carer by occupation presented with pain in both the elbows after she sustained a fall on an outstretched hand with both the elbows in extension while playing netball . On physical examination she had minimal bruising on the right elbow with tenderness over the radiocapitellar joints on both the sides . There was no restriction to the range of movements . There was no distal neurovascular deficit . AP and lateral radiographs of both the elbows revealed symmetrical undisplaced radial head fractures ( fig.1 ) . Patient was given cuff and a collar slings on both sides @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ elbows out of the slings as much as the pain allows . At 3 week review she had significant pain relief , slings were discarded and patient advised active physiotherapy for elbow ROM . At latest follow-up 4 months after the injury she had no pain in both the elbows . On the right side she had restriction of terminal 5 of extension with full flexion and full ROM of the left elbow ( fig.2 ) . She had been carrying out her routine activities and has gone back to her job as a carer . Discussion <p> Fractures of the radial head result from fall on outstretched hand . The force is transmitted along the line of the forearm producing a valgus stress at the elbow . Compression of the radial head against the capitellum commonly results in fractures due to shearing between the vertically aligned trabeculae and may also produce macroscopic damage to the capitellum . Anatomically the radial head is susceptible to fractures because of a 15 angle between the radial neck and shaft . The greater carrying angle of the female elbow may explain the higher @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , local tenderness with associated swelling , and a positive fat pad sign with a fracture line are diagnostic features . The main problem after radial head fracture is failure to gain full extension , probably caused by fibrosis of the anterior capsule of the joint after organisation of haemarthrosis ( 3 ) and damage sustained by the capitellum of the humerus at the time of injury ( 2 ) <p> Conventional radiography with AP &; Lateral views are adequate for detection of radial head and neck fractures . Internal and external oblique radiographs are required occasionally . A special view the radiocapitellar view has been shown to increase the sensitivity by only 1% ( 7 ) and hence is not routinely used . CT with reconstruction images is of helpful in doubtful cases and aid in decision making . <p> Treatment options are based on the classification of Mason ( 1 ) who divided radial head fractures into three groups : Type I , fissure or marginal fractures without displacement ; Type II , marginal sector fractures with displacement ; Type III , comminuted fractures , involving entire head @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Type IV , any radial head fracture with dislocation of the humeroulnar joint <p> By definition , type I is an undisplaced fracture , requires no reduction , and does not exhibit any mechanical block to forearm rotation . Immediate pain relief should be achieved to allow initial physical examination and to start active forearm rotation as pain allows . Type I injuries should be treated conservatively as in this case . Joint aspiration of haemarthrosis and injection of an anaesthetic into the joint may be performed to reduce pain . Early motion helps to shape and mould slight incongruities without substantial risk of displacement . <p> Mason and Shutkin ( 4 ) suggested that early mobilisation allows the fragment to find the best functional position in relation to the other joint surfaces . Bakalim ( 5 ) showed that displacement of the fragment was not associated with loss of function . Unsworth-White et al concluded that extension splintage was superior to immobilisation in flexion ( 6 ) . Thompson compared flexion casts with extension casts and found no difference between the 2 groups . <p> Aspiration of elbows championed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who showed that although aspiration may ease initial pain , it does not affect the long term result . Injecting the joint with LA to determine if motion is blocked was first suggested by Quigley ( 8 ) . Holdsworth et al ( 9 ) conducted a prospective control study and concluded that functional recovery was best in younger patients and was closely related to the severity of the fracture . They stated that aspiration of the elbow is a quick , safe , and painless procedure , which greatly reduces discomfort to the patient and allows early return of movement of the elbow , but failed to show any difference in the functional outcome between the aspirated and non aspirated group.Carley ( 10 ) suggested that aspiration may benefit patients with traumatic elbow effusions and that the evidence was insufficient to recommend it as a routine procedure . <p> We conclude that type 1 radial head fractures are to be treated conservatively . In the acute phase analgesia to control pain and ensure motion is of prime importance . Aspiration of haemarthrosis though gives good pain relief initially does @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lack terminal degrees extension it does not interfere with their functional activities . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figures 1 &2:; X-rays showing bilateral symmetrical radial head fractures <p>

@@4020741 The growing scholarly interest in an interdisciplinary approach to studying the past has produced a new understanding of the British Atlantic economy , particularly coastal Carolina , where the rice crop ranked alongside the sugar of the West Indies , tobacco of the Chesapeake , and the cod of New England . For the past quarter century , there has been a steady stream of works defining South Carolina 's place within a world where a distinct plantation economy and society had emerged well before the American Revolution . Considerably less attention has been paid to placing colonial Georgia within that same context . Although there have been excellent biographies , careful essays on the world of slaves and women , renewed consideration of Indian life , and continuing work on political development , Georgia 's role in the trans-Atlantic economy has received less notice . In particular , how did its merchant community take shape ? What were its sources of capital ? How did merchants invest their funds ? And how did that community differ from that in South Carolina , where the rice and indigo trade had given rise to an indigenous merchant class with deep @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the kind of confidence that made it willing to face down the British lion ? ( n1 ) <p> By the late 1760s , Georgia 's merchants included five distinct yet overlapping groups : men who came out of the Trustee period , those from Charleston or with a Carolina connection , a small number arriving directly from England , an even smaller number of Protestant Irish who figured prominently in the Indian trade and , finally , ambitious Scots , coming directly from their homeland , the West Indies , or other colonies in North America . In the development of South Carolina 's merchant community , Scotsmen had played a critical role , especially in the early and middle years of the colony . By the 1760s , however , the Scots were only one element , albeit an important one , among a group that drew on Huguenots , New England sea captains , Sephardic Jews , Dutch , and English . In Georgia , it was otherwise . The Scots dominated the economy in a way they never had in the neighboring province , and they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Trustee period , whether Lowlanders , who had brought indentured servants and led the fight to introduce slavery , or the war-like Highlanders who came with James Oglethorpe to found the military community of Darien . Both Lowlanders and Highlanders faded from view as distinct groups after the late 1740s , although many individuals rose to positions of prominence during the royal period. ( n2 ) <p> Something else occurred that has attracted little attention -- the arrival after 1750 of a number of Scots who put a distinct stamp on colonial Georgia and provided much of the direction for its economic development . They were not as visible as earlier groups , for they came as individuals or families , and their impact was more financial and economic than political or cultural . Despite their low profile , they brought an aggressive entrepreneurial spirit , solid commercial know-how , precious access to capital overseas , invaluable ties with merchant houses in the British Isles and the West Indies , and on occasion much-needed professional training . The new Scots who eventually dominated the merchant community in Savannah , Sunbury @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ substantial planters throughout the colony , acquired political power far beyond their numbers , and showed a clannishness that gave them unusual staying power . Instrumental in tying Georgia to the trans-Atlantic community in the early 1760s , these merchants stood at the heart of two rich ironies . First , they were to play a critical role in the creation of a highly stratified society in coastal Georgia , facilitating the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few . At the same time , they played a central role in creating opportunities for middle-class planters , traders , and artisans , and brought about a surprising degree of social mobility even on the coast . The comparative absence of class tension in colonial Georgia owed much to the success of their activities . Second , they were to prove staunch defenders of the British imperial system while introducing an aggressive form of capitalism that ultimately undermined that same system . <p> In the late 1740s , Georgia held little interest for merchants with its impoverished population , few viable farms , a prohibition on slavery @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Trustees in London . Once slavery began in 1750 and the announcement made that a royal government would be created , interested onlookers took heart . Carolina planters surged across the Savannah River to obtain rich rice lands and led the effort to create a plantation-based economy modeled after that of South Carolina . In response , the fledgling merchant community attracted a different kind of individual . In January 1753 , only five or six men in Savannah arguably merited the title of merchant ( those engaged in imports and exports and able to provide a degree of credit ) ; perhaps another dozen were shopkeepers . By the end of the year , there were as many as eleven or twelve men who could claim the title . The person who had virtually created the profession , James Habersham , began to back away from the daily routine of business to concentrate on his rice plantations and political role , leaving ample space for others. ( n3 ) <p> Of the newcomers in that transitional year , Scots arrived in the largest numbers . They became the entrepreneurs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ drag the backward frontier settlement into the burgeoning trans-Atlantic economy . Their reasons were varied . Lewis Johnston felt the closing of opportunity on St. Kitts Island , perched on the elbow of the vastly rich Windward Islands in the West Indies , where chances for success had diminished except for the incredibly wealthy . Former surgeon in the royal navy and married to the daughter of a merchant , he brought thirty to forty slaves , a number that put him among the colony 's largest owners , and went on to practice medicine , operate a plantation , and lead what was , for a time , the largest trading firm in the colony . By way of contrast , the twenty-one-year-old Robert Baillie needed a way out of financial difficulties . His father had sent him to Jamaica to try his hand in commerce . When that venture failed , he considered going to Central America or India but chose Georgia because of debts owed him there . His new venture lasted only a matter of months . About the same time a thirty-five-year-old Scot , John @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dry goods and an impressive array of connections . Son of a Presbyterian minister , he had experience trading in the West Indies and enjoyed financial backing from a relative , David Graeme , and his partner , Richard Oswald , one of the most powerful of the Scottish " Associates " trading in London . Young Baillie closed his store , became a planter , and bought his first two enslaved Africans from Graham. ( n4 ) <p> Although Georgia 's economy gathered momentum slowly during the 1750s , Scottish merchants continued to drift into the province . Their timing was serendipitous . While other colonies struggled through an extended depression after the Seven Years ' War , which ended in 1763 , Georgia experienced a dramatic increase in population , production , and shipping . During the last fifteen years of British rule the number of whites tripled ; that of blacks more than tripled ; the value of exports rose dramatically from 20,852 to 121,677 , and the ships clearing port soared from 37 to 217. ( n5 ) <p> At the heart of that boom stood @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the three principal towns of the colony : Savannah , Sunbury , and Augusta . Of the twenty-four firms or individuals who advertised in the Georgia Gazette in 1768 and merit the classification of " merchant , " perhaps twelve came from Scotland . Of the three largest export firms in Savannah , all were in the hands of Scotsmen : John Graham and Company , long a fixture on the Bay , the street closest to the Savannah River ; Cowper , Telfairs , created in 1766 , and an overnight success ; and Gordon , Netherclift , a branch of a Charleston firm heavily vested in the Indian trade . Below this tier were four firms with access to London capital , all with Scottish connections : Read and Mossman ; George Baillie and Company ; Samuel Douglass and Company ; and Inglis and Hall. ( n6 ) To the south of Savannah , Scots controlled even more decisively the trade coming out of Sunbury , which served a large rice-growing region based on a network of rivers . In the previous decade , an Englishman , James @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but had gone bankrupt , turned his affairs over to John Graham , and fled to the safety of Williamsburg , Virginia . In his place came a firm composed of a trio of North Britons , and alongside their establishment two other partnerships , Darling and Munro , and Spalding and Mackay ( then Spalding and Kelsall ) , with offices in Sunbury , Frederica , and Savannah. ( n7 ) <p> Augusta presented a more complex picture . Although it attracted settlers on their way to lands opened by the treaty of 1763 , this frontier town remained dominated by the trade with Creek Indians . The merchants represented a breed apart , a rougher cut of men accustomed to purchasing their strouds , duffels , guns , and powder in Charleston , sending out packhorse trains to Indian villages , empowering their traders to negotiate prices for deerskins , sometimes honestly , often less so . The Old Guard of traders -- Scotch Irish , Anglo Irish , Scotsmen , and Englishmen -- had long maintained a monopoly of sorts , imposing common prices and policies on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ depleted by death as well as the moves to Savannah of entrepreneurs such as Lachlan McGillivray and John Rae for life on a grander scale . Although the Old Guard continued to hold sway , they now faced a new set of men who energized a trade that had lost much of its former profitability . Scotsman Robert Mackay came from Jamaica by way of Charleston and formed an alliance with one of the old-line companies . A fellow countryman , Andrew McLean , shipped out his first trains of packhorses in mid-1765 , and became one of the principal suppliers of skins to John Graham and Company in partnership with a talented Englishman , James Jackson , who had arrived earlier. ( n8 ) <p> For Georgia as a whole , the Scots provided the one missing element , direct access to the markets of London . While most setters came from relatively humble upbringings or were Carolina planters with a decidedly local outlook , these men sprang from backgrounds that opened doors throughout the Atlantic world . The governor once described John Graham to the London Board of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ your Lordships , " and indeed his role as correspondent of the powerful Richard Oswald gave him a unique standing . Of the firm of Cowper , Telfairs , newcomer Basil Cowper had originally come to Georgia to supervise the investments of his uncle , a London merchant of Scottish origins who pumped considerable sums into coastal land . James Spalding , heavily involved in the Indian trade , was a relative of the owner of the largest flax-spinning mill in Scotland . John Gordon , merchant of Charleston and Savannah , seems to have been a relative of Lord Adam Gordon , who played a key role in funneling investments of the high and mighty of Britain into East Florida . And even the more modest came from mercantile backgrounds . Robert Baillie 's father and uncle were businessmen in Edinburgh . Contrary to appearances , the loose network of Scottish merchants manning the new British Empire was a close-knit , almost familial affair. ( n9 ) <p> This handful of men provided the capital that funded Georgia 's economic development . By any measure , the sums obtained @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Scottish , owed their counterparts in the mother country at least 261,000 , and that sum understates the actual value . Some British firms had made direct investments ; for example , Greenwood and Higginson created a model plantation on Ursla Island , a few miles west of Savannah , that was cultivated by one hundred Africans . After the Revolution , London merchants claimed pre-war debts owed by Georgians at 247,781 , a figure that included interest of 99,000 . That number placed the colony fifth out of the twelve for which figures exist . Ironically , the province , whose very existence seemed in question as late as the 1740s , received a disproportionately generous inflow of funds from some of the shrewdest minds operating in the trans-Atlantic world in the 1760s and early 1770s . Clearly , the London elite who plotted financial strategy in Nicholas Lane , Lombard Street , and Old Bethlem saw Georgia as the next South Carolina and were willing to make the necessary investments . The colony 's debt amounted to 41 percent of South Carolina 's , an extraordinary figure in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ terms , 11.4 of debt per white person in Georgia versus 7.4 in South Carolina. ( n10 ) The figures gain added importance from the fact that , by the end of the colonial period , South Carolina generated internally the bulk of the capital used in its development . The assets of local merchants , private individuals , and charitable societies provided the greater part of funds through an active and well-financed mortgage market . With Georgia still young and dependent on the mother country , the reverse was true . Entrepreneurs generated some capital internally and from South Carolina , but the vast majority came from Britain itself , specifically a small number of merchants and traders in London. ( n11 ) <p> The working relationships that developed between Savannah and London came about in response to specific opportunities . In 1762 , John Graham decided to expand his operation , especially in the Indian trade . He entered into partnership with John Clark , a London merchant with Scottish connections who had long been a leading player in the Carolina rice trade . Graham simultaneously brought in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the premier Indian traders in Georgia . McGillivray was a larger-than-life personality . Resident in an Upper Creek town , he had taken an Indian wife , became partner in a firm that monopolized the Indian business in Augusta , and served as adviser to governors in two provinces . He was shrewd , ambitious , and with a keen desire to turn himself into a Savannah gentleman . He had recently moved to the city and purchased one of the nearby river plantations . The new London firm of McGillivray , Grahams , Clark operated with a one-quarter interest held by McGillivray , one-quarter controlled by John Clark , and one-half interest in the hands of brothers John and James Graham . James Graham moved to London to handle the business end of matters but , before leaving Georgia , solidified the firm 's position in the Indian trade by marrying the daughter of the Scotsman who served as superintendent of Indian affairs for the southern department . It was a powerful combination. ( n12 ) <p> From the middle of the 1760s onward , the key to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Started as a place that would be free of the social evils of other American colonies , the province ended by adopting the institution as " the one thing needful " to insure economic growth . The colony achieved a positive sense of self based on the prosperity engendered by the work of thousands of Africans . Scottish merchants stood in the forefront of the slave trade . In the fifteen years between 1750 and 1764 , they had played a role in importing a modest number of slaves , some 637 from the West Indies and 1,238 transshipped from South Carolina , hardly enough to sustain a rapid expansion in the cultivation of rice . John Graham , Lewis Johnston , and others had brought small numbers of " seasoned " slaves into Georgia , those who had been " broken in " on sugar plantations in the Caribbean , typically no more than half a dozen at a time given the thinness of the market . Many came from St. Kitts , where the long-standing ties of the Scots provided a special connection. ( n13 ) <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and in 1766 the first shipments arrived directly from Africa . In the decade before the Revolution , local merchants presided over the sale of 7,950 bondsmen . The firm of Cowper , Telfairs led the way with fifteen cargoes or slightly more than two shipments a year on average , followed by Inglis and Hall , John Graham and Company , George Baillie and Company , Clay and Habersham and Company , and smaller vents by new merchants like the Scottish firm of Moore and Panton . The enterprise of Cowper , Telfairs enjoyed a meteoric rise . Opening its doors in 1766 , it was the largest business in the province seven years later . William Telfair , former agent of a Scottish tobacco firm in Virginia , had come to Savannah some time before , attempted to set up in the Indian trade , and established a partnership with one of the more prominent local merchants . In 1766 , his younger brother , Edward , joined him . He had also started as a storekeeper in Virginia , had worked in North Carolina , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , " indicating a search for connections and status in the Caribbean . The two met Basil Cowper , who appeared in Georgia to handle the investments of his uncle , a Scottish merchant in the Carolina trade . Cowper was young , had adapted to life as a favored nephew , and joined Gov . James Wright 's squad of forty gentlemen and seamen who walked the streets of Savannah in early 1766 to enforce the writ of the Stamp Act . He brought his uncle 's financial backing to the partnership and a certain social standing . The Telfairs added business acumen and a voracious appetite for dominating the market. ( n14 ) <p> The London branch may have done business under the name Telfair , Cowper , Telfair , but it followed Savannah 's lead . A future governor of Georgia , Edward Telfair had an unerring eye for assessing risks . In August 1773 , the Guinea ship Francis made a late arrival from Senegal with 115 slaves for the account of Governor Wright , the English subminister William Knox , and John Graham . Given @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to take the shipment off their hands on condition of handling the sale on a strictly commission basis . " We would not have engaged in this adventure had it not been that some of our considerable planters would have been drawn from the House had they gone into the hands of any other Merchants here as this is the first cargo imported this year , " he told William Thomson . In fact , he split the sale with another Scottish merchant , found one planter willing to buy forty of their number , and disposed of the total for a noteworthy 4,850 , despite the fact that the shipment contained the weak and vulnerable , young boys and girls , several invalids , and men and women too old to be productive in the fields . This defensive step paid off . The house captured the market for export that year , sending 12,000 of goods to England , more than any other partnership. ( n15 ) <p> If slavery was crucial to the prosperity of even the average Georgian , the Scots could claim a fair share @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ port of Charles Town did not reproduce at a sufficient rate to maintain their population , much less generate a natural increase . The imbalance of sexes , the harsh conditions on the isolated plantations , and the newness of Africans adjusting to a strange environment meant that any growth in numbers came from imports alone and , indeed , the available statistics suggest a net decrease of more than two thousand enslaved Africans . That one fact elevated the status of a Basil Cowper or Edward Telfair significantly . When a planter went into the slave pens of Savannah , he knew this was his best and perhaps only chance to expand his workforce . <p> Rice exports for Georgia were the most visible symbol of the impact of an expanded black population . By the end of the colonial period , the Telfairs , Grahams , Baillies , Mossmans , Reads , Douglasses , Spaldings , Munros , and Darlings , together with a handful of others , provided various services that permitted them to ship 23,540 barrels of rice by 1772 . They sent schooners upriver to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and established the weight of each , arranged for drayage and storage in Savannah , obtained needed insurance and clearance papers , found space on vessels in the port , and worked with their agents in London to obtain the best price in the best market . In 1765 , eleven ships cleared Savannah and Sunbury for Britain . All were British bottoms , save one . Several local merchants pooled their funds , purchased a topsail ship , and sailed it into the Atlantic in a declaration of commercial independence . The " Georgia Packet " left on July 11 , bound for " Cowes and the markets , " loaded with 833 barrels of rice and several hogsheads of deerskin . The owners were prominent in the mercantile community : John and James Graham , Lachlan McGillivray , James Read , James Mossman , Alexander Fyffe , Joseph Clay , James Habersham , Jr. , together with John Clark of London and the sea captain ; seven of the ten were Scottish . That declaration of commercial independence was more symbolic than real . In 1772 , twenty-eight @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or two owned in the province. ( n16 ) <p> By enabling rice production to expand so rapidly , the Scots facilitated the growth of a highly stratified society with a few families at the top . They extended credit to those planters who could afford the heavy costs of an efficiently run plantation : a work force of forty or more slaves , mastery of a sophisticated technology , and ample capital . The knowledgeable William DeBrahm estimated the cost of an average-sized rice plantation at 2,476 sterling , and this may have been an understatement , at least for a rice plantation using the tidal flow method , where the powerful tides coursing up a river could be harnessed to drive fresh water onto the fields at critical moments . Edward Telfairs 's accounts show individuals on the books for debts of more than one thousand pounds , most likely planters purchasing field hands . The reality , though , is that few Georgia planters employed the tidal flow method . It was too expensive , too complicated , and too new . Most , whether big or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , first brought by Carolina planters along the Medway , Ogeechee , and Newport rivers , in which rice was grown in fresh-water river swamps with a simple irrigation system . Planters built a bank at the top and bottom of each field and constructed an impoundment pond above the field in order to release fresh water as needed. ( n17 ) <p> Entrepreneurs to the core , the merchants of Savannah knew where their long-term interests lay and became the leaders in adopting the tidal flow method , the most advanced technology employed in any industry , with its complex hydraulic landscape of banks , trunks , reservoirs , canals , floodgates , and ditches . Nowhere could they have faced a greater challenge than on the Savannah River . For the first thirty to thirty-five years of the colony 's existence , planters scarcely tapped the rich marshlands of that river for rice production , because of the difficulty in mastering the treacherous currents that washed through the marshy lowlands . To read the history of those estates in Mary Granger 's classic book , Savannah River Plantations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ land speculation , cutting of timber along the banks , sale after sale in an effort to turn a profit or escape a crushing financial burden . The year 1762 proved a turning point . Three Scotsmen , John Gordon , Grey Elliott , and John Mullyrne , purchased a tract on Hutchinson Island , which had previously sold for a few shillings per acre . James Graham followed suit and developed Rice Hope Plantation alongside theirs , with 202 acres , a work force of almost sixty slaves , and an output of 250 barrels of rice and more than two thousand pounds of indigo . Lachlan McGillivray also invested in two large tracts on that island . The price per acre soared to more than 10 sterling , perhaps the most expensive land in the colony. ( n18 ) Along the banks of the Savannah River extending twelve miles westward , Scottish merchants dotted the landscape with their newly acquired estates . McGillivray planted at the ambitiously named Vale Royal , Basil Cowper on acreage that had once been part of the Musgrove Cowpen . Samuel Douglass took @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , " and described it as " the best tide swamp in the highest state of cultivation , " capable of producing three hundred barrels of rice . Further upriver , John Graham shifted his resources to Mulberry Grove , where he added land and acquired slaves. ( n19 ) Carolina planters were the dominant element in developing the Ogeechee , Newport , and Medway rivers , but Scottish merchants played that role on the Savannah River . <p> While advocating the tidal flow method , the Scots nevertheless put considerable cash , goods , and services into the hands of those using the older , less efficient impoundment method ; this group included small planters , men of the middle class , and even the lower-middle class . The traditional image of the rapid accumulation of land in the hands of a wealthy few telescopes what was a much more involved process , oversimplifying a complex development . Trying to dam fresh water above a rice field was not efficient . Although planters ran the risk of damage by flooding or drought , the impoundment method did allow smaller @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ extending credit to a broad range of rice planters , the Scottish merchants ironically promoted a degree of social mobility . Planters using the impoundment method may have been as small as Michael Burghaller , a German in St. Matthew 's Parish who , when he died , had six enslaved Africans , a crop of unthreshed rice , three rice mills , mortars and flails , and four sieves for rice . In the barn were five barrels of clean rice , worth 8 sterling . Or , more typically , there was James Pierce , illiterate as was his wife , but his holdings included fourteen Africans -- seven males and seven females -- together with the equipment needed for rice production , 110 head of cattle , fifty hogs , many bushels of Indian corn , and some lumber . Valued at 793 sterling , the estate was by no means inconsiderable . What gave value to their efforts were the merchants of Savannah and Sunbury , eager to do business . In 1764 , Edward Summer of St. John 's Parish sold eight barrels of rice @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a cow and calf , and twenty hogs in Sunbury for 25 sterling , an amount sufficient to keep him operating for another year . In 1769 , Edward Telfair purchased six barrels of rice for 11 pounds , 8 shillings , and 5 pence from one small planter and 453 bushels of corn from an illiterate farmer for the handsome sum of 45 . These business dealings may have figured on the margin of what the larger merchants engaged in , but they pumped precious credit and pounds sterling into the hands of modest folk on the coast. ( n20 ) <p> The merchants also extended credit to craftsmen , artisans , and small shopkeepers , seeking out men moving up the economic ladder . The firm of Cowper , Telfairs granted a loan of 249 to Thomas Blount , carpenter of Savannah ; 90 to a distiller of Savannah ; 39 to a tailor ; and 300 pounds sterling to a local tavern keeper . Adrien Loyer came to Savannah as a silversmith and combined that trade with clocksmithing . At the beginning of the decade , he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , he had acquired a significant amount of land and boasted of twelve slaves . On the eve of the Revolution , the books of Spalding and Kelsall showed debts carried by some 260 individuals , most of them in St. John 's and St. Andrew 's parishes , Liberty and McIntosh counties today . The number of large planters in those two areas could not have been more than sixty people , suggesting that credit went to a broadly representative group . When these smaller planters , artisans , and tavern keepers walked into the stores in Savannah or Sunbury , they commanded respect and attention for they could make the difference in a selling season. ( n21 ) <p> If the Scots of Savannah were successful in the commerce in rice , they succeeded even more rapidly in the trade with natives , albeit briefly . The export of deerskins had long been an important source of revenue on the southeast coast . For most of the eighteenth century , leather manufacturers in England turned deerskin into a wonderfully light , porous , and tough product that was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ buckskin breeches enjoyed a fashionable elegance for a brief while and retained a long-term market with those possessing more modest budgets and who appreciated its durability . Until mid-century , deerskins represented the second most valuable commodity for South Carolina after rice . Georgia sat on the sidelines , although most of the hunting took place on its frontier and the skins passed through Augusta on their way to Charleston . By the beginning of the 1760s , Savannah had made gains , and a merchant like John Graham used his position to stake out a claim on the increasing trade . After the Revolution , a Scottish colleague recalled : " Knew Claimant from 1761 . He was then in a great way of Mercantile Business . His business was chiefly in the Indian trade . Being worth 5 or 6,000 sterling at that time would be esteemed being a Man of Fortune . " The following year , John Graham established the partnership that brought together one of the most prominent Indian traders in Georgia , Lachlan McGillivray , a leading merchant of London , John Clark , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had improved by 1759 . In that year , the leading Indian merchant of Charleston , John Gordon , opened an office in Savannah , purchased a wharf lot , and put Thomas Netherclift , the son-in-law of his former partner , in charge . As a young man , Gordon had emigrated from Scotland to Frederica , where he supplied Oglethorpe 's Regiment during King George 's War ( 1740-1748 ) and , when the regiment disbanded , moved to South Carolina . He picked a good time for his return . The end of the Seven Years ' War in 1763 removed the Spanish and French threat from the southeast ; the Creeks and Cherokees had nowhere else to turn for supplies , and the profit margins were high . The total trade in goods , according to a report submitted by Governor Wright to London , amounted to 23,961 sterling of British goods sold to the natives , compared to an estimated 11,500 in Georgia 's rice exports . If most of those goods passed through Charleston , an increasing amount came Savannah 's way . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ transshipping the merchandise ; the Augusta storekeeper placed a 20 percent markup ; and the traders who actually carried the goods into the Indian territory added 30 percent in recognition of the proportionately greater dangers from packhorses dying on the trail , theft , and unpaid debts . Well over half of Georgia 's end of that trade ultimately passed through the hands of either Graham or Gordon. ( n23 ) <p> Over the next few years , the volume of trade in deerskins soared , from 42,000 pounds in 1762 to 308,000 six years later and , although it settled to something over 200,000 thereafter , the economics of the business turned against Savannah 's merchants . The seeds of the problem lay in the Proclamation of 1763 , intended to protect the natives of North America as well as the Indian trade itself from encroachment . Not only did settlers accumulate a strong sense of grievance at a measure designed to exclude them from native lands , but the proclamation opened that trade to any man who put up a small bond and obtained a license . From @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ frontier became a competitive flee-for-all with desperate and inexperienced men , the dregs of colonial society , rushing in with disastrous consequences . A surplus of goods flooded Indian towns as they sought to make a quick fortune ; debts increased , while prices fell , often below cost , and creditors frequently went unpaid. ( n24 ) As seen in Table 3 , Savannah 's merchants did not proportionately benefit from the resulting expansion . West Florida exploded onto the scene to drain away increased production and cause anticipated revenues to shrivel even further , while Charleston stubbornly held its own . <p> By the eve of the Revolution , matters had reached a crisis at each level of the credit pyramid . The flow of merchandise from Britain -- guns , lead , powder , duffels , strouds , pots , knives , and other prized goods -- kept coming through the well-established pipeline that started in the manufacturing centers of Great Britain . That pipeline passed through London and Bristol , on to Savannah and Charleston , and from there to Augusta , Frederica , and Mobile @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The day of reckoning was at hand . James Jackson and Company of Augusta , the second-largest Indian trader in Georgia with twenty employees fanning out principally to the Upper Creek towns , owed John Graham some 19,400 , while Spalding and Kelsall owed 9,000 . Graham in turn was indebted to John Clark of London for those sums and more . In response , merchants put pressure on their traders for a greater volume of deerskins as the international market approached saturation . Hunters killed younger deer ; herds thinned to dangerous levels ; and the Creeks and Cherokees became increasingly unable to fulfill their obligations to pay for British goods . By 1773 , they owed the equivalent of 670,000 pounds of deerskins. ( n25 ) <p> Forced by necessity , the merchants of Augusta and Savannah grasped at a way out of their impasse -- canceling the debt of Cherokees and Creeks in return for possession of at least two million acres of Indian land north of Augusta , the rich , fertile soil coveted by land-hungry settlers coming into the state from North Carolina , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to declare the illegality of the transaction , he saw the advantages of convincing the British government to approve a modified version . The Creeks and Cherokees would surrender the land north of Augusta to the Crown in return for cancellation of all their debts . The government would sell the land to eager settlers and use the proceeds to repay the merchants for the amounts owed . Governor Wright appointed Andrew Robertson and Alexander Wylly , one an Indian merchant , the other a former Indian merchant , to verify accounts submitted by their colleagues , and named John Graham as collector of monies from the sales . Even had the sales taken place , it is unlikely that the scheme would have resolved the financial impasse . These merchants were still on the hook to their London creditors for dry goods worth considerably more than what they would have received . James Jackson and Andrew McLean owed John Graham , and eventually John Clark of London , some 19,000 against a certificate issued by the governor of Georgia for 9,963 , to be redeemed by the sales of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) <p> The Treaty of 1773 that ratified the exchange of land for cancellation of debt had seemed an ideal way to merge the conflicting interests of land-hungry settlers with the economic concerns of merchants who defended Native Americans and their hunting grounds. ( n27 ) That hope quickly dissolved . When a band of renegade Creeks attacked two settlements in December of that year , leaving nine men , one woman , and four children dead , Governor Wright imposed an embargo on all trade . It was a potent tactic , as long as the principal merchants cooperated in the ban . Several did not . James Spalding of Frederica sent gunpowder , guns , and balls to his stores on the St. John 's River in East Florida and another shipment to the Lower Creek towns , where it was reported " that the Indians were flocking from all Quarters to Purchase the above goods , And that they had sold Seventeen Barrels of Rum in a few days . " Backcountry settlers were indignant at this proof of duplicity and the threat it posed to their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prove successful , and the Creek headmen executed two of the offenders in exemplary fashion . In the fall of 1774 , the settlers expected the governor to extract what they considered the minimum demand , the cession of the prized strip of land between the Ogeechee and Oconee rivers . Instead , Wright chose to bring peace to the frontier by siding with the Indian traders -- the Grahams , Baillies , McLeans , Mackays , Jacksons , Galphins , and Griersons -- and restoring relations with the headmen of the towns , whose prominent standing within their own communities depended on a steady supply of goods . A leading authority on colonial Georgia , historian Edward J. Cashin , calls that moment the turning point on the frontier , the instant when backcountry settlers , so supportive of the British government for protection against the Indians , reassessed their loyalty and began to look elsewhere for leadership , notably the emerging spokesmen of revolution in Georgia . That moment sealed the final divorce between Indian traders and inhabitants of the backcountry. ( n29 ) <p> To what extent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with the upcountry , become part of the newly emerging society within the colony as a whole ? A recent study of British policy and the southern frontier makes a case that the Scots involved in the Indian trade , and that included most of the merchants in Georgia , never fully assimilated into local society within the southeast , either on the coast or in the interior . Native white Americans not only regarded them with traditional English prejudice but also resented their overnight economic and political success , their access to overseas capital , and their close ties to British officials . For South Carolina , these arguments carry weight . That colony had been in existence since 1670 ; a native elite enjoyed deep roots and considerable prosperity , and resentment of Scottish merchants was endemic . For Georgia however , the term " outsider , " at least in terms of social and economic realities , applies less well . The colony was too young to have a native-born elite , and many Scots who arrived in the Trustee period occupied secure and honored places within @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like Sir Patrick Houstoun , named to the original Royal Council in Georgia and advisor to three governors , eventually became political figures . Others were dominant landowners in their parish , like Capt . Mark Carr , who founded the port of Sunbury . The Scottish town of Darien produced Lachlan McIntosh , son of the original leader of that Highland community and a dominant figure in the landowning elite of south Georgia . To these could be added the Scots who migrated from South Carolina like James Bulloch and his family or James and Audley Maxwell , names that commanded respect and attention throughout the colony. ( n30 ) <p> The new Scots who came to Georgia after 1750 faced a greater challenge , for they lived in towns , not the countryside , pursued a profession that did not arouse the same feelings as a planter or army officer , and kept more to their own . Of twenty Scottish merchants who married in Georgia during the colonial period and for whom records can be found , fourteen stayed within their community . Of that number , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ planter who moved his family from St. Kitts in the mid-1750s , and provided a rallying point for the West Indian interests . John Graham wed Frances , and Alexander Wylly married Susannah . Edmond Tannatt took Elizabeth , and George Baillie , a Scottish merchant who moved from Charleston to Savannah , chose Jourdina . When Tannatt died an early death , his widow married yet another Scottish merchant , James Mossman . Perhaps the most notable family portrait to come out of colonial Georgia captures the Crooke and Tannatt families and their in-laws ; the group is seated on the gracious , spreading lawn of a family plantation . Their dress is elegant ; the pose was aristocratic ; a sense of worldly success and familial well-being permeates the scene , with its fishing rods , live oak trees , and plantation house in the background , all bespeaking an ease that seems far away from the hustle of the mercantile world that made this conspicuous display of wealth possible . The elegant painting disguised well the origins of James Mossman in a counting house. ( n31 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ carefully thought-out way . Although Edward and William Telfair both married late , they had their eye firmly fixed on becoming part of the emerging colonial elite . At age forty , William wed Elizabeth , daughter of Edmund Bellinger , a wealthy landowner in South Carolina , and a man who bore the exalted title of landgrave , a carryover from the days of the Proprietors . His brother married the daughter of William Gibbons , also a wealthy South Carolina planter who had moved his considerable holdings of slaves across the river to profit from the newly opened rice lands . Thirty-nine years old with a bride of sixteen , Edward intended to make a bid for power and connections . Yet , to all appearances , it was a happy marriage , producing nine children and a family name that still echoes in Savannah today. ( n32 ) <p> Socially , the new Scots made their way with apparent ease . Shortly after their arrival , the Graham brothers joined Solomon 's Lodge , the recently reconstituted Freemasons of Georgia . Three other compatriots belonged to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ constitution and became the second Provincial Grand Master of Georgia . The Highlander Lachlan McGillivray , despite his Creek wife , moved with consummate ease in the circles of other planters and merchants who traveled about in phaetons and riding chairs , dressed in silk breeches and raced horses . As his biographer pointed out , McGillivray above all epitomized the social revolution taking place in Georgia , the rise of men of checkered background into the ranks of Savannah " gentlemen . " The more public events ratified these developments . When a grand jury convened for Christ Church Parish in 1769 , seven of the twelve men were merchants , five of them Scots . Even where the Scots seemed distinctive , their institutions melded with the established order of things . The members of Independent Presbyterian Church included virtually the whole of the Scottish community in Savannah , but the church had been established by Jonathan Bryan , William Gibbons , and James Edward Powell , as good a slice of the English colonial elite as to be found . When the Scots founded a revitalized St. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mixed . The columns of the Georgia Gazette carried letters expressing concern at the spirit of exclusivity and clannishness of the new organization , fearful it would promote a dreaded " factionalism " in a relatively open society . But the club opened its doors to non-Scots for its annual St. Andrew 's dinner , and prominent Georgians like James Habersham joined in the partying. ( n33 ) <p> Politically , the Scots moved into positions of leadership early . In 1755 , two years after arriving , Lewis Johnson entered the Commons House of Assembly , the first legislative body in the colony 's history . Two years later , the governor appointed John Graham to be Clerk of the Accounts as well as Indian Commissary . Their influence was immediately visible . When the mechanics of Savannah demanded the Commons House of Assembly prevent growing competition of black artisans with white craftsmen , the West Indian lobby ( John Graham , Lewis Johnston , Alexander Wylly , a Scotch-Irish partner of Johnston from Tobago , and Edmond Tannatt , who came from St. Kitts ) organized a petition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In effect , the Scotsmen lately of St. Kitts , Tobago , and London intervened in the most decisive moment of class tension in colonial Georgia , helping deliver a mere shell of a law to the frustrated " mechanicks. " ( n34 ) In 1760 , Scots represented eight of the twenty-one members of the Commons House of Assembly and , in subsequent elections , the number varied from five to seven . In each of the elections of 1768 and 1772 , four Scottish merchants returned to office . Where they most stood out , however , was on His Majesty 's Council , advisory body to the governor and upper house of the legislature . By 1765 , its twelve members included John Graham of John Graham and Company , Lewis Johnston , of Johnston and Wylly , Grey Elliott of Gordon and Elliott , and James Read , partner in Read and Mossman . Also on the council were two other Scotsmen , James Mackay and Clement Martin , still a part-time resident of St. Kitt 's . As late as 1775 , five of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Scots had integrated well into the social order that had emerged by the time of the Revolution , a certain ambiguity underlay their presence . John Graham , one of the three most important figures in the colony , enjoyed an almost unbroken record of success in his twenty-two-year residence , and yet his ambition was to emulate the sugar barons of the West Indies . " Be as it will , I am fully determined to remain where I am till I can leave it on a proper footing , " he confided to his fellow Scotsman , Gov . James Grant , " for I must find myself in a situation to spend from 1,000 pounds to 1,500 a year in England , before I will show my face there , and when my plantations will afford this , I wo n't stay a month longer . " And therein lay the rub . If few of the Scots shared his intention of becoming an absentee owner , they remained connected to British society , tied to the trans-Atlantic world through the flow of capital and goods , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rights and privileges . As the political crisis between North America and Britain worsened , they increasingly derived their sense of identity from these connections and by the time of the Revolution defined themselves in ways that made them " outsiders " to increasing numbers of Georgians. ( n36 ) <p> The Stamp Act Crisis of 1765 was the defining moment when the new Scots began to assess their loyalties . When the enforcement of the act began on November 1 , most stamp distributors had already resigned or left the colonies ; ships sailed without stamped papers and colonial governors looked on helplessly . By early 1766 , the refusal of American colonists to buy stamped paper had effectively nullified the will of the British government , with one lone exception , the port of Savannah . In January 1766 , its merchants committed the unthinkable and purchased the detested stamps to send their cargoes on their way . When the governor closed the port in early December , these eager traders petitioned to find someone who would serve as temporary stamp distributor ; the official one was en @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ America . During the last two weeks of December , Savannah witnessed the slightly comical sight of its men of commerce knocking on doors to recruit a person willing to incur the prevalent anger and brave enough to risk the lawsuits that might follow . On January 3 , the actual distributor arrived at Tybee Island , and in a few days the port reopened and the stranded vessels sailed . In the face of popular anger , James Wright smuggled the despised distributor out of town and into hiding on Robert Baillie 's plantation in south Georgia , an act that was to cost Baillie his seat in the assembly . When furious Americans threatened to destroy the house of the chief justice , an especially obnoxious Scotsman by the name of William Simpson , some sixty to seventy compatriots , including merchants , surrounded his place with muskets at the ready. ( n37 ) <p> In the wake of the crisis , the merchants learned a valuable lesson , that of maintaining a discreet silence in the face of the political firestorms that were to sweep the American @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Georgia 's colonial assembly , and the repressive measures that followed the Boston Tea Party . They kept their heads down , fully immersed in the business of taking advantage of the boom conditions that still prevailed . Those merchants , and most especially the Scots , were blind to the gathering political storm and filled their correspondence with pleas to their London agents to keep the supply line furnished with choice goods . " We are fearful of any delay in the delivery of goods and merchandise , " Edward Telfair told his partners . " We hope to have in the next month some 2000 pounds upon the seas , " and warned the house would lose customers if the cargo did not arrive . By the eve of the Revolution , the London merchants had become uneasy at the dangerous overextension of their partners in Georgia . Still , until mid-1775 , London as well as Savannah did its best to keep that supply line filled. ( n38 ) <p> Concerned their investment in the Indian trade had gone sour , the Scots had already begun to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1770s , this meant moving aggressively into land acquisition , internalizing that basic American instinct for speculation and investment . John Graham left off being a merchant to concentrate more exclusively on land as the vehicle for wealth , becoming the largest proprietor in Georgia with some 26,000 acres . Samuel Douglass , correspondent for one of the great London houses , went from very little holdings at the beginning of the decade to 16,000 acres . James Spalding and Roger Kelsall purchased for their company more than 8,000 acres , primarily in St. John 's Parish . The records of land grants and purchases by the Scots showed no signs of slowing down in 1774 and early 1775 , even with news of the Battle of Lexington and the slide of the royal government into oblivion . Simply put , the hardheaded Scots believed that sustained economic growth had become a permanent feature of the landscape. ( n39 ) They did not seem overly concerned by the massive debt they had accumulated with their London correspondents either . In 1790 , that amount stood at 144,000 , with accumulated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ colony fifth on the list of the most indebted . But in 1776 , that number was a staggering 261,337 , with the firm of Cowper , Telfairs owing 76,937 , John Graham and Company , 69,644 , and Samuel Douglass , together with Gordon and Netherclift , at least 61,185 . The year 1775 found the Scottish merchants in a virtually impossible situation ; they had become political outsiders and financially vulnerable. ( n40 ) <p> Despite this exposure , these hard-boiled merchants were to stand firm in defense of the Crown , even at the cost of their fortunes . When the Continental Congress imposed a blockade on exports , Savannah 's merchants paid little heed and continued to sell rice to East Florida and beyond . When a British fleet off Tybee Island demanded provisions of rice in February 1776 , they openly committed themselves to the Crown 's forces in the mock-heroic " Battle of the Rice Boats . " On March 3 , the British seized control of a fleet of rice boats next to Hutchinson Island . Many of Savannah 's merchants , Scots @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ result , the exodus of Scottish merchants began . Lachlan McGillivray , James Read , John Simpson , John Graham , and John Taylor left for Britain , East Florida , and Jamaica . Others retreated to their plantations , as Samuel Douglass later phrased it , " to protect my property and be able to pay off my debts in England . " In June , the president of Georgia addressed the Provincial Congress on the need to arrest those " whose going at large is dangerous to the liberties of America , " and that number included an impressive list of Scottish merchants still present : James Spalding , James Mossman , Samuel Douglass , John Inglis , David Douglass , Thomas Netherclift , George Kincaid , Thomas Reid , Robert Reid , and George Baillie. ( n41 ) <p> When the British marched back into Savannah in December 1778 , many of the Scots returned to resume their business and several played a notable role in the restored government : John Graham as lieutenant governor , Lewis Johnston and William Telfair , commissioners of the bureau of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ -- Basil Cowper , Samuel Douglass , John Simpson , James Mossman , William Panton , Alexander Wylly , Simon Munro , James Spalding , George Baillie , and Robert Baillie , and elected but not serving , Andrew McLean and James Grierson . Of His Majesty 's initial council , three of the seven members were Scots : John Graham , Lewis Johnston , and Martin Jollie . Those in the assembly took a role in drawing up the Disqualifying Act , depriving 152 Georgians of their civic rights , and a later act that banished twenty-four individuals while confiscating their property . As if to pour salt in the wounds , the Scots led the charge in purchasing tracts of land attached for failure to pay debt , especially Basil Cowper and Samuel Douglass , who added considerably to their holdings. ( n42 ) <p> On August 15 , a month after the fall of Savannah , the legislature of the State of Georgia passed a remarkable piece of legislation : " And Whereas the People of Scotland have in General Manifested a decided inimicality to the Civil @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Continue a Ruinous War , for the purpose of Subjugating this and the other Confederated States . Be it therefore enacted by the Authority aforesaid that no person a native of Scotland shall be permitted or allowed to emigrate sic into this state with intent to settle within the same or to carry on commerce or other trade , profession or business . " Cooler heads repealed the law , but the point was taken . The men who made up the Scottish merchant community in colonial Georgia departed , most for East Florida. ( n43 ) <p> The new Scots , men who came after the mid-century mark , disappeared with such finality that historians have ignored their role , and yet their work tells much about the nature of colonial Georgia . Historians have justifiably made much of the " Carolinization " that took place in Georgia after 1750 as Carolina planters moved onto the coast , bringing with them enslaved Africans and the plantation system that exploited them . The role of the Scots suggests this interpretation needs to be broadened . First , the Scots dominated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ did in South Carolina . They operated on a small stage and , to a large extent , controlled who walked on and off of that stage . It is only a bit too strong to say that commerce was a Scottish family affair . At Charleston , there were more native merchants than in Virginia and Maryland because business conditions were more like those in Philadelphia and New York . Georgia closely resembled Virginia , where Scotsmen operated small stores along the network of rivers . Yet it differed from Virginia in that three or four firms in Savannah controlled the bulk of the funds flowing into the colony , determining where the money was to go and under what conditions it was offered. ( n44 ) <p> The Scots faced an economy that posed the kinds of challenges Carolina had faced fifty years before . They confronted a slave population that could not yet reproduce itself , rice cultivation done by the relatively inefficient impoundment method , and a heavy dependence on the British government in the Indian trade . They skillfully took advantage of those facts . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ imported British goods that tied Georgia to the commercial revolution , made rice exports the focal point for supporting the credits granted by London , took away from Charleston leadership in the Indian trade , and developed a costly new technology for rice plantations along the Savannah River . Of course , they made their share of mistakes . They clung to the Indian trade long after most Carolinians had moved on to more lucrative avenues . Commerce with the Creeks and Cherokees was the dark shadow that hung over an otherwise flourishing economy , the root cause of the alienation of the backcountry from Georgia 's economic leaders . <p> In their eagerness to promote financial development and reap the benefits of increased trade , the Scots lent money to a surprisingly broad range of people . Certainly they pushed for the concentration of rice land along the coast into the hands of a wealthy few . John Graham and Samuel Douglass were themselves spectacular examples of that process . But the limited evidence suggests the middle-class planter , with ten or so acres of rice and eight or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ competitively using the inland swamp method , and found a good market for his crop . They also advanced funds to tavern keepers , shopkeepers , artisans , shipbuilders , sea captains , and farmers who produced the Indian corn and peas that fed the West Indies . The combination of these two phenomena was to create that irresistible sense of optimism and self-worth that dominated the last years of the colonial period . <p> Scholar Jack Greene remarked that Georgians had a genius for going against history : first the utopian vision of the Trustees , then a government constructed to maximize the power of London , and finally , the warm embrace of slavery , bucking larger currents in Western history . The sad truth was that slavery did hold the key to fortune in the lowcountry and not just for the wealthy . As many as half of the households in the lowcountry held slaves , and many more colonists sought to gain the status that came with slave ownership . Historians routinely note the marked social inequalities along the coast , but detect relatively minor manifestations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tension during the period 1760-1775 . The work of these Scots in spreading the wealth to a goodly segment of society was a significant part of the explanation. ( n45 ) <p> Politics interrupted the normal flow of events , and these men were quick to declare their loyalty to the system that nurtured them , the great trans-Atlantic economy that tied continents together in a giant exchange of goods and services for the mutual benefit of a surprisingly broad group of people . Again , unlike their peers to the north , they had toed the line of imperial policy , rarely challenging the misguided policies of successive ministries , following the rules regarding clearance papers and other bureaucratic minutiae , and refraining from the time-honored tradition of smuggling . It was ironic that their success in narrowly pursuing an aggressive capitalism ultimately helped undermine the imperial system . <p> The insiders of yesteryear quickly became the outsiders by 1776 . Their role in the Battle of the Rice Boats eliminated them from political life in Georgia and led to the exodus of many , if not most . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their doom in the eyes of many colonists , leading to their peremptory exclusion in the days following the creation of the state . The tragedy of their abrupt departure was that it left a gaping hole in the economic and social life of the new state . Capital , commercial expertise , invaluable connections disappeared in the blink of an eye , a much heavier legacy for Savannah to bear than for Charleston , where no such wholesale turnover occurred . The ensuing vacuum was a major factor in the realignment of power after the Revolution , with the upcountry claiming its due . In a not-so-subtle revenge , Augusta and the surrounding counties , Richmond , Wilkes , and Burke , stripped Savannah of political , and to a certain extent , economic power . The irony was that the leading Scottish merchant of colonial times , the nimble Edward Telfair , one of the few mercantile Scots to embrace the Revolution , transferred his base of operations to the upcountry and assisted his new colleagues in measures against the town that had nourished his early success. ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ readers , the contributions of early Scottish entrepreneurs to Georgia 's colonial history fell by the wayside of history . Footnotes <p>

@@4020841 Change in physical education and the impact of state standards on curriculum , instruction , and assessment were investigated in this study . Teachers from elementary ( n=69 ) and secondary ( n=94 ) schools participated by completing an author developed questionnaire . Comparisons were made between schools that participated in the current study and schools represented in a study conducted a decade ago . Since adoption of state graduation standards the frequency and duration of elementary physical education has remained largely unchanged . At the secondary level , frequency of class sessions significantly declined while duration of each session significantly increased . Block scheduling at the secondary level may have contributed to the decline in frequency , since the duration of minutes per week students attended physical education in 1995 and 2005 was not significantly different . Elementary children failed to meet recommended amounts of weekly physical education , but as grade level increased students ( who were enrolled in physical education ) came closer to meeting national goals . Although teacher responses were not always positive , many teachers felt that standards have had an impact on the way they teach , the focus and direction of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time was identified as the predominant barrier to meeting state standards . <p> Education reform initiatives have resulted in a move toward standards-based education whereby schools , districts , and states are required to align curriculum , instruction , and assessment with challenging student achievement standards . Sweeping changes have occurred in education practices since passage of the No Child Left Behind ( NCLB ) legislation ( 2002 ) . Increases in demand for accountability have left schools and teachers pondering how they will meet the mandates of the law in the amount of time they have available during the school year . The answer in some states and school districts has been to eliminate or reduce offerings in academic subjects that are not defined by NCLB as core subject areas . Since physical education is one of those non-mandated areas , the risk of elimination or reduction is real ( Coleman , 2001 ) . The Center on Education Policy ( 2005 ) recently published a report on the impact NCLB requirements have had on non-core subject areas in 49 states and 350 school districts . Twenty-seven percent of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reductions in physical education as a result of increasing instruction time in language arts and/or math . However , with dramatic increases in health risks like obesity and type 2 diabetes that are now being seen in children and adolescents , the need for quality physical education that promotes lifelong physical activity has never been greater ( Harmon , Rao , &; Arslanian , 2005 ) . <p> In an effort to embrace the education reform movement the National Association for Sport and Physical Education ( NASPE ) published a document ( 1995 ) that was later revised ( 2004 ) called Moving into the Future : National Standards for Physical Education . This document outlines what students should know and be able to do as a result of quality physical education . Many states require their school districts to adopt either the national standards or state standards that have been aligned to them ( Burgeson , Wechsler , Brener , Young , &; Spain , 2003 ) . The impact that adoption of standards has had on physical education programs is largely unknown . <p> Pursuant to the flurry @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1980s and early 1990s , the Wyoming legislature mandated state graduation standards in 1995 ( W.S. 21-9-101 ) and charged the Wyoming Department of Education ( WDE ) with ensuring that all students be given the opportunity to meet the standards . Unlike the later federal mandate outlined in NCLB , physical education was recognized as a common core academic area . As a result , school districts are held accountable for documenting evidence that students are provided standards-based physical education and that they achieve proficiency in the content area . ( See Benham-Deal , Byra , Jenkins , &; Gates , 2002 , for more details about the standards development process . ) The purpose of this study was to examine changes in physical education curriculum , instruction , and assessment that have occurred since the adoption of standards in Wyoming . We also wanted to identify gaps in levels of readiness . That is , are there skills and knowledge that teachers need to continue to develop so that they can better assist their students in achieving state standards ? Methods <p> Participants <p> During the fall semester @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teacher in every school ( n=392 ) in Wyoming 's 48 school districts . These teachers belonged to the Wyoming School Health and Physical Education ( WYHPE ) Network , a virtual organization made up of teachers who have attended various workshops , conference presentations and/or university classes offered by the authors . In schools where there was more than one teacher , the survey was sent to a teacher who had previously agreed to be the school or district liaison to the WYHPE Network . In the few cases where a contact person was not identified , the survey was mailed to the " Physical Educator " at that school . To increase response rate , a follow-up e-mail message and attached questionnaire were sent to a teacher or administrator in all of the school districts for which a survey had not been returned by February 2005 . <p> One hundred and sixty-five teachers returned the questionnaire . They represented 71 elementary schools and 94 secondary schools ( middle , junior high , and high schools ) for a 43% return rate . Since physical education practices are quite @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ determining district return rate . Twenty-nine ( 61% ) of the school districts had responses from teachers in elementary schools while 38 ( 79% ) of the school districts had responses from teachers in secondary schools . <p> Instrument <p> In a previous study , Benham-Deal and Byra ( 1995 ) developed and used a self-report questionnaire to survey teachers on physical education practices in Wyoming . The survey included questions that focused on : ( a ) the teacher , ( b ) the curriculum , ( c ) frequency of physical education classes , and ( d ) physical fitness testing . Since the original questionnaire was developed prior to the adoption of statewide standards in physical education , revisions were needed in order to fully address the research questions in this study . Some of the original questions pertaining to facilities , after school activities , fitness testing , and community involvement were dropped so that new ones pertinent to the standards movement could be added . Questions related to teacher certification requirements , grade level requirements , and frequency and duration of classes were retained so @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ included 45 open-ended questions and closed questions requiring ranking and categorical responses . The questionnaire was divided into the following categories : ( a ) physical and health education demographics , ( b ) physical and health education standards and curricula , ( c ) school/district assessment practices , and ( d ) school/district policies on physical education and activity . Information gleaned from questions pertaining only to physical education will be reported here . <p> Since the questionnaire contained both closed and open-ended questions , two different types of analyses were applied to the results . Number counts , percentages , and means were calculated on quantitative responses . To determine changes in practices over time , a one-way Analysis of Variance was applied to the data . Qualitative data were analyzed through constant comparison ( Lincoln &; Guba , 1985 ) . Responses to each question were read and placed into categories . As the categories were revised and refined , general themes emerged to encompass all categories . Results and Discussion <p> Results from the study were grouped into two school levels ; elementary ( K-6 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ school ) . Middle schools were included in the secondary grouping because scheduling issues in that type of school are more consistent with those of the junior high and high schools than with elementary schools . If 6th grade was housed in the same building as the other elementary grades it was included in the elementary analyses ; if it was included in the middle school , it was analyzed with secondary data . Where possible , results from this study were compared to state findings reported by Benham-Deal and Byra ( 1995 ) and to national results reported in the School Health Policies and Programs Study ( SHHPS , Burgeson et al. , 2003 ) . <p> Physical Education Demographics <p> Enrollment in participating schools reflected the rural and frontier nature of the state , with school populations ranging from 12 to 480 students ( M = 231 ) at the elementary level and 4 to 1600 students ( M = 419 ) at the secondary level . Nearly three-quarters of secondary schools had more than one certified physical education teacher on staff . In contrast , only 30% @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teacher . Almost all elementary ( 93% ) and secondary ( 98% ) physical education teachers were on full time contracts . More elementary ( 93% ) than secondary ( 71% ) teachers were fully allocated to the physical education program . Of those secondary teachers who had multiple responsibilities , nearly half ( 47% ) also taught health education . Most secondary teachers ( 83% ) taught in one school while almost half ( 47% ) of the elementary teachers traveled to more than one school . Slightly more than half of the elementary teachers ( 52% ) and most of the secondary teachers ( 85% ) coached at least one sport . <p> Required Physical Education <p> Nearly all elementary ( 91% ) and secondary ( 97% ) schools in Wyoming require physical education . This is considerably higher than schools reported in the SHPPS ( Burgeson et al. , 2003 ) . In that study , the number of schools requiring physical education varied according to grade level . Required physical education in elementary ranged from 39.7% in kindergarten to 51.5% in 4th grade , while secondary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 7th grade . Almost twice the number of secondary schools reported having physical education in 9th grade than in 11th grade . In Wyoming decisions about curriculum requirements are made at the local level . However , with the adoption of state graduation standards , school districts must provide students with multiple opportunities to acquire the basket of goods ( i.e. , skills and knowledge ) outlined in the standards . It is not surprising then to see most schools meeting that challenge through required physical education programs . <p> Frequency of Physical Education ( days per week ) <p> No significant differences were found in the number of days per week Wyoming elementary students attended physical education in 1995 and in 2005 ( see Figure 1 ) . On average , elementary children ( grades 1-6 ) attended physical education 2.5 days per week . Kindergarteners spent slightly less time ( M days = 2.0 ) in physical education . One of the Healthy People 2010 ( U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services , 2000 ) goals is to achieve more physical education in schools , particularly since @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increasing children 's physical education , total physical activity during the typical school day generally increases . In addition , there may be some carry over benefits of physical education . For instance , Dale , Corbin and Dale ( 2000 ) found that children were more active after school on days that they had physical education than on days they did not . Results from this study suggest that elementary schools in Wyoming are failing to meet national recommendations for daily physical education ( NASPE , 2004 ) . <p> In this study , Wyoming 7th graders attended a greater number of physical education classes each week ( M = 4.0 ) than any other grade level . It is interesting to note that when 6th grade was housed in a " middle school " the mean number of days per week that students in Wyoming attended physical education was considerably higher ( 3.8 days/week ) than when housed in elementary schools ( 2.5 days/week ) . Consistent with findings from the Centers for Disease Control ( Lowry et al. , 2004 ) , enrollment in physical education declined @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ junior high ( see Figure 1 ) . Significant differences were found between 1995 ( Benham-Deal &; Byra , 1995 ) and 2005 in 9th through 12th grades . Mean differences ranged from 0.9 days in 9th grade to 2.3 days in 11th grade . These findings could be cause for alarm if the number of minutes students engage in physical education per week also decline . Duration of Physical Education ( minutes per session and per week ) <p> The mean number of minutes per session that elementary students engaged in physical education ranged from a high of 35.8 in 6th grade to a low of 28.3 in kindergarten ( see Figure 2 ) . Tenth graders attended physical education for more minutes per session ( M = 67.1 ) than other secondary grade levels . Similar to the frequency data , students engaged in significantly more minutes of physical education ( f = 24.27 , p<.0001 ) when 6th grade was in a middle school setting ( M = 51.5 ) than when it was in an elementary school ( M = 33.8 ) . A significant increase @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all of the secondary grades from 1995 ( Benham-Deal &; Byra , 1995 ) to 2005 . Mean differences ranged from 10.1 minutes in 8th grade to 19.8 minutes in 12th grade . <p> The decline in number of days some secondary students attend physical education and the increase in number of minutes per session is probably a reflection of more schools moving toward block scheduling . Thus , a decline in the number of days per week may not mean that students are accumulating less physical activity time per week . To further examine this premise , the number of minutes per week students attended physical education was calculated . At the elementary level , means ranged from 76.8 min in 1st grade to 86.6 min in 6th grade ( see Figure 3 ) . It was not uncommon to see greater durations in geographically isolated schools that had physical education teachers directly assigned to a single school . Even though the number of days per week increased in some elementary grades , no significant differences were seen between 1995 ( BenhamDeal &; Byra , 1995 ) and 2005 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ education . Most Schools failed to provide students with recommended amounts of physical education ( NASPE , 2004 ) , leading to the conclusion that calls for daily physical education ( or the equivalent amount of time ) have thus far gone unheeded in most Wyoming elementary schools . <p> No significant differences were seen between 1995 ( Benham-Deal &; Byra , 1995 ) and 2005 in the number of minutes per week secondary students had physical education . The gap seen in the elementary schools between recommended amounts and actual number of accumulated minutes of weekly physical education narrowed in the middle grades ( 6-8 ) , with means ranging from 205.0 min in 6th grade to 247.5 min in 8th grade of weekly physical education ( see Figure 4 ) . When physical education was offered in high schools , all grades met the recommended 225 min of physical education per week . So , even though required days of week declined across grade levels , most students at the upper grade levels ( who take physical education ) accumulated the recommended amounts . <p> Curriculum Issues <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all of the elementary ( 91% ) and secondary ( 93% ) schools in Wyoming reported having a written school physical education curriculum . A considerable decline was seen in 2005 in the percentage of elementary ( 78% ) and secondary ( 73% ) schools that indicated a written curriculum was in place . While the 2005 percentages are consistent with findings from SHHPS ( i.e. , 77.4% ) , the decline was very surprising , particularly since the Wyoming Department of Education requires that all school districts have their curriculum aligned with district standards . There are several possible explanations for this finding . First , the state-required district curriculum may not have been adopted as the school curriculum . Second , the decline seen in this response could have resulted from the language that was used in the 2005 questionnaire . The original question was modified to include the phrase " developmentally appropriate " so respondents in this study could have differentiated between a written curriculum and one that was developmentally appropriate . Finally , it is possible that teachers believe their previous curriculum has been replaced by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on standards , teachers may not be cognizant of existing curriculum documents . Regardless , this finding needs to be further explored to determine why teachers fail to report having developmentally appropriate curricula . <p> Standards and Practice <p> According to the SHHPS ( Burgeson et al. , 2003 ) , 60.8% of all states require school districts and/or schools to follow guidelines such as national or state standards . Of the schools that were surveyed in the SHHPS , most ( 81.4% ) reported following either national , state , or district physical education standards . All schools in Wyoming are required to have graduation standards in physical education . Most of the elementary ( 80% ) and secondary ( 81% ) schools in this study have adopted the state graduation standards in physical education as their school district standards . Early in the standards adoption process , some school districts attempted to write their own standards but it appears now most of them agree that the state standards sufficiently encompass the knowledge and skills that their students should achieve . When asked if the adoption of state standards @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and 45% of secondary teachers responded affirmatively . The percentage of teachers who teach standards-based physical education may be higher , however . Some of the participants reported that their program was already standards-based before the official adoption of state standards while some of the newer teachers indicated that standards-based physical education is what they were taught at the university and was the only way they knew how to teach . In these cases , adoption of standards was not viewed to have affected the way they teach . <p> Open-ended responses were analyzed using a qualitative emergent theme approach ( Lincoln &; Guba , 1985 ) . Specific step-wise data analysis procedures entailed sorting and categorizing , and comparing and contrasting of the open-ended responses ( Hare &; Graber , 2000 ) . First the data were analyzed by dissecting responses into similar statements and categories . Three distinct themes relating to the impact of state standards on their physical education programs were seen in this initial analysis , namely : ( a ) alignment of curriculum and instruction , ( b ) type and frequency of assessment , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ meeting the standards . Second , these developing categories were compared and contrasted across teacher data such as gender and grade level taught to determine any consistencies and inconsistencies . Throughout this process of data analysis peer debriefing was employed at routine intervals with the third author as a means of critically examining emerging findings . No sub-themes emerged across demographic characteristics of the participants and the themes of curriculum and instruction , assessment , and barriers and facilitators to effectiveness were left intact . <p> Alignment of Curriculum and Instruction . <p> Teachers reported that the state standards provided them a direction and focus to their curriculum planning . The student achievement benchmarks also provided them with a framework for developing a more specific scope and sequence to their programs . One teacher noted , " The standards helped give direction and scope and sequence to the program . It helped me cover all areas and not just movement . " The standards also motivated the teachers to offer a greater scope of content areas , including more dance/ rhythms and lifetime activities units . Teachers also commented that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of sequencing an effective program ; not just within an individual school , but across the district program . One elementary teacher noted , " At my level we have tried to make sure there is a sequential carry-over to the intermediate school . " Teachers reported that they were making a concerted effort to fit what they were teaching with the standards as written . As one teacher reported , " Units taught are aligned with the standards and more time is spent making sure all standards and benchmarks are taught . " <p> It seems pertinent to note that in responding to open-ended questions regarding curriculum and instruction many of the Wyoming teachers did not differentiate their responses towards issues of curriculum change and instructional change . A possible explanation for this finding is that for many of the teachers , curriculum and instruction were perceived as inseparable , part of the same thing . Therefore , to look to separate out changes to curriculum planning and instructional methodologies was illogical to them . An alternative explanation may be that the state standards have not yet provided a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is , it may have changed what they choose to teach , but not how they choose to teach it . This needs to be further explored as a possible gap in teachers ' readiness to effectively teach standards-based physical education . Professional development that helps to introduce teachers to best practices in standards-based instruction may be needed . <p> Type and Frequency of Assessment . <p> As part of Wyoming 's accountability system , schools are required to administer common assessments to all students in the school district so that progress on standards can be documented . More than three quarters ( 77% ) of the elementary and secondary schools in this study reported having adopted district-wide assessments . Slightly fewer ( 52% of elementary and 57% of secondary schools ) indicated that they have administered these common assessments and begun to track student progress through the benchmark periods ( i.e. , K-4 , 5-8 , 9-12 ) . The impact of standards on assessment practices was reflected in their open-ended responses . A common theme of change was teachers ' perception of an increased engagement in assessment . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ response . For many teachers these assessments were viewed as being aligned with the standards and specifically the creation of a " body of evidence " that documents student achievement . For instance , one teacher responded , " we now offer body of evidence activities and document much more of what goes on in the curriculum . " However , teachers did not always seem to value this higher level of time investment in assessment as facilitating their instructional effectiveness . For many teachers the extra emphasis on assessment was not perceived as a facilitator that guided their instruction , but rather was viewed as a separate task that reduced instructional time and subsequently student activity time . One teacher summarized this view with , " I do more assessments but we have less time on skills . I taught more material before this came into place . " <p> When asked what type of common assessments were now included in district-wide physical education programs no single theme or type emerged . There was a variety of content being assessed and a greater scope of assessment instruments being used @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ state standards they assessed performance in less traditional activities such as dance , gymnastics , and fundamental movement skills . Teachers also reported that they were starting to use a greater variety of assessment methodologies to help students understand the cognitive components of physical education . One teacher commented , " we do more cognitive assessments for students to understand the why , and how . " Reported assessment instruments included use of skill rubrics , performance checklists , and peer evaluations . We believe these results reflect a change in how teachers understand and view assessment . The only question we asked in 1995 about assessment focused on fitness testing . While many of the teachers reported that they still used fitness tests , often these comments were accompanied with mention of related cognitive assessments ( e.g. , goal writing , student logs , written tests ) . This was not surprising since Wyoming Physical Education Standard #2 ( Fitness Literacy ) does not require students to demonstrate physical fitness . Instead , it requires students to be literate in fitness and to engage in physical activities required for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are using the information they glean from the fitness tests to help students set fitness goals and plan developmentally appropriate fitness plans since these tasks are outlined in the grade level benchmarks . <p> In summary , many of the Wyoming teachers seemed to value the outcome of the standards-based assessment process and are adapting their assessment methodologies to satisfy all of the state standards . Despite this there is still some resistance to the perceived time constraints of the assessment and documentation process contributing to a perceived reduction in " teaching time . " More professional development may be needed in assisting teachers to economize their time so that instruction and assessment is a seamless process , including the use of assessment to inform instruction . <p> Perceived Barriers and Facilitators to Effectiveness at Meeting the Standards . <p> The most dominant perceived barrier to meeting the state standards that teachers reported was the issue of lack of time . One teacher commented , " Time is our greatest challenge today ( lesson time , time for scheduling , time for planning and time for training ) . " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ much needed framework to focus student learning , they still did n't have enough time to instruct and assess students . Several teachers reported that the only way to resolve this time-related issue was to use out-of-lesson time to help students achieve proficiency in the standards . " Students do not participate enough so I encourage out of school activity . " <p> Time ( or lack of it ) is an issue for teachers across many disciplines . It has been estimated that classroom teachers need approximately one-and-one-half times the instructional time they currently have to teach language arts , mathematics , science , and civics ( Florian , 1999 ) . With increased emphasis on these subjects brought about by NCLB it is no wonder that available instruction time has become a major issue for classroom teachers . Physical education teachers in Wyoming are not immune to this pressure since physical education standards are mandated and connected to graduation outcomes . They experience similar pressure , particularly at the high school level where the stakes are high and often standards must be achieved in a single required class @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mismatch between the amount of content needed to be taught and available instruction time is to integrate content standards across the school curriculum so that students are not denied the opportunity to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to graduate . One teacher reported that the school district has " integrated health and PE at the elementary level &; is meeting children 's needs &; developing healthy habits early in life . " Another teacher stated , " The integration of literature into PE is something I am proud of . I also try to integrate with as many other areas as possible . <p> Motivating colleagues to embrace standards-based change and creating a " community of practice " ( Lave &; Wenger , 1991 ) that can stimulate systemic change has also been perceived by many teachers as a barrier to success . One teacher noted , " Getting my colleagues to look at the curriculum and work on student improvement , not just throw out the ball , has been a challenge . " <p> Despite these barriers the motivation of teachers to align their physical education programs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The catalyst for this increased drive and determination seems to have arisen primarily from the enthusiastic response of the students . A typical response was , " participation levels are extremely high and students enjoy coming to class . " Other school district personnel , especially administrators , are perceived by teachers as supportive of the physical education program and have contributed to the change process . One teacher remarked on the impact on whole school advocacy , " I have gotten the superintendent to buy into and begin a wellness program for our staff . The principal now walks every day after coming into the physical education program last year and learning how to use the heart rate monitors . " <p> School Wellness Policies <p> Thus far district administration , school administration and staff , and community support has not translated into school wellness policies that recommend 30 minutes of daily physical activity . Only 17% of elementary schools and 26% of secondary schools reported having a school wellness policy at the time the questionnaire was administered . The Child Nutrition and Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all school districts with federally funded school meals program to develop wellness policies which address physical activity and nutrition by June , 2006 . It is likely that the low percentage of schools who reported having a policy in place was a product of the close timing between the passage of the Act and the distribution of our questionnaire . It is anticipated that the percentage of schools in Wyoming who have these policies in place will increase significantly , and probably has already done so . Elementary teachers predominantly identified " recess " as the primary mechanism ( beyond physical education ) through which elementary schools could achieve the physical activity goal . Currently , most of the elementary schools ( 74% ) provide their mid-day recess before students eat lunch and many of the teachers reported their schools have multiple recesses throughout the day . No consistent plan for the secondary schools was articulated , nor was there much evidence that secondary students have any opportunities during the school day to engage in physical activity beyond their physical education classes . It is clear that schools need to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ min of daily physical activity ( Strong et al. , 2005 ) is to be met . Conclusion <p> Over the past decade ( 1995-2005 ) some things have changed and some things have not changed in K-12 physical education programs in Wyoming . Physical education continues to be a required course within the overall school curriculum in almost all schools across the state . This is encouraging given the growing trend across the nation is to reduce the number of minutes allocated to physical education instruction in schools ( Coleman , 1999 ; Lowry et al. , 2004 ) . Although it is commendable that physical education remains a required course in schools K-12 , Wyoming has " room for improvement " in meeting the recommended physical education instruction time , especially at the elementary level ( NASPE , 2004 ) . <p> It is disconcerting to learn that in 2005 only 75% of the participants reported having a written school physical education curriculum . This figure is down from that reported in 1995 ( Benham-Deal &; Byra , 1995 ) . This finding is particularly difficult to understand @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subject areas for which standards are developed and graduation requirements specified in Wyoming . Perhaps some of the participants in this study differentiated the development of district standards and benchmarks from the development of school curricula . Or , perhaps the added phrase " developmentally appropriate " within the question had an impact on the answer provided . Regardless , we need to further examine this finding in future research . <p> Results from the open-ended questions suggest that physical education teachers in Wyoming perceive the state physical education standards to be helpful . The teachers reported using the state standards for developing scope and sequence at the school and district levels , directing standards-based instructional practices in their daily lessons , and helping them to better understand the diverse outcomes of physical education . Teachers stated that they were using skill rubrics , performance checklists , and peer evaluations to assess skill , cognitive , and affective performance of students in the physical education setting . Although the participants generally viewed the physical education standards in a positive vein , the one barrier most frequently identified was " time @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ did not have enough time to effectively conduct standards-based assessment . This finding reflects the thoughts of other teachers in other subject matter areas ( Darling-Hammond , 1996 ) . The response rate in this study ( 43% ) is a possible limitation and needs to be considered . Response rates to national surveys have declined from approximately 60% to 21% since 1960 ( Dey , 1997 ) . The literature does not reveal a common standard for response rate in order to determine significance . The response rate in this study ( by schools ) is consistent with much of the large scale survey research and would be considered in the moderate range for determining significance and the district return rate ( 61% of districts for elementary schools and 79% of districts for secondary schools ) would be considered high . Nevertheless , non-response introduces a bias that could limit the external validity of the results since the schools ( and teachers ) that did not respond could have different program/curriculum characteristics ( and perspectives ) . As such , caution is urged when generalizing the results to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there is great value of this study . First , it informs teachers , school and district administrators/personnel , parents , and students of the " current state of affairs " in physical education state-wide . We now have data from this study and one conducted a decade ago ( Benham-Deal &; Byra , 1995 ) to inform those making decisions about the future role of physical education in schools . <p> Second , the results of this study can be used to determine future directions in professional development for physical educators state-wide . For example , the findings suggest that future workshops should highlight the relationship between state/district standards and benchmarks , and school/school district curricular documents . In addition , the results inform us that teachers would benefit from knowing more about how instruction and assessment practices can be combined ( i.e. , be one of the same thing ) . A tension for teachers is compromising the manner in which time is spent in physical education class ; embedding assessment within regularly planned instructional tasks may ease this tension for teachers , and , in turn , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the results from this study add to what we know and what we are learning about physical education practices in schools nation-wide . In the past decade we have moved from standards to assessment to accountability in physical education . We are in the midst of significant educational reform that is serving to better inform student learning . Results from studies like this one will help us better understand the issues schools and teachers face as they align and integrate curriculum , instruction , and assessment into standards-based physical education . <p> Author Note <p> This research was supported in part by a contract from the Wyoming Department of Education , Cheyenne , WY . <p> GRAPH : Figure 1 . Frequency of physical education by days per week and grade level in 1995 and 2005 . <p> GRAPH : Figure 2 . Duration of physical education by minutes per session and grade level . <p> GRAPH : Figure 3 . Weekly duration of physical education by elementary grade level in 1995 and 2005 . <p> GRAPH : Figure 4 . Weekly duration of secondary physical education by grade level @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4020941 Late extrusion of the mesh several years after initial repair is rare and not associated with the infection usually . Excision of the mesh is necessary but reconstruction of the defect is dilemma . In presence of infection a reconstruction by myofascial flap is preferred while in case of late mesh extrusion a new prosthetic mesh can be used for reconstruction . We managed such a case by replacing the extruded mesh by the new mesh with success . Case <p> A 62 year old man presented with white nylon mesh protruding from the previous operative scar ( Figure 1 ) . <p> About ten years back he was operated for closure of peptic perforation in emergency after which he developed incisional hernia which was managed by introducing mesh over the defect . Patient was happy there after for about four years when he noticed some plastic threads coming out of the operative scar . Gradually part of the mesh protruded out which brought patient to us . After examination we noticed a dirty black nylon mesh extruding from the previous operative scar 5 centimeters above the umbilicus at two places without any discharge or signs of infection or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scar without any underlying causative factor like chronic cough , constipation or urinary complaints in history , examination or investigations . <p> On exploration the proline mesh was found protruding through the linea alba . The defect in the linea alba extended above and below by sharp scissors to enter the preperitoneal space where the mesh was found crumpled and diffusely adherent to averlying rectus sheath and peritoneum below . The mesh was excised ( Figure 2 ) with difficulty and a tear in peritoneum closed . <p> Rectus sheath was opened on both sides and the posterior sheath closed by double breasting . A new 15x10 centimeters polypropelene mesh was placed over this floor and fixed to it by proline number 1-0 sutures . Recti were opposed by vicryl 1-0 over the mesh followed by anterior rectus sheath , subcutaneous tissue and skin in that order . <p> The patient was discharged after skin suture removal on the tenth day . He was under routine follow up for about a year without any complaints . Discussion <p> Management of extruded mesh used to repair the incisional hernia is a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ material in the form of mesh for the reinforcement of the anatomical structures was a revolution in the hernia surgery 1 . Polypropylene , polyethylene , polytetrafluoroethylene , polyester , polyglactin are being used widely for the abdominal fascial reconstruiction with the advantage of less recurrence . But use of the mesh without maintaining sterilization and surgical principles , inadvertently especially by less experienced surgeons led to increased incidence of complications of the meshplasty . Apart from general wound complications , the infection , extrusion , and enterocutaneous fistula formation are mesh related complications 2 3 commonly seen . Mesh infections are resistant to wound care and antibiotics . Often , successful treatment of the abdominal infection requires removal of the infected mesh and staged abdominal reconstruction . This can be achieved by either using a new prosthetic mesh or by reconstructing the myofascial flaps . In the scenario of infected mesh it is not considered wise to replace the infected mesh with the new one in which the chances of infection of the new mesh are very high and sometimes unavoidable 4 . Components separation method 5 , rectus @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 7 are the few new techniquies for the repair of the abdominal wall defect . <p> Mesh extrusion following infection of the wound and mesh in the early postoperative period is not uncommon . But the extrusion of the mesh lately years after the initial repair is rare and unlikely to be associated with the infection . Faulty surgical technique , want of knowledge of anatomy , poor surgical training and inadequate experience are the main culprits but the patient factor such as straining due to chronic cough , obstructive urinary complaints , and chronic constipation can not be ignored . Extruded mesh from the abdominal scar gives the hideous view which is intolerable for the patient and nightmare for the surgeon . <p> Extruded mesh in presence of infection warrants radical excision of the mesh , clearance of the infected tissue followed by closure of the defect by reconstruction of myofascial flaps . But some surgeons still prefers to use absorbable mesh in the contaminated field 8 to avoid recurrence . In case of a late mesh extrusion without apparent signs of infection and inflammation , excision of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a new prosthetic mesh . Careful excision of the extruded mesh without injuring the tissue , Preservation and redefining the anatomy of the floor , search for infective foci and their radical excision are necessary to avoid the infection of the new mesh . A new mesh should be placed with sterile technique on a well defined floor with adequate fixation to the floor to avoid the re extrusion . The mesh should be covered with adequate soft tissue before opposing the skin . Conclusion <p> Late extrusion of the mesh without signs of infection may be managed by excision of the extruded mesh followed by placement of new mesh with less recurrence and infection . Acknowledgments <p> Written permission of the patient was obtained for the publication . <p> None of the authors had any external source of funding . <p>

@@4021041 Today I awoke in a hurry . I did everything in a dizzying hurry : I bathed , dressed , ate breakfast , everything in a hurry . And quickly , I finished reading Don Quixote and I began The Divine Comedy . <p> I attribute this urgency to the Quixote , and to the date . <p> Yesterday , the 31st of December , the last day of a year , should have been , to be fair , the day I finished the last page of a book . But I did n't . I read : PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> I continued reading until a plump man sat across from me at my table . We looked at each other . Silence . <p> I lowered my eyes to read the first word of the following verse . The man pounded the table with his right hand , which I was forced to lift . <p> This happened fourteen consecutive times . <p> I have a certain affinity or a certain superstition about the number fourteen . I stopped . I did not offer a fifteenth . I closed the book even though I felt a brutal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ towards the next year . <p> Today I finished it : <p> . thanks to that of my true Don Quixote , are even now tottering , and doubtless doomed to fall for ever . Farewell . <p> The sense of hurry , now nested in me , kept pushing me . I picked up The Divine Comedy . As if under a spell of vertigo , I arrived at the following passage : <p> Entrai per lo cammino alto e silvestro . <p> Now the sense of hurry forced me to leave the house . <p> I took the book with me . It 's a big , heavy , hard-back book with illustrations by Dor . <p> With my book and my shoes , I ran through the streets . <p> A plaza . On one side a sturdy grey-stone building dominated by a huge tower . At the bottom , a small door whose threshold gave way to a staircase of the same grey-stone . <p> An idea : climb this staircase to the top of the tower , and stare out at the city and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , I began to do this . I began to climb . But at the twentieth stair , I stumbled ( what a beautiful word ! ) and The Divine Comedy fell from under my arms and rolled . <p> It rolled down the stairs . It came to the door , crossed the threshold , and tumbled through the plaza . It came to a stop near the center of the plaza , landed open on its back , wide open : page 152 , canto 23 . On one page , the text ; on the other , an illustration : between two steep and isolated cliffs , on smooth ground , a man of the earth , naked , on his back , arms spread , spread wide , feet together , crucified , there on the ground , on the smooth ground , between the isolated cliffs . <p> Dante and Virgil stared at this man . Beneath the illustration , the words : <p> Attraversato e nudo per la via , Come tu vedi , ed mestier ch'e ' senta Qualunque passa com'ei pesa pria @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ relentlessly . The Divine Comedy got wet , and oozed . The words melted onto the stones of the pavement . I climbed down the stairs , arrived at the book , bent over , reached out a hand and picked it up , hooking my index finger and thumb around the leather spine . I tossed it towards myself . Now , Attention ! <p> Tenderly , slowly , I tossed it to myself . Arm , hand , and book began to shift with the slowness of a snail 's nightmare . <p> My arm folded across my body . My hand moved back , and dosed in . Its prey , the book , was also open . And with the book came the cliffs , the smooth ground , the two figures : Dante and Virgil . <p> Attention ! Two figures . Not three . Because the crucified man , eternally crucified , did not come with them . In spite of the three nails , he slid around the page ; more accurately , the page slid , the entire book slid out from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ slipped out of the base . His legs , his back , his crossed arms , his nape , hit the pavement with a loud thump . <p> The three nails sunk into his legs . <p> I walked back towards the door with The Divine Comedy , which was soaking wet , and missing one of its characters . <p> I looked : the good man was now growing , taking shape . A strong , muscular man , with a black beard and shaggy hair , naked , crucified , nailed to the ground in the middle of the plaza with rain pouring on him . <p> I returned to my house . <p> My sense of hurry disappeared . Now , as I write , I am calm . I am filled with an incomparable peace . February 1st <p> Today I have had an extraordinary experience . Here 's what happened : <p> But before I begin : my biggest joy is my magnificent tenor voice ; and yet , I do n't sing , and when I do sing I sing like a pig . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ entered my living room , went to the mahogany cabinet , opened it , pulled out a file with some records , and then I took the needle from my phonograph . <p> I stood in the center of the room . There I pointed the index finger of my left hand straight -- as straight as can be -- up to the ceiling , while my other fingers stayed locked in my fist . Ok . Then with my right hand , I positioned a record on my left index finger in such a way that its hole fit exactly over my nail . Ok . With this same right hand I began to quickly spin the record , skimming its side until it spun with astonishing speed . Then I picked up the needle and with my right hand -- arched and graceful like a swan 's neck -- I spun the first notes of the song . <p> And I opened my mouth . <p> I opened my mouth as wide as possible . <p> From my mouth , from my throat , from beneath my palate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lips , deafening , thundering through the empty space , the voice of Caruso wildly sang : <p> Di quella pira ! L'orrendo fuoco ! ! <p> An incredible moment ! <p> I repeated this experience . But with no results . I repeated this fourteen times . You already know what I think of the number fourteen . I did n't try , thus , a fifteenth time . Which is not to say that this was not a day worth living . March 1st <p> Today I have been mourning . A great old friend has died . He died sitting on the ground , his arms crossed over his contracted legs , in a pose between mummy and drinker of mat <p> When I arrived at his house , he was still alive . He sat in the aforementioned pose on the carpet of his living room . His entire family , his doctor , and various friends were with him , waiting . Everyone , naturally , was standing . <p> After a half hour of waiting , the doctor raised a hand , and whispered @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ began to shiver , The doctor whispered : <p> -- The last breath . <p> The wife of the unfortunate man then appeared . She stood tall , calm , and impressive . <p> She gracefully lowered her head . Many tears fell from her eyes . They fell on the back of my unforgettable friend 's neck , trickled down and disappeared in his spinal column and into the pressed collar of his shirt . <p> The doctor whispered in my ear : <p> -- Sit on all fours behind your friend . The moment he dies he will fall on his back . Collapsing on the carpet , plush as it is , must not be his first impression of death . Instead you must . Flesh upon flesh , my friend ! Death with life ! Jacket against jacket ! <p> I was scared . It is not the same to see a man die in his bed as it is to receive him in your arms , to feel his jacket , beneath his jacket his sweater , beneath his sweater his shirt , beneath his @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ if you are perched on all fours , in the middle of a living room , surrounded by grieving relatives , still and silent like the sinister alhuaquerecas . It 's not the same . And so I fled . <p> As I crossed the threshold , I heard an anguished cry and a muted thump : the cry of my friend 's unfortunate wife , and the sound of the soft carpet receiving the noble back , the noble head of he who was always the purest of men . April 1st <p> Today I took part in my irreplaceable friend 's funeral. ( n1 ) <p> As I sat in my room weeping , the first stratum of my brain , the one next to the cranium , thought of how life without my friend would be a perpetual disappointment ; meanwhile , the interior stratum thought of how these tears , once dried and solidified , would , if ingested with wine , undoubtedly produce a substance that would make me think that the death of my unforgettable and exemplary friend was of little importance . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ somber chords of Chopin 's funeral march . I said : <p> -- Here comes the funeral procession ! <p> And I ran like a madman to join it . But I did not arrive at my destination . For the windows of my house , in the colonial fashion , have thick iron bars ; I collided with one of them like a butterfly , like an insect with the radiator of a speeding car . <p> The door ? Why did I not use the door ? <p> My dear and old friends , you who are alive , if I knew why I ran to the window and not the door , you can be sure that at this moment I would not be writing , instead I would be relaxing , smoking in peace and not thinking about my dead friend , about you , or even about myself . <p> But I do n't know why I ran to the window . <p> From between the bars , I looked down at the procession . <p> At that moment , the cavalrymen passed by . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . They blanketed the buildings ; they blanketed the sky . They marched in perfect formation , each with a wiry smile , ( n2 ) slicked back hair , an astrakhan hat over the right ear . Each rode a big black horse . But as they passed , they got smaller . <p> I could now see the sky . I could now see the buildings across the street . I could see them in their entirety . Now I was forced to look down , at the pavement , to see the strapping cavalrymen . <p> Until the last one passed ; he was as big as a mouse . <p> The hearse then appeared ; it was small , tiny , balancing like a ship in a tempest each time it crossed the groove between two cobblestones . And his relatives who walked on both sides of the car were like ants , like teeny , weeny ants . <p> My unforgettable friend ! May 1st <p> Today I crossed the threshold of my library . I had not been in it , not even once @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dust . It was filled with a dim light that had darkened over time . An insect buzzed around the lamp , seventeen years ! And on my work table , the Songs of Maldaror by the Comte de Lautremont . <p> I was overcome with emotion as I once again saw my bookshelf . It gave off a tepid warmth . Fading print clung to the cover of each book . Silence . <p> Silence , yes . And soon my ears , adapting to the silence , heard a trivial , trifling murmur ; a murmur of piercing insignificance , an almost microscopic , yet implacable murmur . <p> I immediately understood what was happening . <p> Those vermin-bibliophiles , whose names I will ignore , those vermin who make their bread from abandoned libraries , were feeding on the words of the thousands of authors that silently formed on my bookshelf so that I -- whenever the Spirit moved me -- could release them from their silence and make them speak once again to my ears . <p> I opened the book by Lautremont and began to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ one vermin , no more than one . Its cadaver lay on the table , only a few inches away . Desolate cadaver in the plains , an unburied cadaver rotting in the dust . This is the story that had taken place when it was alive : <p> It began with the opening of an orifice in the back cover of the book , just in front of the space occupied by the last letter of the last word of the last line of the last song , which ends : <p> It is nevertheless true that the crescent-moon shaped garments no longer take the expression of their definitive symmetry from the quaternary number : go and see for yourself , if you do not believe me . <p> The vermin had perforated the last e in " believe me . " <p> Then he continued his slow and arduous labor , not as any superficial spirit would imagine it , and definitely not in a direct , vertical line . He continued in an oblique route up a slanting , inclined plane , treading softly , at a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tunnel of paper and ink , in pursuit of the first letter of the first word of the first line of the first song , which begins : <p> May it please heaven that the reader , emboldened and having for the time being become as fierce as what he is reading , should , without being led astray , find his rugged and treacherous way across the desolate swamps of these sombre and poison-filled pages ; <p> Here , the little beast perforated the first M. <p> And since the book was open , the little beast finally saw , after months , perhaps after years of grief and shadows , of the howls and curses of Maldoror , it saw once again the filtered light of my silent library . <p> It had worked its way through those 280 pages of " poisoned swamps " with a " wild and rugged " desolation and had received in its sleeping little body -- like a new Christ for our modern day brothers -- as much as a man can suffer trying to rebel and fight . <p> Noble little @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ see hope : in the second song , as it traveled through each page of the hymn to the louse . And when its simple nervous system received the voice that sang : <p> And yet you still do not know why they do not devour the bones of your head , why they are satisfied with ceremoniously extracting the quintessence of your blood . Wait a moment and I will tell you : it is because they do not have the strength . You may be sure that if their jaws conformed to the measure of their infinite desires , your brain , the retina of your eyes , your spinal column and all your body would be consumed . Like a drop of water . <p> at that moment the little beast , from its dark prison , sent its " infinite prayers " of infinite honor up to Lautremont . <p> Everything else it experienced on its journey was exceedingly cruel . As soon as it completed its grueling work it started to run . <p> It fell from the book to the table . It kept @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and , on imploding , its microscopic soul was taken to the Great Almighty . <p> Noble little beast ! <p> Today , I gave it a dignified burial beneath The Song of Songs . June 1st <p> Today I experienced one fury after another , bouncing back and forth between furies , one fury , a second , a third , and so on . <p> First : <p> I left the house . A group of ragged old ladies were standing in line in front of the School of Advanced Polytechnic Studies . Certainly they were waiting for something , but what could eleven old ladies be waiting for at the School of Advanced Polytechnic Studies ? <p> This question hit me like a projectile : What could they be waiting for ? And that was sufficient : the fury dominated me . <p> I walked through the streets and passed the school : 1 ) enjoying all the privileges of freedom provided to each honest citizen of a model Republic ; and 2 ) in full enjoyment of my freedom from the moment I awoke ; I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> However , after walking only one hundred meters , eleven old ladies nailed me to the sidewalk , keeping me from advancing and denying me my republican liberties ; and then one question appeared before me , and called into question an assumption I had held for forty years : that I am a free man who only asks questions that he , and not others , wants to ask . <p> What could eleven ragged old ladies be waiting for at the School of Advanced Polytechnic Studies ? First fury . It took a tremendous effort to move my feet from the concrete and continue my walk . <p> Second : <p> I moved my feet and walked . Alone . The pedestrians I passed slipped off me like ice . Alone , moreover , with my first fury . And a man alone with his fury is a danger . yes , a danger . but to himself , not to his fury . <p> I walked , then , to the house where my friends live . <p> The house has nine floors . On @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lives one of my friends . In total : nine ascending friends : on the first floor lives a great friend ; but on the second floor is an even greater friend ; and on the third floor , even greater . Thus , as the floors rise , so does the level of friendship , until the ninth floor . <p> When there is absolute peace in my spirit , when not even a swelling can be perceived , I visit my friends on the first and second floors . And when some passion begins to stir in me , I climb the stairs in exact proportion to the potency of that passion . I rarely visit my dear friend on the ninth floor . But when I do visit him , our friendship extends , and explodes , like a powerful bomb . <p> After the eleven old ladies , I arrived at the threshold of the door of the house where my nine friends live . Calculations made and furies weighed , I decided to bypass the first , the second , the third , the fourth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Cordial greetings . Then I explained to my great friend what had brought me to his house . He listened attentively . Finally , he said : <p> What a beautiful morning ! Go out on the balcony . No discussion . Although you have walked quite a bit in search of peace , it is not the same , I assure you , as searching for peace while standing still . <p> I went out on the balcony . A beautiful morning , indeed . The beginning of winter . Cool air . And radiant sunshine . <p> Yes , sun , so much sun . Which is why below , on the streets and on the sidewalks , each man who passed dragged along his shadow . <p> Second fury : <p> Irremediably , a shadow for each man . Irremediably , a perfect imitation in the shadow of each movement of each man . <p> Fury . I will explain . I will explain the key to why this fury -- of the shadows -- attached itself to the other fury -- the old ladies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an explanation for why the second fury remained atop and separate from the first fury , which was able to maintain its own force and presence , just as the second fury maintained its own presence . A double weight , a double anger . Now let us distinguish between them : <p> In the first case the old ladies were the pretext that inflamed my fury . But my complete fury relapsed , and the old ladies , somehow or another , remained outside of it . <p> My fury , perhaps , encircled me , without penetrating me , and I stayed within its sphere , free , calm , ignoring it the way one ignores the air one breathes . <p> The fury then collided with the eleven old ladies , and materialized in the form of an interrogation . It bounced off them . It became empowered within me because the interrogation enveloped me , squeezed the life out of me and asked me how it is possible that a sovereign man can be stopped by the first contradiction he finds on the street : the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the wide door of the School of Advanced Polytechnic Studies . <p> The fury raged against me , a sovereign forty-year-old man . <p> But in the second case it is completely different . What fury could have affected me , isolated and unattached as I was on the balcony on this radiant morning ? But I have an anger , a deadly hatred , of all the men who pass on the sidewalk , who walk from the shady side of the street to the sunny side of the street . <p> They walk past . They pass from shadow to light , from light to shadow . Like a spout of water that splashes feet , they spread a dark appendage against the luminous ground . They enter the shade : their feet suck up the appendage , which loses itself in the legs and disappears . This happens to every one , every single one . <p> I look at their faces . I have a small hope : that in at least a few of them , in two or three , there will be a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , as their unraveling is sucked up by the shadow . Nothing ! <p> They are preoccupied by everything , everything alters their physiognomy : another pedestrian , a car , a tram , a woman in her window , the newspaper , a cigarette , a dog in the street . Everything , except that which they spread against the ground , which they themselves absorb with their entire body . Which is why this , amid so much else , remains inexorable : shadow in the sun , no shadow in the shadow . <p> They walk past . From all sides , in all directions . Their physiognomy changes at the site of a fly lost between cars and streetlights . <p> But nothing changes in the face of the inexorable . Not one gesture , not one little scowl . Cowardly men ! <p> If , at the very least , one , only one man stood today in the center of the street , and protested at the top of his voice , his fists raised towards the sky , protested the unraveling of his @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ silhouette is not drawn resplendently in the shadowy pavement . But nothing ! <p> Cowardly men ! <p> I lash out at them with my mortal anger . Not at myself , a pure man , elevated in the frame of a friend 's balcony . <p> Earlier against myself , now against the others . That is why the two furies are superimposed , each with its own force . A double anger ! <p> And now , slowly , an old Victoria goes by at a short trot , with its old coachman , and in the front an old horse . And the three of them , coachman , coach , and horse , project upon the gold of the pavement three old and bluish dodderers who quiver with each slow trot . <p> The fifth friend on the fifth floor can not calm my rage . <p> I say good-bye . I continue climbing the stairs . I ring the doorbell of my ninth friend on the ninth floor . Onward ! <p> Third : <p> My friend does n't say a word to me . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . I go there : the beginning of winter , cool air and sunshine . <p> I do not look once more at the streets . I look forward , at another house , as large as the one I am in now . Windows and more windows . Through those windows I spy into the life of the other house . <p> Third . <p> That house across the street . As soon as I saw it , an idea consumed me , detonated within me : the idea of : " a whole " In this whole there were no parts , or if they existed , they were secondary . Floors , windows , walls , etc. . secondary . One house , one totality , one being . The house in front of me , fixed in a spot in the city , in the world . One house , an indivisible house . All of it following one destiny , to its proper and definitive end -- which is , exactly , its destiny . Like my own destiny -- the course of my life @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ And if my right hand has a different destiny than my left , this difference is also part of one indivisible , unique destiny : mine . <p> In the house across from me , the same thing . <p> And for those who live in the house , the same . Because they belong to the house , the house includes them , and if any of them try to claim , all the same , their own existence , the totality always takes precedence : the house . <p> From across the street , I stand on my own . My destiny , my fate , is something else . I stand outside of that life current . I look on , alone and distant . <p> On one floor , merchants hard at work unfold and balance silks for a woman who touches and smells them . On a higher floor , several typists . Above them , exactly at my level , a family has breakfast : a man , a fat woman , a girl , and a little boy . And above them , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ head of an old man appears behind the glass and against the frame ; sometimes I see his eyeglasses ; less frequently , I see his white mustache , but always -- every half minute -- his bald head freezes for an instant , turns , and disappears into the ashes of his home . <p> A totality : the house , the destiny of the house with its globules . <p> Me : a different destiny , a different fate . <p> Thus : <p> Third fury : <p> I could see what they were doing . Yet they could not see amongst themselves . <p> The first was directed at me . The second was directed at others . Now this fury was directed at God . <p> And now I , on my ninth friend 's balcony and across the street from the neighbors , performed , in miniature , like a louse , the role of looking into a world -- though it was only a small part of a house -- and seeing what those within that world saw only in sections . A small @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ man of the half minutes ! The moment , for example , when , approaching the window , he pressed his white mustache against the frame . <p> At that very same moment , the man on the floor beneath him coughed , and one of the typists on the lower floor swiftly flipped back her golden hair . So what ? <p> Something , something large : <p> I thought of the last century of the human era . I then multiplied all the successive events that could occur , and I launched them beyond the earth , to the planets , to the entire cosmos , to measure them at the same time . An enormity of actions in an immensity of time . <p> But however enormous the actions , and however immense the time , the smallest , most miniscule actions are never , ever , in their fleeting , colorless moments , understood by those who take part in them . The actors never understand . But I do . <p> The old man never knew , never knew that at the moment his mustache @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in his own totality , had released a cough into the air . And the man who coughed could not know -- however much actions and times are exaggerated -- that his cough occurred at the exact same moment when a woman flipped back her frothy golden hair . <p> This coincidence passed like a needle through these three points of action , forming a line which linked together these actions in one common and isolated instance , a line that will forever be ignored , even if we extend time and events beyond all possible calculations . <p> And I will understand this throughout the course of my own proper eternity . <p> At that moment the lady who touched and smelled the silks was standing still . If she had spoken , or lifted an orange silk , or if she had collapsed into an inanimate state , I would have known . <p> But the old man , never . Never would he know that his white mustache , which touched the wooden walls of the window frame , was in the same line of events , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the silks . <p> But yes , I would know . <p> The woman could have died . Her soul , carrying its virtues and sins , could have flown off to the throne of the Supreme Creator , to become undone , and to be seen and judged . Moreover , it could or could not have been that soul 's destiny , to continue -- its spirit traveling , suffering -- ignorant that its undoing was in the same line of coincidence as the woman flipping her golden hair , as the man 's jolting cough , as the mustache of the old man pointing towards the street like the teeth of a furious dog . <p> She is ignorant . I am not . <p> Something , yes , something large . It is something large to have had a bit -- as small as it may have been -- of God 's vision of four people in one house in one instant who were " one " and who did not know of their union , and never would know . <p> It went against @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was only for an instant , and even though it kept in check the minuscule nature of my existence -- that I played a small part in His experience . But I want to continue in my role ; I want to continue , without distractions or illusions , to be a human worm who slithers along , and who , when he senses his own helplessness , openly cries to the fires of Hell . <p> Not even my ninth friend could return peace to my spirit . <p> Nine floors in the opposite direction . Streets , long strides . A search for peace down another path . July 1st <p> Today I wandered aimlessly . Behind me , at each step , the finger of God . I have felt it at every moment . Twice it stuck into my neck . <p> He did this lightly , as if mistakenly . Like a glimpse of a glimpse , entwining me in my own ideas about his identity . <p> This is what happened : <p> I was walking along a busy central boulevard . Suddenly , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ collided . Commotion , vociferations , and so on . Two men slapped each other . Injuries , one death , Public Assistants , police officers . For a moment I thought this was going to change the direction of the entire city , and thus the entire nation . But in one minute , perhaps less , everything was calm . The disturbance disappeared like a magic trick : arguments , police officers , Public Assistants , curious bystanders , everything . The boulevard 's normal circulation returned without absorbing even a trace of what had occurred . <p> And just as the street had returned to its normal appearance , Estanislao Brun , walking in long , loud strides , appeared at one corner , with his little gold glasses and his curved back and his briefcase of stocks and bonds tucked beneath his arm . And he walked past . <p> He walked past -- what ! -- and then walked over , trampling , clicking his heels , on the very site , the exact spot where , only seconds earlier , the two vehicles had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ injuries had occurred , where someone had died , and where the public order had dissolved . And he walked past , I repeat , that same spot , step by step , without noticing a thing , without smelling a thing , practically erasing the existence of the accident , an unlikely being coasting along , one millimeter from , a half millimeter from a sensational act , which he had no idea about , and which he never would know about . <p> For twenty minutes I stood still on the corner without understanding , or , more accurately , understanding as absurdity these paths of destiny , these winding threads that intertwine but never make contact , each one lost in its own world of ignorance , side by side , in a world of not-knowing . <p> I continued to wander around . Now I am walking down a quiet street , with little gardens on one side , small residential houses on the other . One of these houses : a friend 's house , an acquaintance , really , whose name I will not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be perfectly unfriendly , and because I consider him to be one of the most illustrious examples of our imbecility . <p> It is 3:32 in the afternoon . The upstairs windows of his study are closed , the downstairs windows are open . An unmistakable sign that the man in question is inside . Moreover , there are other signs that he is there . There can be no doubt that he is inside . <p> Ok . This character wants to see me , needs to see me , my presence or absence could alter , for better or worse , his destiny . But various circumstances ( about which I must keep quiet ) oblige us to meet each other by mere chance , and nothing else . There is no room for any other option . <p> In summary : he is inside ; I am on the street , walking . <p> I walk past his house , slowly . <p> I am his destiny , a possible change in his destiny that he desires and needs . <p> It is exactly 3:33 . I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the man is submerged in his old parchment papers . I walk past . <p> I pass , and move away from the house . Now I am outside of , and far from , his orbit . <p> He has no idea what slow , parallel thread of destiny just passed him , one step forward , would have entwined the various lines that have twisted through his existence . <p> He has no idea . None ! Not even the slightest vibration on one page of his old parchment papers . Not even an inopportune insect that causes him , exactly at 3:33 , to break from his work and make a different gesture . Nothing ! <p> I pass his house , with the finger of God on my neck , pushing me forward . <p> Twice the finger of God . The effect : exhaustion , fatigue . <p> But in the evening , this evening , a distraction will come , a rest . The cynic of Valdepinos will have dinner with my brother Pedro and myself . Cynical he may be , but his @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ worries , and brings peace . <p> At exactly nine on the dot the tall figure of the cynic of Valdepinos came to the door . <p> Before I continue : <p> There are two things , two entities which should always be united , or which -- to state it better -- should have always remained united . Alas , destiny has thrown them from one side of the Earth to the other and does not allow them to be together , for one of them is in the beautiful country of Chile , while the other can not find a way of leaving the sweet land of France : the cynic of Valdepinos is here ; Pernod , is there . <p> But this is in principle , as if someone declared it " the Law " In reality , in a loose and dying reality , life does not always follow the rule of law : some time ago , a friend who lives in Paris sent me two bottles of Pernod . <p> The first one was finished months ago , but the second has been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of its contents ( I keep half of its contents hidden ) . A half which must be defended , like the land of honor , drop by drop ! As if the bottle 's final drop will be the last to ever spill in the history of Chile . <p> The cynic of Valdepinos eats and talks . Behind him , a cabinet which hides in one of its compartments the final half liter : thick , silent , like opal . If the cynic of Valdepinos knew ! <p> We eat , we talk . But from time to time I sense something uncomfortable passing above our plates . <p> Pedro is struck by a memory : in the same cabinet , near the back , he once stored an aged bottle of red wine . He gets up in a storm , opens the cabinet , sticks his hand in and pulls it out : he holds between his fingers the bottle of Pernod . <p> Pedro , with his unbearable indiscretion , with his unforgivable absentmindedness , lifts the bottle into the air and , as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ places it with the same storminess on top of the cabinet , behind the head of our great and cynical friend . <p> There is the cynic ; I am facing him . The outline of his pointy , suspicious , bird-face , his newly balding head . Above his head , crowning it , like another bird perched on the head of the cynic , the Pernod . <p> And the cynic of Valdepinos swallows and talks , indifferent and undisturbed as he tells the story of a hysterical old woman we all know . <p> Twenty-four seconds ! Pedro looks for his bottle of red wine , he finds it , holds it , feels it . Twenty-four seconds ! <p> He stretches out his hand , grabs the Pernod . The Pernod disappears . He closes the cabinet . Good Lord ! For twenty-four seconds -- I repeat -- the cynic 's most cherished pleasure sat above and behind him . A shift of the eyes , and we would have drunk it to the last drop , and our ideas would have been different , our @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> In any case , this is certainly true for the cynic of Valdepinos . <p> But he had no idea . He did n't even suspect that for almost half a minute the sweet antidote to his Parisian nostalgia was ten or fifteen centimeters behind his head . <p> At this moment he is probably walking in solitary strides through a dark street . Poor Valdepinos ! <p> As for me , I have returned to the seat I occupied during the meal . I have taken out the bottle of Pernod and returned it to where Pedro thoughtlessly left it . <p> The bottle of Pernod had been for the cynic of Valdepinos what I had been for the old man of the parchment papers . And the cynic of Valdepinos , moreover , had been for the bottle of Pernod what Estanislao Brun had been for the accident on the boulevard . <p> Nobody -- neither man nor bottle -- knew anything . <p> Except me . <p> Thus today , once again , I have gone against God . August 1st <p> Today I lived a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Very early in the morning , the writer Csar Mir appeared in my study . He took a seat . And remained silent . Finally , he told me the following : <p> He had woken up in a good mood . He had jumped out of bed full of optimism . He had sat on the balcony , where his sense of happiness and optimism grew stronger : in the middle of the Plaza de Armas , he had seen his " Man dressed in green " speaking in a powerful voice , surrounded by public interest and enthusiasm . A good start to the day ! Then he went back to bed and read the newspaper . <p> This was his happy moment and , through friendship , mine . But let 's continue : <p> Mir lies peacefully once more in his bed with two arms at his side . Between them , the newspaper , spread open , and waiting to be read . But this is no time to read . He thinks about the spectacle in the plaza . Yes , let 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ newspaper release a murmur , as if from the universe , which buzzes around the ears . He has to read . Mir lifts the newspaper up to his eyes , leaving it perpendicular to the surface of his still waters : his bed , his body , the floor , and the earth . He lifts the paper abruptly . He holds the paper , and looks at it . And here begins the second moment , the moment of grave concern : <p> As soon as he lifted the newspaper and brought it to the perpendicular position , every letter of every word on the first page , every one , without exception , came loose , detached itself from the newspaper , and fell with the quivering sound of a bell . <p> My dear friend ! Alone in his room with a blank page before his eyes . My dear friend ! Covered with thousands and thousands of meaningless , scattered letters . <p> And now the arduous task of putting them back in place , thousands and thousands of letters , one after another , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the corners of the world . <p> He picks up two I 's , which must , without a doubt , belong to the words HIS HIGHNESS , who just got married . Progress ! But they might also belong to RIBERI , who committed suicide . <p> He picks up an H and he picks up an E. There is not a newspaper that does not print each day on its front page the words His Excellence , which is abbreviated with the letters H. E. He continues , in this manner , down a safe path . But a doubt appears in his mind ; has he made a profound error , for the H may have referred to the Holy sites that were desecrated last night ; and the E could have referred to the Employers who on each continent quietly oppress their workers . <p> What difficult work : so fraught with dangers this interminable task of adjusting each fallen letter to recreate the word that brought them to life . <p> Better to abandon this mess and seek the advice of a friend . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ step a letter untangles from his clothes . By my shoes there is an F ; a T hangs from the bars on the window ; an O bounces off the floor , rolls around and collides with an insect calmly bathing in the triangle of sun that visits my study at 9 o'clock each morning . <p> I can not find any advice to give him . <p> He leaves my house . <p> As he crosses the threshold , he drops a lower-case i , a pathetic i from some lost word that at one moment had an actual meaning . There it stands , erect , balancing its little dot . <p> As long as I shall live in this house , I will take care to not step on this i . And I will always turn to salute it . And it will stay in my doorway , like a guard who keeps my domestic worries from leaving the house , and who keeps the outside world from entering . September 1st <p> Today I have come to the coast . So many of God @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ leave the city and search for equilibrium by the ocean . <p> I have sat on some rocks : the waves at my feet , and all that the poets sing of . <p> I have watched one of these waves for a period of an hour or more . It inflated , slipped , exploded , and dissolved . But the way it returned , always in the same form , it was always the same , throughout the entire hour or more , throughout all of the past , and most likely into the future as well . <p> Having made this discovery , and with an unshakable faith in it , I set out to ponder other thoughts , but before doing so I measured , and precisely demarcated the size of the unique wave , as we so spontaneously do in order to continue our meditations , in front of a tree , an animal , a colleague , or whatever thing that comes before our eyes and asks to be understood . <p> On this task I spent more than an hour , perhaps two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ did not measure or demarcate anything . Because : <p> The wave comes in hidden beneath its own spine . It comes in with a long and sordid convulsion . Without a doubt , it hides its head , it sinks its head downwards , not wanting to expose itself to the breeze , to the sun , to the sky and the birds . It thinks only of the ocean 's depths . And I only see the pain of its uncovered spine . <p> That was it . There was a vast pain in front of my eyes . But I could not clearly see a definite body to measure . This pain would stay in darkness , in smoke , disorienting spectators across the world . <p> The wave . The wave is one , one solitary entity . It is one , absolute in its existence . This solitary entity is what suffers . It does n't matter that it dissolves . It remakes itself . It remakes itself thousands of times because its pain continues . <p> Fine . But let 's rigorously demarcate the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ thickens , and howls . <p> Now it twists , edges into white , curves , thunders . Thousands of specks of foam jump . The flowers behind it tremble . The sun in front of it shivers . A man stops . A dog barks . White specks jump across the entire sky . And at my side , here at my feet , in a narrow ridge of wet rocks , a trail of water , agile as a lizard , moves slowly , climbing , licking . It stops , and returns , snaps towards the solitary wave . <p> We measure . <p> The solitary wave , like an octopus , has extended its tentacles . One of those tentacles has come all the way to me . This sibilant water is always the wave ; it is within its limits and demarcation . Proof of this is that it re-gathers near the body . <p> Once more it stretches . Better said , it stretches out a tentacle . It comes . Sprinkles . It stops three meters from my post . It reaches a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , feels , pokes . It must pick up grains of salty , violet patina . It must feel a sweet , velvety pleasure as it pricks the moist and perfumed puddle with its tip . <p> The puddle has two concavities . The first one is big , the second one is smaller . Both are practically circular . They nearly form a stretched out 8 , the bottom pointing towards the sea ; the head towards the mountains . <p> The water rolls around inside . It dives into the first section , it searches every nook , it explores every last crack . It touches the joining neck . It examines the neck , quickly , and with certainty . It continues . It springs forward . It fills the second concavity . The solitary wave , submerged now in the ocean , experiences a healthy , salty pleasure , a pleasure repeated a thousand times throughout this vast camp of rocks and crossroads . <p> Fine . I am only responsible for this final bit that 's next to me . <p> The water inside the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ small concavity is looking for an entry into the larger one . Once more it stirs around . Each drop of water wants to be the first to pass into the neck . No drop wants to remain still during the interval between the two movements . The entire small puddle fights , moves , intensifies , cries out for the vast sea from which it came . This homesick water completely enters the blue line of the deep horizon . <p> And I , from my post , observe the limited and disturbed life of the water in the second puddle . <p> It lives . It completes its task . It arrives , takes off , arrives . As I have said : homesick . <p> Therefore , it is not the wave . It is a separate entity , an independent unity . Thus ? <p> The end of the large monster has to be marked as the neck of the 8 . Its head , which looks out at the mountains , has become independent , has individualized . Throughout all of this immense being lived @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , but which conquers the personality , and sharpens its instincts , if only in between rocks . <p> To measure the neck . But the body of the 8 lives the same life . The same phases , the same tragedy . And not only is there a similarity between the entire stream of water and a lizard : but there is as much life here as in the lizard as well . <p> Ok , then . I followed that trail until it finally fell into the ocean . <p> I glanced at the front of the wave at the moment it broke . A few minutes of contemplating the small puddle completely changed the panorama of the waters . <p> Each section of the waters , each piece in the wave , lived on its own . There was an isolated being in each section covered by my eyes , in each focal point , with its own purpose and passions , in the midst of millions of others , running along a parallel destiny . parallel , but nothing more . Thus the solitary wave , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not exist . It stood alone as an aggregate of different destinies bound together by a supreme design : an immaterial design with no body , with no head , no submerged head , no painful spine brushing the air . <p> The solitary wave was nothing more than a collective movement . A movement , a purpose , an abstraction . <p> Living as matter , as body , as nerves , with each circle drawn individually over the whole by the rays of my eyes . Like the spout that shoots white foam straight up to the sky , where it splits into fireworks . Here in my vision there has been no focal point ; I have followed from bottom to top , and sung like a bird . And precisely above , where both water and vision have come to a halt , hundreds of points of water in hundreds of directions have at the same time individualized , and they have created , in the long meters of water , their global destiny , which bends them . <p> I can do nothing but stop @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ living reality , like me , and like all the isolated men and beasts who live and suffer , alone , with one destiny and only one world inside their body . Nothing but these drops , nothing else , because my eyes are not made to divide the world beyond . <p> My eyes stop there . There I stop . Until I begin again -- drops of water , solitary wave , puddles , foam -- leaning over the silence of a microscope . Better to continue inversely . Measure on a large scale , sliding over the enormous spine . <p> That 's how I have done it . <p> I have proceeded like a tube opened at each end which has spread to the infinity of the ocean . No more small individual beings pulsing in a common movement : now , moving parts , members , from one larger being which grows , becomes giant as my imagination navigates above the horizon . But I have not focused my eyes on any one part so as not to awaken and make dance the millions of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as they came into my sight . <p> I have stayed well away from it , to the point where I have been forced to look at the sky : five wild ducks fly past in a triangle . <p> It is preferable to come to terms with ducks -- even if there are five of them -- than with raging waves . Man occupies in size , more or less , the midpoint between an atom and a star ; therefore we are more or less the same in relation to the infinitely large or the infinitely small . But in size , and in all other ways , we are much closer to the duck than to the ocean . Therefore , there is no reason to take a position in relation to the latter when the former passes before your eyes . <p> Proof of this is that if a pain were to come from the ducks -- as it comes from the waters -- my size could right away verify the size and location of the one who feels it . The duck ! There it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ flying duck . Each flap of its wings strikes me . But with him are four other ducks . I bring them together in my line of vision . My focal point is not one , but rather the triangle that cuts through the air . The life of each duck fades into the life of the triangle . And if I could place myself above , high above , so that I could see hundreds of groups of ducks flying and evolving , each small triangle would also fade with life and everything else , and the collection of all the ducks would look uniquely alive and vital , a unified beast , a unified life and purpose . And each group -- which is to say , each bird ! -- one member , one pulsing cell , like the globules in our blood and in our entire body . <p> Higher ! We must always elevate ourselves more ! <p> All of these slippery stains formed beneath us by tiny black points , they are no longer the enormous solitary beast , but rather they are the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stretch of coast and sea -- the region beneath my eyes -- pulsating , feeling , boiling . <p> And even higher ? Perhaps the entire Earth would appear as one living reality . And my duck ? <p> It passes by . There it goes . But it has dissolved between my fingers . <p> I have now started to jump along the rocks . As I move I am trying once again not to fix my eyes on anything so that the world will not multiply or increasingly unify . I have moved nervously through all that surrounds me , especially the ducks who I knew were passing above my head . I have gone on , feeling the urgent need to peacefully meditate on oceans , waves , puddles , and ducks , and to be able through my meditations to focus clearly on the point from where each independent life originates , or to discover that there is no such point . <p> Fine . Here in this cove there is peace . Sit , and let 's meditate . No more than a meter into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ me , the same plump man who interrogated me with his eyes when I had tried to read the Quixote . <p> I will explain everything to him . <p> -- Sir . ( In a circular instance I explain to him all that I had contemplated ) . <p> I skip over a moment full of dubious rocks . <p> -- Sir . ( And at this point , as my meditations had already been verified , I tell him with a richness of detail and elegance without par , the results I had obtained . The plump man warmly congratulates me . ) <p> Yes , but there is the moment on the rocks : an obligatory moment in the story . The first part is a direct observation of nature ; the other , a silent meditation . And between the two , their union , a conduit that unifies them : the moment the observation asked to be meditated upon . <p> This moment -- which in reality was accompanied by jumps on the rocks-I have to mention it to my audience . I have to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : <p> -- Sir , then . ( There has to be a " then . " How can it be avoided ? ) Then . I began to meditate. then . I thought . <p> No . It 's best not to meditate or think if to do so we have to go through this . <p> Let 's change the " then ; " this could be the cause of it all . <p> -- In the presence of this scene , sir . I could not keep myself from saying . I reflected in this way . and pondered as such . <p> Worse , worse . It looks like the problem is not in the " then " nor in the " in the presence of the scene : ' Could it be in the meditate , think , say , reflect , ponder ? <p> The gap between the two moments bristled the rocks . It 's like a tax that must be paid in order to obtain the necessary permission to elucidate our lucubrations . If there is something clear to extract from what @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to arrive . Bad , bad ! Is there not some other way , a hidden path , a detour that evades the rocks ? An obligation to pay our old friend " literature " with a little phrase entirely to her liking ? <p> I am creating it ; better said , I continue to create it . Because I created it , to be sure , in the peaceful cove . I created it and , in the presence of this creation , I did not meditate at all , not even a hundredth of a meditation , not on oceans , nor on waves , nor on puddles , nor ducks , nor on lives as large as constellations or as small as microbes . October 1st <p> Today I returned to the edge of the sea . I have discovered a wonderful place . To get an idea of it , imagine a rock in the form of a monolith some 30-35 meters high ; place it with the waves , in such a way that they smack its base ; tint with blue sky all @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of equal size and form ; put it next to the first rock , with no more than two or three meters between them ; proceed with this rock in the same way with respect to the waves and sky ; cover the space between the two rocks with sand and seashells ; sit sea birds at the top of the rocks ; throw crabs and mussels at the bottom ; surround the rocks with luche and cochayuyo leaves ; heat the rocks in the sun and meditate upon the whole scene , enraptured in admiration . <p> This is what I have done from 4 o'clock in the afternoon until 5:10 . At this time , I was struck by a sudden desire : to go between the two tall monoliths , to enter the sea . Five minutes of reflection , and forward ! <p> Nothing interesting about my walk ; nothing as well as I passed between the two rocks ; but one small interesting detail as I attempted to enter the sea . Here it is : <p> As I stretched out my foot to kick @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the water retreated and my foot struck dry ground . Another step : the same thing . And another : the same . After seven steps , I stood still , hoping that a wave would once again emerge out of the undercurrent of the previous wave . I saw it form in the distance , I saw it come . As it came , I took another step and the same scene repeated itself . Ninth step , tenth . the same thing . Before the thirteenth attempt , I once again stood still . I only had one step left . You already know my feelings about the number 14 . <p> Another wave came , the last ! I burned my last step . The wave trickled away and once more I struck dry land . <p> Thus , with no more steps left , I buried myself up to my knees in the sand , and waited . <p> One minute , two minutes , three , four . Fourteen minutes , 14 ! <p> I heard in the air a solemn canticle : trumpets @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a banjo . And the sea like me stood still during those fourteen minutes , and when it heard the canticle , it awoke and rolled away . <p> From each side , from all four cardinal points , it moved entirely towards one point on the horizon , before my eyes . And as it moved , it discovered , in my presence , its wet and scented hidden depths . <p> Watery plants with branches like the tongues of monsters stretched forward and then , when they could no longer feel the soft pressure of the sea , they exploded in aromas of iodine and salt . Thousands of creatures like spiders and as big as dogs went wild , running , smashing , and , as they discovered that there was no remedy to cure this illness , they buried their heads in the rocks and died a sweet death . Millions of fish rolled their astonished eyes ; they emitted a groan , and dissolved into gelatin . And the underwater rocks , suddenly finding themselves naked in the sun , sunk into the ground , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . And the entire sea , from all sides -- I repeat -- continued to escape towards that one point , forming , as it traveled , an immense globe of water . <p> A pause . All the plants had exploded , all the creatures had died , all the fish had turned into a gelatin ; not even a stone beneath the sun . <p> Then the sea transformed its sphere over the horizon into a curtain that covered the sky and hid the light . <p> Another pause . The curtain moved up and towards the coast . What a spectacular sight ! <p> I think it 's difficult for anyone to imagine this without having seen it with their own eyes . A sea , an ocean in place of the sky , ripples of foam in place of clouds , and a few displaced fish instead of seagulls and gannets . A spectacular sight ! Beneath it , I was in ecstasy . The mussels swiftly opened and closed their shells , applauding like castanets ; the crabs whistled like sirens from both ends of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to climb through their openings , where they stuck out their pincers and pointed them towards the enormous curtain that passed above our heads . <p> Suddenly , high up above , I noticed a red point . I fixed my eyes on it . The sea urchins , mussels , and crabs hid . The red point was falling . It was falling , and growing . It was n't a point . It was a knot of branches , of arms . It was falling . It was going to land behind me . <p> It fell past the first hills behind me . <p> It took only a second to dig out my knees ; my feet , another second . And I started to run . <p> What had fallen was a mass of coral . I sat near it , and this was what I observed : <p> As soon as it hit the ground , this mass consulted each of its individual entities , and they unanimously agreed to hold a vote of protest against all the zoophytes in the entire globe , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the plant kingdom . The mass in question then grew larger and released into the air hundreds of intertwined branches , solid , shiny branches in a thousand varieties of red on white zigzags with fanciful trimmings . This is what it looked like from the ground up . <p> From the ground down it released sharp pointy roots . I directed a beam of vision at one of these roots and with it I began to descend , and I descended . <p> We passed through six different layers of earth at an outrageous speed , and when we arrived at the seventh , we stopped . The roots took a seat and asked permission to extract its nutrients . A character with a Mephistophelian face gave them all the permissions they desired . I then went back up along with the first nutritive ration . <p> I sat down , once again , in the same place and stared with astonishment at this coral tree . But something distracted me : standing beneath the tree , smiling , in a wide overcoat , a bowler hat , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the plump man . He greeted me with the utmost courtesy , winked his eye and in a slow voice , said : <p> -- Good afternoon . <p> He coughed , smiled , spat , and said : <p> -- My name is Desiderio Longotoma . <p> He closed his umbrella , and continued : <p> -- My good sir : I have the pleasure of telling you that with one eye I followed the depths of your vision while with the other eye I observed you during the entire period of your ascension and descension . <p> In regards to the former , I have nothing to tell you , for you saw as much as I , although I doubt that you have understood in all their breadth the different layers of our planet , above all , the seventh . But in regards to the latter , I should inform you of the following : <p> Through the duration of your voyage -- it is more accurate to say the voyage of your vision -- you slept with your other eye , and in the rest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The ineffable imbecility of your expression , and the consummate cretinousness of your smile kept me from entertaining even the slightest doubts about the nature of your aforementioned dream . <p> I do not want , thus , to be at all ambiguous when I assure you that you believed with all certainty in a heavenly region that contained all that is good , noble , and beautiful in this world . <p> Nor do I wish to remain in the terrain of falsehood when I assure you that as your vision traveled through the first six layers , and especially as it spent the night in the seventh , you observed with distraction and disdain , and thus you could not refrain from -- human nature , of course -- comparing the sweetness of paradise with this layer 's Mephistophelian character and rotten decay , and concluding that you preferred the former one thousand and one times more than the latter . <p> It is extremely painful for me to refute your convictions in this respect , especially since they are so firmly rooted in your brain . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ thinking , I must proceed by extracting from the center your fixed convictions and reestablishing balance and truth by taking what is at the top and putting it at the bottom , and putting at the bottom what is at the top . <p> Without wasting any time , now that time is pressing , I must tell you that you are correct , in every sense of the word correct , to have classified as Mephistophelian and demonic the beings and objects in the seventh layer , and as pure and celestial all that you observed when you closed your eyes and entered the heavenly vault . But I also must advise you -- and I request that you give this all of your attention -- that it is an incredible and unspeakable human error , which has occurred for centuries and centuries , to attribute an ominous tint to the subterranean beings in the seventh layer , and a benevolent tint to those beings who shine in the blue of the upper layer . <p> An error , good sir , a profound error ! <p> In the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of magicians have vigorously fought to create this ridiculous change of values , and they have been so successful that it can now be said , without exaggeration , that there is not a human being on Earth who does not believe that evil exists in those creatures with horns , tails , pointy eyebrows , who smell of sulphur , and who carry sharp swords ; and that good exists in what is blue , in what emits the fragrance of lilies , in what glows like quivering candles , in what gently lowers its eyelids . <p> My good sir , I repeat : an error , a profound error ! <p> It is exactly the opposite . <p> Centuries ago , evil was seen in white petals , soft silk , and the gentle trill of the night air . I request that you blindly believe me . And I request , as well , that you blindly believe that neither one way of thinking nor the other is definitive : they are only paths , long and tortuous paths that in the end arrive only at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sir , that your heart 's deepest desire is to go towards what is good , it pleases me greatly to inform you of the best possibilities to attain this good . <p> This tormented coral tree that takes in nutrients from the seventh layer of demons and vermin , throws , as you see , a great red shadow , which reflects all that is created and accomplished in this layer . Sit in this shadow , and when you feel that you have been inundated by its influence , contemplate , with both body and soul , your deepest thoughts , and perhaps one day you will see for yourself what is good . For not one human being has been able to meditate on this good without having first spent several years sitting in a similar shadow , or under the influence of something analogous . <p> I hope that you will be able to take the utmost advantage of the wise advice that I , your most faithful and revered servant and friend , have given to you . I look forward to seeing you again @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Desiderio Longotoma . <p> That said , he finished his good-byes , opened his umbrella , and left . <p> And now I sit , beneath this tormented and magnificent tree , and meditate on his wise words . November 1st <p> Today I had surgery on my ear and telephone . Doctor Huala , in person , administered the chloroform and scalpel . <p> This is how the events took place : <p> For quite some time I have loved Camila , wildly . She loves me one day out of every eight , and during the remaining days she laughs at me , wildly , and there is as much wildness in her laughter as there is in my love . <p> For the past seventeen days , however , Camila 's laughter has gone beyond all previous wildness to the point where today I returned to my house with a greater desire to die than to live . But before putting an end to my existence , I dialed her telephone number(n3) and listened . <p> A few seconds later , Camila spoke . By the tone @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the one day out of every eight . But then I experienced a cruel deception . I said : <p> -- I love you , Camila ! Camila , I love you ! She responded with a quick little laugh , a sharp laugh , which jabbed into me like the sting of a rattlesnake . <p> -- My Camila , have mercy -- I shouted three times . <p> And her laughter only grew louder . <p> Overcome with anger , I tried with an abrupt and decisive gesture to yank the receiver from my ear , and to decisively cut off all communication between us . But just as I began this gesture , I felt a strong pain throughout my ear , as though it were being pulled by thousands of demons . At the same time , her laughter continued to pierce me with a sharpness that bristled my nerves . <p> -- Camila , I beg you , stop laughing . <p> In vain . Her laughter now echoed interminably . <p> -- Camila , it would be better if you told me you hated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ remove the receiver from my ear . It resisted in such a way that I understood that if I kept trying I would knock over the base to which it was mounted . I tried to pull it away with a gentle touch . Useless . I tried to unscrew it like a bolt . Also useless . And her inexhaustible laughter kept pouring out , and spreading across my head . What could I do ? <p> There was only one thing to do : reach for the scissors to cut the cord . I did n't care if the phone was stuck to my ear as long as I did n't have to hear her cold and scornful laughter . <p> I gave the cord a snip and split it in two . Salvation ! <p> But no ! Her loud and copious laughter kept coming . <p> I ran through the house . Sweet remedy ! <p> Silence . As soon as I was a few meters from the phone , silence . <p> What a relief ! I would no longer be tortured by that diabolical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . No longer would that symbol of my unfortunate love continue to enter in through my auditory nerve . Silence , silence . But soon I began to notice that , in truth , there was too much silence . <p> Not even a whisper , or a murmur , or a muffled echo , nothing . My feet on the floorboards stepped on cotton ; when I clapped my hands , not even one wave of sound was released into the air ; when I screamed at the top of my lungs , my voice was an underground vault . Complete silence . <p> Terrified , I picked up a bottle of wine from the Rhine Valley and threw it against the bathroom mirror : the bottle shattered , the wine flew through the air , and the mirror was pulverized . All of this in the silence of a cloudless night over a snowy and deserted mountaintop . The peace of a tomb , an absolute peace . A perfect suppression of any manifestation of all auricular life . <p> I wo n't deny it : I turned @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ me from the side of existence on which all other human beings live . <p> Nevertheless , a hope . With cautious steps , I walked towards the room with the telephone . Silence , an ever-present silence . <p> I arrived . I stopped three meters from the phone , and leaned against the wall . Each minute a drop of blood dripped from the severed phone cord . But not a sound nor a whisper , nothing . <p> I walked no faster than the minute hand on the clock . Silence . <p> Silence , yes , throughout the entire interminable first meter . <p> Until I arrived at the very beginning of the second meter . <p> Then , from far away , at an extraordinary distance , I heard , faintly but at the same time with clarity , a jingling , which , because of its distance , made me think of antipodes ; it sounded like crystal shards on ice . <p> I kept walking . The jingling grew louder . Now it sounded like a voice draining the house , soaking it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shape , vibrates , bounces off the walls . My destiny is marked : defenseless , subdued , I take the last step . And I am nearly deafened by the wounding sound of Camila 's sarcastic laughter . <p> No more precaution , no more deliberation . I jump from one side to the other : towards the telephone , away from it ; towards the piercing laughter , then towards the absolute silence . O the incessant scorn from my one and only love , o the silent abyss between myself and the world . <p> And the days begin to pass , outside of my eardrums . <p> Monotonous days , exactly the same . <p> I sleep well , and I wake up at the same time as always , but I feel three times more tired than before , now that one of the three ways of sleeping is no longer available to me : I can sleep on my back , and on one side , but the telephone receiver stuck to my ear prevents me from sleeping on the other . <p> I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ front of the remaining pieces of my broken mirror . I test out all the possible methods of taking the phone off my ear : force , subtlety , a knife , a lubricant . No success . <p> I walk with soft steps through each room of the house and , from time to time , I entertain myself -- the only entertainment possible -- by verifying and re-verifying -- until I am properly sated -- that everything becomes silent in my presence . <p> I then walk to the telephone , always with the naive and distant hope that silence will have penetrated its domain . No ! Camila 's laughter is always there , entrenched in the machine , and suspended in several meters of the surrounding air . <p> I return to my study . I put a record on the phonograph and , as always , I comfortably settle into my armchair . Each day , I like to experience the great pleasure -- unavailable to others -- of knowing that in the entire room there is sound , even when I do n't hear @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . I close my eyes , and meditate , and on each occasion -- like clouds of smoke taking shape , or like small shapes swimming in the clouds -- I sense that another interpretation of the silent world is beginning to form , an interpretation useless to anyone who can hear . Another face , another meaning , another reason , which only begins to form when the silence is definitive unto eternity . <p> But then I remember that for me this is n't the case . For if on one side I do not hear , I hear -- and do I hear ! -- the moment my receiver enters the zone occupied by Camila 's laughter . <p> Maybe this time there will be silence ? <p> My hope is revived , a double hope : no longer to hear her wretched laughter ; and to walk unblemished through my new perceptions of this insinuated world . <p> I run to the telephone . I extend my neck . And tilt the receiver . <p> Camila laughs , Camila laughs , jingles and drives ice and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scene repeats itself . The phonograph spins another record . <p> It 's like this every day , every hour . Either the tomb , or the scorn of Camila . <p> Slowly the habit possessed me . My entire organism adapted to this new mode of existence . The tomb filled with silent meanings ; the laughter infiltrated me with the pleasure of suffering . A sweet and sorrowful happiness came more and more to take the place of my previous activities . Thousands of objects which hid from my intimate life beneath the ever-echoing sounds of existence now obediently presented themselves to me like delicate gifts . All the empty space that surrounded me became populated with unsuspected existences . And over this new world , the suffocating pleasure of torment that Camilla inflicted upon me absorbed like pepper in my flesh . <p> It 's been three days since I told myself that , from this point on , I will be happy until the end of my life . But yesterday , doctor Huala appeared at my door . <p> The good man had been informed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ -- and up until recently , I -- considered to be my disgrace . I told him there was no disgrace . But he would n't listen to me . He went to the window and opened it wide . With thousands of faces and gestures , he led me to understand that the entire outside world , all that could be seen of the city , the distant mountains , and the sky , was infinitely flowing with living sounds . <p> The good man tempted me . He has tempted me . I tilted my head . <p> Today he has come ; he has operated on me , and chloroformed me . Afterwards , he reconnected the receiver to the bloody , hanging cord . And today I once again heard the sounds of life . <p> And all of the unsuspected existences , and all of my peaceful meditations have vanished . And all of the pleasure in pain has disappeared . Now everything echoes frantically . And so to know what to expect in this world which provokes in me an infernal chaos , I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dial 52061 , and wait . December 1st <p> Today I returned from a long trip . A few days after the operation , and at the advice of Doctor Huala , I boarded in Valparaiso the S.S. Orangutan of the H. T. T. K. C. <p> We stopped at the following ports : <p> Coquimbo. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . Coquimbo is known as the land of coconut and cherry trees . Everything here is born , grows , lives , fructifies , and dies in accordance with the cherry and coconut trees . What does not follow this line is immediately picked up by the police and thrown into the sea with a stone tied to its neck , and if it does not have a neck , then the stone is tied to its most prominent part . During our stay we had occasion to see two definitive submersions : a ) a German scholar who had the nerve to declare in front of the country 's elite that the study of extra-sclerotic orbital pterygoidal worms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cherry tree regardless of how many of them there were in Coquimbo ; and b ) a mattress which had innocently torn a bit of its fabric , and exposed its contents to the eyes of the authorities : cotton stuffing , and not the coconut filament or cherry sawdust found in all the other mattresses of the city . <p> Aside from those acts which offended our sensibilities as Santiaguinos , the rest of our stay in Coquimbo was wonderful , absolutely wonderful . <p> Wherever we looked and in any way that we looked , our eyes fell on a coconut tree guarded by two cherry trees , and the only variation to this ineffable scene was the rare occasion on which there was one cherry tree guarded by two coconut trees . <p> In fact our enchantment with Coquimbo became so unbearable that the Captain decided to set sail without any further delay . <p> Antofagasta. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . A city that has left us with inerasable memories -- for a city entirely of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , wool streets , wool trees , and wool people . And from time to time , a famished fakir , entangled in wool , comes to the city , and yawns . <p> So much peace in that woolen sky . The residents of Antofagasta contemplate the sky by raising their woolen pupils . They subtly alter the name of their beloved " An-to-fa-ga-sta , " and fall into ecstasy at the thought of how in the past , everything -- because it was not made of wool -- deteriorated , and how now -- now that everything is made of wool -- nothing deteriorates . Then they tune all of the instruments in the region to the key of F , and with these instruments -- always in F -- they sing , swaying until the sun sets in the west , leaving in its place the taste of astronomical wool . <p> Iquique. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . But how different it is from the previous two cities , almost as though it did not belong @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is the cradle , the universal cradle , of all the birds in the world whose song is shrill and hesitant . <p> Any bird that sings like this , and who did not see the light of day in this land will not survive : it will surely be eaten by serpents , scorpions , tarantulas , and other bacteria . The birds , in contrast , that were born here -- and who later take off in fast flight through the five parts of the globe -- make it to old age , make it to a ripe old age , to that old age without feathers , without wings or beaks , though always with their exquisite song , their sharp and stunning song . <p> The people who live here try to imitate these notes . And with good reason . The sound they release into the air is so enchanting that ten minutes before anchoring all of the passengers aboard the Orangutan began to chirp like these pretty birds . When the captain heard us , he silenced our deafening whistles with the ship 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> Mollendo. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . But this town is completely different . <p> In Mollendo , everything is round , cottony , and brown . And moreover everything is soft and cushy , so much so that its residents recline anywhere and everywhere , wherever they happen to feel drowsy : on a branch , on a rock , in a chimney , on the ocean 's waves , absolutely anywhere . <p> Then they eat . The only thing they eat are earthy-tasting round rolls . Afterwards , they rinse their hands in the sea , and since the water is brown , and since the bread crumbs are also brown , with each rinse of the hands , Mollejo becomes more and more brown . And with the earthy wind that blows here every night , and with the lazy licks of the waves , Mollendo becomes more and more round . <p> The captain has told me that within a few years this entire place will be one round , cottony ball the color @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . It is also an extremely curious port . It is formed by mountains of transparent salt , just like those salty stones that are licked by cows . The sea , when it reflects these mountains , turns a glaucous color . <p> The people who live here -- it goes without saying -- are like people everywhere , except that when they cross these mountains they acquire strange forms , like frail little figures . <p> As the ship came to anchor , it left behind a trail of colorless , featureless spittle . We watched with dying eyes as glaucous as the sea . <p> Pacasmayo. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . But what a difference from the previous towns ! What a contrast ! What crazy colors ! Every imaginable color and many other colors which perhaps I could not see were in the leaves and the fruits of its trees . And each color was bright , vibrant , definitive . A crazed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the thick sea was like oil colors ; it moved slowly , and it tinged the hull of the ship with a rainbow that detached itself as we traveled . The sailors would dip a finger in these colors , then suck on it happily . And the strangest thing about this curious port was that a parrot could be seen in each tree , in each branch , in each fruit . <p> All of the parrots screamed at the same time and without even one second of interruption . The noise was so loud that during the twenty hours of our stay we communicated through sign language because we could not hear a word . <p> As we sailed away , Pacasmayo looked like a giant blaze with fiery tongues of red , yellow , green , and orange , which moved and twisted as a bit of wind swayed the branches of the trees and the feathers of the parrots . <p> We heard from the blaze the bitter cry of the birds ; and later we heard an out of tune murmur that lasted until @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ parrots were silent . <p> Pimentel. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . But quite different from the previous town . <p> A splendid Nile green plain , endless , with thousands , millions of trees , equidistant one to the other . Their trunks stood straight as pins ; their leaves were round and almost black , The captain himself told me that these trees produced pepper . Once he said that , we both started to sneeze loudly . <p> During the three days we were anchored here , we saw nothing : not one dog on the street , nor one fish in the water , nor one bird in the air . Bored , the captain gave orders to lift anchor , and the Orangutan set sail . <p> Patia. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . Enormous , low-hanging green leaves , which tilt towards the earth , forming blue hollows . <p> The people from Patia recline in the hollows , lazily humming a tune . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into the bright blue sea , which flows beneath the leaves . A sea that has no horizon , for where the horizon should appear , the leaves mask everything . <p> Out of curiosity , I picked up a leaf . I too could not see the horizon , but a mountain that hid the horizon appeared , and came closer and closer to me . A mountain that surrounded the entire sea . It was a metallic cherry red , exactly the color of an avocado pit . This cherry red was reflected in short though numerous rays on the bright blue water . The captain told me that the mountain was actually made of metal and that from its base it emitted and scattered liquid into the sea . In response to this , I let go of a leaf and once again the green saturated it . My response was completely useless . <p> Manta. -- A cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . <p> This town has three inhabitants who rotate the responsibility of completing the three necessary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the second sleeps , and the third one eats . Afterwards , the one who keeps guard sleeps , the one who sleeps eats , and the one who eats keeps guard . And this , successively , until infinity . <p> The one who keeps guard sits atop a pine tree ; he salutes the passing ships ; he runs to greet those ships that anchor , and he shakes the hands of important officials , passengers , and the crew . <p> The one who sleeps lies in a red tent . He sleeps deeply , and dreams -- always the same dream -- unhappily , of the beauty and grandeur of Guayaquil . <p> The one who eats squats behind a bush . He sticks out his hand and grabs a gannet . He eats it alive , with its beak , its feet , its feathers , every part of it . The bird lets out blood-curdling cries . <p> In effect . Not even an hour after we anchored our ears were drilled with the most horrible , the most frightful howl that could @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that scream scared the other birds in the area , especially the other gannets : the sky filled with hundreds of thousands of birds overcome with fear . And amongst them were the sad and serene brothers of the victim , majestically beating their wings , as bitter tears fell from their eyes . <p> One of these birds , distracted from its path by the smell , did not fly over the bay , but instead landed on the porthole of my cabin . <p> The voice of alarm instantaneously traveled from one end of the ship to the other . <p> -- Gannet on board ! Gannet on board ! <p> The flag of danger was then raised atop the mizzenmast ; from the foremast , the flag of resignation flew in the face of evil . And the siren cried lugubriously , as the two anchors , without having been hoisted by anyone , rose pitifully to the deck like two drenched old ladies . <p> The captain grew grave and sullen . His only words were : <p> -- Return . <p> Creaking from its core @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ towards the horizon . <p> How sad it was to come so suddenly to the end of our trip ! What a disappointment ! And to think that we were only miles from our final destination , the port of Buenaventura , which , according to public opinion , is a cheerful and picturesque town in the middle of a large and peaceful bay . <p> But there was nothing to be done . The captain had said " return " and the Orangutan meekly obeyed . <p> Describing a wide circle in the ocean , we returned without docking at any ports . And today , with great joy , we saw once again atop its hills the cheerful and picturesque town of Valparaiso , whitening the middle of its large and peaceful bay . <p> I spent the days of our return locked in my cabin , lying on my bunk , without seeing anyone , without eating or moving a limb . Behind me , and above my head , sat the gannet of Manta , slowly flitting its wings . This was how I dreamed the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ I happily filtered those distant memories that struck my mind , and how I colored in yellow and green those projects for next year that began to germinate and flutter to the rhythm of the ocean 's waves . <p> And in this way , the noble bird accompanied me , day after day , hour after hour , without screaming , or even batting an eyelid , only flitting in silence his soft cotton wings . <p> And as I set foot on land , I watched the bird fly into the distance , then launch beak-first into the water behind a catfish , who swam slowly behind a sea flea . <p> And we never saw each other again . December 31st <p> Today I slowly and carefully reread this diary . I have no doubts : it must be good for this very simple reason : <p> Each day begins with " Today I. " followed by a participle . <p> " Today I awoke , had , have , crossed , experienced , wandered , lived , came , returned , had , returned , reread @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this way -- I assure you -- is touched by perfection , for it fulfills the inviolable law -- the sacred law ! -- that has been promulgated by every young girl who has poured out her feelings with ink on paper , and by all the wise professors of grammar and rhetoric . <p> Amen . Footnotes <p>

@@4021141 Teacher-librarians are always on the lookout for ways to introduce and reinforce student information skills . Whether evaluating the accuracy of information found at Wikipedia : The Free Encyclopedia , expanding an existing wiki project , or creating original content for a new wiki , collaborative writing projects allow young people the opportunity to exercise their minds and apply essential information skills to authentic activities . To become information fluent , students must be able to use their skills in a variety of situations across disciplines to solve problems and make decisions . Creating and using wikis are a great information skills workout . WIKI BASICS <p> Wikis are collaboratively created web sites . They involve young authors in selecting , evaluating , revising , editing , and publishing information and ideas . A wiki uses web-based open-editing tools to provide an easy way for multiple participants to enter , submit , manage , and update web pages . Wiki-based systems are popular because they are simple to install and contributors do not need special software . The word wiki comes from the Hawaiian word for " quick " or " fast , " meaning that a collaborative team @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ placed on authoring content rather than simply viewing existing information . Wiki environments may be text based or can incorporate graphics , audio , video , and animation . Users make changes by selecting from options and filling in forms on a web page . Authorized users can add and delete links , pages , and content . In some cases , a moderator approves changes before they are posted . Most wikis also provide a way to track changes and view earlier versions of pages . WIKI CHARACTERISTICS <p> Wikis are a specific type of social technology involving cooperation , interdependence , and synergy . For instance , individuals , classes , and clubs at different points along an earthquake fault might analyze ground movement and share their findings on a wiki . Or a local historical society might collaborate with the teacher-librarian and high school students to create a city history wiki . They might also invite people who have lived in the area to share their insights and experiences . The resulting wiki contains multiple perspectives likely missed by a single author . <p> According to Brian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ separate them from other social or collaborative technologies : <p> Unique : Wikis provide an opportunity to share original content in nitch areas that might not be found elsewhere . Rather than duplicate web content , wikis can link to existing information beyond the scope of the project . <p> Collaborative : Wikis are designed to be free , open spaces for sharing . Rather than focus on a single author 's contribution , wikis concentrate on the synergy that comes from multiple contributers creating a project as a virtual team . <p> Open editing : Anyone can add anything to a wiki at anytime . Although many K-12 wiki projects require registration or guest access for outsiders , most allow anyone to join in the fun . <p> Simple coding : Even young children can learn to create and edit pages using the web-based forms . In most cases , the tools are similar to a word processor . <p> Evolving : Wikis are in a constant state of change . Teacher-librarians can consider ways that young people can build on the work of other students or other classes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wikis , students need to understand how they work . Begin by having them explore existing wiki resources . Discuss how these resources are built and the purposes they serve . <p> Audience . Some wikis are designed for a particular audience , such as an age group , organization , or profession . The Library Success or Teacher Librarian wiki are designed for librarians to share their resources and experiences . The Social Justice Movement wiki was originally created by college students but is now open to the public . Internet Public Library 's ( IPL 's ) Teen Poetry Wiki is designed for teens wishing to read and share poetry . This is a wiki that your students may wish to expand . <p> General . Spend some time exploring Wikipedia . Do a search for your town . Ask students to look for accurate and inaccurate information . Notice that some of the information contains references . The population information may come from the census bureau . Rather than cite Wikipedia as a source , go directly to the primary source and fact-check the information . If @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ links at the bottom of the wiki page . Find a sentence that can be enhanced or expanded . Or look for a piece of information that needs a reference . Demonstrate how the wiki can be edited . Also show the history of the page to see the changes that have been made over time . When citing a Wikipedia page , use the permanent link . For example , a project on Pluto done in the spring of 2006 would be different from one clone in the fall of 2007 . <p> Topical . Many individuals and groups have created wikis focusing on particular topics . More Perfect is a wiki focusing on politics and policy . You will find wikis about authors , books , series , and genres that are sponsored by publishers , authors , or fans . For example , Redwall and A Wiki of Unfortunate Events are both based on book series . Check out Wikia for examples of these subject-specific wikis . WIKIS AND COLLABORATIVE WRITING <p> Although most educators have used collaborative writing activities in their classroom , these assignments are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teams may work on different aspects of a topic and bring them together to create the final project . Wikis provide an opportunity to synthesize ideas and create a collaborative project that is broader , deeper , and more interconnected than that created in a traditional writing environment . <p> Wiki setup . Services such as wikispaces are popular with educators because they allow users to set up and build a wiki instantly . Some schools prefer to store wikis on their own web server . Tools such as phpWiki , pmWiki , and TikiWiki are distributed under a general public license . <p> Wiki basics . Ask each child to create a pseudonym that he or she can use in the project . You may wish to use a generic log-in with younger children . As students gain experiences , allow each student to create a personal username and password . Keep a list of usemames and passwords in case students lose their information . Talk to students about creating and editing pages , linking to pages , and incorporating graphics . Begin with a small project . For @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ page about a book , author , character , or genre . Then , classmates can add their ideas to expand the pages . <p> Content . Think about designing a project that requires students to generate original works , such as poetry , interviews , and science experiment results . There are many web sites that contain information about the solar system , blames , and countries of the world . How will your project contribute in some unique way to the body of information already on the Internet ? Consider some sample ideas about what wikis can revolve around : <p> -- books , such as analysis and literature circles ; <p> -- local and state interests , such as historical buildings , locations , events , noteworthy persons , oral histories , art , and music ; <p> -- creative works , such as choose-your-own adventures , invented world , poetry , short stories , artwork , and step-by-step instructions ; <p> -- comparisons , such as then-and-now , what-if 's , parallel timelines ( local , national , and global ) , pros and cons , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ evaluations , such as critical reviews , analysis of a company . <p> Wikis allow students to incorporate text , graphics , audio , and video . Before posting content , check to be sure that you have permission to use material . Generally , people place their content in wikis under the Creative Commons rule known as " share and share alike . " In other words , you can use and link to information found on other wikis as long as it is cited . <p> Links . Linking is an important aspect of wikis . Students may link within the page . For example , they may create a list of ideas at the top of the page and link to a detailed description further down the page . They may also create links to other pages within the wiki . For instance , if they are creating a wiki based on the book Crossing the Wire , by Will Hobbs ( 2006 ) , they might develop pages on each chapter , character ( e.g. , Victor , Rico , Julia , Miguel ) , setting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and topic ( e.g. , smuggling , border patrol , illegal immigration ) . These pages can then be linked together . Finally , create links to outside resources such as the author 's web site and resources related to immigration . <p> Discussion and editing . One feature that makes wikis so wonderful for collaborative writing is their editing options . Talk to children about the difference between enhancing an article and damaging the work of a peer . Most wikis provide a discussion area where writers can share their ideas for enhancing the page and give an explanation of their reasoning behind additions and changes . This provides a wonderful forum for discussion , as well as a way to track student involvement . <p> Demonstrate ways that changing the content can make the article better . Discuss the roles and responsibilities of each author . For example , each page may have a main author , contributing authors , and editors . Keep in mind that most wikis do not contain a spell checker , so editing skills are important . <p> History . One of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Students and teachers are able to trace the progress of the project and determine the contribution of each participant . It is also easy to revert back to an earlier version if problems are discovered . <p> Citations . The power of a wiki is the ability to bring information and ideas together . However , it is important that learners understand how to cite the primary sources that they use in building their wiki . If a student provides a statistic on illegal immigration , he or she should cite the original source , such as the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services , and provide a link to the complete set of information . <p> Wikis provide students an authentic experience applying their information skills . For instance , fact checking is a critical component of wiki development and use . Wiki creators learn to cite their work and provide supporting evidence for their statements , whereas wiki users get practice checking the accuracy of information found in sources such as Wikipedia . WIKI IN LEARNING <p> Wikis are useful across grade levels and subject areas . To @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nature of this collaborative format . Consider projects that get students involved in ongoing wiki experiences . <p> Some possibilities include the following . <p> Collaborative problem solving . Wikis provide an environment for groups to share their understandings and come to consensus . The wiki can be used to generate lists , narrow topics , outline options , debate issues , make suggestions , and even vote . <p> Collaborative research . Whether working simultaneously on a project or over multiple semesters , researchers can collate and share their data using a wiki . <p> Collaborative writing . Wikis are often used for collaborative authorship . In other words , a group of people get together with a final product in mind , such as writing an article or letter ; editing a book , guide , manual , glossary ; or creating a knowledge base . <p> Dynamic journal or notebook . Wiki software can be used to organize notes , ideas , and brainstorms . It is a great tool for a book club or study group to organize information . Although generally thought of as a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , organize , and reflect on one person 's ideas . The activity is focused on recording ideas and process rather than coming up with a final product . <p> Electronic portfolio . Some wikis are used for collecting and organizing resources for an electronic portfolio . A wiki is an effective tool for this activity because it allows a learner to constantly select and update materials . <p> Portal . A portal is designed to be the starting point for a particular topic or subject . Wikipedia refers to main pages on topics or areas . Originally , portals led people to other resources , but they are increasingly being designed as wikis to help people see the big picture of a topic and how it connects to related fields such as arts , biography , geography , history , mathematics , science , society , and technology . <p> Resource aggregator . Like a bibliography , mediagraphy , or pathfinder , a wiki can be used to organize links to web sites , blogs , and other electronic materials . <p> Study guide . A wiki is a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Virtual conference . Rather than meet face to face , users can utilize wikis to share resources as part of a virtual conference activity . Because most wikis allow uploading of files , these conference wikis can hold documents , visuals , and audio and video materials . WIKI USE POLICIES <p> Examine your school and library collection development and technology use policies as they apply to the wiki environment . Does your acceptable use policy talk about using the discussion option during peer editing in a wiki environment ? Does your policy define plagiarism ? Are issues such as the use of names and personal photos discussed ? <p> When building wikis , add a short statement and link to your school 's policy on your wiki page . Or get students involved in interpreting the policy . They can create their own wiki warranty for their page . PUT IT ALL TOGETHER <p> Nancy Bosch , the gifted facilitator at the Nieman Enhanced Learning Center ( http : **33;11693;TOOLONG ) , in Shawnee Mission , KS , recently completed her first wiki assignment with students . Her sixth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ essay , they would be creating a wiki based on the book The Wright 3 , by Blue Balliett ( 2006 ) . After setting up the space for her students at Wikispaces , her students jumped into the project , creating chapter summaries , character pages , and topical resources . They also created cross-references within their wiki and linked to outside resources . Their comments told the whole story : <p> " Boy , I 'm glad we did n't have to write ! " <p> " It is so cool to know that somebody might use what I wrote for their research ! ! " <p> " I write a lot more carefully knowing the ' world ' can read it . " <p> " I liked the fact that we could work together , help each other out , and link to stuff someone else wrote . " <p> " It is so cool to put something ON the Internet , rather than always taking stuff OFF . " <p>

@@4021241 You may still find the occasional barn raising and one-room schoolhouse , but a plan for technologically advanced schools that first took root more than a decade ago has ushered the state into the digital age . <p> IF YOU WERE to picture South Dakota in 1910 , you might Imagine things like barn raisings , farmhouses , horses , and perhaps small , one-room country schoolhouses . Even though some of those one-room schoolhouses remain much has changed in the last 100 years , thanks to some future-oriented governors and State leaders willing to support , fund , and implement systemic change in this Midwestern plains state . This is a story of vision , cooperation , planning , and teamwork that is translating into bright futures for every South Dakota student . <p> This is also a story of Faith . In 2004 , the small community of Faith , SD , received word that its school building had been condemned . This very rural yet technologically progressive district in the northwest corner of the state , population 521 , was faced with the challenge of few capital outlay dollars , the need for a new building @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ its students , including a plan to go wireless at the high school and implement a 1-to-1 laptop program . What was it to do ? <p> Mel Dutton , Faith School District 's CEO , says the choice was not an easy one . The district decided to maximize the few dollars it had for the best interests of its 80 students and purchased seven modular building units housing 14 classrooms . It then put the rest of its minimal capital into wireless laptops for all of its high school students . <p> " It would be nice to have a permanent structure , " Dutton says , " but we may be in these units for a while yet , so we ca n't have a gap in these kids ' education . Students will need this technology for the future . " The district 's boldness has paid off . The staff is receptive to the laptops and is redesigning the methods used to deliver content in the classroom . Students can be seen in off hours , dotting the campus grounds , working via wireless access @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ small , sparsely populated district going through such a crisis , one that is not uncommon in many small districts across South Dakota , found the courage to take on a gamble such as wireless laptops . The answer lies in the formation of a strong partnership between the state of South Dakota and its school districts -- a partnership focused on ensuring that no child 's future is left to chance . <p> The partnership began in 1996 , when former Gov . William Janklow initiated the first steps of a vision for the future that included wiring and connecting the state 's schools . The effort to wire the schools , aptly called Connecting the Schools ( CTS ) , initially installed three computer drops for every four students per classroom , pulled Cat-5 and fiber-optic wiring throughout the schools , and upgraded the electronic wiring to manage the greater electrical demands of numerous computers . The project began with one school on the east end of the state and one on the west end , and grew to include all the campuses in the state . To @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ inmates without violent or sex-related crimes on their records , guided by trained electricians . <p> The entire effort was completed for $15 million . By 1999 , the next phase was under way : building a statewide intranet among all of South Dakota 's 176 school districts , bringing . T-1 access into every public school building . The project covered three stages : the distribution of hardware and software , the building of the network infrastructure , and distance learning . <p> Once the state was wired and connected , the next task was training . This was accomplished through total-immersion , intensive 20-day summer technology academies . Teachers were paid stipends and offered graduate credit , and received equipment allocation dollars for their classrooms as incentives to attend the academies . The first two weeks of the sessions were designed to enhance participants ' technology skills and to provide a strong foundation in best practices for meaningful integration . The last two weeks were focused on collaboratively designing learning experiences while advancing technology skills and expertise as necessary to accomplish the unit design . <p> TRAINING THE @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ using teachers to instruct their colleagues on Integrating laptops into the classroom . A Roadmap to the 21st Century <p> These important first steps laid the groundwork for technology to become a daily part of every South Dakota child 's education . And now , through the 2010 Education initiative , the state 's current governor , Mike Rounds , has developed a roadmap to guide the state 's public education system into the next decade . The initiative identifies where the state is , where it aims to go , and how it plans to get there by laying out goals , objectives , and action steps . The initiative is divided into three sections : Starting Strong , Finishing Strong , and Staying Strong . Each section is designed to focus on a specific phase of the education process . Starting Strong intends to ensure that all third-grade students are proficient in reading and math . Staying Strong focuses on educator recruitment , the education of special populations , and the financial resources needed to improve classroom instruction and educational opportunities . <p> The middle component , Finishing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ By 2010 , " the initiative promises , " South Dakota will be first in the nation in the percentage of students going on to college , technical school , or advanced training . " From this declaration was born Classroom Connections , an effort to develop essential 21st-century workplace skills by putting a laptop in the hands of every high schooler across the state . Devised in 2005 , the l-to-1 program was expected to help level the playing field for students so that those who do n't have access to computers at home would have the same opportunity as their peers to compete and succeed . <p> The program was piloted during 2006-2007 and will enter its second year of implementation in the fall . Schools chosen for the pilot ranged in enrollment size from 21 students to 1,275 , and all told have included 9,600 students in 41 districts across the state , both sparsely rural and densely urban . The state provides matching incentive funds for one-third of the cost of the laptops , while local districts pick up the other two-thirds . <p> A systemic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dramatic shifts in their current practices , so it should not be implemented apart from good professional development . Accordingly , the state implementation plan for Classroom Connection supplied the monies and resources necessary to train local leaders , provide staff professional development , and assist with local network support . The state was able to negotiate optimal pricing for computers , warranties , software , and training , thus saving districts time and money . Professional development was designed to meet the unique needs of each school district while also providing a general format for site leaders to follow . Two team leaders from each district were selected to be trained in a " train-the-trainer " model and to build a cadre of supporters among sites . <p> The logistics of a project of this scope required a lot of upfront planning , coordination , and teamwork , and included a one-year timeline . In the fall of 2005 , the state developed a team of partners that included the state Department of Education , the Bureau of Information and Telecommunications , Dakota State University ( DSU ) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Mitchell Technical Institute , Gateway , and Citibank . <p> The following February , districts attended a meeting that introduced them to the state plan . Then a request-for-proposals course was offered in the spring of 2006 by DSU to prospective school districts . Districts applied for grants that provided for the initial investment of laptops , warranties , software , and training . They needed to demonstrate that they could meet certain criteria , including : financial means to participate in the program ; the ability to implement ongoing training of staff and students beyond the initial training ; and commitment from the school board and community . <p> Grant applications were received in March and awarded by May . Training was held during the summer and included a District Leadership Team Symposium in June ; school-based three-day assemblies in July and August for staff , parents , and other stakeholders ; and a two-day Content Symposium held in August for staff . The evaluation of the project was conducted by an external evaluator throughout the project year . Analysis of the evaluation data is just starting and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " What They 're Saying , " page 16 ) , is expected to bear good news . <p> Now update that picture of South Dakota to the year 2010 . You might still see things like barn raisings , only they might be video-streamed through the internet for the whole world to view . You might find farmhouses , but they 'll be equipped with wireless internet access . And perhaps in that same one-room country schoolhouse , every student is carrying a wireless laptop able to search the World Wide Web for endless opportunities and resources . But expect to also see a whole new student , one who is capable of actively gathering information on a global level , synthesizing it , and then constructing that knowledge into a new vision of South Dakota for the next 100 years . CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS A One-Year Timeline <p> The launch of South Dakota 's laptop program required a lot of advance planning , coordination , and teamwork . Fall 2005 <p> The state creates a leadership team of partners that includes members from government , business , and education @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at an introductory meeting . Spring 2006 <p> Dakota State University offers a request-for-proposal course to prospective school districts . Districts apply for technology grants ; grants are awarded in May . Summer 2006 <p> Training is held for the pilot schools , including assemblies and symposiums for students , parents , teachers , and staff . 2006-2007 <p> Program is implemented . Evaluation is ongoing during the project year . WHAT THEY 'RE SAYING SOUTH DAKOTA 'S LAPTOP INITIATIVE HAS ELICITED POSITIVE REVIEWS FROM THE STATE 'S EDUCATORS . <p> " A great benefit of the 1-to-1 pilot project is that it has leveled the playing field . By this I mean every high school student has access to a computer 24/7 , Giving all students the same chance to work on tablets or laptops , with the same software , is really exciting . The pride students have taken with this project is unbelievable . It is true that some might not have internet at home , but they can come back to school and sit in the parking lot and get connected there " -- Rodney Dally @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " I can not imagine going back to not having 1-to-1 . Our teachers have embraced the project 100 percent . It is amazing how they have changed their teaching in just one semester . Going 1-to-1 is effective because students are more productive -- they have dependable access to search tools , online databases , etc . Students gather info , synthesize , draft , and revise assignments and hand in a professional-looking document . " -- Aileen Brunner , technology director for Newell School District and president of the South Dakota Society for Technology in Education ( sdste.k12.sd.us ) links <p> Bureau of Information and Telecommunications www.Stare.sd.us/bit <p> Citibank www.citibank.com <p> Classroom Connections **34;695;TOOLONG <p> Department of Education doe.sd.gov <p> Gateway www.gateway.com <p> Mitchell Technical Institute www.mitchelltech.edu <p> SDN Communications **25;731;TOOLONG <p> 2010 Education www.2010education.com <p> Technology &; Innovation in Education www.tie.net <p> By Peg Henson and Gloria Steele <p> <p> Peg Henson is a curriculum technology specialist for the South Dakota Department of Education . <p> Gloria Steele is an education technology specialist for Technology &; Innovation in Education ( www.tie.net ) . <p>

@@4021341 Systemic sclerosis ( SSc ) is a connective tissue disease characterized by widespread vascular lesions . Primary myocardial involvement is common in SSc and , when clinically evident , appears as a poor prognostic factor . Using conventional methods , myocardial perfusion impairment and biventricular dysfunction have been reported in SSc . Recently , Tissue Doppler Imaging ( TDI ) echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging have confirmed these results . TDI , with its derived strain , strain rate and myocardial performance index , is a powerful new echocardiographic tool that is now becoming the standard for assessing ventricular function in a variety of situations and diseases . In the present article we review the main published data on the application of TDI in the evaluation of cardiac function and prediction of prognosis in patients with SSc . <p> Keywords : Systemic sclerosis ; Echocardiography ; Tissue Doppler imaging ; Strain and strain rate imaging ; Myocardial performance index Introduction <p> Systemic sclerosis ( SSc ) is a multisystem disorder characterized by diffuse vascular lesions and fibrosis of the skin and internal organs 1 2 . Cardiac involvement is a common finding in SSc , but often clinically occult @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be found in 20-25% of patients with SSc , while at postmortem examination the heart is affected in up to 80% of patients 3 4 . The course and prognosis are highly dependent on the clinical pattern , and the main causes of death are cardiovascular , renal and pulmonary disease . Heart involvement is one of the main factors shortening the survival of SSc patients 5 . Although cardiac abnormalities could be more prevalent and severe in the diffuse cutaneous subtype of the disease , there is increasing evidence suggesting that cardiac involvement is also a frequent finding in the limited cutaneous subtype . In the large epidemiological Italian study , although heart symptoms were found more frequently in the diffuse form ( 32% ) as compared with the limited form ( 23% ) , the difference was not statistically significant 6 . Some data have even suggested a more prevalent involvement in the limited subtype of the disease 7 . <p> Magnetic resonance imaging , single photon emission computed tomography , echocardiography and radionuclide ventriculography have been used to investigate myocardial perfusion and contractility . The data showed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dysfunction were common . Moreover , echocardiography and radionuclide ventriculography may be influenced by loading conditions and adjacent segment motion 8 9 . Tissue Doppler Imaging ( TDI ) has been introduced as a quantitative , more objective , and sensitive method for the assessment of myocardial function . It is a new approach that allows direct and valid measurement of myocardial velocities and strain rate 10 11 . Myocardial strain rate has been shown to be a strong index of contractility , independent of myocardial translation and less dependent on loading conditions . Furthermore , strain rate determined by TDI is a more sensitive method than conventional echocardiography or radionuclide ventriculography for detecting changes in myocardium contractility 12 13 14 . The myocardial performance index has been considered a good predictor for adverse results in several cardiac diseases , such as valvular insufficiency , cardiomyopathies and acute myocardial infarction . It is easy to obtain , however , using TDI to obtain myocardial performance index ( representing regional systolic and diastolic function ) is not a universally accepted method 15 16 17 . <p> Based on these grounds , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rationale behind and clinical use of TDI , strain rate and myocardial performance index in the assessment cardiac function , prediction of prognosis and distinguishing cutaneous subtypes in patients with SSc , and their relation to other instrumental features of the disease , with focus on recent developments ( Table 1 ) . <p> These techniques provide accurate information about segmental myocardial motion and deformation during the cardiac cycle and offer the advantage , with respect to conventional Doppler echocardiography , of assessing systolic and diastolic function of both the ventricles at a regional level 12 13 14 . A highlight on the use of TDI in the assessment of myocardial function Right ventricular function <p> The early detection of right ventricular dysfunction may be important in clinical practice . However , this issue has not been sufficiently investigated by non-invasive techniques because of right ventricular complex geometry which hinders an accurate assessment of right ventricular internal chamber dimensions and their changes during the cardiac cycle 23 . Lindqvist et al focused on right ventricular diastolic function in 26 consecutive SSc patients compared with 25 matched controls ; TDI showed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( p<0.001 ) in SSc patients with no significant changes regarding right ventricular systolic function 23 . Another study revealed that the tricuspid annular isovolumic relaxation time ( p=0.001 ) and the tricuspid E/E ratio ( p=0.04 ) were significantly increased in 22 SSc patients compared with the 22 healthy volunteers 22 . D'Andrea et al showed that TDI analysis detected impaired myocardial right ventricular early-diastolic peak velocities ( P<0.0001 ) and prolonged myocardial time intervals at tricuspid annulus in 23 SSc patients 21 . Finally , in a recent study of 40 consecutive SSc patients compared with 45 matched controls , the subclinical right ventricular dysfunction was more common than predicted . Fifty-five % of the patients had right ventricular systolic dysfunction ( right ventricular ejection fraction <40% ) , and TDI uncovered that peak myocardial systolic velocity ( p<0.001 ) as well as early and late diastolic velocities were prolonged ( p=0.01 and 0.05 respectively ) 20 . Left ventricular function <p> Previous studies using conventional measurements have reported low prevalence of systolic dysfunction and variable alteration in diastolic function in SSc . However , left ventricular ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 24 . A study of 19 SSc women pointed out that early diastolic velocities were significantly lower ( p<0.00001 ) in comparison to 16 control healthy women . Also , the detailed assessment of diastolic function in the SSc group showed severe diastolic dysfunction of longitudinal myocardial fibers with normal function of circumflex myocardial fibers 4 . Another study found that mitral annular isovolumic relaxation time was significantly increased ( p=0.03 ) in SSc patients 22 . D'Andrea et al showed that the myocardial early diastolic wave /myocardial atrial diastolic wave ratio was significantly lower ( p<0.01 ) in SSc patients compared with the control group while Hsiao et al showed similar TDI parameters between the 2 groups 20 21 . Atrial Conduction <p> Can et al studied 24 SSc patients and 24 control subjects . There was a delay between the onset of the P wave on surface electrocardiogram and the onset of the late diastolic wave in SSc patients measured at lateral septal annulus ( p=0.001 ) , septal mitral annulus ( p = 0.01 ) and tricuspid annulus ( p = 0.05 ) . Interatrial conduction time @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are significantly higher in SSs patients with delay in both intraatrial and interatrial electromechanical coupling intervals 18 . <p> Therefore , it appears that in progressive SSc , myocardial dysfunction is common and detailed screening of cardiac function in SSc patients with TDI is warranted for early detection of abnormalities . Strain and Strain rate derived TDI in the detection of myocardial abnormalities <p> Strain rate imaging has been recently developed to measure regional velocity gradients . This technique overcomes several limitations inherent in measuring regional velocity profiles , because it is not influenced by global cardiac displacement and the tethering effects of adjacent segments 26 . Meune et al detected that SSc patients had lower systolic strain rate ( p<0.0001 ) and lower diastolic strain rate ( p=0.0004 ) than controls ; 10/17 SSc patients had reduced systolic strain rate and 11/17 patients had reduced diastolic strain rate despite normal LV ejection fraction 24 . D'Andrea et al perceived that peak systolic strain rate and strain were both reduced in the basal , middle and apical right ventricular lateral free walls , and in the basal and middle LV @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prospectively evaluated 18 patients with SSc without clinical heart failure and with normal pulmonary arterial systolic pressure . TDI was assessed at baseline , after a 72 hour vasodilator washout period , and after 14 days of oral treatment with nifedipine . Nifedipine treatment led to a significant increase in the magnetic resonance imaging perfusion index ( p = 0.0003 ) and in systolic and diastolic strain rate ( p = 0.0002 and p = 0.0003 , respectively ) 25 . Similar findings were discovered in 18 SSc patients with lower systolic and diastolic strain rate in comparison with 15 healthy subjects . Median peak systolic strain rate was markedly improved ( p=0.0002 ) after bosentan treatment . Bosentan also significantly increased the median peak early diastolic strain rate function ( p=0.0003 ) 19 . To sum up , Strain and strain rate are respective markers of regional contractility and diastolic function . Myocardial performance index as a surrogate of myocardial performance <p> The myocardial performance index assesses the global functions of the ventricles and is not influenced by factors such as pre and after-load 22 . Hsiao et al @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ventricular function . The myocardial performance index of the right ventricle in patients with SSc was much higher than in control subjects ( p<0.0001 ) . Furthermore , the difference in myocardial performance index between control and SSc groups was more prominent in the right ventricle and septum than in the LV lateral wall 20 . TDI as a predictor of prognosis and outcome <p> As most of the work in TDI has been diagnostic in nature , there has been a great interest in the prognostic implications of TDI diastolic variables . Lindqvist et al noticed a significant correlation between forced vital capacity/ Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity and isovolumic relaxation time/R-R time interval ( r = 0.44 , p < 0.05 ) . These findings appear to be early markers of right ventricular disturbance , probably in response to intermittent pulmonary arterial hypertension 23 . D'Andrea et al pointed out an independent inverse association of right ventricular peak early-diastolic velocity with both Rodnan Skin Score 1 27 ( p<0.0005 ) and pulmonary arterial systolic pressure ( p<0.0001 ) , as well as independent inverse correlation of the same right @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . In addition , right ventricular peak early-diastolic velocity was an independent predictor of the anti Scl-70 antibody pattern ( p<0.001 ) . Those findings indicate how the right ventricular dysfunction in SSc occurs concomitantly with the pulmonary hypertension and skin involvement . They may also valuable to distinguish patients with a more aggressive and diffuse form of the disease 21 . Hsiao et al uncovered that right ventricular - myocardial systolic velocity <11 cm/s indicated right ventricular ejection fraction < 40% with sensitivity of 87% and specificity of 86% . In addition , right ventricular - myocardial systolic velocity <12 cm/s was associated with more frequent hospital admission . They assumed that the myocardium surrounding the right ventricle can be used to predict the hospital readmission rate of patients with SSc 20 . Finally , Allanore et al and Vignaux et al demonstrated the strikingly beneficial short term myocardial effects of both nifedipine and bosentan in patients with SSc determined by magnetic resonance imaging and TDI 19 25 . Application of TDI in distinguishing the cutaneous subtypes <p> Although cardiac abnormalities could be more prevalent and severe in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ involvement is also a frequent finding in the limited subtype 28 . Plazak et al and Vignaux et al showed no significant difference between the diffuse ( 42% and 56% respectively ) and limited ( 58% and 44% respectively ) subtypes 4 25 . In the study by Meune et al , patients with diffuse SSc ( 47% ) had reduced mean forced vital capacity ( p = 0.006 ) and mean Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity / hemoglobin ( p = 0.03 ) when compared with limited subtype ( 53% ) , but there was no difference regarding thallium perfusion score , LV ejection fraction , echocardiographic parameters and TDI values 24 . Another study encountered that patients with the limited subtype ( 60% ) were older with longer disease duration . Patients with diffuse SSc ( 40% ) had lower forced vital capacity and Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity with higher pulmonary arterial systolic pressure . The TDI parameters were similar except for the myocardial performance index of the right ventricle ( lower in diffuse SSc , p = 0.03 ) in both forms . Patients with diffuse SSc had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , these studies may represent the severity of heart involvement which was nearly equal regardless of subtype presumably due to the high prevalence of myocardial dysfunction in both SSc subtypes . Conclusions <p> The present review proposes that pulsed TDI , which is far more sensitive than conventional techniques , is a valuable non-invasive and easy-repeatable tool for detecting early myocardial involvement , predicting the prognosis and for follow-up in patients with SSc . There is a high prevalence of abnormal myocardial systolic and diastolic function in SSc patients , despite normal global ejection fraction of both ventricles . Another important clinical implication is that biventricular function should be studied in detail in patients with SSc . Detection of abnormalities in diastolic function might provide a means of identifying patients at risk for progressive heart failure . There was a high prevalence of myocardial dysfunction of both SSc forms . Finally , there was a strikingly beneficial short term myocardial effect of vasodilators in patients with SSc . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Table 1 : Baseline characteristics <p>

@@4021441 Today 's defining phenomenon is the act of terrorism . In Amman , Jordan , the triple hotel bombings in 2005 are a single example . The world today faces unprovoked attacks , random shootings , suicide missions , and genocide . Such acts , though an appalling comment on our civilization , lie embedded in its fabric . Rarely do classic writers interpret them . Yet D. H. Lawrence ( 1885-1930 ) has anticipated such acts in his writing . Beatings , shootings , suicide , murder , and a systematic use of language as hatred all define his work . The contours of violence in Lawrence 's fiction , tracing Modernist preoccupations with the psyche 's dark forces , assume forms that are emergent , aggressive , or infiltrative . Sequentially they culminate in dissonance at many levels of a text . The destabilizing Modernist forces -- of violence in Lawrence 's plots and language ; of dissonant harmonic progressions in Berg 's and Bartok 's compositions ; of colliding Cubist planes in Pablo Picasso 's art , which alter a subject 's identity-all reflect new forms of order that arrived in avant-garde culture about 1910 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ violence has not been demonstrated . <p> Modernist departures from historical frames are well known and extend to much of Lawrence 's work . Throughout his textbook . Movements in European History ( 1921 ) , Lawrence implies that cycles of history always encode eruptions of violence . Historians agree that conditions that spawn systemic social disorder-such as threats to peace and prosperity or the sustained oppression of one group by another -- also spawn personal disorder . However , Lawrence 's posture on history 's intersection with violence differs from what might be expected . Because his intuition and understanding go so deep , his writings resist , rather than embrace , historical pressures . Indeed , for most twentieth-century writers , history provides a rich set of possibilities out of which a character 's identity -- of entrapment , freedom , rootedness , and progress-may be fashioned . But Lawrence goes further . In his fiction , he offers a set of circumstances that his characters challenge ; they demand neither social nor intellectual recognition but personal empowerment . Part of Lawrence 's modernity is that -- for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is registered as a set of inherited human prejudices that are antagonistic to instinct and intuition . These prejudices intersect with a panoply of options in the present , out of which an ambiguous future unfolds . <p> Departing from the idioms of nineteenth-century representation , Lawrence and Picasso ( as a representative Modernist ) choose strikingly elemental , then increasingly violent , forms to represent their vision . Indeed , Lawrence 's characters often move toward a fateful or violent act linked in its contours to history , then shy away from it-rejecting , or repressing , or evading it . Young Ursula Brangwen , Gerald Crich , the Woman Who Rode Away , the Man Who Died , and Connie Chatterley illustrate this unexpected response . They take the events that befall them and , by personal force , subvert them , shaping their dissident response into a preference ( early phase ) , a personal stand ( middle phase ) , or an ideology ( late phase ) that will help complete their destiny . Sometimes , to relieve a character from the pull of historical events @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , as it does for Captain Hauptmann , Jill Banford , and Domingo Romero , for whom death ends a protagonist 's sexual entanglements . Lawrence 's images of violence link the unfolding of historical events to the human struggle against them . <p> As might be expected , these forms of violence reflect Lawrence 's own trajectory as a writer . In his early phase ( 1905-1915 ) , violence typically images the disruptive class differences that alter human relationships , as when , in Sons and Lovers , Walter Morel hurls a drawer at his wife Gertrude . In Lawrence 's middle phase ( 1916-1924 ) , violence illuminates characters caught in roles they must alter in order to attain personal and spiritual fulfilment , as when Gerald Crich 's fratricide shatters his inner self . In Lawrence 's final phase ( 1925-1930 ) , violence , evermore verbal , generates fresh narrative risks and stirs characters like Oliver Mellors and the Man Who Died to dismantle social constraints in order to find sexual liberation : and in this phase Lawrence moves violence to the narrative edge of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , to which I will return . <p> Early Phase <p> In Lawrence 's early writing , violence is localized -- in a family or job -- and arises mostly from class conflict embedded in economic inequality . This is the conflict Lawrence knew from experience . Characters who struggle upward encounter daunting obstacles . In " The White Stocking " ( composed and revised 1907-1914 ) , Elsie Whiston 's flirtatious bid for Sam Adams 's affection is a disguised plea for her husband Ted to discipline her capricious behavior . No longer occupied by work , having quit her warehouse job to get married , she is bored . Her " mischievous " nature attracts Sam 's florid , half-sincere attentions . Unable to bear her disloyalty , Ted strikes his wife " with a crash across the mouth " ( 148 ) . Her bleeding wound , however , exposes " the shame " and " the violence " of his act ( 162,163 ) . Once Ted has folded her in his arms , the reader understands that Ted 's hard slap will foster healing and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Elsie and Sam 's whimsical game with her confused need for attention . In the story 's emotional equation , Elsie 's blood is the price of her dalliance . Chastised , she may now mature into a woman who values afresh her husband 's quiet strength . Nevertheless , Lawrence ignores neither Ted 's mute , inarticulate nature nor Sam 's sensuous appeal to Elsie . Although the reader never doubts Elsie 's inner fidelity to Ted , it is clear that violence brokers the inability of both characters to articulate their inner feelings . <p> Whereas Elsie and Ted 's conflict is defined partly by a phase in history when middle-class women did not work after marriage , the Orderly in " The Prussian Officer , " a story composed a year before the Great War began , shows the destabilization of military order . At the outset , the Orderly 's bruises are a hidden badge of his peasant endurance : soon he can march " almost without pain " ( 1 ) . Hugh Stevens has said that the Orderly 's bruises allow the Captain to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 55 ) . Indeed , the boy has no other name ; his body is bounty to be claimed . But the story 's violence works differently : it registers the Orderly 's rage -- and despair -- in such eloquent detail that the reader suspects the boy has been violated . Yet his bruises are equally an expression of Captain Hauptmann 's repressed sexual feeling , inflected as eyes of " cold fire " ( " Prussian Officer " 2 ) . The story , revealing the secret origin of abuse , shows the Captain punishing what he can not consciously desire . Despite his passion . he subscribes " to the idea of the Service , " using historically validated structures as his guide . He is wedged between the discipline he prizes as an officer and the crumbling sexual mores of a modern era . Earlier he had gambled away his money ; now , addicted to the Orderly 's presence , he gambles away his honor and self-control . He can not keep himself " suppressed " ( 4 ) . <p> The men 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ separate Ted Whiston and Sam Adams , reveal the inherent advantages of birth ; the Captain is " a gentleman " who keeps his Orderly in " subjection " ( " Prussian Officer " 4 , 12 ) . In the conflict that follows , the boy-instinctual and ordinary-has no access to power . When hit by a belt , blood rushing to his mouth , he must accept the violence as beyond his control and ignore the Captain . When brutally kicked , he clings to a wooden banister for support . He can not escape his duty , which obligates him to serve only three , then only two , more months . And when forced into a personal connection with the Captain , he refuses the obligation it implies and commits the most violent of acts-breaking the Captain 's neck . Fleeing , the Orderly escapes not into freedom but into the subtle captivity of mental derangement , when " everything went black " ( 17 ) . Still , when both men are laid side by side in the morgue , Lawrence stresses not their contrasts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , but rather their equality . On the surface , violence has erased the historical pressures of class . Lawrence never returned to this kind of ending -- not because it is false but because his conception of character and history changed after 1914 , when Modernist values emerged . <p> In The Rainbow ( 1915 ) -- Lawrence 's most historical novel 1 -- violence , embedded now in a family 's evolution , becomes internalized without a traditional frame , just as Picasso 's 1910 Cubist portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler shatters the frame into dozens of interacting planes that dissect the human figure ( see Plate 1 ) . The light splits the figure ; the pensive head assumes a bestial repose ; and at the base , clasped hands pray for release. 2 Similarly , violence erupts in The Rainbow at the center of Ursula Brangwen 's contemporary experience , breaking down the enclosures around her . As a teacher , she beats an insolent boy ; as a lover , her sexual energy turns corrosive and violent ; and as a pregnant mother , she aborts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " sensuality and lust ( 280 ) , Ursula releases her powerful instinctual forces ; the cultural dislocations of the twentieth century have separated Anna as breeder from Ursula as aborter . In contemporary times , the sexual act , even in Women in Love , produces no children ; even Pussum chooses an abortion . <p> In The Rainbow manifestations of violence mark Lawrence 's newly discovered antagonisms of an individual caught in familial , social , and historical constraints . Ursula 's antagonism escalates until she can repudiate the way industrialism , so thoroughly the product of history , gives birth to a new colliery town named Wiggiston , which enslaves the colliers and demeans their wives . Early , Ursula registers its human violence . She sees the colliers as " spectres , " their bodies " subjected to slavery , " their town a " gruesome dream , " while day and night the " monster " colliery runs ( 393,397 ) . Inspired by her fury , she wishes to destroy the colliery just as the Orderly wishes to destroy the Captain . Like the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ male prerogative and power . Like the Captain , her uncle Tom Brangwen , who manages the Wiggiston colliery , becomes " disintegrated " when he conies to " the end of his desires " ( 392 ) . However , Ursula can escape from Wiggiston and , though with difficulty , turn her back on whatever violates her . As a means of discarding Anton Skrebensky 's deathly love , Ursula must submit to a cleansing : she must endure the terrifying energy of trampling horses , galloping close by , which threaten to annihilate her . <p> As they often do in Modernism , dark psychic forces threaten a character 's stability. 3 Once the Orderly 's homicide and Ursula 's terror pass , Lawrence parallels their respective emotional breakdowns , which violence precipitates . Both become seriously ill , the Orderly succumbing to shock , Ursula trembling in bed . Both reach their limits , entering a stage of delirium in which distortion replaces perception . Alone with their pain , both cast off the husk of emotional support that had once helped them define their core @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lie unprotected . " There had been father and mother and sweetheart . What did they all matter now , " the Orderly hallucinates ( " Prussian Officer " 18 ) . Unable to survive , he dies . In a feverish state . Ursula repeats , " I have no father nor mother nor lover.they are all unreal " ( Rainbow 545 ) . Unwilling to bind herself to the dutiful subjection that limits Skrebensky , Ursula miscarries . This is the Modernist crux -- to be reborn without a frame . beyond the parameters of history . <p> Middle Phase <p> In Lawrence 's early fiction , characters redefine themselves suddenly and decisively . By resisting the pressure to conform , they choose personal integrity over social accommodation . In the decade after 1915 , however , Lawrence 's understanding of how violence affects character changed : World War I altered his sensibility . After the war , Picasso , for instance , turned to theatrical work , then to paintings of violence ( 1925 ) , the crucifixion ( 1930 ) , and other forms of human @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into society , organizations , and industrialization -- at the border of risk , fear , and danger . Violence now determines the fate of Lawrence 's characters and more stringently reveals their values . Composed between 1915 and 1919 , Women in Love and The Fox offer a death by gunshot . Earlier , in The Trespasser ( 1912 ) , Siegmund , who is unable to broker the space between purity and guilt , commits suicide ; it is the only door " he could open in this prison corridor of life " ( 202 ) . The pathos of the ending , miming the actual suicide of Herbert Macartney ( on whom Siegmund is based ) , suggests neither the embedding of fate in the human fabric nor the harder scrutiny that the narrator will soon turn on flawed characters . Using violence as a metonym for war . Lawrence manifests his greater understanding of the pressures exerted on vulnerable characters like Gerald Crich and Jill Banford . <p> Like a blight , an accidental shooting broods over Women in Love , inviting Birkin , Gudrun , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ violence in the web of fate . Gerald 's misdeed stirs Birkin to reflect : " Gerald as a boy had accidentally killed his brother . What then ? Why seek to draw a brand and a curse across the life that had caused the accident ? . Is there no such thing as pure accident ? " Birkin thinks there is not : " It all hung together , in the deepest sense " ( 26 ) . To reach a firm conclusion , he must await intimate knowledge of Gerald 's character . Meanwhile , others respond to the shooting . While Ursula attributes the violent death to an unconscious will , her sister Gudrun flatly dismisses the idea , destabilizing the meaning of violence . Ursula persists , worrying that an unconscious will had motivated the accident : <p> " This playing at killing has some primitive desire for killing in it , do n't you think ? " " No , " said Gudrun . " It seems to me the purest form of accident . " ( 49 ) <p> Lawrence initiates a more complex @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ been " tortured by a furious and destructive demon " ( 229 ) . Gerald 's natural association with violence is the legacy of his accidental shooting . The slain brother 's torn flesh is soon transferred imaginatively to the torn , bleeding flesh of Gerald 's mare . Gudrun turns white to see " on the mare 's very wound the bright spurs come down , pressing relentlessly " ( 112 ) . With its overtones of rape , the image of violent penetration persists . An abusive master , a sadist beneath his civility , Gerald horrifies Ursula , excites Gudrun , and persuades the reader to connect violence , power , and ownership . Indeed , Lawrence forcefully positions the Crich family in history -- to define the family 's power , to reveal its greed ( nicely camouflaged by Mr. Crich 's charity ) , and to clarify its hypocritical posture of " social honor " ( 209 ) . The whole violent history of the miners ' strike grounds the family 's ambition in sham service to itself and others , while Mrs. Crich 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> Still , Gerald 's " demon " remains . The trauma of his fratricide contributes to his growing psychic split , typical of Modernism , between vitality and nullity . Having made the mines supremely efficient , he suffers from " not knowing who he was . " He sees in the mirror blue eyes that , if they burst , might induce his " annihilation " ( 232 ) . Fearing the chaos of a breakdown , terrified that his reason will vanish , and separated from the everyday world , Gerald confronts a crisis of confidence in his own character . As violence works its way into his interior life , he imagines that Gudrun 's beauty and sexual energy can heal the split that defines him . The early action of the gun " going off turns into Gerald 's orgasmic gun going off when his " terrible frictional violence of death filled Gudrun " ( 344 ) , not with the potent substance of life but with the discharge of despair. 4 When Gerald pleads for her help . Gudrun -- " caught at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 325 ) -- instills new life in him beyond the confines of his family 's troubled history . <p> Yet Gerald has chosen a woman whose appetite for violence matches his . Gudrun has freed herself from Gerald 's concern with " social position " meshed in history ( 375 ) . and by remaining fiercely independent and even refusing to teach , she can attack him . Near the close , a " fine blade " ( 421 ) penetrates his heart just as his phallic spur had , reciprocally , penetrated the mare 's flesh . As Gerald walks away from social position , work , and the possibility of love-edging toward annihilation-readers recognize a symmetry : that the hands that had earlier gripped the gun are the hands whose " wrists were bursting " with violent power . In the snow , Gerald grabs Gudrun 's throat , and " the more violent the struggle became , the greater the frenzy of his delight " ( 472 ) . At the close , the unconscious force of violence has spent itself . As Birkin had said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . " Yet Gerald 's kind of " frenzy " has -- once Lawrence reaches the year 1924 -- already lost its sexual component of " delight " and been redefined , placed deep in the psyche as destructive energy. 5 It is also where Picasso positions violence in his brutal paintings of 1925 . <p> In Lawrence 's middle phase , Banford 's death in The Fax illustrates the sweeping dislocations of a world war that hastened the innovations of Modernism . These dislocations reach even the lives of Nellie March and Jill Banford , who , in rural isolation , struggle without men to survive . Henry Grenfel , uprooted from his grandfather 's farm and trained as a soldier . returns from the war full of masked aggression . He is determined to conquer March 's resistance to him . That resistance includes a sexual enemy in the form of Banford . As in war , enemies must be vanquished , and Lawrence links Banford 's death to Henry Grenfel 's decision to shoot the fox . The fox wants the chickens ; Banford wants March as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wife . It is an equation that must balance desire with aggression . All three characters connive : the fox slithering toward the hens " like a snake " ( 39 ) ; Banford steering Henry away from the farm ; and Henry himself , with his mantle of " male destiny " ( 49 ) , targeting Banford . Thus he must demonize Banford as a " queer little witch " ( 55 ) , her hair turning gray , her body frail , and her manner petulant and jeering . <p> In the two deaths that follow -- the shooting of the ( as-if-human ) fox and the tree striking Banford 's neck -- March is doubly shocked : she is astonished by her erotic discovery of the fox 's phallic brush , " full and frictional " ( 41 ) , and by the sudden finality of Banford 's death , but she is also crippled by her sexual confusion : the fox 's sharp smell , redolent with male pheromones , alarms her . All of this is compounded by her brooding insecurity about the future @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ appetite for the male body , March 's body has not yet awakened to Henry 's . She is curiously reticent , shy , and unavailable . Just as Mr. Crich 's death releases Gerald 's sexual potency but not his ability to love , so the violence of Banford 's death releases March 's sexual availability but not her ability to recommit herself emotionally . Like the fox , whose mesmerizing stare disables March 's " masculine " pursuit of him , Henry insists on March 's femininity . His simplifying idea is that she must be demure , domestic , and vulnerable . <p> As Picasso remarked in 1909 , " I paint objects as I think them , not as I see them " ( qtd. in Schwartz 59 ) . A psychosexual component enters Modernist art . expressed most saliently across Lawrence 's middle works when his characters twist their personal lives to fit an idea of what they should become . Lawrence boldly transfers Gerald Crich 's interior damage into more overt forms of violence -- in the gunshot death of Egbert ( in " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Countess Mitchka 's slaying in a Salzburg riot ( in The Captain 's Doll , composed 1921 ) ; in a bomb smashing a Florentine caf ( in Aaron 's Rod , also composed 1921 ) ; and in the fatal shooting of a political leader ( in Kangaroo , composed 1922 ) . Beginning with Gerald and March , Lawrence 's characters discover a peculiar problem with human contact . They seem ready for commitment , then turn ambivalent , as if what attracts also repels . In this regard , Richard Lovatt Somers , Dolly Urquhart , and the Woman Who Rode Away are disillusioned , middle-aged figures who are emotionally incomplete and lose their faith in others to fulfill them . Acts of violence relieve their psychological confusion between desiring and not desiring others . In Lawrence 's middle works , a violent death furthers the " splitting " of character and occurs just outside the constraints of history , where characters are escaping from the fetters of the past . <p> At first , Lawrence 's novel Kangaroo , like The Fox , only hints @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the shared life of domestic partners whose emotional bond is gradually destabilized by a man . Like Banford and March , Richard Lovatt Somers and his outspoken wife Harriet are comfortable in a rhythm of shared work and conversation . And like March , Somers is at first ambisexual , a " queen bee " ( 95 ) to the hive of empowering males . As Somers vibrates to the pheromones of Jack Callcott -- and later Ben Cooley and Willie Struthers -- listening intently to their rhetoric of leadership , change , and male solidarity -- he recognizes a hard truth about himself : marriage has given him contentment but not fulfilment . He needs to connect himself to male power and . renewed with integrity of purpose , to be reborn as a man . <p> When the novel shifts direction in the " Nightmare " chapter , introducing a sequence of disorder , Somers refocuses himself and becomes disconnected from history . Offered a role in male politics when Willie Struthers invites him to edit a people 's newspaper , Somers panics . Out of his panic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ erupts " out of the violent past " ( 212 ) and will redefine him . By immersing himself in the molten magma of his unconscious . Somers can gradually account for his fury . Negotiating the suspicion , lies , and espionage that haunted his life in Cornwall ( as it did Lawrence 's ) , Somers uncovers the spiritual dimension of the damage he suffered and , by wrestling with it , discharges what Lawrence calls " the accumulating forces of social violence " ( 260 ) . What remains is the potent mystery of aloneness to which his thought and feeling lead him . " Now , all he wanted was to cut himself clear . To be clear of humanity altogether , to be alone . " Rejecting the violence of history , Somers retreats into his own soul . Hence , when violence arises in the Australian Diggers movement , he has already clarified his response . A noncombatant in the war , he will be a noncombatant in Australia . He arrives at a hard truth : the politicized work of men hides the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and obedience . This structural design , so necessary in battle , kills the communion of mates . Somers therefore has no role . He retreats to his marriage , where he can privately commune with " the old dark gods " ( 265 ) . Harriet , the figure of greatest stability , anchors him . History and violence give way to solitary detachment and hard-won insight ; male solidarity gives way to the sole self repairing its split psyche . <p> So far , it is clear that violence serves several interrelated ends in Lawrence 's fiction : it abstracts characters from history ; puts them in closer , elemental touch with their being ; and offers them the chance of renewal even though , paradoxically , renewal may devastate the existing order and its human relationships . The risk of devastation increases in Lawrence 's later fiction . After Kangaroo and its baffling mate experiment , Lawrence redefines violence in a series of female characters who -- at the end of an arduous , exhausting physical journey-also reach a state of aloneness roughly parallel to Ursula 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disordering their existence . Selfish , irrational forces , typical of Modernism , determine their behavior . <p> " The Princess " ( composed 1924 ) traces a woman 's exhilarating ascent into mountains and culminates in a violent death whose most notable effect is its lack of compassion . Lawrence reworks the fluttering Banford and sets her down in New Mexico as a middle-aged spinster named Dollie Urquhart , sarcastically called the Princess . Lawrence gives her ( as he gave Banford ) a female companion ; some family money ; and a coy . bullying temperament . Dollie 's eyes dance with " sardonic ridicule " ( 167 ) ; she despises " being thwarted " ( 173 ) . But there the similarities end , for the Princess possesses only a slight capacity to connect her inner self to others . From Domingo Romero. however -- the handsome Mexican who guides her into the daunting Rocky Mountains-she coyly invites a sexual encounter . Then , willing herself to be " a victim " ( 189 ) . she fixes to regain her independence and discard the man @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into anger , retaliation , and " violent excess " ( 193 ) when , shooting at an officer who approaches their campsite , Romero is in turn calmly shot to death. 6 <p> Reflecting Lawrence 's increasingly disillusioned response to the world , Romero 's death by gunshot is recorded without passion : violence is a sign of disorder rather than a human tragedy ; it merely works out the Princess 's sexual ambivalence . Instead , Lawrence 's sympathy attaches to the wild landscape . Against the blue sky . for instance , the Princess notices " the great slopes , dark with the pointed feathers of spruce , bristling with grey dead trees among grey rock , or dappled with dark and gold . " She sees " cruel mountains , with their moments of tenderness " ( 179 ) . Restorative energy now emanates from Landscape , not humans . Human connections are diseased , and at the close , the frail vessel of nineteenth-century womanhood is turned upside down and despised . Lawrence 's language bristles with veiled hatred . Anger moves to the edge @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that violence gradually becomes more masked even as it becomes more marked ; nor is it a surprise that history barely touches " The Woman Who Rode Away , " a brilliant story composed in 1924 at the Kiowa Ranch in New Mexico . As Lawrence turns history into myth , the 33-year-old Woman casts her history behind her . She leaves the safety of her house for the " lawless and crude " country ( 43 ) . She never thinks of her husband and two children , never wishes to return from her journey to the Chilchui Indians , and never deplores her loss of freedom after the Indians capture her . Instead , impersonal forces-sun , moon , and wind , each with a unique cosmic identity-replace traditional narrative markers of specificity ; landscape becomes particularized but generic : and the Woman reaches a timeless place " far from everywhere " ( 41 ) , Similarly , the identities of the characters are stripped down , abstracted . The Woman and her children have no names , the Indians are described by age and hair color , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ symbols . The historical context is vague . <p> It is not that Lawrence has ignored conventional narration or that his fable about strong-willed women hides behind a mythic shield ; rather , Lawrence deliberately rejects the conventions of social realism in order to destabilize the sexual impulse . The violent apotheosis at the end absorbs and deflects it . Deliberately distancing readers from the Woman and her captors . Lawrence reduces the story to its elemental forces : the Woman derives little satisfaction from the exchange of words but gladly hears " the vast sound of the earth going round , like some immense arrow-string booming " ( 59 ) . Some readers , alarmed by the story 's violent ending of female sacrifice , worry that it both abuses and marginalizes women . In this story , however , Lawrence artfully creates forms of consciousness and expression that precede language . He attempts to locate consciousness in silence before utterance alters its purity . Hence the story 's sentences move back and forth between motion and stillness , passion and withdrawal , male cruelty and female compassion -- @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ passionate anger , view the Woman as their catharsis . She will open the cosmic path to their revitalization : <p> <p> They were so impersonal , absorbed in something that was beyond her . They never saw her as a personal woman : she could tell that . She was some mystic object to them , some vehicle of passions too remote for her to grasp .. The immense fundamental sadness , the grimness of ultimate decision , the fixity of revenge.these things she could read in their faces , as she lay and was rubbed into a misty glow by their uncanny dark hands . <p> Oiled fingers , the language of touch , give the Woman 's consciousness a cosmic voice , " diffusing " it into space like a cremation and calling mutely to the sun-god 's power : " Her limbs , her flesh , her very bones at last seemed to be diffusing into a roseate sort of mist , in which her consciousness hovered like some sun-gleam in a flushed cloud " ( 67 ) . Violence , sublimated to touch , lifts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Perceived as a " mystic object , " she nevertheless effectively articulates her responses : " she could tell , " " she could read . " The narrator , mediating the violence to come , sympathizes equally with the Indians ' unspoken rites and the Woman 's articulate understanding . The story lies poised like a bridge between two protagonists , each with a different use of language , each desiring a cosmic connection . <p> As the Woman 's consciousness moves outward into the cosmos and as her " personality " is effaced ( just as Picasso had painted out Gertrude Stein 's face in 1906 and replaced it with a mask ) , so the Indians gather physical momentum -- then eyes gleam with excitement , and their movements awaken with anticipation . The priest 's final violent knife-thrust , miming the sun 's powerful rays , will be the phallic thrust that re-seeds the Indians ' spiritual growth . Indeed , this is a peculiar moment in the development of Lawrence 's art . This is the last time he will sublimate his rage into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time he will fully deflect the sexual impulse away from the body . <p> The widely known companion to this story . " The Rocking Horse Winner " ( 1927 ) , sends rage inward toward suicide . The story returns to the boy whom the Woman had left behind ; her callous disinterest is repositioned in an equally hard-hearted mother . It also repositions the cosmic secrets the Woman discovers and puts them inside the whispering walls of a house that is emotionally sterile . In this equally shattering story , Lawrence traces the journey of a vulnerable boy named Paul who. when he wins money for his insatiable mother Hester , finally reaches a spiritual consummation , then dies . Paul 's defeat expresses Lawrence 's understanding of the violent psychic damage that characters crushed by guilt incur . As James C. Cowan aptly remarks , Paul 's overwhelming anxiety implies a " violence and destruction that can hardly be missed " ( 133 ) . The whispering walls , although they appear to be projections of fate , are not . An " indoors " boy like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ walls that enclose and restrict his emotional growth . The wooden horse he mounts for relief is equally restricted , rocking to and fro in endless repetition . Both Paul and the Woman ride their horses toward a destination they choose although it is not a destination they fully comprehend . When the walls whisper , " There must be more money ! " ( 230 ) , Paul responds compliantly , although he does not understand what they mean ; he confuses luck sent from God with the hard-won bargain of psychic knowledge paid for with human life . Equally disturbed , the Woman-swayed by turn-of-the-century romanticism -- also feels that she must exit a life that is " going wrong " ( " Woman Who Rode Away " 40 ) . Like Paul , the Woman feels " a strange elation " as she rides ( 44 ) . <p> Both Paul and the Woman reach the same kind of fulfilment-death in the service of an idea ( greed , rebirth ) that empowers others . They willingly sacrifice themselves . Assisting them on their journeys are devoted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Spanish-speaking cacique -- who are guides to the baffling world beyond their own . Bassett places Paul 's bets , translating his hunches into cash ; the young cacique calms the Woman and translates her Spanish . At the close of both stories , violence is presented inversely : Paul 's psychic agony in the throes of death echoes the Woman 's calm , and Hester 's shallow social engagements echo the Indians ' deeply empowering social rituals . The Indians achieve a relieved affirmation ; Hester will endure the bitter recriminations of an egocentric woman . Behind both stories lies a violence hidden by ideas of sacrifice that ennoble the Indians but show Hester to be ignobly selfish . Behind both ties a barely concealed hatred that infiltrates Lawrence 's late work in startling new ways . <p> Late Phase <p> Lawrence 's last years reveal the fiery intensity with which he set about recentering sexual intercourse beyond social and historical pressures . His effort , against the grain of his own sharp physical decline , demanded courage and fortitude. 7 It also unleashed uncommon kinds of energy . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in narratives of entrapment and escape . His ferocity puts his late work in fresh narrative territory , where acts of profound disrespect and even violence are repositioned at the edge of discovery . Two late works that overlap chronologically illustrate the change as history , marginalized by violence , turns toward myth. 8 <p> Lady Chatterley 's Lover ( 1926-28 ) and The Escaped Cock ( 1927-28 , published by Alfred Knopf as The Man Who Died ) initially portray characters in a sharply defined historical sequence : post-World War I and post-Crucifixion respectively . The crucifixion of the Man Who Died ( it was painted irreligiously by Picasso in 1930 ) leaves its profound physical and moral imprint ; biblical references explain his wounds . Similarly , the First World War cripples Clifford Chatterley in 1918 ( Lawrence is very specific about dates ) ; it damages Mellors 's health ; and it disillusions Connie Chatterley and the narrator . Whereas Connie and Mellors ultimately bypass the whorl of economic necessity . Clifford joins the march of scientific progress as history unfolds in new fuels , new efficiencies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ seam that links history and myth rests on violence and is articulated in a pair of scenes that empower characters while eliciting their potent disdain . As the Man Who Died recovers his strength and sets out to embrace the phenomenal world , he frees a cock at an inn , which defeats its feathered antagonist and collects a harem of hens . Aggressive and sure , he does what the Man can not . In the story 's second part , set in Lebanon , the fowl reappears as a pigeon that also escapes its captors , who are a pair of young slaves belonging to Isis in Search . What is remarkable about this second scene is both the nexus of fury and sex and the pair of silent , passive witnesses : <p> <p> A black-and-white pigeon.had escaped . The priestess heard the cry of the boy slave , a garden slave of about seventeen . He raised his arms to heaven in anger as the pigeon wheeled away , naked and angry and young he held out his arms . Then he turned and seized the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with his fist that was stained with pigeon 's blood . And she lay down with her face hidden , passive and quivering . The woman who owned them watched . And as she watched , she saw another onlooker , . a dark-bearded man standing on the little causeway of rock .. The boy suddenly left off beating the girl .. He twisted her over , intent and unconscious , and pushed his hands between her thighs , to push them apart . And in an instant he was in to her , covering her in the blind , frightened frenzy of a boy 's first coition .. The priestess turned away . Slaves ! . She was not interested . ( 36-37 ) <p> Lawrence 's tableau links power , rage , and sex . The girl , though resisting , is " passive . " The two onlookers are virgins , for whom the sexual act , even allowing for Lawrence 's abbreviated description , might be expected to arouse surprise , stimulation , even disgust . The two onlookers are disengaged viewers : they simply watch @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so , they offer a clue to Lawrence 's altered attitude toward history . As with the Woman Who Rode Away , whose anticipated death stirs tribal rejoicing , the actions in this novella allow Isis and the Man to stand apart , isolated from the people 's daily lives , which are supervised by Isis 's mother and the overseer . Instead , absorbed in a religious dream , Isis and the Man are disdainful of public life ; they find comfort and meaning only in private commitments -- for her , serving a goddess ; for him , escaping from the role of prophet . They withdraw . Meeting privately in the temple , they reject even the use of ordinary names -- that public convenience for labeling , recording and individualizing : " You are Osiris , are n't you ? " she asks naively . " If you will , " he replies ( 53 ) . Later , she says to herself : " He is Osiris . I wish to know no more " ( 59 ) . As with Mellors , his distinction @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The loss of identity is part of the process of abstraction that also characterizes music and art between 1910 and 1930 . <p> Figures in a myth can be readily abstracted , detached from historical necessity , to create a new kind of order : the Woman has drawn apart ; the Man has gotten free . Both embrace the religious impulse even as they reject family bonds , the Man becoming just what Mellors fears -- a Lady 's " fucker , " engaging in sex at the edge of discovery , where servants will gossip : even Isis 's servants , even Mrs. Bolton . There is a cost . As Connie Chatterley and her sister Hilda , living in Scotland , may need to raise Connie 's child by themselves , so Isis and her widowed mother will , alone , raise the child the Man has fathered . An economic nexus underlies these anticipated events . Unlike most women , Isis has possessions-temple , slaves -- that her mother can not touch , just as Connie has 20,000 in trust from her mother that Clifford @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Man 's vitality , has lost its power to unite man and woman into a family : " Oh do n't go ! " Isis cries when the Man draws away . " I will build a house.where we can live apart " ( Escaped Cock 60 ) . Fearing revenge from the widow , the Man refuses . Separation , isolation , aloneness , privacy , and contemplation -- these are the values that Lawrence 's novella embraces . They lead to temporary human connections , to stolen moments of pleasure across long stretches of waiting . Myth , not history , allows fulfillment . The books ' most arresting image shows the goddess striding forward , ever in motion , always in search . She could be the first Connie Chatterley . <p> What distinguishes Lady Chatterley 's Lover is the way its many surface dichotomies of language and silence , culture and nature , Wragby and wood are so forcefully undone by the novel 's narrative voicings , which ( in Modernist fashion ) are multiple , dissonant , and unstable . The novel may be deeply @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ violence , it portrays a wholly destabilized culture -- industrially , socially , morally , and personally . Its sense of family is highly provisional : Clifford 's family members have all died ( he will have no heir ) , Mellors 's widowed mother is left behind , Michaelis and Hilda remain unmarried , Mrs. Bolton has long been a widow , Miss Bartlett is an old maid , and Squire Winter ( the last of his line ) dies . All the rooted forms of life are breaking up . The Tewsons , the sole intact family in which both husband and wife appear , are discarded from the novel 's third version . In this provisional atmosphere , Connie and Mellors also withdraw from patterns of social obligation , Connie evading her wifely duty whenever she can and Mellors living apart from his wife , mother , and daughter . Having destabilized the novel , Lawrence artfully repositions violence , giving it new forms -- ostensibly in a rape whose aggression is masked , but more interestingly in rhetorical loops that constitute a major expression of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ keeper , carrying a gun , frightens her ; before long , he shoots and kills a poaching " pussy " in front of his daughter . A reader of Lawrence 's work will readily link the keeper 's gun to Gerald Crich 's gun . But now Lawrence redefines these earlier images . The gun is no longer a proleptic image but a reminder of Mellors 's servile status ; the gun is a synecdoche for the distance that he , braced by the mask of a Derbyshire dialect , can impose on those who possess power . <p> Later , Mellors frightens Connie again . In a scene where she goes from Marehay Farm into a dense fir-wood , Lawrence almost masks the signature of a rape . Confronting Connie , Mellors carries her , without her permission , to a pile of boughs . When she does not resist , he breaks the band of her underclothes and , without preparation , enters her . It is a violation masked by his urgency . But in all three versions of the novel , Lawrence swiftly turns the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , discovering " new strange thrills rippling inside her , rippling , rippling , like a flapping overlapping of soft flames.melting her all molten inside " ( Lady Chatterley 133 ) . 9 Here is something new -- restorative violence . In the attack , motivated by the keeper 's anger that Connie had eluded him , domination ( like the slave girl , she must lie " like an animal " 133 ) and men sexual penetration awaken Connie 's atrophied senses . Her opposition to his overtures dissolves into gratitude . Mellors has broken her social shield and denied Connie her assumption of class superiority . Earlier , when she thinks of biblical history-recalling that to find a real ( i.e. a sexual ) man , she might go even " into the streets and by-ways of Jerusalem " - she quickly identifies not the relevance of history but its limits . For Connie it is not worth " sifting the generations of men through her sieve " ( 64 ) . The biblical text measures her tie to a morality she must discard as irrelevant because it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ She must do what Picasso 's portrait of Kahnweiler had earlier done . She must locate her deepest self in the present , outside a frame of constraint . <p> In using violence to recenter the sexual impulse , Lawrence takes pains to pair this quasi-rape scene with the lovers ' night of sensual passion , narrated not as distant onlookers might see it but ( this time ) indistinctly , as Connie yields the " jungle of herself " to Mellors . In opening her anal canal , Connie ( we are told twice ) " let him have his way " as he penetrates her " most secret places . " At first she " hated it . " She was " like a slave , " he as " reckless " as the slave-boy . As Connie and Mellors recenter sex in the darkest depths of the body , they purge their fear of social codes . Apparently , the violence of sodomy has been absorbed by passion , indeed welcomed by partners who accept lust as the price of their ultimate bonding . It is interesting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fiat -- no dialogue , little specificity , and mostly assertion , as in " not really love " and " the last and deepest recess of organic shame " ( 246-47 ) . That is because Lawrence affirms the novel 's values while assuming the aggressive contempt of his readers. 10 <p> Nevertheless , Lawrence takes the implicit violence of both scenes and distributes it elsewhere-just as Picasso , in his female images of 1925 to 1930 , distributes body parts in distorted ways , violently traducing the human figure ( for instance , in Sealed Bather of 1930 ; see Plate 2 ) . 11 Lawrence 's violence empties mostly into the narrator 's animosity toward the modern woman , the upper classes , commercial writers , superficial sex , egocentricity , an acquisitive society , and the horrors of industrialization . What astonishes about the narrator 's violence is not that it is verbally aggressive or has so many targets , but that it assumes such odd , simplifying verbal structures . Their counterpart is the skewed anatomy of Picasso 's seated bather . When Lawrence 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ himself in loops of thought ( especially in the novel 's third version ) , cycling and recycling despised aspects of modern culture . These loops are tightly compressed , ideological variations on ideas like Clifford 's bruised psyche or civilization 's insanity . As Clifford manifests his hatred of those beneath him , " contemptuous of anyone not in his own class " ( 15 ) ; as Connie recognizes her " vivid hate " ( 192 ) of Clifford ; as Bertha too " hates " Mellors ( 199 ) ; as Mellors himself welcomes " the extermination of the human species " ( 218 ) ; and as even Mrs. Bolton finds " a queer hate " flaring inside her ( 164 ) -- so does the narrator develop his own hatred , deeper than theirs , into loops of thought that concentrate a few key gibes into a litany of displaced violence . For Lawrence , violence takes increasingly verbal forms . As these categories expand , the narrator 's hatred loses its defining power and becomes unregulated ; its images diffuse into abstractions -- endless @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Embracing the simplification of Modernist art , all decry the collapse of modern culture. 12 <p> Even as Lawrence recenters the sexual impulse , he uses a contrary force of exposure to confound the loops ' force of enclosure . Altering his approach , he masterfully distributes elements of violence to the edge of revelation . Earlier , Ted Whiston discovers Elsie 's perfidy when she confesses to him , then slaps her in quick retribution ; the Orderly , once he has put his " name " on the Captain 's murdered body , simply runs away . In Lawrence 's later work , hatred and hostility creep into the fabric of his fiction and flirt dangerously with discovery . In ' The Rocking Horse Winner , " the walls whisper ever more madly as their secret threatens to destabilize Paul 's world . In " The Lovely Lady " ( composed l927 ) , Pauline Attenborough 's secrets -- she seduced a priest and caused her son , Henry , to kill himself -- dangle at the edge of a drainpipe and threaten to expose her fraudulent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ close of The Escaped Cock , the Man , having Haunted his sexual presence under the nose of the Roman overseer , narrowly escapes his potential captors . <p> What has changed is no breakthrough in vision. 13 What has changed is Lawrence 's daring and direction . In his earlier fiction he could offer an event like Siegmund 's suicide as the simple outcome of despair ; now he brings the characters ' hidden animosities closer to discovery . While Connie pushes Clifford 's chair , she kisses Mellors 's hand just inches from her husband 's proud head . The danger energizes her . When Mrs. Bolton drifts to the window at dawn and sees the lovesick keeper standing in the drive , the revelation crashes through her " like a shot " ( Lady Chatterley 145 ) ; and the reader infers that it could have been Clifford at the window , still awake , spotting his wife 's lover . It is not that Clifford 's consequent rage would unsettle readers . It is that Mrs. Bolton 's excited discovery filters the sudden exposure and conceals @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ That resentment is a symptom of the novel 's pervasive redistribution of violent emotion . When she glances " triumphantly " ( 146 ) at the already sleeping Clifford , her triumph expresses her identification with Connie , her liking for Mellors , and her antagonism toward inequality . Lawrence 's approach is more daring but also more insolent . Bertha turns vicious ; Mellors openly castigates Hilda and Duncan Forbes ; and even Connie , demure and tactful , complains of Clifford 's " nasty , sterile want of common sympathy " ( 193 ) . Sublimated violence gradually infiltrates the style , the dialogue , and the plot of the novel . Lady Chatterley 's Lover is the culmination of violence as art . <p> Lawrence 's art , developing rapidly , follows an evolutionary pattern . As he marginalizes history and as Connie and Mellors embrace the myth of regenerative sexuality . Lawrence discovers ever more powerfully the art of violence . Characters doomed by fate -- Gerald , Banford -- give way to characters like the Woman Who Rode Away and Clifford who accept or adapt @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the Woman acquiesces to her fate . Clifford , whom " fate has given a check-mate physically " ( Lady Chatterley 44 ) , will re-energize the mines on his estate . As Lawrence reinterprets acts of violence to release the characters ' sexual impulses , he arrives at a final position best described as " the vertical through the horizontal " ( Squires 108 ) , where sexual liberation cuts across social constraints , and where the latent energy of violence also enables what Leo Bersani calls Lawrentian stillness . Thus condensed , Lawrence 's final position restates the tension between history and fable that his works have always mediated . <p> The contours of violence in Lawrence 's fiction trace a Modernist sequence-emergent and marginal , inclusive and central , then infiltrative -- that encodes disorder and culminates in multiple forms of dissonance . This loss of order reflects Lawrence 's strong impulse toward destabilizing history as the norm of nineteenth-century narrative . As Lawrence 's protagonists evolve , they are protected by the integrity their intuition confers but almost never by their knowledge or understanding of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ decipher " ancient Mexican scripts " ( " Lovely Lady " 247 ) that offer no access to understanding but stir incestuous feelings and provide a ruse to bar Pauline 's niece from their company . Only Clifford depends on books and articles in his work ; Mellors may read books on India and analyze cultural decay , but he remains an observer . Increasingly in Lawrence 's work , history is compressed into memory . It can no longer direct a character 's life . After 1910 , writers and artists , though they knew that history grounded their work , rejected the resulting psychic enclosures and broke them down , sometimes violently , in order to live more freely . Resisting historical pressures , Lawrence , like his contemporaries Virginia Woolf and Ernest Hemingway , finds only the present habitable , epitomizing what the Cubists and their followers had also discovered . <p> Finally , the lens of violence clarifies not only the trajectory of Lawrence 's art but also the trajectory of our own century -- from physical pain , to forms of death , to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Lawrence 's use of violence reflects what he observed in his own life but , more importantly , allows him to ponder imaginatively the effects of class and race that are derived from history . Yet it is curious that in Lawrence 's fiction , history creates less a template than an absence . Into this absence come violent cruxes , exposing human weakness and expressing the disunity that intelligent , sensitive characters try to heal . Like a fault line , violence reveals the cracks in a culture as Lawrence explores the disharmonies in England , Mexico . Australia , and America . Today , in a world facing unprovoked forms of aggression , readers may discern that , whether for Lawrence 's fictional characters or for the jihadists that now infiltrate despised regimes , violence can lead to renewed sources of energy ( for the Woman Who Rode Away and the Man Who Died ) even as it leads to defeat , disillusion , and multiple forms of death . The schisms so pronounced today -- in relationships , politics , and religion-are the harvest of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ troubled intersection of social and psychological forces . D. H. Lawrence 's foresight powerfully illuminates our own alarming tendencies toward cultural fracture

@@4021541 " I 've got to remember I 'm on the wrong side of 40 , " 76-year-old Sonny Rollins says ruefully . He 's in bed on his 120-acre farm in upstate New York . Two years after his wife Lucille 's death and five years after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center trapped him in his Battery Park City apartment , one of jazz 's last legends ca n't shake the flu he 's had for months . He 's canceled concerts , which he does n't like and Lucille would have hated . He 's taking a second round of antibiotics , which he does n't like either . So he 's feeling kind of blue . <p> Theodore Walter Rollins has been called jazz 's greatest living improviser so many times it 's become his Homeric epithet . In 1959 , musicologist Gunther Schuller wrote an essay using " Blue 7 " from Rollins 's Saxophone Colossus album to explicate the saxophonist 's thematic way of worrying at melodies to unfold variations , a subtle attack that recalls his idols Lester Young and Billie Holiday . " It 's like holding the melody up @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , to create new melodies , " Rollins explains . " There 's no limit to what you can do that way . " That is , if you 're Sonny Rollins . Ask any significant contemporary saxist -- from Joshua Redman to Joe Lovano to Branford Marsalis -- about influences ; Rollins 's name is at or near the top of the list . <p> In concert -- the only way to experience Rollins at his best -- he stalks the stage wielding his tenor like it 's a toy , twisting and turning down the corridors of his restless imagination with such fluency that he seems less a purely musical , and more a natural , phenomenon . His fluid mile shifts as he ransacks his memory for fragments of tunes to weave through his solos . His love of pop culture , from cowboy movies to dancing , led him to annex calypso to jazz in " St. Thomas " and to rework Tin Pan Alley schmaltz like " Toot Toot Tootsie . " Few jazz artists aside from Miles Davis , Rollins 's most frequent bandmate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ material without going soft . The integration of Rollins 's personality , and his musical voice is what makes him so formidable as a player and as a person . He is a jazz existentialist . <p> " All this business is making me sick , " he drawls . For decades Lucille dealt with the nitty-gritty of record labels and lawyers , booking agents and tour logistics . Before her death , Rollins 's longtime label was absorbed in one of the endless music-industry consolidations , so she and Sonny decided to start their own label , Doxy . But with her gone , Rollins had to handle negotiations for distribution in Europe , Japan , the United States , and Canada . They were tortuous , and torturous for him . " It 's one reason I 'm still feeling flu-ish , " he says . " I do n't always know who I can trust , Gene . " <p> So his new album Sonny , Please makes him a recording label head , I say . We laugh at the irony . This is the man @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ word . I do n't have a career . People know me because I 've been around a long time , okay ? And fortunately , I 'm a survivor . But I 'm not rich , and I 'm not trying to get rich . Trying to get rich playing music is an oxymoron ; there 's something wrong with that . The society 's different now , though , so maybe that wilt change too . " <p> With a Sonny Rollins Web site offering a Signature Collection ( " the kind of stuff people sell at my concerts , " he says , embarrassed ) and his new CD , Rollins has entered the world of business only as far as he needs to : " This feels like a natural progression . I 've always maintained control over my music and produced my records anyway . This way I own them . " He laughs . " I promise to do honest business and maintain integrity . Of course , I 'm the only artist on Doxy . " <p> Rollins 's mother was born in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other jazz wannabes like Jackie McLean . His older brother and sister studied and became classical musicians , but Sonny was drawn to Swing Era jazz and pop . As an adolescent he met his bebop idols : Charlie Parker , Max Roach , Thelonious Monk , Bud Powell . Like McLean he rehearsed with Monk : " He used to sneak me into bars after school . " <p> The film documentary Straight No Chaser ( 1989 ) captures Monk , the highly eccentric anchorman at the 1940s uptown sessions where Dizzy Gillespie , Charlie Christian , and Kenny Clarke hammered out the complex language for what the press would dub bebop . Monk 's piano was as laced with idiosyncrasies as his personality was . He was radical ( in his jagged melodies , rhythms , and percussive attack ) and conservative ( in his roots : gospel , pop , blues , and stride ) . <p> In 1953 , 23-year-old Rollins joined Monk , Roach , and bassist Oscar Pettiford to record Brilliant Corners , an album of Monk 's original , gnarled tunes . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ phrasing of his solo into odd shapes and looming , leaping intervals , while Roach 's playing limns percussive melody . <p> " Monk had a very different style , something like Duke Ellington but more extreme , " Rollins says . " His rhythmic and harmonic conceptions were unique . He was a catalyst , a definite hero . He energized Coltrane and myself to do our own thing . Part of it was that he was so dedicated to the music . It 's all he cared about . " <p> In late 1955 , Rollins joined the Clifford Brown-Max Roach Quintet . This launched a period of intense creativity . The taut , high-energy outfit spiked difficult arrangements with flaring horns and hairpin-curve tempo shifts . Roach 's kinetic drums underlined and partnered Brown 's slashing trumpet . Tracks like " Parisian Thoroughfare " suggest a marriage of musique concrete and jazz like those being framed by bassist and composer Charles Mingus , a good friend of both Roach and Rollins . On Brownie , Lives ! a live recording made shortly before Brown 's death in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rhythms or suggesting -- on the drums -- changes in melodic direction . Rollins is n't as polished as Brown , but he bubbles with ideas : his opening on " Gertrude 's Bounce " is startling , fiery , a clarion call . <p> And all the more inspiring because he had just recovered from heroin addiction . " You know the story , Gene : I wanted to show Charlie Parker that I was straight , so I went away to Chicago and got straight , and then he died before I could show him . " Parker , the guiding genius of bebop , died at 34 . Rollins worked at menial jobs while he cleaned up , tested himself by hanging around nightclubs where he was offered heroin , and when he passed the test decided he was fit to come back . <p> " When I joined the band in Chicago , " he recalls , " I found that Brownie was the type of personality who exemplified everything that I felt jazz musicians should be . He was n't destroying himself . He was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ plain-living guy , very humble , beautiful individual . That was a revelation to me . I was on the right track , but that band helped me stay there . Brownie was an anomaly : to be hip then , you had to shoot up . He was an angel . " <p> The sociology of postwar heroin can still be a third-rail topic in jazz circles . Rollins explains , " Black people fought and died in the war , and were tiled of waiting to get on the front of the bus . Same old crap . Bebop , the new music , was linked tip with that . This was one reason a lot of people liked Charlie Parker . He had a certain dignity : he 'd always be very erect , talk in a very erudite manner . So as young people coming up , we saw this as the next wave and looked up to him . We were n't going to be buffoons or clowns anymore . This is great music and you must accept it , and we are people and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ together . That was one of the great things about Charlie Parker people have n't talked too much about . <p> " So a lot of it heroin use was imitation of Bird , guys wanting to imitate whatever he did to he able to play more like him -- and that included shooting tip . That was the bane of Bird 's existence . He tried to stop us but he could n't stop himself , that was his downfall . But see , it was n't so much the drugs themselves as much as the fact that black musicians could n't use drugs and get away with it . Billie Holiday was a drug addict , but so was Judy Garland , except she was white and could get away with it . Black musicians felt that this was yet another set of double standards . Remember , this was the first generation that would n't go quietly to the separate hotel , the back of the bus , the separate food counter ; they got into fights about it . " He mentions Miles Davis beaten by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Society , " That 's what I mean by the social aspect of the drug abuse . It was a self-destructive form of rebellion that gave us a sense of community against a hostile world . " <p> At this time , Rollins and Coltrane , who struggled with his own drug problem , met in the studio for Tenor Madness , where the contrasts are revealing . Rollins digs deep into bluesy roots while Coltrane creates sheets of arcing sound . But at the close there 's a coining together . <p> In 1956 , Rollins made his debut as a leader with Saxophone Colossus . He synthesizes what he 'd learned from Monk in " You Do n't Know What Love Is , " scrambling time , warping tonality , moving through unusual intervals . And there 's " St. Thomas , " with its undulating rhythms and complex personal penumbra : Rollins 's friend Harry Belafonte , who popularized Caribbean folk music in America , marched in Selma with Max Roach , Pete Seeger , and Martin Luther King Jr . In 1958 , Rollins cut " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ trio -- the format Ornette Coleman had just begun to explore . And Rollins 's reliance on melody rather than " running changes " as the wellspring for his improvisations grew stronger with Night at the Village Vanguard , the remarkable Way Out West , and Stockholm 1959 . He had reached his first peak . <p> " I was playing ideas , " he says . Think of each track as a mini-essay . " There 's No Business Like Show Business " and " Toot Toot Tootsie " were radio hits during Rollins 's youth . Way Out West nods to the cowboy movies he loved . " I like to play pop songs and intersperse them into things that I 'm doing . Fitting the melodies onto other changes takes discipline . You ca n't take ' Sunbonnet Sue ' and put it into anything anywhere . The chords have to match , and the feeling has to match . Ella Fitzgerald had it down . It 's one of the tools of jazz improvisation . The beautiful thing about jazz is that it can absorb everything @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pinnacle , jazz 's leading lone wolf took his first of two so-called retirements . In 1959 the goal was to reformulate his music ; his nightly practicing oil the Williamsburg Bridge prompted a now-famed short story called " The Bridge " in the July 1961 issue of Metronome magazine . ( Author Ralph Berton shifted the location to the Brooklyn Bridge , sowing confusion ever since . ) In the late 1960s , Rollins traveled to Asia to study Eastern philosophies . It 's impossible to imagine any jazz musician of any stature today treating a " career " in this fashion . <p> " When I went away in ' 59 , " he explains , " I felt i was n't playing as much as I should be playing . I had a lot of people -- the press , fans -- who built me up to the point where I could n't deal with that without really feeling that I could deliver . So I had a strong motivation . I wanted to break some bad habits , like smoking . I 'm a person that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the music we 're involved in is very serious . And the people I 've been fortunate enough to be around . well , it 's something you do n't want to defile . " <p> The Bridge ended his exile . He added guitarist Jim Hall to his trio for this LP containing a mix of standards , like Billie Holiday 's " God Bless the Child " and " Without a Song , " and originals with saw-toothed melodies . It was an instant classic . The empathetic interaction between the guitarist , whose chords shimmer with the impressionistic beauty pianists like Ellington and Bill Evans brought to jazz , and the saxist , whose lyricism winds through the densest harmonic thickets without losing ebullience , produces some of jazz 's most luminous moments . <p> There have been high points in Rollins 's work since , especially on stage , and there have been lackluster recordings . On the Outside documents his interest in the 1960s avant-garde with mixed if provocative results . Also uneven is All the Things You Are , where Rollins faces off @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ while Hawkins remains magisterially aloof . In 1966 , he scored Alfie , orchestrated by Oliver Nelson for a 10-piece band . In the 1970s and 1980s , his albums suffered : trying on funky fusion , he lost his mercurial edge within formulaic jazz-rock backing . ( One exception is Stevie Wonder 's " Is n't She Lovely , " an extended romp equal to anything Rollins ever cut . ) He soloed on " Waiting on a Friend " for the Rolling Stones 's Tattoo You because Mick Jagger heard him at the Bottom Line and called him up . Rollins first heard the finished track at a market near his farm : " I thought , Gee , there 's something strange about that guy playing saxophone , and finally I realized , Wait , that 's me ! I was n't credited on the record and did n't want to be ; I was doing it as a lark , a challenge to see if I could relate to it . " <p> Live , Rollins remains a creative cauldron , a saxophone Bach able to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ But even he has off nights . In 1985 , in his concert at New York 's Museum of Modern Art , which was recorded as The Solo Album , the music sounded as if he had relied too much on intuition and had stumbled uncharacteristically into solipsism : quotes , scales , and finger exercises untouched by his usual alchemy . <p> In the 1990s he performed with younger musicians like Branford Marsalis and Terence Blanchard . The press called them duels . He laughs and shakes his head : " Duels ? ! Aieee ! Do they ever refer to Pavarotti and Placido Domingo singing together as a duel ? I wonder . No . They give those people more respect . ' Duel ' is derogative . The whole attitude is demeaning to jazz , because jazz should n't be looked at like a boxing match . Jazz is a conversation between people who maybe have n't had a chance to discuss certain ideas before . We push each other in different directions , but the music is what benefits . And it should be entertaining at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ happening . <p> " Music is just a language . But it has a spiritual aspect , spiritual , mystical , whatever you want to call it , that needs to be communicated to people . Jazz at its best is the perfect picture of democracy . We 're all playing on this different level ; we 're not down here on this material plane . So of course you transcend race and all that stuff . <p> " It really is American music ; it fits so much of what the country is about . And this is the place it 's most ignored , treated like a second-class citizen , like blacks . The official culture ca n't recognize it for what it is . Now everybody talks about jazz being America 's classical music , but it 's mostly an empty phrase . Even the way the big jazz festivals are put on shows that . They are sponsored by big corporations who want to use the music as an ad , which diminishes the music . It 's a tricky subject . " <p> On September @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ across from the World Trade Center and was trapped for a day and a night . " When I was evacuated , " he says , " I had to walk down 40 flights of steep stairs . The stairwells are really narrow , right ? And I had my horn , which made it difficult to tuna the corners with all the people too . Then when I finally got to the bottom it was like a scene from a World War II movie . Sirens . Lights . My legs were like rubber . So I waited a minute . There were people looking at me askance , you know , big black man with a big expensive looking case . But this one cop says , ' Oh , you 're Sonny Rollins , ' and he helped me , pointed me to the right place , where the buses were evacuating people . I got there , ' Full up , ' the guy said . Now Gene , I have n't told anybody this before , but being black , you just automatically think , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ no room on this bus , boy . " <p> He laughs . " Well , exactly : I think I 've heard this before . Anyway , there were these three old Italian ladies , dressed all in black , sitting on a wall there waiting so calmly in the midst of all this hysteria . Lucille used to love people from that generation ; they dressed so properly and behaved so gracefully . I watched them and they calmed me down . That saved me from myself . " <p> After Rollins was taken to Washington Irving High School , north of the " frozen " zone , Lucille sent their longtime driver to fetch him to the farm . " I was out of it , Gene ; I could n't focus on anything . " But she convinced him to perform in Boston , as planned , on September 15 . " I do n't know whether she also had a deeper understanding of what that moment could mean . But for a person like her , once she said she 'd do something she did @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was their quintessential representative . " <p> " There was something different in the air that night of the Boston concert . The audience was hungry for something . The musicians acted a little different and played a little differently . Some other element was in there . I do n't know how to describe it and I do n't know what it was . But it was palpable . Not necessarily better or worse , just different . " The recorded results , Without a Song : The 9/11 Concert , one of his best in years , was n't issued until 2005 . <p> Now , fighting the flu , he spends more time watching his favorite programs , The Daily Show and The Colbert Report . He says things like , " Our current administration is constantly playing the fear card . " Or " Bill O'Reilly is an evil venal man , because he knows he 's lying to people . Colbert really nails him . " He abhors virtual reality as the inhuman harbinger of a new Dark Ages . His current favorite book , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> And yet , and yet . " When I 'm off the bandstand , I become very pessimistic , " he says , then smiles . " But once I 'm playing , the music kicks in , and I play optimistically . " And that is as good as it gets . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Rollins , seen here in Manhattan in 1993 , says , " Jazz at its best is the perfect picture of democracy . " <p> By Gene Santoro <p> <p> Gene Santoro is the author of Myself When I Am Real : The Life and Music of Charles Mingus and Highway 61 Revisited : The Tangled Roots of American Jazz , Blues , Rock , and Country Music . He covers music for The New York Daily News . <p>

@@4021641 The article " How Biofuels Could Starve the Poor , " by C. Ford Runge and Benjamin Senauer ( May/June 2007 ) , recycles the " food versus fuel " mythology that has been rebutted time and again . Despite the authors ' allegations , the facts are clear : U.S. corn is used to feed mostly animals , not people ; converting the starch from a portion of the U.S. corn crop into biofuels is an efficient way to reduce the United States ' dangerous dependence on imported oil ; and the recent firming of grain prices in the United States -- and therefore the world -- will help , not hurt , farmers in food-deficit nations . Most important , current production facilities for grain-based biofuels are a critical platform for launching the next generation of advanced cellulosic and waste-derived biofuel technologies . </P> To their credit , Runge and Senauer recognize that ending the United States ' suicidal dependence on fossil fuels will require a comprehensive energy policy . They are absolutely right : any solution to the world 's twin energy and climate crises will need to be broad and multifaceted . Existing energy sources @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ better building codes and appliance standards , and market-driven demand-side management programs , such as ones that give utility companies profit incentives to increase energy efficiency and conservation . The playing field for renewable sources of energy -- such as wind , solar , and geothermal energy -- must be leveled with tax incentives that reduce the production costs for renewable-energy technologies . And the increasingly perilous costs of climate change ( which is caused by the unbridled use of fossil fuels ) must be stemmed with a binding international regulatory framework for greenhouse gases that includes the United States and China , the world 's largest emitters of such gases today . </P> Unfortunately , Runge and Senauer distort the central role that biofuels will play in any such comprehensive solution , both in the United States and abroad . Far from starving the world 's poor , as they claim , biofuels can help the world meet its energy needs without jeopardizing food security . </P> The current generation of biofuels has significant environmental benefits . The U.S. federal policy that requires minimum levels of oxygenates in U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increasing the use of biofuels -- two of the primary benefits that Senator Bob Dole and I sought when we successfully pushed for that policy in 1991 . The current generation of biofuels also helps reduce the emission of greenhouse gases . An interesting analysis released by the Natural Resources Defense Council last May showed that corn-based ethanol outperforms gasoline when the two fuels ' full production and use cycles are compared . Innovation in the biofuel industry is leading to even greater greenhouse gas reductions , regardless of the feedstock . </P> Runge and Senauer themselves argue that the next generation of biofuels will dramatically lessen greenhouse gases . But not content to highlight these benefits , the authors stack the deck by focusing on the costs of developing these fuels . The problem is that their cost predictions take no account of the effects of innovation or of policy proposals that appear likely to be implemented over the next several years ( and which they support ) . </P> One such proposal is for a U.S.-wide carbon cap-and-trade system , which would immediately provide an economic advantage to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is unlikely to come into being under the current president , most analysts believe that it will by 2012 . Another significant proposal is for new state and federal incentives for low-carbon fuels , such as the program now being implemented in California , which is set to take full effect by November 2008 . By mandating that a growing percentage of the market for transportation fuel be set aside for low-carbon fuels , such programs would unleash a tidal wave of private-sector investment and technological innovation that would ultimately bring about something of a low-carbon-fuel Manhattan Project . In stark contrast to the head-in-the-sand policies of the Bush administration , the example of these policies could serve as a beacon to the rest of the world and encourage similar behavior elsewhere , including in China and India . </P> Under either of these policies , both the costs associated with carbon-intensive fossil fuels and the incentives for innovation in low-carbon fuels would dramatically increase . Thus , it is reasonable to expect cellulose-based ethanol to be competitive far sooner than in ten years , the time frame predicted by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of debates about ethanol , I can attest that the critics of biofuels have often warned of a coming food crunch as a result of the competition for inputs needed to produce both food and fuel . One of the most memorable such predictions arose in 1980 , during my second term in Congress , in the form of a Worldwatch Institute pamphlet entitled " Food or Fuel : New Competition for the World 's Cropland . " I was among those who rebutted the argument , which was authored by Lester Brown , and predicted that U.S. farmers and technology would more than keep pace with demand not only for food and feed but also for fuel . Over the next several decades , the doomsayers were proved wrong : productivity gains for corn averaged nearly three percent per year , and the annual U.S. corn crop increased from approximately seven billion bushels in 1980 to nearly 12 billion bushels in 2006 . During most of that time , corn prices were far below the actual costs of corn production , and taxpayers spent billions in direct payments to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ food " policy . Last year , the Worldwatch Institute released a report warning of the potential effect of biofuels on food but highlighting , above all , their benefits for farmers and the climate . </P> In August 2005 , President George W. Bush signed the Renewable Fuel Standard Program into law , and U.S. ethanol production is now expected to approach eight billion gallons by next year . As the public 's attention has begun to focus on the need for alternatives to oil , the major oil companies have become concerned . Unsurprisingly , warnings of a looming food-fuel tradeoff have crept back into the national debate . </P> Yet I am convinced that just as the crunch never came during the past 25-plus years , it will not come now . </P> A recent analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics ' food pricing data by the National Corn Growers Association showed that annual inflation for a basket of corn-intensive foodstuffs , such as dairy products , chicken , and pork , was less than general annual food inflation . And so even though the price @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ $1.98 per bushel in January 2006 to $3.76 per bushel in March 2007 , the increase has not been passed on to U.S. consumers of products such as milk , cheese , chicken , and pork . </P> There are a number of possible reasons for this ( none of which Runge and Senauer cite ) . One of them is that only about five percent of the U.S. corn crop is used directly for human food ; much of the remaining 95 percent is used to feed livestock . Another reason is that ruminant animals , such as beef and dairy cattle , get more nutritional value out of feed made from ethanol coproducts than out of other feed . The benefits are less great for mono-gastric animals , such as swine and poultry , but the market can still get the most bang for the bushel by converting the starch in corn into ethanol and then using the protein coproducts from ethanol plants for ruminants ' feed rations . </P> To be sure , short-term market gyrations will require adjustments , as was the case in response to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cited by the authors . But this will be a short-lived challenge because the market will rapidly respond to the increased demand for corn by encouraging farmers to plant more of it . The U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that there will be as many as 90 million acres of corn planted this year in the United States and tens of millions of acres more planted in South America and elsewhere . If history is any indication , productivity per acre will increase year after year as technology improves the characteristics of seeds , including their starch content and ability to ferment . And in the medium term , of course , feedstocks other than corn , including nonfood cellulose , will become increasingly important as inputs for biofuels . </P> The legislation promoting a low-carbon fuel standard now being considered by Congress will attract investment for next-generation facilities that convert animal waste and other waste ( replacing fossil fuel inputs ) into biogas and biofertilizers . As energy costs rise , farmers will increasingly rely on low- and no-till cultivation techniques . And as their incomes improve , they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ techniques . An acre of corn , one of the rare plant species to use a carbon-dioxide-efficient photosynthesis system , removes more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than does an acre of mature Amazonian rain forest , and next-generation biofuel technologies -- including those using nonfood cellulosic feedstocks -- will increasingly contribute to the critically important goal of reducing , as the author Michael Pollan has put it , humans ' " carbon footprint . " </P> Next-generation feedstocks in other countries will also be important . Runge and Senauer sound the alarm about the potential use of cassava -- an important foodstuff -- for biodiesel , but cassava is far from being the most promising feed-stock for biodiesel in developing countries . In fact , oil from jatropha , a nonfood plant that grows in wastelands , is widely used in India , where it is the main ingredient in the 15-20 percent biodiesel fuel that powers the trains running from New Delhi to Mumbai . According to the Energy and Resources Institute in New Delhi , a hectare of jatropha can produce four times as much fuel as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Dominican Republic , Haiti , and several African states , have begun to sow jatropha for future use in biodiesel . </P> Like at no other time in history , the planet faces energy and climate crises . Resolving them will require a comprehensive and well-reasoned set of policies . Those choices must be based on sound analysis -- not hyperbole and the hollow recitation of discredited doomsday prophecies . </P> Runge and Senauer Reply Senator Tom Daschle 's comments reflect his longtime commitment to promoting corn-based ethanol as a member of Congress and now as a lobbyist for the ethanol industry . Whatever our differences with him over biofuels , they are not about politics ; we supported his last race for senator from South Dakota . Nor are our differences due to a lack of familiarity with agriculture . We have spent careers in Minnesota analyzing agricultural trade and its impact on the environment and on markets for food . Finally , we agree with Daschle that corn-based ethanol will be at best a partial solution to our current energy needs . </P> But we disagree with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is fed mostly to animals with few implications for people , that the conversion of corn into biofuel is an efficient way to reduce the United States ' dependence on foreign oil , that higher grain prices will help farmers in food-deficit nations , and that the current corn-based ethanol industry will be a platform for the next generation of biofuels , which will be made from cellulose and waste materials . </P> First , we , too , know that meat-producing animals eat more than half of the U.S. corn crop . But people do eat chicken , eggs , pork , steak ; drink milk ; and consume foods containing cornmeal , corn oil , and corn sweeteners . U.S. consumers spend over 20 percent of their food budgets on meat , eggs , and dairy . And the share of the corn crop used to produce ethanol will rise from less than ten percent in 2004 to an expected 20-25 percent of the crop next year . As more acres are devoted to corn , fewer acres are available for other types of dairy feed , such @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ green beans . As a result , milk and vegetable prices are rising . And as acres are bid away from soybeans and turned over to corn , the price of soybean-based feed is also increasing , adding to the pressure on meat prices . In March 2007 , the U.S. Department of Agriculture forecast that demand for ethanol would push the prices of poultry , pork , and beef higher . The Wells Fargo economist Michael Swanson noted in June 2007 that the rising costs of corn and soybean feed also " have a direct and significant impact " on " oils , cereals and bakery products . " Corn-based ethanol , Swanson concluded , " is indeed responsible for the increased rate of food inflation " ( even though it is not its sole cause ) . </P> Second , even if every single one of the roughly 90 million acres in the United States devoted to growing corn goes into ethanol -- leaving none for feed , exports , or other uses -- corn-based ethanol would meet only 12-15 percent of the country 's transportation fuel needs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on foreign petroleum today is marginal at best . </P> Third , higher grain prices are translating into an increase in the prices of staple foods around the world . For some , this effect could be another way beside trade liberalization to raise the incomes of poor farmers . But the ethanol boom 's distorting effects on commodity prices are hardly a substitute for expanded market opportunities for farmers in food-deficit nations . By definition , a food-deficit nation buys more food than it sells and hence is negatively affected by price increases . Most of the three billion people living on less than $2 a day are subsistence farmers with little or no surplus to sell or urban slum dwellers who consume but do not produce food . As consumers , they lose . Higher prices may induce more grain production abroad , but unless wealthy nations agree to import this grain by granting expanded market access to poor producer nations , it will be of no help to them . Finally , as the need for corn for ethanol production cuts more and more into U.S. corn @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in which it has a tremendous comparative advantage ( corn ) for a product in which it has a comparative disadvantage ( ethanol ) , especially vis--vis Brazil . This disadvantage is precisely the reason the United States has a 54-cent-a-gallon ethanol import tariff . </P> Fourth , Daschle 's argument that corn-based ethanol will be a platform for cellulose- and waste-based fuels is undercut by three observations . For one thing , although cellulose from switchgrass holds promise , who will plant it while the price of corn is above $3.50 or more a bushel , as it is now ? U.S. corn growers and the ethanol industry did not spend 30 years paying the campaign bills of members of Congress such as Senators Daschle and Bob Dole ( both of whom now lobby for ethanol at the same firm ) in order to give away the store to grass producers . If , moreover , the rapid technological development of cellulosic alternatives is to be promoted without " me too " subsidies matching those given to the corn-based ethanol industry , then the incentives currently favoring corn-based ethanol @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ production mandates ) should be lowered . Giving huge grants to noncompetitive biomass production , rather than investing in basic research and development for conservation and renewable sources of energy , only pays down the cost of the inefficiency of that biomass . </P> On August 9 , 2006 , Senator Daschle noted in a speech before the American Coalition for Ethanol that advocates of corn-based ethanol " have always been acting more in the national interest than in self-interest . " In truth , the ethanol industry is a textbook example of how agriculture and industry combine to influence Congress into transferring taxpayer and consumer dollars to wealthy and influential special interests . </P> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) </P> </P> </P> By Tom Daschle </P> TOM DASCHLE , Special Policy Adviser at the law firm Alston &; Bird and Distinguished Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , is a former Democratic Senator from South Dakota and former Senate Majority Leader . </P>

@@4021741 The authors examine the effects of service barriers on the health status of older Chinese immigrants in Canada . A survey was completed in seven Canadian cities by a random sample of 2,214 older Chinese immigrants age 55 years or older . Service barriers related to administrative problems , personal attitudes , and circumstantial difficulties were significant predictors of physical and mental health when controlling for the demographic factors . Empirically , the findings confirm that service barriers are detrimental to the health of older immigrants . The service barriers in the areas of ethnic , language , or cultural differences between the service providers or services themselves and the older Chinese clients also suggest that factors related to communication contribute to these older clients ' perception of services or providers as culturally insensitive or unresponsive . Considering the individual , social , and economic costs incurred by adverse health consequences , barriers in service delivery must be addressed . </P> KEY WORDS : Chinese immigrants ; older people ; mental health ; physical health ; service barriers </P> There are abundant research findings on service barriers in older ethnocultural minority individuals . Although it is generally believed that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ little research is available to examine this relationship . With the continuous increase in the immigrant population in Western countries , it is essential for practitioners and policymakers to understand the factors that facilitate better health and well-being of elderly immigrants , who are often considered one of the most vulnerable immigrant groups due to the multiple challenges they face as immigrants and older adults . In this study , we examined the relationships between service barriers and aging Chinese immigrants and their health status . </P> Recent research has provided evidence of the disparities in health and access to health services among ethnocultural minorities in Canada and the United States ( Dunlop , Coyte , &; McIsaac , 2000 ; Groeneveld , Laufer , &; Garber , 2005 ; Moy , Dayton , &; Clancy , 2005 ; Williams , 2005 ) . Research on social determinants of health has also indicated how systemic social and economic barriers are associated with health outcomes for visible minority groups ( Willems , De Maesschalck , Deveugele , Derese , &; De Maeseneer , 2005 ) , highlighting the importance of understanding @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ concerning minority elders include language ( Talamantes , Lawler , &; Espino , 1995 ) , lack of transportation ( Morgan &; Sampsel , 1994 ; Tsai &; Lopez , 1997 ) , inadequate knowledge of services ( Richardson , 1992 ; Tsai &; Lopez ) , and inadequate financial resources ( Damron-Rodriguez , Wallace , &; Kington , 1994 ) . </P> People of ethnic minority background in the Western countries face more service barriers than the general older adult population and report a lower level of use of services designed for aging adults than the general population ( Woodruff , 1995 ) . Institutional racism , mistrust of the system , inadequate knowledge of services available , lack of availability of culturally sensitive services , personal beliefs , family dynamics , and culturally dissimilar styles of interaction between service providers and users have also been reported ( Biegel , Farkas , &; Song , 1997 ; Casado &; Leung , 2001 ; Damron-Rodriguez et al. , 1994 ; Morgan &; Sampsel , 1994 ; Talamantes et al. , 1995 ; Torsch &; Ma , 2000 ) . Some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ health and well-being of individuals ( Zhan , Cloutterbuck , Keshian , &; Lombardi , 1998 ) . However , most of the studies on service barriers have been descriptive and did not report the effects of service barriers on health outcomes . Therefore , our objective in this research is to examine the relationships between access barriers and the health status of the older immigrants . The key research question is " Do access barriers significantly affect the physical and mental health status of aging immigrants in a negative manner ? " </P> Older Chinese immigrants in Canada were researched for several reasons . First , the older Chinese belong to the largest visible minority group in Canada . With a population of more than 1.1 million , this group accounts for 25.8 percent of all visible minorities ( Statistics Canada , 2003 ) . There is very little published research on service barriers experienced by this subpopulation , particularly the elderly members . Second , the experience of older Chinese immigrants in a Western country such as Canada may be particularly challenging because of their unique worldviews , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be perceived as " traditional . " Appreciating the implications of services barriers on their health and welt-being is useful for devising better strategies to meet their needs . Third , the findings are relevant to informing policymakers and practitioners of the challenges facing aging Chinese immigrants in other Western countries , for example , the United States , Australia , and the United Kingdom , as many of their Chinese immigrants are from countries of origin that are similar to those of Canada 's , such as China , Taiwan , and Hong Kong ( U.S. Census Bureau , 2006 ) . The findings can facilitate policymakers and practitioners in these Western societies to better understand the effects of service access challenges on this culturally unique elderly group . </P> METHOD Research Design and Sampling A survey research design was used for this study , which was part of a larger study on the health and well-being of aging Chinese Canadians ( Lai , Tsang , Chappell , Lai , &; Chau , 2003 ) age 55 years and older in seven Canadian cities -- Victoria and Vancouver @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Winnipeg , Manitoba ; Montreal , and Toronto . The total Chinese population in these cities accounted for close to 89 percent of the Chinese population in Canada . To obtain the sample , telephone numbers listed with a Chinese surname in all of the research sites were identified to form the sampling frame . A total of 40,654 telephone numbers were randomly selected from the 297,064 numbers listed with a Chinese surname . Telephone screening was conducted by trained interviewers who called the selected telephone numbers to identify eligible participants who acknowledged themselves as an ethnic Chinese age 55 years or older . The eligible participants were then invited to a face-to-face interview either at the participant 's home or at one of the local community organizations collaborating with the research team . The " rolling-a-dice " method was used to select only one participant in households with more than one eligible participant . The interviews were conducted in either English or a Chinese dialect spoken by the participant . The method of using surnames as identification keys for locating Chinese and other Asian participants has been established in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 1994 ; Tjam , 2001 ) . However , the limitations of this sampling method include excluding households that do not have a telephone or have an unlisted telephone number , individuals who use non-Chinese surnames , and mixed-ethnicity households in which the non-Chinese member 's name was used for registration of the telephone number . </P> Data collection took place between summer 2001 and spring 2002 . A verbally administered , structured questionnaire was used . The questions were first constructed in Chinese , translated into English , and then translated back into Chinese to ensure that both versions were consistent in meaning . For standardized instruments , for which there was already a Chinese version , the Chinese version was used . The interview was conducted in the participant 's preferred language , which included English , Cantonese , Mandarin , and Toishanese . Through telephone screening , 12,621 Chinese households were identified . Among them , 2,949 individuals who met the selection criteria were identified , and 2,272 participants in this group completed the questionnaire , resulting in an overall response rate of 77 percent . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ another country to Canada and 58 had been born in Canada . Because the Canadian-born group probably represents very different sociocultural background , characteristics , and access issues from the immigrant group , mixing the two groups may have resulted in an inaccurate picture of the findings . Also , owing to the enormous difference in sample size between the two groups , a comparison of these two groups was not feasible . Therefore , we chose to focus only on the 2,214 older Chinese immigrants , and the Canadian-born sample was excluded from the analysis . </P> Measures Health status refers to both physical and mental health and was measured by a Chinese version of the 36-item Medical Outcomes Study Short Form ( SF-36 ) ( Ren , Amick , Zhou , &; Gandek , 1998 ) . The SF-36 is a well-established and standardized health assessment instrument that has been applied to people from a range of cultural backgrounds ( Ware &; Gandek , 1998 ; Ware et al. , 1998 ) . The questions cover physical and mental health . Using the normed scoring method suggested in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ obtained from these questions were added to create two summary scores , the Physical Component Summary ( PCS ) and the Mental Component Summary ( MCS ) , ranging between 0 and 100 , with a higher score indicating a better health status . The scale has been adapted and translated into Chinese to fit a suitable cultural context . Previous psychometric evaluation has confirmed the reliability and validity of the instrument for use with the Chinese population ( Ren et al . ) . Cronbach 's alphas of .90 and .84 were reported for the PCS and MCS , respectively , in this study . </P> Service barriers were measured by asking participants to answer either " yes " or " no " to a list of 21 barriers they might have faced while using health services . This list was developed from barriers identified in previous research ( Tsai &; Lopez , 1997 ) , as well as through consultation with service providers in the Chinese community . Examples of barriers include long waiting lists , professionals who do not understanding the users ' culture , transportation difficulties @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ language . In a recent study ( Lai &; Chau , 2007 ) , these service barriers were found to have loaded significantly on to four factors : administrative problems in service delivery , cultural incompatibility , personal attitude , and circumstantial challenges . Administrative problems in service delivery ( seven items ) referred to problems such as the waiting lists being too long , the office hours being too inconvenient , and the procedures being too complicated . Cultural incompatibility ( five items ) included barriers such as professionals not speaking the users ' language , programs not being specialized for Chinese clients , and professionals not understanding the users ' culture . Personal attitudes ( five items ) included barriers such as feeling ashamed , uncomfortable with asking for help , and not believing that professionals can help . Circumstantial challenges ( four items ) were barriers related to the lack of transportation , weather unsuitable for traveling , and lack of knowledge about existing health services . The score for each of these domains represented the number of barriers that the participants experienced with respect to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ each of these groups might be similar , it was difficult to assess the cumulative effects of having a single barrier or multiple barriers under the same category . Therefore , these four types of barriers were grouped into four binary variables , with 1 indicating a barrier in each of the noted areas and 0 indicating no barrier . </P> In this study , we assessed the effect of service barriers on health status by controlling the confounding effects of covariates including age , gender , marital status , education , social support , living arrangement , self-rated financial adequacy , personal monthly income , country of origin , and length of residence in Canada . Age referred to the participant 's chronological age at the time of the interview . Gender was grouped as male or female . Marital status was grouped as married or single . Education was divided into four groups ranging from no formal education to postsecondary education and beyond . Social support was originally measured using five questions adapted from the Older Americans Resources and Services Social Resource Scale ( Pfeiffer , 1975 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ availability of a confidante , and availability of a helper should the need arise . Because the scoring range for each of the five items was different , the raw scores for each item were converted to standardized scores ( Z scores ) . In the reliability analysis , removing one item from the scale increased the Cronbach 's alpha from .63 to a more acceptable level of .71 . Therefore , only the sum of the standardized scores for the four items was used to form the final social support score , ranging between -5.91 and 5.80 , with a higher score representing a higher level of social support . Living arrangement was grouped as either living alone or not living alone . Personal monthly income was grouped into four ranges from $0-$500 to $1,500 and higher . Self-rated financial adequacy was measured by asking the participants to indicate how well their income and investments satisfied their financial needs on a four-point scale including " very inadequate , " " not very well , " " adequately , " and " very well . " A higher score represented @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ referred to the country from which the participants emigrated . Length of residency referred to the number of years that the participants had resided in Canada . </P> Data Analysis Descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and means were used to examine the sociodemographic backgrounds and barriers reported by the respondents . Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effects of the different services barriers on physical health ( PCS ) and mental health ( MCS ) while controlling for the effects of demographic variables such as age , gender , marital status , and living arrangement . To assess the contributions of service barriers to the variance in health status , the demographic variables and barrier variables were included as hierarchical variable blocks . For each regression analysis , using PCS and MCS as the dependent variable , respectively , the sociodemographic predictors were entered as the first block . Next , the four service barrier factors were entered as the second block to examine their effects while controlling for the sociodemographic variables . </P> RESULTS Among the 2,214 participants , 56. l percent ( n = 1,241 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from 55 to 101 years ( M = 69.7 , SD = 8.7 ) . Close to 66 percent of the participants were married ( n = 1,459 ) . Almost 14 percent lived alone ( n = 305 ) . More than half ( 58.3 percent , n = 1,291 ) of the participants reported a secondary education level or higher . All the participants identified themselves as an ethnic Chinese , yet they had emigrated from different countries and regions . The majority ( 51.9 percent , n = 1,149 ) of the participants were from Hong Kong , followed by mainland China ( 27.6 percent , n = 610 ) . The remaining percentage of ethnic Chinese in the study were from Taiwan , Vietnam , Southeast Asia , Europe , the United States , Central America , and South America . On average , the participants had resided in Canada for 18.3 years ( SD = 12 ) . </P> Using the 21-item list of access barriers , the older Chinese immigrants reported an average of 4.8 ( SD = 4.9 ) types of access barriers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ your language " was the most commonly reported barrier ( 46.9 percent ) . " Waiting list is too long " ranked second ( 38.4 percent ) . " Do not know about existing health services " ranked third ( 34.3 percent ) . " Programs are not specialized for Chinese , " " professionals there do not understand your culture , " and " professionals there are not Chinese " ranked fourth to sixth , respectively , with a range of 31.2 percent to 30.6 percent of the participants indicating these items as barriers . Except for " waiting list is too long " and " lack of knowledge about existing services , " most of the top service barriers were related to language , culture , or ethnic differences between the immigrants and service providers or the services provided . On average , the participants reported 1.6 administrative barriers ( SD = 2.1 ) , 1.59 cultural barriers ( SD = 1.9 ) , 1.0 circumstantial barriers ( SD = 1.2 ) , and 0.5 attitude barriers ( SD = 1.0 ) . The proportion of participants who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 52.1 percent ; problems related to personal attitude , 26.1 percent ; and circumstantial challenges , 52.3 percent . </P> We performed a hierarchical multiple regression analysis for physical and mental health , with demographic variables entered in the first block and the barrier variables entered in the second block ( Table 2 ) . When physical health was the dependent variable in the first round , gender , age , self-rated financial adequacy , and being an immigrant from another country were significant predictors . Adding the four service barrier variables did not change the original effect of these sociodemographic predictors . Among the four barrier variables entered , administrative problems , personal attitudes , and circumstantial challenges were the three that significantly predicted physical health when controlling for the confounding effects of the sociodemographic variables . </P> When mental health was treated as the dependent variable , higher social support , living with others , and better self-rated financial adequacy were the significant predictors . Adding the barrier variables did not change the predicting effects of these sociodemographic predictors . In addition , among the four barrier variables @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ circumstantial challenges were significant in predicting decreased mental health . </P> DISCUSSION Earlier studies on the service barriers facing ethnic minority older adults usually focused on the nature and characteristics of the barriers . It appears to be common knowledge that service barriers are related to poor health outcomes , yet little empirical research has demonstrated this association . This study adds a new understanding to how service barriers can affect health outcomes . Aging immigrants ' physical and mental health status is influenced by the dynamics of interaction at the structural level and by one-on-one experience with the system in seeking help and accessing services , further confirming the effects of social determinants on health reported by other researchers ( Willems et al. , 2005 ) . This study adds empirical evidence to demonstrate the problematic reality encountered by aging visible minority adults in their attempts to access services in Canada , as well as the associated health consequences . </P> Although this study was conducted with older Chinese immigrants in Canada , the findings are relevant to older Chinese immigrants in the United States and other Western countries @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ faced with similar access barriers and cultural challenges as are older Chinese immigrants in the United States ( Casado &; Leung , 2001 ; Tsai &; Lopez , 1997 ) . As the countries of origin of the Chinese immigrants in the United States are similar to those of Chinese immigrants in Canada , Chinese immigrants settling in both countries are likely to share similarities in sociocultural background and characteristics . Despite the differences in sociopolitical climate and various service delivery systems between Canada and the United States , we believe the negative effects of service barriers are similar . Our findings are useful as a reference point for social workers in the United States and other Western countries . However , additional research to examine how differences in service delivery systems between the two countries may have created different service barriers could be fruitful to better understand the interaction effects of system issues , service barriers , and health outcomes . </P> Aging Chinese immigrants reported difficulties accessing services because of communication barriers such as language incompatibility , lack of cultural competence on the part of service providers , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and other factors may elicit negative perceptions of service providers , the service system , and the quality of services as inadequate , disrespectful , and not useful . In effect , these factors could create an environment in which older Chinese immigrants feel unwelcome and are uncomfortable about approaching a care system that is difficult to access . For older Chinese immigrants , cultural beliefs about the importance of taking preventive measures to maintain good health may be unnecessarily compromised as a result of the system 's delays and lack of cultural sensitivity . Foregone care in these aging adults is costly to the health system and may yield additional social or economic costs . For instance , the subpopulation of aging Chinese with depression may be underserved because of a culturally incompatible and inaccessible service system and a personal culture that has socialized Chinese people to avoid seeking services for mental health problems . This avoidance permits the individual to save face and prevents bringing shame to oneself and one 's family ( Choi &; Gonzalez , 2005 ) . Discrimination on the basis of ethnicity and older @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ aging Chinese Canadians who attempt to access services . </P> The findings carry implications for gerontological social work practice . Considering the negative health consequences of service barriers , actions to remedy or reduce barriers are needed . The findings inform practitioners which types of service barrier should be targeted . Administrative problems , personal attitudes , and circumstantial challenges were the significant predictors of both physical and mental health . Although barriers related to cultural incompatibility were not significant in predicting either outcome variable , this does not mean that cultural difference and barriers are irrelevant . Barriers related to personal attitudes -- which include problems such as feeling ashamed of , discomfort with , or the embarrassment of asking for help and the mistrust that professionals are helpful -- often originate from the sociocultural norms and beliefs of this ethnocultural minority group . Also , older ethnic minority individuals ' negative experiences with the service system may reinforce these sociocultural norms and beliefs , thereby increasing further avoidance of the service delivery system among older ethnic minority individuals . It also means that the sociocultural context of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of these barriers . </P> Barriers related to personal attitudes are often related to fears , stigma , and misconceptions about using formal services . To facilitate the development of a positive attitude toward using services , culturally appropriate psychosocial education programs should be provided by service providers to deal with those stereotypes regarding use of formal services . Community education , in languages understandable by older Chinese immigrants and using strategies that are culturally relevant to the target groups , is also useful in enhancing these potential users ' understanding of the nature of the services and the importance of seeking help . In addition , making appropriate transportation arrangements to facilitate access is an important strategy ; like many older immigrants from Asian countries , older Chinese immigrants often find the cold and snowy winter in Canada and the northern United States harsh and difficult to adapt to . </P> Owing to the differences between the health service delivery system in their countries of origin and that in Canada , it is not surprising that older Chinese immigrants report their tack of knowledge about existing health services as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in reducing such barriers include education , development of outreach services , and establishment of better formal and informal communication networks between service providers and this target population . Practice in health care settings should also incorporate the culturally competent elements . For example , the culturally competent health care model recommended by Purnell and Paulanka ( 2005 ) has pointed to the importance of practitioners ' strengthening their capacity in gaining culturally appropriate understanding of such aspects as communication , family roles and organization , high-risk health behaviors , pregnancy and child-bearing practices , spirituality , and health care practices . </P> Barriers related to administrative problems are significant in predicting health outcomes . For many older Chinese immigrants , the use of formal services is already an unfamiliar concept . Accessing and using services can be complicated and overwhelming . Service providers should consider developing a specific service coordinator position to review the existing administrative procedures and operational details related to service access to ensure that these administrative procedures are culturally appropriate , easy to understand , and usable by older Chinese immigrants as well as other ethnocultural @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increasing number of studies on racial inequalities and health disparities demonstrate that more effective and culturally sensitive communication in the health care system is needed to reduce health disparities for racial and ethnic minority patients ( Kreps , 2006 ; Perloff , Bonder , Ray , Ray , &; Siminoff , 2006 ) . Therefore , practitioners working with aging Chinese immigrants should enhance their health communication skills through ongoing training to develop their cross-cultural communication and counseling skills . The findings also support the importance of strengthening university social work curriculums so that social work graduates are well equipped with the cross-cultural communication skills required for working with culturally diverse aging immigrants . Given the increase of immigrants and ethnocultural minority populations in Canada and the United States , as well as in many other Western countries , social work training programs should consider making cross-cultural communication skills and use of language and cultural interpreters compulsory components of the social work curriculum . </P> The creation of " barrier-free " health and social care systems requires more than community education and training in cross-cultural communication skills . Enduring and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ health care system require the development of equitable and culturally competent systems that respect the rights of culturally diverse populations . In other words , structural changes are needed to ensure that elderly immigrants as well as other ethnocultural minorities are being respected and treated in an equitable manner ( Mullaly , 1997 ) . As noted by Lundy ( 2004 ) , social work practitioners should understand the structural forces that influence the social conditions that result in individuals ' vulnerable situations . The focus of provision of material resources by social workers should be expanded to include creating change based on empowerment and enhancing clients ' critical consciousness . In the case of working with older immigrants , programs and services should be extended beyond providing tangible support services and materials . Practitioners should create services that facilitate these older immigrants to critically examine the current health care delivery system thoroughly and to empower them to have a voice in deciding how the service delivery system should be restructured so that their culturally diverse and unique needs can be met . </P> Although this study was conducted with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not without limitations . Although service barriers are statistically significant in the regression models , this statistical significance could be due to the large sample size . In reality , the effect sizes of service barriers in explaining physical and mental health were small . After controlling for the sociodemographic background variables , service barriers accounted for only about 2 percent of the variance in physical health and 5 percent of the variance in mental health . The full models also accounted for only about 8 percent of the variance in physical health and 10 percent of the variance in mental health . More research to determine the unknown explanatory factors is useful . On the other hand , although critics may argue the legitimacy of investing resources to reduce service barriers when only minimal effects on health status can be expected , facilitating equitable access to services is one of the key roles of the social work profession in the context of maintaining social justice and equity . This study further supports the efforts to address challenges and barriers faced by older immigrants , not only for reducing barriers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this vulnerable aging population . </P> Original manuscript received March 23 , 2006 </P> Final revision received August 30 , 2006 </P> Accepted November 17 , 2006 </P> Table 1 : Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables ( N = 2,214 ) PRE-FORMATTED Table 2 : Multiple Regression Analysis of Predictors for Health Variable -- Effect of Barriers ( N = 2,214 ) PRE-FORMATTED

@@4021841 Abstract : This study identified factors that lead to or impede competitive job placements for clients of a state blindness rehabilitation agency . The authors conducted focus groups with the agency 's service providers and administered surveys to adults who are blind or visually impaired and to employers . The survey data analysis compared persons who were employed with persons who were not employed but were interested in working and with persons who were not working and were not interested in working . Also identified were services that employers felt would assist them in hiring or retaining blind or visually impaired workers . Five themes , stated in terms of needs for the agency to address , are presented to summarize the findings . </P> Employment remains an elusive goal for most adults in the United States who are blind or severely visually impaired . However , decades of specialized education , vocational rehabilitation ( VR ) , consumer activism , and nondiscrimination legislation have made the goal seem closer than ever . Nationally , the number and variety of jobs that blind or visually impaired workers hold have exploded over the years ( American Foundation for the Blind @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ enhanced the lives of thousands of blind or visually impaired persons ( Chiang , Bassi , &; Javitt , 1992 ; Kirchner , 1988 ) , and these workers pay taxes that help to offset public expenditures . Even so , the goal of matching the rates and rewards of employment that sighted persons achieve has not been approximated in the United States ( McNeil , 1993 ) . </P> The issues and findings of this 1989 study of workers in Illinois remain highly relevant in 1997 , not only as baseline data gathered just before the 1990 passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act ( ADA ) and in spite of the intense hopes for rapid change many people had placed on the ADA ( Burkhauser &; Daly , 1995 ) . Policy analysts deem it premature to assess the ADA 's effects on overall employment statistics ( Kirchner , 1996 ; Pfeiffer , 1996 ; West , 1996 ) because of its recent and partial implementation . The ADA 's employment provisions did not go into full effect until 1992 and do not apply to firms with fewer @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ percent of American workers ( personal communication , U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , June 13 , 1995 ) . Of course , the ADA builds on provisions dating back to the 1973 Rehabilitation Act . Nevertheless , national surveys show that very low employment rates and earnings of persons with disabilities have persisted and perhaps even worsened over those decades ( Bennefield &; McNeil , 1989 ; Harris , 1986 , 1994 ) . Furthermore , Kirchner ( 1996 ) has contested interpreting those data as a measure of the ADA 's success , pointing to more complex factors in the persistence of employment barriers for persons with disabilities ( Burkhauser &; Daly , 1994 ; Harlan &; Robert , 1995 ; Yelin , 1992 , 1996 ; Yelin &; Katz , 1994 ) . </P> Expectations were raised by legislative and technological advances and have made the goal of blind persons ' matching the employment levels achieved by nondisabled persons seem even more elusive and challenging . This study offers techniques and results , using survey and focus group methods , that continue to show promise as approaches @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that better diagnosis of the problems will help the field tackle them more effectively . ( See reports of 1995 and 1996 meetings on employment issues for persons who are blind or visually impaired , with analyses based in part on this Illinois study ( American Foundation for the Blind , 1996a ; Johnson , 1995 ) ) . </P> Method RESEARCH DESIGN This study was designed to identify key factors that support or impede competitive job placements for clients of the Illinois Bureau of Blind Services . The aim of the bureau staff was to determine which factors it could influence and then to design strategies to build into actual practice . </P> The Illinois Bureau of Blind Services director ( second author of this article ) contracted the American Foundation for the Blind 's Social Research Unit as an external observer with expertise to gather and analyze systematic input from stockholders -- bureau staff and clients , other blind adults , and employers . </P> Seven focus groups in Chicago , in early 1989 , were comprised of , respectively , the bureau 's Chicago-based rehabilitation counselors , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ orientation and mobility ( O &M); specialists , rehabilitation teachers , placement specialists , and placement staff of the Chicago Lighthouse who were contracted to serve the bureau 's clients . The 50 participants in these focus groups constituted nearly all of these categories , except for placement specialists , who serve the larger VR department . By being inclusive , this study avoided the problem of nonrepresentative sampling that typically is encountered when focus group results are generalized . </P> The consumer survey consisted of structured telephone interviews in mid-1989 of 264 respondents , including 43 active bureau clients , 75 clients recently " rehabilitated into competitive employment , " and 56 clients who were " not rehabilitated . " The initial sample was drawn randomly from the bureau 's 1986-88 records . This procedure was used to include clients who had received services and had been either working or available for work for varying periods of time . Some nonresponse bias was due to the difficulty of locating and , to a lesser extent , gaining cooperation from " not rehabilitated " clients . Sample responses were weighted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the largest closure category , " closed rehabilitated " ) and response rates . The tables show both weighted and unweighted base numbers . </P> In addition , 90 blind or visually impaired adults volunteered to be interviewed in response to announcements placed through consumer groups , including the Illinois chapters of the American Council of the Blind , National Federation of the Blind , and Blinded Veterans Association ; radio reading services ; the state 's Talking Books program ; and other specialized service programs in Illinois . </P> Finally , the views of employers were obtained through brief telephone interviews ( about five minutes ) , followed by more extensive mail surveys during winter 1989-90 . Respondents included 203 private sector employers by phone and 86 by mail , representing 57 companies , and 64 public sector employers by phone and 30 by mail . The private sector sample had been drawn randomly , stratified by size , from state directories of manufacturing service companies . For the public sector , the sample was stratified by federal ( regional offices ) , state , and local government agencies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was the person who was most involved in personnel policy . In small settings , that respondent usually was the owner ; in larger ones , the personnel director . In very large companies , two respondents were sought : a personnel department staffer and a line supervisor . </P> Even though the researchers tried to raise mail response rates by starting with a telephone interview , the rates were low , especially among small companies . Nonresponse bias probably favored positive findings on employers ' disability policies and practices . The employer survey results will be discussed only briefly and in broad outline . The focus group discussion guide and survey forms are available from the first author , as is the full study report ( Kirchner et al. , 1991 ) . </P> It is noteworthy that the project itself provided employment for persons with low vision or blindness : a bureau client -- a graduate student with low vision -- was hired as research assistant , three telephone interviewers were blind , and blind transcriptionists handled the focus group tapes . ( Bureau staff who had low @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ participated as part of their regular employment . ) </P> PROCEDURE Following the principle that action-oriented research should involve the people destined to act on the findings at all stages , the researchers met with the bureau 's director and administrative staff every few weeks or months . They met less often with line staff ; the VR department 's director ; and the Blind Services Planning Council , which has a legislative mandate and strong consumer representation . Thus , stakeholders helped to : 1 ) define the issues and the research questions ; 2 ) design the questionnaires ; and 3 ) most importantly , interpret the results . Such ongoing involvement not only builds commitment to applying the results , it also makes limitations and the reasons for them visible ( Patton , 1996 ) . </P> The research design recognized that the employment problem has extremely complex causes , many of which rehabilitation agencies can not affect . The design emphasized those factors that state agencies can control . Barriers or supports to employment were assumed to stem from three sources : </P> 1 ) VR @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ attitudes , transportation options , and income benefits systems ; and 3 ) blind or visually impaired adults themselves , especially with regard to their desire to work , their skills , and their self-confidence . </P> The design assumed that persons from each source could provide valuable information about all three sources . After informal interviews with knowledgeable staff , the researchers conducted focus groups with the agency 's professionals , whose views were then built into the consumer surveys for blind or visually impaired adults and the questionnaires for employers . Four public hearings to elicit input from consumers on the design were sparsely attended in spite of publicity . However , pretest interviews further shaped the consumer survey . The employer questionnaire was based on Harris and Associates ' ( 1987 ) national survey of employers . </P> Results OVERVIEW : THEMES AND STRATEGIES To emphasize the practice-oriented data analysis , this section begins by overviewing how the detailed findings were digested into meaningful themes and strategies . </P> Support for each of the themes was found in the provider focus groups or in the consumer and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be supported if it fit with findings in more than one of those sources . To highlight the potential for action of the themes , each was stated in terms of a set of needs for the bureau to address . The five themes and examples of strategies ( activities ) follow . </P> Theme 1 The first theme was the need for improved communication within the agency and in its dealings with clients and employers . Strategies proposed under this heading included : provide information to clients about consumer organizations as possible resources ; set up a toll-free phone-in service ; examine existing public relations materials and strategies to ensure the messages are appropriate and effective , audiences are well-defined , and methods ( print , radio , or TV ) are chosen to achieve optimal results . </P> In keeping with the outcome evaluation thrust that now is gaining strength ( Patton , 1996 ; United Way , 1996 ) but is still rarely implemented , one strategy called for developing an outcome survey and using it to give direct feedback to staff regarding the effectiveness of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ meetings within regional offices and between the bureau 's director and individual service providers . Another suggested strategy was to develop mechanisms for improved communications with employers . </P> Theme 2 The second theme was the need for improved access to and use of employment-related data by both staff and clients . One innovative strategy that the agency proposed to address this need included the strong commitment to provide employment-related materials in varied media ( speech , braille , and large type ) to ensure effective access both by staff and by clients . A second proposed strategy was a plan to tie into the state 's general employment assistance computer system , which would also allow both the bureau 's counselors and their clients to research career options and job openings directly . </P> Another strategy proposed under this theme was to develop an intensive short term program for clients that would encompass vocational evaluation , interest assessment , job and training program information , and job interview training . Growing recognition of the importance of client networking and mentoring as sources of employment information was expressed by a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ job-ready clients . Finally , another strategy called for training or retraining the placement specialists in using labor market data and conducting job analyses . </P> Theme 3 The third theme focused on the need for job-ready clients to have the skills to compete for positions and to succeed once they are employed . The proposed strategies addressed the literacy deficiency of clients seeking employment , which is a concern that only now is gaining wide recognition nationally . Literacy was defined to cover reading and writing using , as appropriate , braille , large type , computers with varied outputs , and closed-circuit TVs . </P> Another strategy that targets clients ' travel skills -- training in cane travel and use of public transportation , if available- similarly reveals an emphasis on the need for independent living skills and candid acknowledgment of the inadequacy of current services toward that aim . Training in interviewing for jobs was another targeted skill area , as it was under the second theme . </P> Theme 4 The fourth theme focused on a need recently highlighted for national policy in an article titled @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Yelin &; Katz , 1994 ) . The Illinois study concluded that a need exists to focus staff efforts in the areas of job placement , transition from school to work , retention of visually impaired individuals in their jobs , and advancement beyond entry level . </P> Proposed strategies included assigning specific counselors to serve in each of the following ways : as placement specialists , as transition specialists working with students , as job retention specialists , and finally , as career advancement specialists . Furthermore , strategies suggested the establishment of placement teams that would include a teacher , a case aide , and a placement specialist for clients who require only placement assistance . Another strategy called for the development of methods and materials to educate eye care professionals and employers about the bureau 's services with emphasis on early referral , before someone loses a job . </P> Theme 5 The fifth and final theme , already touched upon but given separate status to emphasize its importance , was the need to utilize successful blind or visually impaired persons as resources . The main @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by blind individuals around the state so that clients could easily contact persons who were successful in occupations that were of interest to them . This idea built directly on the national " Careers &; Technology Information Bank " maintained at the American Foundation for the Blind ( AFB , 1996b ) . A spin-off strategy was to establish a pool of blind Illinois residents willing to work with clients on job leads and interviewing skills and , in general , to serve as mentors . </P> The broad conclusion drawn from analysis of the focus groups ' comments regarding the agency 's program and structure was that the bureau needed to be clearer and more consistent about its major goals . For example , was the achievement of meaningful employment for clients truly the top priority , from year to year ? If so , this priority should be met by ensuring that staff roles were defined and rewarded to support fulfillment of that goal . The themes and strategies , especially the fourth theme , were designed to do just that . </P> CONSUMER SURVEY The consumer survey @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of employment issues for people with disabilities . As stated earlier , the aim was to compare characteristics and attitudes of respondents who were employed with those who were not . However , rather than simply deal with the two groups who differed on the objective feature of employment status , the study introduced an important variable typically missing from such analyses , which is the subjective dimension of interest in employment . </P> Work orientation Three subgroups , who differed in their work orientation , were identified and defined as : 1 ) people who were working , 44 percent ( 27 percent full time and 17 percent part time ) ; 2 ) people who were not working but interested in working for pay ( henceforth simply called " interested " ) , 44 percent ; and 3 ) people who were not interested in working for pay ( " not interested " ) , 12 percent . </P> Clearly , the great majority of those who were not working were interested in working : Furthermore , the data showed that most of those who were interested had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The minority who expressed little or no interest in working for pay gave reasons based on perceived barriers rather than on distaste for work or preference for nonwork income support . </P> The fact that not all of the VR clients were interested in paid employment was emphasized by service providers in the focus groups . Practitioners argued that clients without a positive work orientation should be considered separately in evaluating client outcomes and provider outputs . Their position is supported by the data in the next section . This distinction does not mean that such clients should not be eligible for VR services , since any individual may change his or her mind ; it does mean that , at any given time , a group exists whose needs must be understood and addressed differently in policy and practice from the needs of those interested in working for pay . The next sections explore the social , disability , work history , and attitudinal characteristics of the three analytic groups . </P> Social characteristics Respondents who were not at all interested in working for pay differed sharply in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ interested in working ( see Table 1 ) . As a group , those who were not interested in working were older , less educated , had retirement income , and resided in smaller communities , all of which are characteristics that constitute or reinforce barriers to working . </P> By contrast , social characteristics of those interested in working differed much less from those who were actually working . The differences were due to labor market disadvantage other than disability . Among those who were interested in working ( compared to those actually working ) , a much higher proportion were aged 45 years or older , fewer were college graduates , and more were non-Whites . Their distribution by gender and their household and community situations were similar and thus do not account for why the two groups differed in employment status . More of those not working were receiving income benefits , but many were not . </P> Disability characteristics Respondents who were not interested in working differed sharply from the other two groups in disability characteristics , much as they did in social characteristics ( see @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ older at the onset of their vision loss , more likely to have other health problems that they perceived as more limiting than their vision loss , had some useful vision , and about one-third of them reported they were experiencing further vision loss . </P> When disability features of employed respondents are compared with those of respondents who were interested in working , differences are smaller but point to the same employment barriers that were found among those not interested . Interested respondents were more likely than those who were working to have lost vision in middle or later life , to have only " a little useful vision " and to be experiencing further vision loss . More of them have had other health problems , but they were more likely to perceive that vision loss , rather than another health condition , affected their activities . </P> To sum up thus far , it is hardly surprising to learn that blind or visually impaired people who were employed had fewer disadvantages related to social and disability characteristics than did those who were not working . Of greater @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and disability characteristics , although present , was generally small between people who were employed and those interested in working , whereas the gap was large between employed people and those who expressed no interest in working . </P> The pattern shifts when the focus turns to group differences in experiences with and attitudes about employment ( see Table 3 ) . The most notable difference is in work history . The data reveal that the respondents ' current status was not just temporary -- that is , most people who were employed at the time of the interview had a largely continuous work history since the onset of their vision loss ( considering work from age 18 or older ) . This pattern is in sharp contrast to the predominant lack of employment since onset of vision loss among those who were not working when interviewed . This lack of employment pattern is the one measure that the study examined in which people interested in working and those not interested had almost identical profiles . An important point is that those interested in working were just as likely as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their vision ( if age 18 or older ) , whereas most of those not interested had either never been in the labor force ( for example , had been full-time homemakers ) or already considered themselves retired . </P> Clearly the implication is that time out of employment has a cumulative negative effect on re-employment even if one retains interest in working . A secondary implication that applies to the not interested group is that although some of them may have been " discouraged workers " ( a labor force statistics term ) , for most of them , their lack of employment should not be attributed to blindness . Most were not working even before onset of blindness . Therefore , it seems strange to expect them to become work oriented after onset , especially given their social and other disability characteristics . </P> These implications illustrate a frequent problem in disability research and policy -- overattributing causal impact to the disability because related primary variables have been ignored and no comparison group was examined . Regarding the unemployment issue , typical analyses lack the longitudinal perspective , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ actual measures over time are better ( Mudrick et al. , 1995 ) . In fact , the Rehabilitation Services Administration has proposed adding " work history " to client records compiled nationally ( Rehabilitation Services Administration , 1994 ) . </P> Work settings and other job features This part of the analysis refers to the current job or , for persons interested in work , to their last job . Those not interested were omitted because too few had prior jobs . </P> Two-thirds of the employed respondents worked either in public agencies ( 41% ) or were self-employed ( 25% ) . Self-employment was much rarer as the last job held by respondents interested in work . The analysis checked the types of self-employment to see if the Randolph-Sheppard vending program was a major source ; it was not . Rather , a wide range of occupations was pursued , from unskilled to professional . Self-employment offered an important option in maintaining continuous work history . Of all those employed , nearly half worked with other disabled people . This high level may reflect a sampling bias , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in work opportunity . </P> Working respondents gave positive ratings to most features of their jobs ( especially " interesting work " and " chance to make friends . " ) Ratings of current jobs differed little from ratings of the last jobs held by interested respondents , except that the latter rated " job security " and " ease of travel arrangements " notably lower than did currently employed respondents . These data suggest that there is a trade-off between job security and the rewards of salary and chance for promotion . </P> By far the lowest rated feature among both groups was " chance for promotion . " Also , half of those with current jobs reported that they " feel underemployed ; that is , my job does not allow me to use my abilities or training . " ( To assess this level , it should be compared with a sighted sample of persons with similar education and work experience ) . </P> Family attitudes Family attitudes were seen as strongly supportive by those who were working , slightly less so by those who were interested @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were not interested . Nevertheless , curiously , the last group tended to perceive family attitudes toward their becoming employed as more positive than their own attitude . </P> Self-confidence Self-confidence in relation to work was very high among working respondents , slightly lower among those who were interested , and only slightly lower still among those who were not interested ( supporting the earlier point that few of the latter group were " discouraged workers . " ) However , the groups differed more sharply when it came to whether they felt they possessed the needed " skills to change or improve their work situation . " They also differed sharply in whether they felt " it is difficult to get information about services . " Respondents who were working disagreed much more often than those who were interested and many of those who were not interested said they " do n't know , " suggesting that they had not tried . </P> Nearly all respondents , regardless of their work orientation , had received some rehabilitation services ( see Table 4 ) . Most who were working or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ whereas respondents who were " not interested " had not . Most respondents evaluated state services as satisfactory in general but cited one or more specific services with which they were dissatisfied . </P> Receipt of job-related services was most often reported by those who were working , although each service ( for example , training in methods of job-finding ) was reported by only about one-fifth to one-half of them . Respondents interested in working were less likely to report those services , but some were still clients . Many of those who were interested in working recognized that they needed specific services , especially " help in finding a job , " which was recognized by 50 percent of those who were interested . Among those now working , about 15-20 percent felt that they needed such job-related services , especially job skills and equipment . </P> The need for services regarding adaptive techniques for mobility and for reading and writing were also named more often by respondents interested in working , especially if they had little or no useful vision , than by working respondents with the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were for more training in braille and in computers ( see Table 5 ) . </P> Finding a job : Sources of problems and of help Asked about three possible sources of problems in finding jobs , working respondents , as well as those interested in working , considered " employer attitudes ' to pose the biggest problem , their " own knowledge about locating jobs " to pose the next biggest problem , and " counselor skills/attitudes " to be least problematic . Interested respondents , nevertheless , blamed both employer attitudes and their own lack of knowledge much more often than did working respondents . Employer discrimination in general , not only in relation to their own job hunt , was perceived as a serious problem , equally by working respondents and by those who were interested in working . Those not interested perceived it less , but half said they " do n't know . " </P> On the positive side , respondents acknowledged many sources of help or advice in finding a job from a list presented to them . " Friends " and " the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of being used and being helpful ; however , given the many alternatives , each was mentioned by only a minority . There was no notable difference between those working and those interested as to how they ranked sources that helped them find their current or last job , respectively . </P> To sum up in regard to services , considerable need was expressed to improve job relevant skills , especially how to find jobs , by those who were interested in working and even to some extent by those who were working . Respondents were selective about which services they wanted , recognizing the importance of computer literacy and use of special equipment . Those who were not working especially had difficulty learning about services . However , there was a balanced , generally positive attitude toward the state agency as a source for services , to the extent that those services were known . </P> SURVEY OF EMPLOYERS The study revealed that few employer respondents believed that their company had ever been contacted by the state VR agency . Whether or not that was technically correct , clearly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . </P> The findings highlight employers ' concerns that could be addressed by agencies in job development or placement . A significant majority of the employers felt it was " very important " to have the following types of information regarding a blind or visually impaired job applicant : 1 ) how he or she works with equipment typically used on the job , 2 ) how he or she records and retains information , 3 ) how he or she accesses printed and computer information , and 4 ) how to provide for an applicant with a dog guide . </P> In regard to blind or visually impaired workers , a substantial majority of employer-respondents considered information or assistance in handling the following situations to be " very important " : 1 ) providing insurance coverage , 2 ) terminating a blind employee for unsatisfactory performance , 3 ) providing ongoing consultation if job requirements change , and 4 ) providing instruction on how to travel within the workplace . </P> The employer survey also obtained reactions to the potential effectiveness of several policy options designed to promote hiring @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ provisions of the ADA . Only the two options that involved financial incentives were judged potentially very or somewhat effective . They are : 1 ) providing federal or state tax credits for hiring persons with disabilities and 2 ) paying companies for on-the-job training of newly hired disabled workers . All other proposed policies were not well received . </P> As expected , the public sector was more involved than the private sector in employing persons with disabilities ; even so , few public agencies reported having formal programs for such hiring or having been contacted by VR agency staff . Therefore , building better links between employers and the VR profession became an objective for the agency , and was defined as still relevant , if not more so , in the post-ADA environment . </P> Limitations The consumer sample was very diversified , but somewhat biased . The ideal sampling approach -- household-based random sampling -- would have been prohibitively expensive . The sample 's profile , especially in regard to the volunteers , reflects higher education , more skill in techniques for adapting to blindness , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ truly representative sample , according to comparison with the sparse national data available ( McNeil , 1993 ) . Therefore , as planned in the initial study design , the data analysis avoids projecting overall group numbers ( such as the percentage who were employed ) , but rather focuses on comparisons between subgroups within the sample . That is , concern about the known bias affecting the percentage employed is minimized since the analysis controls on employments status . </P> In view of the nonrandom element in the sample , tests of statistical significance were not used ; such tests properly apply to samples drawn randomly . Instead , results are reported as meaningful differences only if they are large and are supported by consistent patterns . </P> Participants in the two-hour focus group discussions ( audiotaped with their permission ) were assured strict confidentiality , since the discussions might elicit criticisms of their own or their supervisors ' performance . The sessions seemed very frank , but self-constraint in discussing performance problems is a possible study limitation . </P> Another limitation dictated by funding constraints is the lack @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for many of the topics , but where it is relevant is noted in the discussion . </P> Conclusion Because the main practice implications of this research have been illustrated in tandem with presentation of the findings , only two tasks remain here . The first is a brief discussion of how the practice implications were derived , and the second is a summary of how the study has been subsequently disseminated and used . </P> DEVELOPING IMPLICATIONS AND STRATEGIES Two days of intensive discussion between the researchers and the bureau 's director were the main source of practice implications . The researchers had analyzed the quantitative and qualitative data ( the surveys and the focus groups ' tapes ) and had prepared draft reports for the director to study and share with his key staff in advance . In the discussions , the director expressed impressions of what the data implied for his agency ; the researchers commented on whether other parts of the data did or did not support those implications ; and when conclusions seemed clearly supported , they were retained for planning the strategies . Thus @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's knowledge of their own agency 's organizational constraints and potential resources , in addition to the study data . </P> Criteria for selecting strategies were that each strategy should be : 1 ) realistic with present or additional , but not exorbitant , resources ; 2 ) stated at a level and in enough detail for easy translation to action steps , but general enough to permit ingenuity by implementers and flexibility for application in other states ; 3 ) supported by related actions under one or more thematic headings ; and 4 ) challenging and innovative for the agency , but anchored in practices that had been demonstrated in at least one setting . </P> A project was funded to pilot portions of the new strategies , which were : 1 ) enhancing job-seeking skills during prevocational training , 2 ) training staff in job placement , 3 ) creating a statewide database of mentors , and 4 ) improving job development materials used with employers . A plan also was developed for structural and staffing changes to address findings that internal communications and staff responsibilities needed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ major economic and administrative changes in the state government . In this respect , the follow-up reinforced what had been expressed as a major concern in the focus groups . The focus groups had concluded that the bureau needed to be clearer and , especially , more consistent about its priority goals and then had to ensure that staff roles were defined and rewarded to support the priority goals . The problem was that periodic political changes of leadership shifted priorities or at least blurred them , so that concentration on employment outcomes was undermined . Not surprisingly , simply identifying that problem was not sufficient ammunition to prevent its recurrence . </P> DISSEMINATION AND IMPACT OF FINDINGS The study 's methods and findings have been widely disseminated to administrators , advocates , and researchers in the field of blindness and other VR services ; in presentations to the National Council of State Agencies for the Blind and the Society for Disability Studies ; and at regional and international meetings of the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired . The study 's final report continues @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ been presented as supporting evidence for specific policy objectives nationally -- concerning use of computers by blind employees ( Demographics update , 1995 ) ; and at the state level -- concerning support for " braille bills " by showing the strong linkage of braille usage and employment ( Demographics update , 1996 ) . ( Braille bills are state laws that , in essence , require special education programs to offer training in braille for children who are blind or severely visually impaired , unless there are strong reasons not to do so ; details of actual or proposed braille bills vary ) . In fact , the study 's greatest utilization to date has been in response to such inquires at the policy level , with the potential to influence decisions about vocational rehabilitation practice even more broadly than contemplated within the one state that served as the research site . </P> Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of blind or visually impaired adults according to their work orientation ( Illinois 1989 ) . PRE-FORMATTED Table 2 Disability-related characteristics of blind or visually impaired adults according to their work orientation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ history and work status of blind or visually impaired adults according to their work orientation ( Illinois , 1989 ) . PRE-FORMATTED Table 4 Services that blind or visually impaired adults reports needing from the state agency for the blind according to their work orientation ( Illinois , 1989 ) . ( * ) PRE-FORMATTED Table 5 Reading techniques used by blind or visually impaired adults according to amount of useful vision and work orientation ( illinois , 1989 ) . PRE-FORMATTED

@@4022941 It is hard to overemphasize how politically sensitive religious education is in Turkish society . The debate over religious education , along with a few other touchstone issues , reveals much about how official conceptions of religion clash with the beliefs and practices of many religiously observant Turkish citizens . This clash became particularly clear to me as I became involved in an independent and unauthorized women 's Koran course in Sincan , a suburb of Ankara . I participated in this course in order to understand conservative religious lifestyles in Turkey , and to gain insight into the view of secularism that many pious Muslims held in Turkish society soon after the collapse of the Islamist-leaning government in 1997 . The involvement in the Koran course certainly allowed me to carry out this research , but also gave me an interesting perspective from which to examine the politicization of religious knowledge and education at a rather turbulent time in Turkey 's economic and political history . To appreciate the political importance and sensitivity of religious instruction , it is necessary to understand the nature of secularism in Turkey and most especially the relationship between the Turkish state and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ especially since the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the foundation of the modern Turkish republic in 1923 , Turkey 's government and major social institutions have been staunchly secular . The early Republican government , led by Mustafa Kemal Atatrk , saw secularization as essential to the creation of a truly modern nation-state . Indeed , Kemalism ( the ideology based on the doctrines of Mustafa Kemal ) promotes what it considers to be secularism , along with nationalism , economic development and Westernization , as the ideological basis of the modern Turkish Republic . Many aspects of Turkish society--from education and governance to the organization of daily life--were officially secularized over a relatively short period of time . However , Turkish secularism more closely resembles French laicit than American-style secularism . Where secularism in the United States strives for a complete separation of church and state , laicism ( laiklik ) in Turkey strives to bring religion under the control of the state . The idea is that religion should not be in the hands of a powerful and independent cleric elite ( ulema ) that can rival @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the non-religious state , where it no longer poses a potential threat to government hegemony ( Davison 2003:341 ; White 2002:4 ) . As such , Turkish secularism--or laicism--does not make assumptions of religious neutrality or objectivity in the public sphere , but instead religion is tightly defined and legally subordinated to the political establishment . Religion is controlled by a branch of government , the Directorate of Religious Affairs , whose main task , according to the 1982 Turkish constitution , is to regulate Islam , especially its public expressions , such that it guarantees that these expressions accord with the needs of the state ( Yavuz 2000:29 ; Yilmaz 2005:388 ) . Controlling religious education is , of course , an essential method of " domesticating " religion and guaranteeing that it remains relatively harmless . Over the course of the Westernizing reforms in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire , education became more and more secular ( Mardin 1993:350-353 ) . Since the founding of the modern Turkish republic in 1923 , compulsory general education has been secular , ending once and for all the influences of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Republican government put all education under the control of the Ministry of Education , developing a unified curriculum and educational system that would articulate a particular cultural and moral identity--a Turkish identity--to be shared by the ( Turkish ) citizens of the new nation ( Kaplan 2006:39 ) . This identity included a very particular interpretation of Islam that was encoded in official religious educational practices and institutions , while alternative interpretations were condemned and often declared illegal by the Turkish government . Yet many members of Turkish society have found the government treatment of religion in education to be problematic for many reasons that I will explore in this paper , and they have attempted to establish alternative forms of religious education outside the official channels . The Sincan Koran course is an example of one such alternative mode of religious education . I will examine some of the course participants ' attitudes toward certain education policies , such as the restriction on headscarves in schools , but I will focus especially on their attitudes toward state-sanctioned religious education . This includes the religion courses required in all primary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ geared toward creating religious officials ) , and the state-run Koran courses . While the participants in general did not object to the existence of these educational opportunities , they saw them as fundamentally flawed since these forms of education rested on an interpretation of Islam that differed strikingly from their own interpretations . That is , the Turkish state promotes the notion that Islam can be separated out from other types of social activities , including politics , to create a neutral , non-religious public space and institutions . In the case of Turkey , a " secular " public sphere is one in which religious symbols and practices--except for those sanctioned by the state itself-are prohibited . Thus , the state may proscribe such lifestyle choices as wearing Muslim headscarves and clothing in public spaces , praying in unauthorized places such as in public schools , and participating in unofficial religious education . Such an interpretation of Islam rests on several connected assumptions that the Koran course participants found problematic , sometimes even distressful . The first assumption is that there is one essential , apolitical Islam that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( n1 ) Other religious practices are deemed political and in violation of the secular status quo that supposedly characterizes the Turkish public sphere . The state , especially the military and judiciary , has established itself as a protector of laicism , and therefore has the right to limit these practices in the public sphere . The state can claim that religious freedom is maintained because they are not necessarily condemning these practices all together , but are simply excluding them from the public realm . The practices may be performed in the privacy of the family home or to some extent in designated ( and state-controlled ) places of worship , so that they do " no harm , " that is , present no danger to the political status quo . This notion rests on yet two more assumptions that are also bound up in the official interpretation of religion 's role in society . One assumption is that this official " essential " Islam is defined primarily by a particular belief or faith , whereas religious practice--especially certain practices that violate the Republican state 's definition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ without harm to the practitioner or to Islam itself . As Ihsan Yilmaz puts it ( 2005:392 ) , " In Republican epistemology , religion is imprisoned in the conscience of the individual and in places of worship in society and is not allowed to mix with and interfere in public life . " In a word , there is a " Protestantization " of Islam among many Kemalist Turks and in official attitudes toward religious practice and education . The official line goes something like this : religious belief is something of the heart , something that one accepts , and belief or faith is the essence of religion . Faith trumps " works , " belief is more important than deed . As such , Kemalists may claim , as many have , that it is not necessary to wear a Muslim headscarf , refrain from alcohol or pray five times a day to be a " true " Muslim . Talal Asad ( 1993,2003 ) has commented on the Protestant bias in Western and anthropological understandings of religion and the problems such a bias creates in analyses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category , " Asad critiques Clifford Geertz 's famous definition of religion ( 1973 ) for its cognitivist slant ( see also Bell 1992 ) . That is , Geertz 's definition of religion has construed it as being about the moods and motivations of individuals ; religion is primarily symbolic and cognitive and it only secondarily concerns actual practice . As such , many religious actions may be optional , excluded without any " real " harm to the essence of religion , namely , individual private belief . In Turkey , as exemplified in the experiences of the Koran course participants , pious Muslims are expected to leave certain practices at home when they venture into the public sphere and into public educational institutions . The veil may be shed without harming a woman 's " true " ( essential ) Muslim identity . Only certain types of religious knowledge may be promulgated in the public sphere , while others must be kept inside the privacy of the home where it " belongs . " Asad ( 2003 ) has also illuminated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ depends on conceptions of secularism and the public sphere that are highly problematic , especially in non-European societies. ( n2 ) The common supposition in Western liberal political theory is that secularism creates a neutral or objective arena--the public sphere--that allows for people to agree to disagree about religion . Certainly , in the United States the conception of secularism is one in which the state is to have no large role in American religion at both the institutional and personal practitioner 's level . The government and public sphere are supposed to be neutral toward religions and remain outside the realm of religious activity . In this conception , the secular public sphere operates on a tenet of what Charles Taylor ( 1988 ) calls " overlapping consensus , " where people with different religious viewpoints and motives may subscribe to the same set of political principles . Conflicts that arise over what those political principles may be are resolved through negotiation and compromise . Asad ( 2003 ) takes issue with this notion of the secular as a neutral public arena in which certain " supra-religious " norms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a process of give and take among equals , but most often the parties negotiating over what principles dominate in a secular society are not equals . More commonly , " negotiation amounts to the exchange of unequal concessions in situations where the weaker party has no choice " ( Asad 2003:6 ) . The result of such power relationships is that over time , the realm of " the secular " is carved out by those with power , a process that excludes many who have little or no political voice . In this analysis , the secular public sphere can hardly be called a neutral or objective arena of public interaction . In the case of Turkey , the Kemalist state has determined what types of religious activity are permissible in public spaces and what are not , supposedly in the interests of maintaining a laicist public sphere . But by placing these limitations on " autonomous Islamic practices " ( Cinar 2005:18 ) , the state also claims authority over what many people-including the Koran course students-considered to be private lifestyle issues , such as decisions about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In a word , the state has not only defined the nature of the public sphere in a restrictive way , but has labeled " public " those things that others see as corresponding to the " private " sphere or to the freedom of choice about private concerns . Moreover , the Turkish republican regime casts its restrictions on autonomous religious practice as a matter of national security . For most staunch Kemalists , Iran , Saudi Arabia , and Afghanistan under the Taliban serve as frightening examples of what happens when Islam gets mixed up in or takes over public institutions : religious authoritarianism and repression automatically result . They can claim that by limiting autonomous Islamic practices , they are only working in Turkey 's best interests , thereby justifying the use of force to defend its particular version of Islam . For the students in the Koran course and others like them , the questions of the definition of religion and the nature of the public sphere were not merely theoretical . The tensions between the state 's and the students ' understandings of religion affected @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ They have seen first-hand how some violations of the state interpretation of Islam have led to strong reactions from legal and law enforcement institutions . Women in headscarves ( including several of the Koran course participants ) have been banned from public institutions , such as universities , schools , courtrooms , and even the parliament ( Shively 2005 ) . Some have been detained and questioned by state security personnel . Teachers who are caught straying from the state religious education curriculum may lose their jobs . Public officials and others who wander too far from official Islam have been fined , jailed or barred from politics on charges of irtica ( " reactionary politics " ) , blclk ( separatism ) , or of " insulting Turkishness. " ( n3 ) For those Muslims who find fault with the state 's interpretation of Islam and wish to develop practices and lifestyles they see as being more in accord with the will of God , often the only option is to participate in the many " underground " ( illegal , unauthorized ) courses or organizations that teaches a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ will highlight one such course and the attitudes and ideas of the women who participated in it.The People and Place The Sincan Koran course was led by a charismatic , intelligent and articulate woman whom I will call Meryem . She was very young ( 19 years old ) at the beginning of my fieldwork and had only completed the then-mandatory fifth grade public school education . Instead of proceeding on to middle school , she had entered a relatively rigorous two-year Koran study course in a residential program offered by a religious organization her family had belonged to ( see below ) . She had no formal education beyond this but was serious in her self-study . When I first visited her home , I was surprised to see several shelves of hefty religious books in the sitting room--books are relatively uncommon in lower middle class families , such as her own . She reported that she had read all the books when I asked her about them , and over the course of my fieldwork , I would often see her take down a volume to study or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , as well as her ability to discuss or speak about almost any religious topic , gained her neighborhood reputation as a young woman who is knowledgeable about the Koran and Islamic law and practices . She had in fact worked as a sort of preacher at a local religious radio station two years before I first met her , when she was only 17 . I first met Meryem and her mother , Hatice , in 1998 in their lower middle-class home in Sincan , a religiously conservative provincial city just northwest of Ankara . Much of that first conversation was geared toward informing me about what Meryem thought were basic principles of Islam in Turkey and her opinions about certain political issues that were raging in the Turkish press at the time , most especially issues regarding education and the tesettr , a form of Muslim women 's dress that is viewed with much suspicion by the Kemalist establishment. ( n4 ) She also mentioned that she was the hoca ( teacher ) of a daily women 's Koran course in Sincan . The group followed a fairly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ every day , five days a week , to pursue several aspects of religious study . They would study spoken and written Arabic and spend almost half of the class memorizing and reciting passages from the Koran assigned by Meryem . After the recitations , Meryem would most often give a sohbet ( a sermon ) based on the day 's Koran passages . Other times Meryem and the students would discuss other aspects of Islamic belief and practice , such as the life of the Prophet Muhammad ( siyer ) or the lives of the other prophets and prominent philosophers and saints in Muslim history . The class would usually end with glasses of tea and further discussion of the religious topics or , more often , the participants would turn to political subjects . To my delight , Meryem asked me to join the class as much as I could . Over the next year I participated in the course once or twice a week and joined in other neighborhood activities , such as political rallies , speeches , religious meetings and community discussion groups . This course @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for participant observation fieldwork on how the political issues swirling around Islam in Turkey were experienced in the everyday life of religiously observant women ( cf. Gle 1996 , zdalga 1998 , Saktanber 2002 ) . The Koran course was designed for like-minded women in the neighborhood who for various reasons chose not to participate in official , state-run Koran courses . These women were generally young and only a few were married with children , though the membership of the group varied considerably while I was there . Most of the students came from lower middle-class immigrant families that populated the area of Sincan they inhabited . The educational situation of the students varied : some only had rudimentary formal education , some had graduated from primary school , some from high school , and occasionally a small number of college students took part in the course as well . As such , the course attracted women from many different backgrounds who shared an interest in deepening their knowledge of and devotion to the principles of Islam . They all wore the tesettr , which marked them off as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Meryem herself was the eldest child in a family of immigrants from the Black Sea region to the Ankara area . The populations of all the major cities in Turkey have swelled in recent decades with rural-to-urban migrants seeking work and better living conditions . These are the inhabitants of the varos , the proverbial immigrant neighborhood-suburb , which Jenny White ( 2002:59 ) describes as " the urban location of a set of characteristics--poverty , rural origin , Muslim lifestyle , veiling , patriarchy . " These characteristics stand in contrast to the dominant Turkish notions of modernity , " characterized by middle-class , urban values and lifestyles , secular clothing and the autonomous individual . " The varos , " infect " the modern city , in Kemalist eyes , with a cultural pollution of " backwardness . " Meryem 's family--as well as the other students and much of Sincan--is varos , part of this wave of migrants who have managed to create a comfortable home in the city , while rejecting some of the Kemalist ideals traditionally associated with city life in Turkey . Over the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ become more firmly established in the cities and has experienced some upward socio-economic mobility , the lifestyles and religious identity associated with them has gained some degree of social capital . Especially since the moderately Islamic Justice and Development Party ( AKP ) gained political dominance in 2002 , all of the signs of Islamic identity have become more and more associated with a prosperous middle-class throughout Turkey . Indeed , the Kemalists make up a minority in Turkish society and their dominance is ebbing , as demonstrated by the growing popularity of the AKP ( White 2007 ) . But since the Kemalists have had the upper hand in Turkey 's most powerful institutions--especially in the military and the judiciary--their views have dominated Turkish political discourse . Sincan itself had ( and still has ) a notoriety among Kemalists for being religiously " conservative . " ( n6 ) As I began my fieldwork in 1997 , the Turkish government had just gone through a major upheaval when the coalition government headed by the Islamist-leaning Welfare Party had been forced out of power by the Kemalist military in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . The party itself was soon after banned and its leader , Necmettin Erbakan , was barred from politics . Because Sincan is famous for its opposition to many of the government 's laicist policies , Sincan was a site of confrontation when the military sent in tanks to roll through its streets in the days leading up to the February 28 , 1997 " coup . " The state 's nervousness about the potential power of Islam to shape politics goes back to before the founding of the Turkish Republic , but during the 1980s and 1990s the various state institutions and the military--as well as the media organizations largely sympathetic to the state--became hypervigilant to any incursions of Islam into the public sphere and into state institutions . Education was especially politicized in this context , since the state was deeply invested in creating a student body--the future citizens of Turkey--disposed toward the economic , political , military and cultural goals of the modern laicist society ( Kaplan 2006 ; Altinay 2004 ) . Still , autonomous Islamic practices were gaining visibility in the public sphere ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ party politics ( zyrek 2006 ; White 2002 ; Navaro-Yashin 2002 ; Gle 1996 ) . This increased visibility of religiously observant Turks in the public sphere has been a cause of tension for the state , a tension that sometimes erupted into crises , such as the soft coup of 1997 , as well as more recent clashes between supporters of Kemalism and the moderate Islamic political parties in 2007 . The Sincan Koran course and other courses like it have become increasingly popular in Turkey as part of the Islamic Revival or Islamic Awakening that has blossomed in Muslim majority societies around the world since the 1970s ( Mahmood 2005:3 ) . Meryem and her students , as well as many other Turks , embraced the Islamic revival and championed the Islamic parties in all their guises , often attending political events and rallies in support . But Meryem herself was not involved in the local network politics and activism that so successfully mobilized members of various lower class neighborhoods to support the Islamic parties that Jenny White has documented ( 2002 ) . Nor was Meryem 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the many cemaats growing in Turkish society . Cemaats are religious organizations established around or in affiliation with a charismatic leader , or " master " ( seyh or hoca ) , who directs the group in terms of religious belief and practice . Some cemaats are less formal groups associated with the institutionalized , hierarchically organized Sufi orders , or tarikats , that include ecstatic rituals emphasizing direct contact with God ( e.g. , Raudevere 2002 ) . Other cemaats , such as the Glen movement , focus more on proper religious belief and moral behavior with a strong social justice component ( Turam 2007 ; Yavuz and Esposito 2003 ; see also Mardin 1989 ) . Even though such organizations--tarikats and their affiliated groups--were formally outlawed at the time of the Turkish revolution , the cemaats and Sufi orders remain popular and influential in Turkish society . Meryem 's family had belonged to the deeply conservative Carsamba cemaati led by Sheik Mahmut Ustaosmanog. lu in the Fatih district of Istanbul , but had cut off their association with that cemaat a number of years before I met them @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the cemaat too isolationist and controlling , and Meryem herself disapproved of the ecstatic aspects of the cemaat 's practices . Meryem 's distancing from large religious and Islamist political organizations might be explained by her caution toward authority of any kind in religious matters , taking to heart the notion that the believer has an unmediated relationship to God . She saw herself as a guide to show other women how to cultivate this relationship and become conscious ( s , uurlu ) Muslims who live their lives according to Islamic precepts . Like the Islamist community described by Ays , e Saktanber ( 2002:164 ) , Meryem and her students sought guidance from Islamic law and tradition , looking to the Prophet Muhammad as the exemplar of Islamic thought and behavior , while trying to accommodate this idealized past to the requirements of the contemporary society . But unlike the community studied by Saktanber , Meryem 's course functioned outside the more established religious organizations , such as the cemaats and the Islamist parties , and actively carved out a relatively independent space in which women could create @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ receiving religious instruction from a more remote , official and usually male authority.A Recurring Theme : Education and Veiling As I became more involved in the Koran course , it quickly became apparent to me that while religious instruction formed the basis of the course , the discussion of religion almost always had a political slant . By " politics , " though , I do not only refer to the machinations of political parties and the structures of formal institutions , though these issues certainly came up in the Koran course discussions . Rather , the term politics is used here in its broadest sense to refer to the activities of daily life by which individuals formulate and act out their identity and their place in society . As Alev Cinar states ( 2005:33 ) , politics is " an ongoing activity of negotiations and confrontations in daily life through which hierarchies of power , political agency , and subjectivity are constructed . If politics involves the generation of power relations through various interventions in different fields of daily life , politics needs to be conceptualized as inseparably associated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of politics as intertwined with what are traditionally considered " cultural " concerns was implicitly accepted by the Koran course students . The course discussions--which involved both Koranic interpretation of and concerns about activities of daily life , such as lifestyle choices about clothing , food , recreation , family life , and education--had intense political consequences for the students and for society at large . In a society like Turkey where the state has the power to define religion and where unauthorized religious practices in the public sphere are deemed dangerous , religion and its various expressions are inherently political . Part of Meryem 's goal as a teacher , it seemed , was to convey what she interpreted to be the daily life choices that would be most pleasing to God , while acknowledging and attempting to deal with the political fallout of those choices . For example , in one of the earliest sessions I attended , the class studied verses from the 7th Surah ( A'raf , or " The Heights " ) , which the women recited by heart and which provided the basis of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which translates as ( Pickthall nd . ) , " Attribute they as partners to Allah those who created naught , but are themselves created . " Meryem adopted a common interpretation of this verse : that one should not let someone else change that which God has created . This puts that person in the place of God or makes him equal to God . So if some one tells you not to do something commanded in the Koran , then you should not listen to such persons . These people put themselves in the place of God while they are really created by God . In her sermon and the following discussion , Meryem applied this commandment to the controversy that raged then--and now--around the conservative Muslim veil , or tesettr . The so-called " headscarf dispute " ( Olson 1985 ; see also Gle 1996 , zdalga 1997 , Saktanber 2006 ) encapsulates many of the major points of contention regarding the place and role of religion in Turkish republican society . In brief , the state bars women from wearing the headscarf in most public schools @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the dominant Kemalist discourse in Turkey , reinforced by the Kemalist media and educational system , which maintains that the revolutionary principles of laicismand modernization that Atatrk established during the formation of the Turkish Republic--including Atatrk 's condemnation of veiling--both liberated Turks from " oppressive " and " backward " Muslim practices of the Ottoman regime and liberated women from the male oppression supposedly typical of Muslim societies . That is , the transformation of women ( especially women 's appearance and place ) has long been equated with the transformation of Turkey . The discourse about veiled women as a " threat " derives partly from their growing visibility since the 1980s . Those Turks who espouse the state 's laicist principles often regard veiled women as visible indices of emergent anti-modern and even dangerous trends in Turkish society . Kemalist authorities , such as university presidents , academics , politicians , and news commentators , have claimed that the tesettr is a most visible sign of radical Islam , and that the wearers of the tesettr are in fact part of an anti-laicist movement bent on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a theocracy based on Muslim law , or Seriat ( see Saktanber 1997:176 ; zdalga 1997:480-483 ) . For example , a former president of Istanbul University , Blent Berkarda , declared that the veil is a first step on the road to an Iranian-style revolution that would bring down the secular government ( Cumhuriyet 1998 ) . Another prominent academician likened the Muslim headscarf to the Nazi swastika ( Abadan-Unat 1998 ) . This type of reaction to the veil is part of the Kemalists ' persistent concern that " the inclusion of signs and symbols associated with Islamic cultural tradition means Islamization of society par excellence " ( Saktanber 2006:24 ) . The notion that the headscarf has essentially political significance denies the complex motivations that inform individual women 's decision to veil . Certainly , the Koran students supported the religious political parties that came and went during the 1980s and 1990s . But other issues , such as a concern for proper modesty and identity politics , also contributed to the upsurge in veiling in the 1980s . Veiled women often articulated a desire to identify @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tastes , lifestyles , and political-social orientations over and against the dominant secularist lifestyles ( see Gle 1996 , Ismail 2004 ) . More importantly , the state 's still-prevalent argument that the tesettr is " really " about politics assumes that other forms of clothing worn in public , such as Western-style clothing , are not political at all . This reflects the Kemalist position that their construction of the public sphere--as well as their rules about what symbols are permitted in that public sphere--is also essentially " neutral " and devoid of political meaning . But clearly for those who are the subjects of Kemalist power , there is nothing neutral about the ban on the tesettr or the imposition of Western clothing standards . The state establishes strict standards in such a way that no matter what the Koran course students wear , it has political significance for them . If they veil , they will be excluded from certain public spaces and institutions . If they do not veil , they will be violating not only their religious beliefs but also will be unwillingly surrendering their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The students were very aware of the fact that given the states construction of the public sphere , female bodies--their bodies--are intensely , explicitly political , and the performance of everyday activities , including wearing certain types of clothing outside the home , becomes a form of political theater . The reliance on bodily symbols as indicative of the nature of the nation as a whole has deep roots in Turkish thought ( see Delaney 1994 , 1991 ) . The Turkish educational system itself promotes and reinforces the political importance of lifestyle choices . As Sam Kaplan has demonstrated ( 2006:103-104 ) , the Turkish educational system persistently promotes a narrative of progress and emancipation that comes to " saturate much of children 's historical consciousness . " This narrative includes the notion that what one wears indicates what place one occupies on the modern-primitive spectrum . The Turkish dominant discourse is that Western style clothing--especially bare-headedness--is a sign of modernity and the veil lies far at the other end of the spectrum . Thus I often heard in the media and in private conversation the firm conviction among @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mentality ) has no place in systems of education and especially not in the universities , which are institutions devoted to enlightenment . In accordance with this view , the Council of Higher Education of Turkey banned the veil from all university campuses in 1982 , though this ban is only intermittently enforced . The ban on the tesettr and the attitude that many Kemalists took toward veiled women were not abstractions for Meryem and her students , but rather , many of the students had suffered directly from the strictures on veiling . Besides being subject to insults in some public places , especially when traveling outside Sincan , several of the students had to face some difficult situations because of their commitment to veiling . One young woman , Fatma , had just left the university after her third year as a biology education major , since her university had suddenly decided to prohibit veiled women from attending class or taking exams . Fatma was given a choice : unveil or leave . She left , never to complete her degree . Her younger sister , Meyda , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rather than unveil , she decided to leave the country and pursue higher education in Australia . Not everyone can afford to make that choice , but she was certainly not the only Turkish woman to leave the country because of the ban on veiling at universities . Meryem herself was hoping to get a high school diploma through an equivalency program , but since the students in the program had to take the exams bareheaded , she often faced a dilemma about whether to continue or not. ( n7 ) The women were quite bitter about what they perceived as the attack on a legitimate Muslim way of life , and the Koran course and the textual passages that formed the basis of the course could easily be applied to the very situations they faced on a daily basis . In the case of the Koran verse from " The Heights , " Meryem argued that when the Kemalists tell women not to wear the headscarves , the Kemalists are putting themselves in an inappropriate position by supposing themselves to be equal to God . Certainly , Meryem and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ did not mean neutrality towards religious practice . As Meryem complained to me in 2007 , " If Turkey was truly secular , they would let us do what we want . Everyone--Muslim , Christian , Jew--could practice religion freely . " The sermon on " The Heights " represents the type of discourse Meryem wielded regularly in the Koran course , a type of discourse that the state finds dangerous and therefore prohibits in official religious education . People who are sympathetic to these views or other " suspect " ideas then must look to other venues to link social and political concerns to religious values . In the view of the Kemalists , such " unauthorized " courses served as arenas in which religion was supposedly politicized ( a process explicitly prohibited by law(n8) ) because the state and its limiting definitions of Islam were open to persistent criticism . Moreover , the Kemalist establishment feared that the courses were potential sites of political mobilization of a religious opposition . While this ban on these courses is only occasionally applied , the state disapproval of and rhetoric against @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deep resentment for religiously observant Turks . As Meryem once complained to me , " Why do they think a bunch of girls in headscarves ( birkac basouml ; rtl kiz ) are a threat to the whole state ? " Official Religious Education in Turkey The Turkish state under the leadership of Atatrk transferred control of the education process from the hands of religious authorities to the Republican government as a way of taming Islam for the purposes of creating a modern , laicist society . Still religious education itself was often seen as crucial to the well-being of the Turkish state and so , except for an eleven-year period from 1938 to 1949 , religious education classes have been included in at least some grades for much of the history of the republic . The logic of this requirement was that the various political and military leaders of Turkey have looked to Islam as a means to try to unify the often fractious political interests and movements in modern Turkish history. ( n9 ) Furthermore , Atatrk and his followers accepted the notion that Islam does provide a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ within the context of the private family . Rather than reject religion altogether , the state concerns itself with maintaining a form of Islam that harmonizes with the principle of laicism and eliminating rival and potentially " subversive " forms of Islamic thought in the Turkish polity ( Kaplan 2006:65n ) . After the 1980 coup and with the formulation of the 1982 constitution , religion courses , called " Religious Culture and Ethics " ( Din Kltr ve Ahlak Bilgisi ) , were made compulsory at primary and secondary levels . An express rationale for compulsory religious education was again the issue of control over religion , not freedom of religion . That is , the state explicitly argued that the state would impart " proper " Islam that is compatible with nationalism and modernity ( Kaplan 2002 ; cf. Starrett 1998 ) . Such an education would guarantee that children should not be unduly influenced by " false " family beliefs or other sources . This rationale for state religious education was made explicit in the standard instruction manual , The Elementary School Program ( in Kaplan 2006:61 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ attention to the wrong and harmful traditions that they encounter in their families and persuade them to get rid of these traditions . " The goal , it seems , is to create a monoculture in which one form of Islam reigns , just as there is to be one culture ( Turkish ) , one language ( Turkish ) , and one future ( progressive ) . Education serves to bring the people into this monoculture , so that " order " and " progress " are given more importance than ideas such as freedom and liberty ( zdalga 1999:437 ) . Furthermore , at least in the elementary schools , any teacher certified for elementary school instruction could teach religion , not a religious specialist . Since most school teachers in Turkey tend to be deeply committed to Kemalist principles , religious instruction tends to be tepid , hewing close to the Kemalist bone . An elementary-school religion teacher I interviewed in Istanbul expressed an attitude toward religion that was right in line with the state 's , an attitude I encountered repeatedly among self-identified Kemalists . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ compatible with modernity and enlightenment , the teacher told me . All other practices are " backward " ( gereci ) and " ignorant " ( bilincsiz ) , if not downright dangerous to the state . My religiously conservative informants in Sincan and elsewhere were very aware of the state 's interpretation of Islam and grated against it . What is " harmless " Islam that is compatible to the national interests of Turkey , according to the Turkish Ministry of Education ? As in any situation where religion is taught in the public schools , problems always arise as to what interpretation of religion should prevail . The Ministry of Education has issued directives in favor of an " official standard interpretation " of the Hanefi school of Islam , which is the most common ( but not the only ) tradition in Turkey . Religious instruction also tends to be very general . As Elisabeth zdalga has noted ( 1999:434 ) , this standardization of religious instruction creates a very watered down and repetitive course content , where what was taught in primary school is simply repeated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ curriculum and textbooks lay out the beliefs and practices of basic Islam ( the Five Pillars , the Six Beliefs ) and emphasize how good Muslims should conduct themselves in relationship to family , community , and nation . Nationalist concerns frame the material , so that the textbooks invariably open with the words of the Turkish National Anthem , Istiklal Marsi ( " Independence March " ) , as well as a portrait of Atatrk and a copy of his famous " Speech to the Youth . " There are also long sections describing the proper attitudes and conduct incumbent upon every Turkish citizen . The state-sponsored Koran courses for adults , usually held in neighborhood mosques , offered a curriculum similar to the Religious Culture and Ethics school courses . For this reason , these Koran courses were unpalatable options for many religiously observant Turks . As Meryem complained , the state courses were tightly controlled and fairly insipid , taught by teachers who are certified by the Directorate of Religious Affairs to give religious instruction according to the needs of the laicist state . These courses were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ certificate when completed , the certificate is n't good for anything . One could not even become a Koran course teacher with this certificate . In her own Koran course Meryem used a standard publication from the Directorate of Religious Affairs , a text called Basic Religious Information ( Temel Dini Bilgiler , Yazici 1997 ) . But she only assigned the parts she approved of . For instance , she thought the sections on belief and prayer were adequate and so integrated them into her course , but she preferred a more in-depth study of Siyer--the Life of the Prophet ( she used a Turkish translation of Martin Ling 's Life of Mohammad ) . Meryem completely rejected the Directorate 's interpretation of morals ( ahlak ) as presented in its publication . She complained that it includes only very basic ideas about morality , such as being kind to others and helping the poor . Since it is a book from the government , it spends a lot of time talking about how to be a good citizen , how it is important to fight for one 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Atatrk . Instead of the generalized , bland instructions on morality offered in the official religion course curriculum , Meryem and her students were interested in a more rigorous morality that emphasized lifestyle choices by which the individual could shape her whole life according to the will of God . They maintained similar concepts of ethics as those expressed by the women studied by Saba Mahmood in Egypt ( 2005 ) , in that they saw disciplined pious activity as a means of creating and enhancing devotion to God , rather than assuming that ethical thought ( belief ) must precede and give rise to pious activity , as assumed in most Western , specifically Kantian conceptions of ethics . That is , Kantian theories of ethics assume that ethical behavior follows naturally from ethical thought--again , a cognitive bias--whereas the women in Mahmood 's study , as well as the women in the Sincan Koran course , interpreted the relationship between thought and behavior in more dynamic ways . They believed that disciplined pious activities shape a certain desired religious subjectivity , which in turn inspires consciously ethical behavior @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as inherently ethical since the activity not only reflects their piety but also shapes it . Thus the Koran course members concerned themselves not only with wearing appropriately modest clothing as a means of pleasing God , but of creating a moral attitude and social order in which sexual desire is expressed in appropriate ways . Women must veil , I was told on many occasions , so that men may not be provoked by women 's beauty and women are not tempted to put themselves on display for men . As one young student put it : " An apple will rot faster if it does n't have its skin . " She was suggesting that the veil is necessary for a woman to maintain her purity internally . That is , the woman needs a headscarf as a psycho-social mechanism that prevents her from stepping outside the social norms of feminine modesty and deference . A woman on display--without the veil--will be spoiled no matter what , even without the interference of potentially harmful men . For her , the veil is essential to the identity of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ moral issue of great concern among the course members . Rules relating to gender segregation was also a focus of discussion . Environments in which men and women could properly inhabit their separate gendered spheres were sought out : gender segregated education , tea parks , meeting facilities , etc. , were all seen as preferable to corresponding non-segregated spaces . The various resort towns along the Western coast of Turkey , with their displays of bodies and the endless parties and alcohol consumption , were specially condemned , but the women also were concerned to avoid television programs and films that display unchaste and impious lifestyles . Other issues , such as dietary restrictions , were recurrent sources of conversation as well . Such detailed understandings of ethics and ethical behavior had no place in the state religion education classes and curriculum , where ethics is treated only in generalized and rather simplistic terms . By all accounts , then , required religious courses seemed deeply inadequate . For laicist students , religion class represented only a boring burden of meaningless repetition--a complaint I heard from a large number @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ laicist parents I encountered , it was a source of pride if a child earned poor grades in the religion course . For pious students , the courses were just superficial and unsatisfactory. ( n10 ) Pious students must look elsewhere for more meaningful religious instruction . The state does offer other options : there are religious high schools , called imam-hatip schools , which offer a mixture of secular curriculum ( maths , sciences , history , Western languages ) and religious instruction ( e.g. , Koran recitation , Arabic , Siyer , Exegesis ) . These schools also offer separate instruction for girls and boys , and girls are usually permitted to wear the headscarf . As such , imam-hitap high schools offer an acceptable option for families who would never send a pubescent daughter ( who should be veiled ) to a co-ed school in which the veil is prohibited . For both boys and girls from pious families , these high schools have been quite popular and are relatively pervasive in Turkish cities with the surge in rural-to-urban migration . Indeed , the number of imam-hatip @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1990s ( zdalga 1999:426 ) . But over the past two decades as the Islamist movement in Turkey has taken a more prominent role in Turkish politics , the state has taken measures to control of religious education in many arenas . The imam-hatip schools have been subject to special scrutiny since the Kemalist establishment has suspected that the schools are at best arenas in which the Islamist-leaning political parties gained great influence and at worst incubators of religious radicalism . One great fear has been that the imam-hatip schools are places in which religious youth become radicalized by cemaats . Thus the imam-hitap schools have been under strong and continuous pressure to maintain a " moderate " curricula and remain non-political--that is , follow the supposedly " neutral " religious curriculum established by the state ( Pak 2004 ) . This has meant , in practice , that any suggestion of " political Islam , " such as a teacher expressing open support for the religious-right political parties , has been cause for legislative action to curtail the influence of unauthorized Islam in these contexts . One way the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to take steps to reduce their popularity . While previously imam-hatip students were only permitted to go on to theology departments in the universities , the laws were changed in 1974 allowing imamhatip graduates to enter any university department , so long as they passed the qualifying exams like all other students . This opened university doors to many more imam-hatip graduates and the number of imamhitap schools expanded rapidly in the post-1974 era . But in 1999 , the laws were changed back so that imam-hatip students would be penalized on the university entrance exams ( that is , given an automatic point deficit ) , thus making it much more difficult for students to enter the university at all or place well in the university system . This resulted in a dramatic drop in enrollment in imam-hatip schools . Another means of controlling the imam-hatip schools was to eliminate the middle school option . Earlier , imam-hatip education was available at both middle school and high school levels--that is , students could attend the imam-hatip schools once they were beyond the minimum fifth-grade level education required by the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increased so that all students must complete the eighth grade . This new law in effect closed down all middle-grade imam-hatip schools , since an imam-hatip education could not fulfill the state educational requirement . Part of the government 's argument for this new eight-year education requirement was that the middle school years ( 11 to 14 years of age ) are a particularly vulnerable time period in a child 's intellectual development , and if middle-school age children attend the imam-hatip schools , such children could be " brain-washed " ( beyin yikama ) by the supposedly anti-state religious right represented in the imam-hatip schools . A middle-grade education in the state schools would ensure that children of this vulnerable age would be " protected " from the indoctrination of the imam-hatip schools . I heard this " brain-washing " argument from a number of sources--not only the mainstream media , but also from Kemalist academicians and well-educated elites who saw the closing of the imam-hatip middle schools as vital to state security in the face of a perceived Islamist threat. ( n11 ) Such a concern over the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a prevalent notion that undergirds much of religious education policy : that the Kemalist state needs to save the people from themselves , especially from primitive or " false " religious traditions--such as veiling or gender segregation rules--that hatch in the family context or in unruly religious communities and threaten to contaminate the Kemalist order . One religiously observant university student interpreted the Kemalist position cynically : " The state makes sure that children are n't brainwashed into unauthorized interpretations of Islam by brainwashing the children first with authorized interpretations of Islam . " There are a few other educational options for religiously conscientious Turks . Most prominently , the religious movement of Fetullah Glen has established an international network of prestigious schools available to students who qualify . The Glen schools provide a pointedly secular , scientific education , which in part accounts for the Turkish state 's sometimes hesitant accommodation of these schools . But even as the education is thoroughly secular , students are obliged to board in school dormitories that are closely supervised and in which a religiously observant life-style is encouraged and even required ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ legal , officially acceptable options for religious education , a point state officials readily make when criticizing those who would set-up alternative forms of religious instruction . But for many pious individuals , these options remain unworkable for several reasons . I have already mentioned the complaints lodged against the religion courses in the schools and the state Koran courses . And even if the imam-hatip education or the Glen schools may be more satisfying to religious conservatives , not everyone wants to or can attend these schools . High school is not compulsory in Turkey at this time , and not all eligible teenagers plan to go to high school . The Glen schools are highly competitive and therefore not open to everyone who would like to attend . For those beyond high school age , both the Glen and the imam-hatip schools are never an option . Most crucially , all the members of the Koran course made it clear that religious study is a life-long pursuit that is important to the maintenance and enhancement of piety . One does not simply establish once and for all an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " for being a Muslim . Rather , good Muslims pursue religious understanding and persistently attempt to shape one 's life according to the will of God . This is an on-going struggle ( cihad ) , as many observant Muslims reminded me . The situations and innovations of the age--and of any age--require constant return to scripture and on-going guidance from religious adepts . A diploma from an imam-hatip high school or a certificate from a Koran course is only one step in this continuing journey toward self-perfection . The repetitious and narrow curriculum offered in state-sponsored religious education programs are incomplete guides in the journey at best , and at worst , steps in the wrong direction . The most common complaint that pious Muslims lodge against state sponsored religious education is the issue of control--the control of content , the control of interpretation , the control of curriculum , and of course , the control of political discourse . The Turkish state dictates religious content in all public contexts in order to make sure religious messages do not clash with or threaten state definitions of religion . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Islam itself has been categorized and marginalized by the Turkish state . They just want to teach Islam the way they understand Islam--spiritually , socially , ritually , as well as politically--without interference . The Koran course students and many observant Muslims argue that this is a basic right of the freedom of conscience and belief ( vicdan ve inanc zgrlg ) . But " uncontrolled , " autonomous religion is precisely what the Turkish establishment finds so utterly threatening , enough so to establish laws forbidding religious instruction outside of state supervision . While the laws are often aimed at the cemaats , who may use religion courses to organize militant opposition groups , they have the effect of suppressing all types of independent religious instruction . In an effort to keep the public sphere " free " from problematic Islam , the state reached into what the Koran course students considered to be their private lives , dictating how they should dress and how they should practice their religion . As I have mentioned , unauthorized Koran courses are not uncommon , especially in conservative neighborhoods in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ status of the neighborhood Koran courses are not a great cause for concern . As with many laws in Turkey , it is difficult for the government to enforce its ban on a relatively widespread ( and popular ) practice , and so it does n't try very hard--except when the state feels itself threatened by the religious right , as it did following the " soft coup " that ended the Welfare government in 1997 . Since Sincan had been a major site of military action leading up to the coup , the women of the Koran course were still quite nervous about their own situation during the period of my fieldwork , and they took steps to conceal what it was they were doing , such as meeting in different homes every day . The students told me with some fascination that Meryem could receive a five-year jail sentence if they were caught . The extent to which this was a genuine threat was not clear , but there were enough stories circulating in both the print media and in private conversations about teachers , cemaat leaders , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or being given fines or jail sentences that the threat felt real . The women in the course told me several such " stories " they had heard about the state treatment of pious Muslims . One student reported that a village woman who was reading the Koran aloud in her own house , and soldiers came , dragged her into the street and killed her . Meryem told me another story , in which a certain singer would sometimes vocalize the melody by using the sound , " hooo " ( like humming ) . But " Hoo " is one of the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah , and after the 1980 revolution during the repressive presidency of General Kenan Evren ( 1980-1989 ) , the man was given a punishment for using religion in his songs . Both of these stories are most likely apocryphal . Two well educated religious men I reported them to doubted their truth , though these same men also regaled me with stories of religious individuals who had lost their jobs or had been fined or jailed for their beliefs and practices @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ course students ' sense of intimidation from the Kemalist government . Certainly , this theme of besetment from Kemalist authorities recurred in Meryem 's sermons , so , for example , Meryem frequently likened the Turkish government to the Pharaoh of Egypt ( Firavun ) , while pious Muslims , such as the inhabitants of Sincan , were like the oppressed holy ones , Musa and Harun ( Moses and Aaron ) , seeking escape so they could establish a proper religious community.Conclusion : Tame Islam vs . Wild Islam The Kemalist tendency to privilege the personal , interior aspects of religion over the exterior , social aspects results in the expectation that " good " Turks will keep Islam ( especially those aspects of Islam at variance with state expectations ) in the private realm , out of the public sphere and certainly out of public institutions such as schools . Indeed , the state 's conception of the " private sphere " seemed very narrowly construed and at times seemed almost synonymous with " hidden " --at least hidden from the very watchful gaze of the state . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ them quite clearly objected to the government 's attitude toward and control of public religious activity , especially because of the assumptions that the state makes about the nature of religion and secularism as categories . Turkey deliberately adopted the Western liberal concept of secularism that depends on a very specific idea of what constitutes " religion " --an idea that does not easily accommodate non-Western , especially Muslim , understandings of religion . The concept of secularism has required that the category " religion " be isolated from other arenas of human interaction , such as " ethics " or " politics " ( Asad 2003:2 ) . In Turkey this has translated into the belief that Islam can and should be practiced only in certain ways and in certain places . Other religious activities not deemed proper for the public sphere should be discarded , or at least kept hidden in the privacy of the home , even if these activities--such as choice of clothing or forms of knowledge--might be more often thought of as individual freedoms available to all citizens . Since Islam is primarily about " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ policy , one can shed unwanted religious practices without harm to " true " Islam . Thus a woman can discard the headscarf and still be a true Muslim . An individual can drink alcohol or skip the Ramazan fast and still be truly Muslim . Here , practice is secondary to belief and is therefore dispensable . The Islamic practices that do prevail in the expansively defined public sphere , especially in state institutions , have been properly " tamed , " that is , made to fit the laicist , nationalist needs of Turkey . Policy regarding religious education is thus geared toward this domestication process . All other forms of religious education are de jure ( if not always de facto ) prohibited for fear they may hatch some imagined form of " wild " Islam--Islam bent on bringing down the " secularist " state . In a word , the Turkish state of Mustafa Kemal Atatrk has found the " essence " of Turkish Islam and that essence should be satisfactory . This " proper " --that is , neutral--Islam is supposedly compatible with nationalism and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ traditional beliefs or other " harmful " sources . And it is the Kemalist establishment ( government , courts , military ) that has decided what those so-called " harmful traditions " are . I do not mean to suggest that Meryem 's course represents " genuine " Islam and the state 's form is less genuine . That is , I am not reversing the state 's evaluation of " true " vs. " false " forms of Islam , though the students ' own goal in the Koran course was to develop an understanding of what for them was genuine or " clean " ( temiz ) Islam . Rather , I am arguing that the state 's concept of Islam runs afoul of many other interpretations of Islam at work in Turkish society--and the interpretation in the members of the Koran course was only one such alternative conception of Islam . Yet the state has the power and authority to enforce its own form of Islam over and against the views and wishes of many of its citizens . In fact , it seems fair to argue @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Islamists , since they attempt to impose by law and force a particular interpretation of Islam , while the moderate AK party and its supporters , such as the students in the Koran course , are closer to true civil secularists , since they have articulated a desire to allow for less state control and more freedom of religious practice. ( n12 ) In any case , the Kemalist state has set up a very useful dichotomy : " true " acceptable Islam and " bad " dangerous Islam , which runs parallel to ( and precedes ) the " Good Muslim-Bad Muslim " opposition prevalent in American political language after the attacks of September 11 , 2001 . As Mahmood Mamdani has pointed out ( 2004 ) , much rhetoric in the US media and political speeches aimed to distinguish good Muslims from bad Muslims , such as those that supported the terrorist attacks . As Mamdani noted ( 2004:24 ) , in this rhetoric " good Muslims are modern , secular , and Westernized , and bad Muslims are doctrinal , antimodern , and virulent . " Moreover @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stems from the Muslims themselves--the good ones accommodate change ; the bad ones are disgruntled , obscurantist and dangerous , rather than legitimately angry at the historical injustices that have been perpetrated against them . In the Turkish case , this dichotomization most obviously acts to polarize the political field , to create a good " us " vs. a bad " them . " By homogenizing and objectifying " Islamism " to include anyone that objects to the state 's definition of religion , the Kemalist establishment solidifies its own political position as protectors of the modern laicist state . These guardians--especially the military and the judicial system--can then act as the deployers of legitimate violence against the so-called threats posed by this " Islamist " monolith . For pious Muslims the Turkish state 's conception of religion as essentially cognitive , private , and pushed into the shadowy " corners " of society is in direct opposition to Muslim history and belief . For them , the Turkish Kemalist establishment has bought into imperialist doctrine , thereby jettisoning genuine Islam in the name of modernity . Many pious @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ doctrine that violates their understandings of religion , and they break Turkish state law in order to fulfill the laws of God . Women wear the headscarf in public institutions or people establish unauthorized Koran courses in their neighborhoods . They attempt to bring their understanding of religion out of the hidden corners of society to make space for themselves in the public sphere.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research for this article was made possible by grants from the Wenner-Gren Foundation , the Institute of Turkish Studies , and the Sachar Fund of Brandeis University . I would like to thank Louis Cristillo , Fida Adely , Kenneth Guest , and the members of the Middle East and Muslim World Education Studies Society of Teachers College , Columbia University , for their comments on various drafts of this work.FOOTNOTES ( n1 ) From the perspective of secularism , the Turkish state 's position vis--vis religion has not been monolithic and unchanging . According to Ihsan Yilmaz ( 2005 : 386 ) , " different interests , power groups , elite and segments within the state have their different agendas , visions and ideas @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ if not within politics . From time to time , the emphasis of the state on this role of Islam changes in accordance with conjecture , socio-politics and geo-politics . " While I agree that there has not been a single state Islam , it is in fact the state that designates what form of religious practice is acceptable in the public sphere , which leaves those who do not agree with the state 's conceptions of Islam vulnerable to state controls . ( n2 ) The problem of defining the " public sphere " in Muslim societies is a point of discussion in a number of academic works . See , for example , Salvatore and Levine 2005 , Cinar 2005 , Mahmood 2005 , Deeb 2006 , Turam 2007. ( n3 ) The crackdown on people who violate official secularism tends to be sporadic , often propelled by larger political issues . Certainly , students and teachers in the public K-12 schools are consistently barred from veiling , but other violations are randomly enforced , often in reaction to a general upsurge in concern about the rise of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ new form of veiling in that appeared in Turkey in the early 1980s . It generally consists of a large headscarf that covers the hair and drapes loosely over the shoulders , sometimes worn with a long , shape-concealing overcoat , though the practice of wearing a coat has waned over the 2000s. ( n5 ) My fieldwork was multi-sited : I was involved in research in another neighborhood near Ankara and one in Istanbul from 1997 to 1999 , with further visits in the summers of 2004 , 2006 , and 2007 . The material for this paper draws primarily from the participant observation fieldwork in Sincan in 1998-1999. ( n6 ) I am reluctant to label pious individuals as " conservative , " since there are many different kinds of conservatism in Turkey , including Kemalism . In this context , I use terms such as " observant " or " pious " to describe the practitioners such as the women in the Sincan course who see themselves as practicing a more conscious ( s , uurlu ) and rigorous form of Islam than do Kemalists ( see @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Turks , regardless of their political orientation , see themselves as Muslim in that they believe in the basic principles of Islam . ( n7 ) Meryem was able to complete her program , though it took a number of years . The ban on the veil in universities depended on people enforcing it . Often exam proctors would turn a blind eye to the presence of veiled women in exams , though obviously one could not consistently count on the kindness of strangers . ( n8 ) Article 1 of the 1925 Law for the Maintenance of Order made " exploitation of religion toward political ends " a capital crime ( Kaplan 2006:65n ) . Though this law was eventually repealed , the " use of religion for political purposes " ( Demirel in zdalga 1999:438 ) is seen as subversive and directly threatening to the Republic itself . ( n9 ) For a history of education in the Turkish republic , see Kaplan 2006 , especially chapter 2 . For the military 's attitude toward religion and religious education , see Kaplan 2002 , Altinay 2004. ( n10 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also conflict with the beliefs of the Alevis , the Shi'a-like minority that constitutes about 15%-20% of the Turkish population and whose practices are based in the Shafi branch of Islam . The Alevis have lodged complaints about the religious education requirements because of the curricular conflicts with their own beliefs . ( n11 ) I do not mean to imply that an anti-imam-hatip agenda was the sole reason for the boost in the level of required education . Certainly , many government officials were concerned that a fifth-grade education was simply not enough to prepare Turkish children for the challenges of the modern economy and vocational environment . ( n12 ) I would like to thank one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing this out to me.REFERENCES

@@4025041 Major shifts in economic life have always been accompanied by corresponding changes in the public 's economic morality . Contemporary globalization is pulling the moral agent in opposite directions : greater moral obligations versus the competitive individualism required by an increasingly unforgiving marketplace . Moreover , the market , not governments or the grassroots , is emerging as the dominant determinant of popular economic morality and is profoundly reshaping people 's self-understanding as persons and as a human community . The article argues that theological ethics plays an important role in contesting the market 's moral baseline . THE CHURCH HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS the " longest-running counter-weight to the dogmas of a pure market . " ( n1 ) Global economic integration and the increasing " marketization " of society accentuate this role even further . More than ever , the church and theological ethics , by extension , have important contributions to make in the pluralistic public square of ideas and debate on the appropriate ethos for the contemporary political economy . Tectonic shifts in the economic terrain invariably precipitate corresponding changes in " popular morality " as the public grapples with the new problems spawned by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the marketplace , the more substantive is the resulting adjustment in the public 's economic morality . For example , the industrial age inaugurated large-scale production in the postfeudal economy in which propertyless workers sold their services in exchange for much-needed wages . In response to abuses from such wage-labor contractual arrangements , the Victorian era ushered in modern labor legislation . Today , we are witnessing a radical integration of national economies into a single global marketplace . Contemporary economic globalization is no less profound and life-defining in its impact than the Industrial Revolution was for the last 200 years . The howls of protest and the strident public debates over the benefits and the ills of globalization highlight the link between changes in the economic terrain and corresponding shifts in our moral thinking . Globalization is not merely about the integration of national markets ; it is also about the harmonization of marketplace ethos worldwide . In what follows , I examine two challenges posed by globalization . The more immediate problem is the growing wedge between moral responsibility , on the one hand , versus economic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a second , even deeper and more consequential problem--the emergence of a market-generated morality . I conclude this article by illustrating the potential contribution of theological ethics with a brief exposition on the contemporary relevance of Populorum progressio in addressing the two aforesaid issues.IMMEDIATE CHALLENGE : GROWING WEDGE The immediate problem is the increasing wedge between moral responsibility and economic expediency . People are being pulled in opposite directions : their mutual obligations , on the one hand , versus the economic realities and demands of the global marketplace , on the other.Moral Responsibilities We are currently shifting from an industrial to a postindustrial , globalized " knowledge economy . " Significant changes are underway in how people live , work , and interact . However , there is a substantial difference between the Industrial Revolution and what we are going through today . Unlike earlier technical achievements , we have never seen anything like the speed and scope of technological changes enabled by microelectronics . The processing capacity of microelectronics doubles every 18 months ( Moore 's law ) , and the bandwidth capacity , that is , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's Law ) . This means that every three years , our ability to process data increases fourfold , while our capacity to transmit data increases 27-fold. ( n2 ) In fact , the Economist notes that if the same pace of technological development were replicated in manufacturing , cars today would cost $5 and run 250,000 miles on a gallon of gas. ( n3 ) The pace of contemporary technological development is astounding . But there is more . In the last 200 years , cheap cotton , iron , steel , steam power , electricity , and oil led to a massive improvement in production and transportation . Today it is not merely production and transportation that have been transformed ; the market itself is undergoing radical change . More significant than microchips in themselves is what they made possible : the ready availability of better and inexpensive information . And since information is the lifeblood of economic exchange , the market has become ever more efficient at allocating resources to their most valued uses. ( n4 ) This radical transformation of the marketplace has enormous ramifications for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the demands of these changes often compel us to choose one over the other . Consider the following comparison between moral and economic demands in an increasingly unforgiving marketplace . I note at least three changes in our moral obligations . First , information technologies have turned us into a " networked " or a " wired " society . Communications and the dissemination of information have become rapid , indeed , virtually instantaneous--a state described as the " death of distance " in which geography has become increasingly irrelevant. ( n5 ) This means that we have greater moral responsibility for one another 's welfare . Nor can we plead ignorance of the plight of others halfway across the globe . Moreover , we can no longer claim that we are unaware of the ripple effects of our actions and decisions on others . We have easy access to information . And with increase in knowledge comes an increase in moral responsibility for both rectifying the harmful , unintended consequences of our actions and providing assistance to those in need . There is a much lower threshold for what @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our moral obligations due to globalization stems from our greatly enhanced ability to accumulate surplus . The Industrial Revolution inaugurated mass production and mass consumption . We have moved from the premodern economy of subsistence to our modern economy of abundance . Today we take the accumulation of surplus for granted , as a normal , indeed , an expected aspect of economic life . Despite its flaws , the market economy has been pivotal not only in supporting more people than ever , but also in sustaining this larger population base at a much higher standard of living . Contemporary globalization has magnified these gains further . For example , it is estimated that globalization has raised living standards in the United States alone by as much as a $1 trillion per year , or roughly $10,000 per household. ( n6 ) The capacity to produce this surplus is evident at all levels of economic agency . At a personal level , an indirect but telling effect of our greater capacity for production is the increased opportunities afforded economic agents to provide for the needy . Economic progress invariably @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time . As people earn more , become better educated , and live longer , they can do many more things in life . In other words , the " opportunity cost " of their time increases because they have so many more choices in life . Such freedom represents available surplus for investment and gift-giving . At a national level , there has been a telescoping of the development process . Prior to our current period of globalization , Japan and the Asian Tigers ( Taiwan , South Korea , Singapore , and Hong Kong ) attained within a generation what took the United States and Western Europe a whole century to achieve . Today , China is setting new records that are even better than those of its East Asian neighbors . Not only can we produce more , but we are able to do so at a much faster pace . At a global level , we can best appreciate the scale of available resources by comparing them with the requirements of poverty alleviation , such as the Millennium Development Goals . For most of human history @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Industrial Revolution this figure rose tenfold to 1.2% per year. ( n7 ) Since the year 2000 , world output has grown anywhere from 2 to 4% per year . Note that these growth rates are actually even more impressive if one remembers that they are calculated from an ever larger base to begin with . As of 2005 , world GDP is $45 trillion. ( n8 ) In contrast , note the requirements of the Millennium Development initiative : a 2002 World Bank study estimated that achieving the Millennium Development Goals by the year 2015 will require an additional annual aid of $40 to 60 billion , a near doubling of current levels of official development assistance. ( n9 ) By any measure ( economic growth rates , speed of development , financial assets , or the value of time ) , globalization has enhanced our capacity to create surplus and wealth at all levels of the economy : personal , corporate , national , and global . We are in a much better position today than any other generation to help the poor . Subsistence living is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Given our better access to real-time information and our better capacity to provide substantive assistance to the needy wherever they may be in the world , failure to do so becomes inexcusable . The third change in our moral obligations comes with the expansion in the scope of market operations . More nations are now part of the web of international trade . The cross-border movement of goods , services , and peoples has intensified , both in terms of volume and speed . Services that used to be nontradables are now routinely bought and sold in the global marketplace . Information technologies have made offshore outsourcing not only possible but even a matter of business survival . Anything that can be digitized and put through a cable or a phone line can now be traded with the click of a mouse . We have seen this in virtually every area--data entry , call centers , architectural design , accounting , software programming , and even routine legal paperwork . Indeed , a distinctive feature of globalization has been the functional integration of the whole world into a single workshop @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ people around the globe , whom we will probably never meet but with whom we are now bound in ever tighter economic ties . Put succinctly and using the language of Pope John Paul II 's encyclical Laborem exercens ( 1981 ) , we are de facto ever more each other 's indirect employers and employees . This reality changes the moral equation . In becoming more interdependent , we create , by our economic decisions , more immediate and profound ripple effects , both beneficial and adverse , far beyond our local communities . The collective impact of our buying and selling behavior causes price changes . These price changes represent a redistribution of burdens and benefits across the community . Every price change results in winners and losers . We can but must not ignore the distributive ramifications of price adjustments . Global market integration should push us to address the adverse , if unintended , consequences of our choices in the marketplace . Take the case of the price for tortillas , an essential staple in Mexico . In early 2007 , its price suddenly jumped by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the increase in demand for corn from its northern neighbor , the United States , to make ethanol fuel as part of its push for greater energy independence. ( n10 ) While hardly causing a ripple in the huge U.S. economy , this rise in demand for ethanol from corn inflicted real costs , especially on the poor , in the much smaller Mexican economy . To appreciate the full impact of this sudden 40% increase in the price of tortillas , it is important to remember that food expenditures constitute a substantial part of the poor 's budget ( Engel 's Law ) . In the interconnected world of a single global economy , energy policy , fuel efficiency standards , and personal driving preferences and habits in the developed world have a direct impact on millions of others , not only in emerging nations but even among the poor in the U.S. and Western Europe . A similar example of adverse market ripple effects is the agricultural protectionism of the major developed nations . The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ( OECD ) members ' farm subsidies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the poorest in these nations , the rural population . People 's economic decisions and behavior are never merely private , not in an era of globalization , even if they themselves can afford to pay for these choices . Economic choices have a large and unavoidable social dimension , and people should attend to the adverse consequences that their choices inflict on others , especially on those least able to fend for themselves. ( n11 ) In sum , globalization has raised the bar for our moral obligations . Greater economic interdependence has made us one another 's indirect employers and employees . Better access to information has led to a much improved capacity to provide assistance . Consequently , today , when we talk of our moral accountability for economic outcomes , we are most likely moving from remote to proximate material cooperation and perhaps even to formal cooperation . Globalization has intensified or given rise to new moral obligations . We are increasingly morally accountable for market operations.Economic Expediency I now turn to the other side of the balance sheet , the economic demands of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is so much faster , given the speed with which we can turn data into " actionable information . " Competition is much more intense across the entire economy . Individual economic actors are deeply wary of having their jobs outsourced and are constantly pressed to acquire new skills . Firms have to keep cutting costs to maintain their market share . Local communities and states outdo each other with fiscal incentives to entice foreign direct investments that create employment . OECD nations have a difficult time replacing jobs that have gone overseas in the process of deindustrialization that globalization has accelerated . Deindustrialization is neither new nor peculiar to globalization . It is a normal part of economic growth as nations move from agriculture to industry to services . The difference is that information technologies have precipitated intense competition along the entire range of products and services including many of the " high-tech " jobs . Digital technologies have robbed the OECD nations of the luxury of time to shift from industry to services at their own leisure . The market now sets the pace for them . Multinational @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the process of globalization , but empirical evidence suggests otherwise . In the 1950s , 90% of industry leaders easily maintained their market standing ; in the 1960s the figure was still an impressive 85% . In contrast , only 20% of market leaders in 1985 still held that position by 1995. ( n12 ) Only one out of every four Fortune 500 companies survived between 1980 and 1995 , the rest being absorbed in mergers and takeovers. ( n13 ) Financial globalization has made capital markets even more powerful and unforgiving . There is ever less room for the stakeholder model of corporate governance or for corporate social responsibility . The pressure is intense on firms to focus on the bottom line and be attentive to their shareholders ' interests as a matter of survival . The recent union wage and benefits concessions in the airline and automotive industries are an even better illustration of the power of the marketplace. ( n14 ) Not even entire nations and continents are immune from the discipline imposed by the marketplace . The long-standing practice of lifetime employment in Japan has been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ social economy to become leaner and more market-oriented in an effort to remain competitive. ( n15 ) Even traditionally dirigiste France is attempting to make its labor market more flexible. ( n16 ) These policy adjustments point to the potency of the marketplace in trumping even national sovereignty . In other words , economic life has become all-absorbing . Economic agents at every level--personal , corporate , industrial , and national--are besieged by the unrelenting demands of an extremely competitive global marketplace . Intel 's Andrew Grove entitled his book Only the Paranoid Survive. ( n17 ) While amusing , the title is descriptive of the market environment brought about by globalization . Developed nations are increasingly preoccupied with cushioning their own populations from the adjustment costs of international trade . Given such uncertainty and fear , global poverty alleviation programs , such as the Millennium Development initiative , run the risk of being overshadowed by the domestic problems spawned by globalization in the industrialized nations . The substantial cross-border resource transfers necessary to eradicate the most overt forms of poverty are highly unlikely. ( n18 ) In fact , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to their electorate , governments are compelled to increase their domestic spending to cushion the ill effects of international trade. ( n19 ) In sum , globalization has changed both the moral and the economic terrain . Global economic integration and the Information Revolution have expanded people 's mutual responsibilities for each other , even as ever more exacting demands from the global marketplace compel economic agents to be absorbed with their own problems . Globalization has called into play bipolar forces : the centripetal force of moral responsibility pulling people closer together as a community and the centrifugal force of economic expediency spinning them off to greater individualism . Economic agents are caught between the moral requirements of an intensified formal and proximate material cooperation , on the one hand , and the harsh requirements of economic survival , on the other . It is ironic that , as the digital era has opened new possibilities for life together as a truly global community for the first time in human history , the international marketplace is pushing people further and further from each other.DEEPER CHALLENGE : SHAPING THE MARKETPLACE @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ On the surface markets may appear to be amoral and value-free , but they are in fact heavily laden with philosophical commitments . What may appear to be unregulated , smoothly functioning markets based on utility- and profit-maximizing behavior are , in fact , undergirded by a web of supporting institutions and cultural norms of dos and don'ts on what is permissible behavior and what is shameful or blameworthy . These rules of proper market behavior are handed down from earlier rounds of economic activity , refined over time to take account of changed market conditions , and then further reinforced as subsequent generations observe and pass them on in the next rounds of economic exchange . These all-important formal and informal rules of thumb comprise the market 's de facto moral baseline . For example , take the case of the infamous Larry Summers 's World Bank memo on the export of dirty industries from the developed world to emerging nations. ( n20 ) There are impeccable , indeed rational , economic arguments for transferring polluting industries to undeveloped regions of the world . The costs associated with morbidity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lower in emerging countries compared to industrialized nations . Moreover , poor nations need the additional income . Despite these economic arguments , no one would dare take Summers 's memo seriously because of the expected public outcry over the policy he proposed.The Market 's Moral Baseline The market 's moral baseline is founded on custom , law , and usage developed over time . It is comprised of both formal and informal rules . The formal rules come largely from the public sector . For example , we have progressive income taxation , welfare safety nets , antitrust oversight , agricultural subsidies , and trade-adjustment assistance programs as part of our political economy . The informal conventions stem from the economic grassroots , that is , the households , consumers , firms , and nongovernmental organizations . For example , some people go out of their way to invest only in socially responsible firms , consume only organically grown food , avoid beef , recycle , offset their " carbon footprint , " and boycott products or services from corporations deemed immoral in their marketing or employment practices . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are important sources of the market 's moral baseline . However , there is a third major source of popular economic morality that is often even more powerful than either the public sector or the economic grassroots . The market itself is a significant determinant of the public 's moral baseline . And , unlike grassroots campaigns and government legislation , the market can generate its own morality with hardly any fanfare . In fact , one could call this a " creeping morality . " Left on their own , market conventions eventually take root as part of the community 's ethos ; they are self-reinforcing in that the more widespread they are , the more they become the norm . Take the case of the use of stock options . Such a practice became common in the 1990s in an effort to link CEO pay to market-based performance . This was believed to make for more efficient outcomes . Such compensation arrangements have gone largely unnoticed and have become the norm in the marketplace . Attempts to regulate or even reverse them have been difficult because these pay @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ way things are done " in the marketplace . Note , too , the outsized pay of hedge fund managers and the industry practice of declaring these as capital gains in order to minimize income taxes . Or take the case of excessive credit card interest charges and penalties , usurious payday and subprime lending , and , lately , the teaser rates used in home mortgage financing . All these have quietly become standard practice in the marketplace until the recent public outcry . In a much earlier generation , employment , compensation , and promotions were determined by gender or by the color of one 's skin . Indeed , an unfettered market can take on a life of its own and set its own moral baseline . The market will generate its own morality by default . It will fill the vacuum left by public indifference or by governments ' unwillingness to second-guess market operations and outcomes . Furthermore , certain powerful factors give the market great advantages over either the economic grassroots or governments in forming the public 's economic morality . First , the predominant @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1 ) the commitment in Western societies to pluralism as a political goal , ( 2 ) the great appeal of utilitarianism as an ethical methodology , and ( 3 ) the proven track record of the market in producing enormous economic gains . This complementary triad is ultimately geared to preserving and expanding the sphere of personal autonomy : utilitarianism leaves it to up to the individual to specify and pursue the preferences to be maximized ; pluralism welcomes--indeed , encourages--a wide diversity of ends ; and an unfettered market gives private initiative extensive economic freedoms , far more than any other social institution . The market does not promote any particular philosophical commitment , except for allocative efficiency as the principal distributive criterion . It permits people to pursue whatever ends they desire for as long as they have the necessary purchasing power to pay for their choices . The market is merely a mechanism for efficiently facilitating voluntary , mutually advantageous exchanges and is not a moral gatekeeper that evaluates the " goodness " or even the propriety of these exchanges and their corollary activities ( i.e. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and praxes of free markets , pluralism , and utilitarianism not only dovetail with each other well , but , in fact , they mutually reinforce each other 's claims . Thus , the presumption is to leave the market alone and , in effect , to allow it to set its own moral baseline . Second , globalization and microelectronics have greatly expanded the scale and the reach of market operations . Today , more than at any time , we are ever more reliant on market operations . Previously untraded goods and services are now increasingly and routinely exchanged in the marketplace : for example , child care , household work , care for elderly parents , human ova and sperm , blood , and commercial surrogacy . Many people are dying for want of kidney donors , and some nations have alleviated this shortage by permitting a market for kidneys . The market mechanism has also been employed to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions ( through the trading of pollution rights ) , curtail overfishing ( through the assignment of fishing rights ) , and protect elephant herds from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ profit from tourism and limited hunting ) . Indeed , the market is an extremely cost-effective mechanism for allocation and for linking people 's self-interest to socially desirable goals ( as in the case of elephant poaching for ivory ) . Not even governments have been spared the encroachment of markets . Privatization has become common practice in many operations traditionally reserved to governments , such as the collection of back taxes , mail delivery , military logistics and security , and even the management of entire school systems and prisons . Indeed , there has been a dramatic expansion in the role of the marketplace at both the national and international levels . Third , many have examined the role of globalization in radically transforming economic life . However , they have paid scant attention to how globalization is quietly but surely reshaping the public 's economic morality . Globalization has precipitated an increasing harmonization of rules , practices , institutions , and even marketplace ethos across nations both by choice and by necessity . Cultural convergence in tastes happens mostly by choice . One could think of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ television productions , music , Starbucks , KFC , McDonald 's , and other major brand names . However , the harmonization of economic institutions and practices takes place by necessity because of the interconnected nature of economies and the need to synchronize them . Consider the convergence in the following sampling of economic practices and preferences as part of an emerging global marketplace morality : -- the commitment to open markets -- the public shame attached to mercantilistic practices and foreign exchange manipulation for trade advantages -- intellectual private property protection ( TRIPS ) -- restraints on greenhouse-gas emission -- an increasing global disapproval and phaseout of agricultural subsidies -- coordinated efforts at eradicating corruption and money laundering -- the ban on ivory and similar products to slow down poaching of endangered wildlife -- international restrictions on whale hunting and overfishing -- economic embargoes on odious governments -- compulsory licensing for key life-saving drugs Nations of the world have increasingly cooperated on marketplace rules and even set up multilateral institutions , such as the World Trade Organization , with powers that trump national sovereignty . These practices reflect an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ international economic behavior . The upshot in all this : Globalization gives the market a formidable built-in edge over either the economic grassroots or governments as a determinant of popular economic morality . After all , one must remember that , to begin with , globalization is about the increasing " marketization " of the world . It is the market that interconnects nations , and thus , unless overridden by extramarket interventions , its rules and implicit ethos will apply . Moreover , the minimalist moral claims of the market and its underlying utilitarianism are ideal from the viewpoint of nation-states because they minimize globalization 's encroachment on national sovereignty . Thus , left on its own , this globalizing marketplace will shape the public 's moral baseline . We already have a glimpse into the consequences of such a market-shaped morality in the EU 's difficulty in maintaining its social economy and in the numerous anecdotal accounts of a race to the bottom on labor and environmental regulations . Only a deliberate and concerted effort can introduce effective extramarket interventions that hold back a market-shaped morality . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ concern over the aforesaid self-generated market morality because it can quietly but effectively shape the self-worth and the self-identity of unsuspecting market participants . Our moral acts , including our economic choices , have a reflexive dynamic to them in that they come back to define and form who we are . Thus , a utilitarian , market-shaped morality eventually manifests itself concretely in an ethos of economism , materialism , consumerism , productionism , individualism , and impersonalism . In economism , the language and the tools of economics become the prism with which to view and evaluate life . Social phenomena ranging from voting behavior , altruism , religious beliefs and practices , and even the interpretation of law have been explained in terms of the rational choice model. ( n21 ) Economics has come to dominate the formulation of people 's worldviews . In fact , an emerging scholarship examines economics as a religion in itself. ( n22 ) Not surprising , many lament the " imperialism of economics , " as the tools and theoretical models of neoclassical economics encroach on the other social sciences , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ more is always better , and economic progress is well served by an acquisitive and possessive ethos. ( n24 ) Thus , economic advancement is gauged in terms of ever higher levels of consumption . Acquisition and consumption are life 's highest values . People are defined by their consumption basket . Furthermore , individual economic agents ought to be left to their own preferences since they know what is in their best interest . Consumers enjoy complete sovereignty over their choices and should be left alone . Thus , we have witnessed a pervasive brand consciousness and a desire for status goods. ( n25 ) Note the expensive tastes of the nouveau riche of China who emulate their Western counterparts in the consumption of ultra-status goods. ( n26 ) Productionism is the belief in the pivotal importance of production . It is the mirror image of consumerism , because one can consume only what is produced . We produce only that we might accumulate and consume . There is no intrinsic joy to productive life , no sense of the inherent value of work as an expression of one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and as a means of contributing to society . Many , in the interests of productivity , voluntarily forego paid vacation days to which they are entitled. ( n27 ) A person 's worth is often gauged as a function of the market value he/she is able to produce . Moreover , our culture has been described as a " winner-take-all " society in which we reward the top performer handsomely , but not the runner-up . In the competitive ethos of the marketplace , winning is everything and is greatly rewarded . Second place is not good enough. ( n28 ) Another effect of productionism is the complete indifference to ecological damage in the inordinate push for economic growth at any price--new oil exploration-drilling , for example . Materialism accords primacy to the material over the spiritual or even denies altogether a transcendent dimension to human existence . Empirical evidence suggests that the accumulation and enjoyment of wealth and material possessions in many nations ( especially Europe ) have been accompanied by a decline in religiosity. ( n29 ) In both individualism and impersonalism , interpersonal relations are purely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ specifies ; there is no empathy or sense of connectedness with others . The person is treated as no more than a potential customer , a contractual partner , or a factor of production . In other words , the person is viewed purely as an economic agent with whom one can potentially transact mutually advantageous exchanges . In sum , while the market economy has been pivotal in improving human welfare in the last 300 years , it is important to recognize that , left on its own , the market will shape popular economic morality in ways that are deeply damaging to people 's self-understanding as persons and as a community . It would be truly paradoxical if globalization were to merely exchange one form of poverty for another . One example is globalization 's potential erosion of traditional family values. ( n30 ) IS THERE A NEED FOR THEOLOGICAL ETHICS ? In the final analysis , there is a fourth determinant of the popular economic baseline that can trump the market 's self-generated morality , namely , the conscientious behavior of the common economic actor . Most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ checks , they work assiduously without supervision , and they deliver goods and services in the quantity and quality they had promised . While there have been numerous instances of fraud in e-Bay exchanges , identity thefts , and e-mail scams , economic transactions for the most part have been honest and satisfactorily consummated . In fact , most market exchanges operate on the basis of trust and people 's word of honor . The mail order industry , e-commerce , and the returns policy of many retailers would not work at all if people were fundamentally predatory and dishonest . The smooth functioning of markets largely depends on the personal integrity of their participants . Many of these customary practices remain unwritten or are legally unenforceable . Yet , they are widely observed because they are accepted to be constitutive of their community 's moral fiber and character . Many economic agents internalize these rules of common decency in their personal behavior out of their own self-respect and integrity . Such public economic morality is culturally conditioned . The degree to which such received wisdom is preserved , internalized @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ society 's appreciation for ( 1 ) the nature of the human person , ( 2 ) the nature of the human community , and ( 3 ) the nature of economic life . Developing or further sharpening such understanding is an important task , as globalization remaps both the economic and the moral terrain . And , indeed , we find promising signs of such self-introspection . On September 8 , 2000 , the world 's heads of state adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration. ( n31 ) This resolution boldly called for concrete steps in the elimination of the direst forms of poverty . In what was later reformulated as the eight Millennium Development Goals , nations pledged themselves to work toward improving the lives of hundreds of millions of people who have heretofore known only suffering , want , and destitution . What is even more remarkable is section 6 of the Declaration in which nations solemnly declared the fundamental values animating their common commitment to eradicating poverty in the new millennium , to wit : freedom , equality , solidarity , tolerance , respect for nature @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ between moral duty and economic expediency , nations have in fact pledged themselves to respond to globalization by taking mutual responsibility for each other 's welfare . Far from allowing the marketplace to impose its own utilitarian ethos , nations have employed extramarket measures to imbue international relations with human values . The UN Millennium Goals and the UN Millennium Declaration are proof that a secular , pluralistic public square of ideas and debate such as the UN 's General Assembly is more than capable of dealing with globalization 's adverse ripple effects . Thus , one may legitimately ask whether or not we need theological ethics at all as we grapple with a shifting international political economy.DISTINCTIVE CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THEOLOGICAL ETHICS Despite the remarkable vision of the UN Millennium Goals and the underlying General Assembly resolution , there is still much that theological ethics can uniquely contribute in mitigating globalization 's ills . Given the breadth and diversity of theological ethics , I will limit my illustration in this concluding section to contributions from Pope Paul VI 's Populorum progressio ( 1967 ) , the very first encyclical in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the issues of international political economy , global trade , and economic development . The UN Millennium Declaration has a bold but incomplete anthropology . In the first place , the aforesaid fundamental values it pledges to uphold seem eclectic . Where do they come from ? How are they related to each other ? Why do we have to subscribe to them and how do we justify them ? Why limit ourselves only to these values ? Is there an overarching framework tying all of them together ? Second , there is a world of difference between setting laudable goals and ideals for ourselves and actualizing them . Populorum progressio 's notion of integral human development illustrates the potential contribution of theological ethics to contemporary political economy . The encyclical contends that development is authentic only if it is human and integral . In its view , therefore , genuine development is neither merely nor even principally economic in nature . Development is primarily a moral phenomenon . Authentic development is integral and transcendent in two senses . First , it is integral because it transcends material needs and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hunger : union with God . This is the primary relationship of human existence . It is the reference point and the basis for meaning and purpose in human experience . From this comes a second sense in which development is integral and transcendent . Development is integral because it transcends the individual and reaches out toward others . Flowing from the aforesaid primary relationship are the other gifts from God : the gift of each other and the gift of the earth . That primary relationship ( with God ) defines and shapes the obligations that flow from all our other ties . The person can flourish only in community . Far from being at odds with each other , the good of the individual and of the community are necessarily interdependent . We can not be integral in our development of body , mind , and spirit unless others are also able to reach their own integral development . Thus , authentic development is distinctively integral and human because it entails ( 1 ) the development of the whole person : body , mind , and spirit , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ no one excluded . These two constitutive elements of Populorum progressio 's integral human development , while distinct from each other , are inseparable . Each is a function of the other . Given this understanding of human development , Populorum progressio goes beyond the fundamental values of the UN 's Millennium Declaration in a number of ways . First , it is not satisfied merely with the social virtue of tolerance but aims for something much better , the union of hearts and minds . It wants more than just a juridic public order ; it wants the common good. ( n32 ) Persons are bound to one another by something more than a social contract or the need to share resources and the expediency of mutual survival . Persons are bound by natural ties with strong attendant obligations for one another 's well-being . Thus , unlike many other experiences of social living , including economic life , integral human development allows no one to be left behind . It is a journey toward human flourishing that can only be completed together . Development is relational ; it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ development , while important , is merely a means to this much greater and even more profound end . A second distinctive improvement is the richer specification of the nature of moral agency . Our actions , both economic and noneconomic , have a reflexive dimension and a self-reinforcing dynamic . The human person transcends material needs and yearns for truth , love , friendship , and justice . In the process of seeking the highest of human values , the human person transcends the self and reaches out toward others . And as we reach out and relate to others with sincerity and solicitude , we find ourselves growing and perfected in these human values . Thus , as already noted , Populorum progressio is adamant that , contrary to popular belief and convention , development is neither merely nor even principally economic in nature . It is primarily a moral phenomenon . Finally , it is very likely that most people look at the Millennium Development Goals in terms of donors versus aid recipients , that is , wealthy nations dispensing aid to emerging nations . Moreover , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ view such resource transfers as acts of supererogation and charity , aid out of the goodness of their hearts . Under Populorum progressio 's aforesaid notion of development , developed nations should realize that pursuing the Millennium Development Goals is ( 1 ) an obligation and ( 2 ) consistent with their self-identity as persons and as a human community . This self-understanding is a constant reminder that nations , like persons , never attain their own integral human development in the face of unaddressed frank poverty.CONCLUSION Globalization is not merely about the integration of national markets but is also about the harmonization of the marketplace 's institutions and ethos worldwide . Because of the proven track record of the market in bringing about impressive economic and technological gains in the last 300 years , the presumption is to leave the market on its own unless a compelling case can be presented that it is in the self-interest of the community to do otherwise . This is especially so in the face of consistent and decisive empirical evidence showing how market-oriented nations have by far outpaced those that are restrictive. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when to intervene but also why . Because the " burden of proof " lies with those who call for extramarket interventions , it is critical to be secure in our understanding of the nature of the economy and in our understanding of who we are as persons and as a community . Populorum progressio and , by extension , theological ethics have much to offer in these three areas , but they will have to perform a dual task of presenting a powerful case for extramarket interventions and doing it in a language and reasoning accessible and convincing to a pluralistic , secular audience . Any group or nation wishing to take a direct hand in shaping the market 's moral baseline has to present an alternative market morality , so enticing as to compel nations to forego the considerable economic benefits of contemporary market processes and operations . It is important to present a vision that sells itself. ( n34 ) Populorum progressio 's notion of integral human development is one such vision . In addition , it rests on an anthropology that prevents the marketplace from distorting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and shaping the public 's economic morality take on even greater importance and urgency , given that it is the grassroots that often initiate and shape public legislation , occasionally even in nondemocratic states . Using the language of international trade theory , we can say that setting hearts and minds alight with a prophetic spirit of justice and love is the comparative advantage of theological ethics.Footnotes

@@4025341 The examination of boundary processes is a central issue in the study of ethnicity but this approach often favors external , socio-political boundaries that stem from historical forces at the expense of indigenous accounts about cultural differences . In this paper , I propose that Teenek symbolic spatial organization enables us to examine ethnicity as simultaneously a set of social relations and a structure of meaning . The analysis stresses the significance and contents of the dialogical relationships between external social boundaries and internal , symbolic ones . Analyzing the interrelation of both types of boundaries reveals how historical forces have shaped the cultural idiom in which Teenek people metaphorically apprehend their social interethnic configuration . Keywords : Ethnicity ; boundary processes ; symbolic construction ; space ; Teenek Indians ; Mexico " A person has to know the land intimately to locate a community that is not visually marked " ( Blu 1996 : 226 ) . In 1991 , at the beginning of my 30-month long fieldwork(n1) in the multi ethnic Huasteca region north of the State of Veracruz in northeastern Mexico , I spent my days walking across Tantoyuca county ( municipio ) environs , in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ /te:nek/ ) or Huastec community from which to conduct my intended research on the extreme marginalization of this people , from their own point of view . Tantoyuca municipio ranks in the top quarter of the most marginalized in the country and its Teenek population ( 48,741in 2000 ) amounts to roughly half of the total county 's population. ( n2 ) However , although there were no apparent external distinctions between the poor Mestizo neighborhoods on the town 's outskirts and the Teenek Indians ' hamlets in the surrounding area , I recall being struck by the sense of crossing invisible boundaries . Whenever I approached the confines of the Teenek villages , everyone fled and hid , closing the doors as if faced with an approaching storm . Children ran toward their huts , crying loudly , ejek , ejek ( " Spanish , " " Mestizo " = " non-Indian " ) . These reactions perplexed me . We were , after all , at the end of the twentieth century and a few kilometers from a national highway and a large town , yet the burden @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ relationships with strangers . But , while the meeting between the Teeneks and myself was clearly an encounter between cultural " others , " I found it difficult to pinpoint what specifically made these people and their place " ethnic . " When I finally settled in the Teenek hamlet of Loma Larga ( 203 inhabitants in 1993 ) and got progressively familiar with its residents , I asked Dionisio , the local healer--in his seventies at that time--about this peculiar common reaction observed in several Teenek localities . His answer , which also shocked me , later turned out to be pivotal to the understanding of the Teenek collective identity construction around historical events and spatial configurations : Before , we were conquered by the Spaniards , we were poor people . The Huastecs(n3) lived naked , they were not baptized when Christopher Columbus and Hernn Corts came , they were not eating well , they lived on roots . They knew nothing , their food was not cooked . The Spaniards brought teaching , they taught the poor people . The Huastecs had no houses , they lived @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and people in the city of Mexico . Here there was nothing , no houses , no little villages ; they lived naked , in caves , under rocks , in ditches . The Spaniards taught them to talk , they baptized them , they taught them how to eat . That is how it happened , that is how the village came to be . They united everybody with them . People who did not want to join with those from outside remained like we are , outside . They did not want to live near the road . They did not want to go with the Mestizos . They do n't understand , do n't know how to talk , they are afraid of being killed . During the Revolution , many people were killed , that is the reason they are afraid . Here the Mestizos did not come . Here people close the doors , they do n't answer , they hide in the brush , for fear of being killed . It is the custom of the ancestors . Now we 've hardly given up @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ half-wild here ( quoted in Ariel de Vidas 2004 : 295-296 ) . In this " poetics of history " ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1987 ) I found out all the primary ingredients that would constitute my future analysis ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . Indeed , this kind of discourse with its significant oppositions , which clearly distinguishes between " us " and " them , " helped the Teenek to justify their relegation to the fringes of modern life and indicated a vision of a concrete , inexorable social , economic , and political situation that was reformulated in the local Teenek system of representation . Later on , moving around Teenek villages and their undomesticated adjoining spaces , several Teeneks shared with me some of their subtle cultural readings of those spaces related , as will be shown , to this kind of historical discourse. ( n4 ) In this paper , I will present some examples of these poetical narratives on social configurations to show how the expressed consciousness of inequality which they inform , shaped by extra-communal historical forces , do not merge into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spatial partition . Already , in the aforementioned testimony , we can see a specific historical construction ; based on a cultural idiom as well as self-denigration combined with scholarly knowledge ( although Columbus never went to Mexican lands ) that shows us a social consciousness of the Teeneks ' subordination to the Mestizo ruling group . Indeed , the Teeneks ' identification with their ancestors ( human and pre-human as will be shown ahead ) to explain their own modern-day marginalization and poverty seems to reveal a sense of inferiority and a blind veneration for the Spaniards and their offspring . From this testimony , it would appear as though nothing existed before the arrival of the Spaniards , and that Teenek society existed then only in its primitive phase . Yet the absence of Teenek accounts of the pre-Hispanic period , of the development of Huaxtec civilization ( which lasted from 200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1522 ) , may be attributed not only to a lack of available historical documents but also to a cultural construction . In fact , contemporary Teeneks may be affirming @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the modern nation-state ) from that of their ancestors--acknowledging in that way missionaries ' disparagement of their Pre-Hispanic culture and society as well as posterior clerical and institutional approaches towards indigenous populations(n5)--thereby distinguishing themselves from the latter without denying a certain bond of kinship with them ( cf. Slaney 1997 ) . As will be shown , that kinship , virtually practiced in healing rituals held in the bush , constitutes a cornerstone of their identity , becoming by the same token their first alterity . Thus , this paper is about how the formal and symbolic aspects of Teenek-Mestizo social relations , shaped by historical processes , are expressed spatially , thus constructing ethnic distinctions in a Teenek cultural **25;2291;TOOLONG Content Versus Boundary ? Before proceeding , it is necessary to explicate the use of the term " ethnicity " in this paper as it is too often applied to any sort of consciousness of collective identity , in almost any kind of community within a pluralistic society : as race ( Wallman 1978 ) , culture ( Agyeman and Spooner 1997 ) , national origin ( Thrift 1996 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ broadly speaking , as any kind of sectarianism. ( n6 ) The polysemic use of that term demonstrates its usefulness , but at the same time , it blurs the precise meaning of each of the above-mentioned concrete social situations . I am following Weber , who was probably the first to use the term " ethnic identity " as far back as the 1920s , and according to whom some minority groups , migrant communities or neighborhoods can not be described as " ethnic . " Unlike other forms of collective identity , as Weber points out , ethnic identity is based essentially on the subjective belief in a shared blood relationship. ( n7 ) The common descent assumed by an ethnic group implies the development of a collective history , invented or experienced , which , by invoking some seminal event , molds the group and validates the sense of belonging to it ( Weber 1968 : 385-398 ) . Weber 's definition underlines the subjective belief in a shared relationship as a way of marking contrasting identities and may be considered " ' primordial ' in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of social existence " ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1992 : 54 ) . But this approach , as I understand it , does not emphasize the substance , but rather the idea of the reproduction of the group 's consciousness of a shared origin , which accounts for the group 's distinctiveness relative to social Others that is , in itself , embedded--and accordingly also persistently transformed--in an historical context . Furthermore , ethnicity , as Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff argue , is both an analytic object and a conceptual subject , which stems from a specific historical configuration that is " simultaneously structural and cultural " ( 1992 : 50 ) . However , in the wake of the constructivist approach to ethnicity launched by Barth 's seminal text ( 1969 ) , the research on ethnicity has focused mainly on the processes and mechanisms of the construction of collective identity and thus tended to accentuate external parameters at the expense of internal consciousness . This approach weakened the ethnographic contribution of cultural specificity in favor of an all-encompassing and almost mechanical dialectic based on the identity-alterity dichotomy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Thus I also follow Levine 's suggestion that ethnicity stems above all from a cognitive method of classification of human beings ( Levine 1999 ) . This kind of classification , although based on cultural particularities , emanates from wider socio-political processes , mainly " the asymmetric incorporation of structurally dissimilar groupings into a single political economy " ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1992 : 54 ) . In order to understand a given ethnicity , it is thus crucial to examine the reciprocal relations between the external processes and ethnogenesis . Moreover , ethnicity can be viewed less as circumscribing a unified entity than as a given group 's reflection on social boundaries , as manifested in its daily practices . The radical separation between " us " and " them " can hence be nuanced in favor of a more fluid notion of Otherness influenced by cultural , social , and economic interconnections marked by relations of inequality ( Gupta and Ferguson 1992 : 14 ) . Narrowing the use of the term " ethnicity " in this manner to a fourth-world group , that is , an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it is now embedded , allows us to grasp the cultural enterprise of the group 's members in the marking of its relationships with the Otherness within the framework of globalizing social processes . Thus , when Teenek people asked me about my chabal ( land , country ) , what emerged from the comparison was their own view of Teenek chabal . Indeed , the group 's territory with its formal and symbolic boundaries , as a space fashioned from intra- and interactive systems , offers an accurate place to analyze how the group 's members reproduce classificatory differences permanently between them and cultural others . Therefore , in order to understand what created those invisible boundaries I crossed while walking among the Teenek villages , or , in other words , how the collective identity of a community of people becomes ethnic , we need to investigate how global forms are locally and culturally mediated by the relations between a communal space , the people who dwell in it , and those who do not.The Setting Wide economic and social disparities , originating in the colonial period , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a lush cattle-rearing region in the humid tropics of Mexico 's northeast , has been a site of colonization since the arrival of the Spaniards in the sixteenth century . The region became an arena for the classic antagonism between farmers and cattlemen . In this particular case , the conflict began with the despoiling of indigenous land by Spanish colonists and later by the latter 's descendants and rich Mestizos . The appropriation of native lands for pasture continues to this day through diverse plunderous mechanisms , sometimes violent in nature , which for many Teenek people I know is crystallized in the depiction of mestizo ranchers as abusive ( Ariel de Vidas 1994a ; 2004 ) . Consequently , since the beginning of the colonial era the Indians have struggled to recover their lands . This agrarian history is now carved in the landscape . The white and mestizo ranchers carry on their cattle rearing activities in large , flat properties , while the Teenek peasants live and work interspersed among them in fragmented and hilly plots , where they grow subsistence crops such as corn and beans @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cultivable land is scarce . In Loma Larga , for example , each of the 38 families that constituted this hamlet during my stay there had an average of 4 acres of pluvial land located on sloping hills . Thus , the consequent exhaustion of their plots together with the demographic growth of recent decades have forced the Teeneks out of their villages in search of daily or seasonal work in the region . These jobs in the larger society have put the Teeneks in permanent contact with the non-Indian population , which exploits them and inevitably makes them aware of their marginal condition ( Ariel de Vidas 2002a ) . Present-day Teenek villages are scattered around the mestizo town of Tantoyuca . Most of them are located two to three hours by foot from Tantoyuca ( there was no regular transportation at the time of my stay ) . But far from being insulated from the national society , these villages serve as sites for a social and cultural organization that regulates interactions with the dominant group and draws boundaries between the Mestizos and the Teeneks . As will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ inside the village space in accordance with local Teenek cosmology . The dozen or so kilometers separating most of the Teenek villages from the Tantoyuca mestizo urban , administrative , commercial , religious , and political center ( cabecera municipal ) --approximate population of 25,000--span a gulf of mutual ignorance about these two worlds , which are linked and interdependent yet completely distinct . This claim by no means supports Wolf 's idea of the " closed corporate community , " a homogeneous and self-sufficient indigenous society endowed with economic leveling mechanisms based on a civil-religious hierarchy ( Wolf 1955 ) . ( n8 ) The Teenek who are scattered around the principal-town in administratively dependant villages ( comunidades ) are deeply tied to Tantoyuca and other state and national urban centers for trade , bureaucratic , and political purposes , as well as for the sale of their labor. ( n9 ) However , broadly speaking , although Teenek people are mostly bilingual , they have no relations of sociability with the Mestizo town 's inhabitants with whom they maintain a social distance and perfunctory relations . The members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ own set of representations of the other human group that lives so near , yet is so remote . Consequently , the Veracruz Teeneks live both in constant contact with and cut off from mestizo society . Teenek life is articulated around a fundamental social division that , in the terms of the local regional language , separates " the town people " ( gente de la ciudad ) from the " people of the communities " ( gente de las comunidades ) . ( n10 ) This division forges the modes of representation that are shared in practice by the social actors on both sides of the divide . These representations are evident in the terms the groups use for one another on a daily basis . The Teeneks refer to the Mestizos as " the Spaniards , " " the gente de razn " ( literally , " people of reason " ) , " the cattlemen , " " the people with cars , " " the rich , " whereas the Mestizos of Tantoyuca call the Teenek " the Indians , " " the inditos , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , " the natives , " " the gente sin razn " ( " people without reason " ) , " the kwitol " ( " children " in Teenek ) , and , at best , " the people of humble origin . " Furthermore , centuries of racist and oppressive relations towards Teenek populations were interiorized by local Teeneks who seldom overtly express particularly self-denigrating discourses , such as " we are less than nothing , " " stinking , " " dirty Indians , " " ugly idiots , " " cowards , " etc . ( Ariel de Vidas 2002a ) . The Social Boundaries ' Approach This dichotomy--lived and perceived on a daily basis by all the social actors as a cultural clash , even if it is superimposed on other kinds of distinctions , be they social , economic , or territorial--ultimately supports the Teenek perception of their identity as an opposition between themselves and Others ( mainly the Mestizos ) . The boundary thus created , as Barth ( 1969 ) points out , is a means of defining the ethnic group and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , itself , remains variable . According to Barth , ethnicity , far from been primordial , is in fact a form of social organization , stemming from an interactional situatedness and based on the demarcation of groups according to their ascribed origin . The differentiating diacritical marks established by each group then confirm the nature of the group 's social interaction . Barth 's approach , according to which social borders express social differentiation , disentangled ethnicity from culture and focused on the political economy of ethnicity to which " culture would be entirely epiphenomenal " ( Verdery 1994 : 41 ) . ( n11 ) However , if ethnicity is no longer a shared culture , but rather culture as politics , it is necessary " to problematize the cultural side of ethnic identities instead of taking it for granted " ( Verdery 1994 : 41 , emphases in original ) . In this vein and in order to understand Teenek ethnicity , we may analyze the regional historical and social processes that separate this group from others , the discourses concerning the boundaries thus created , as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . These processes are reinforced by Teenek differentiation marked by some external cultural and structural traits such as their language and their territoriality . However , although ascription and self-ascription do certainly reflect a collective identity , they do not necessary reflect an ethnic one . As Jenkins points out , it is important to distinguish " between two analytically distinct processes of ascription : group identification and social categorization . The first occurs inside the ethnic boundary , the second outside and across it " ( Jenkins 1997 : 23 , emphases in original ) . Indeed , although Teenek differentiation ( and marginalization ) from national society could be explained globally by social stratification based on inequality rather than on cultural difference--analyzing historical , social , and political processes in order to understand the formation of ethnic boundaries allows us to plumb their origins and rationales , but it does not necessarily inform us about the indigenous view of these processes and about the resulting ethnic distinctions as they perceive them ( Ariel de Vidas 1994c ) . In other words , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ understand the group 's presence and its principles of differentiation , but they indicate only its persistence , not its ethnogenesis . It is in the fusion of both of these aspects , the internal group identification and the external social categorization , that ethnicity resides ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1992 : 52 ) and this will be the perspective adopted in this paper.The Spatio-Cultural Approach Thus , the specificity of an ethnic group can not be taken as a postulate based solely on boundaries affirmed by each side . It is also necessary to explore a particular group 's own representation of identity and alterity and internal elaboration concerning its cultural difference . Stressing the structure of meaning ( Anderson 1991 ; Cohen 1985 ) given to the " us " and " them , " can explain how the sense of differentiation and similarity is locally elaborated and transmitted . Hence , Cohen explicitly converges with Barth 's approach , although from another standpoint . " Ethnicity has definite appearance , but rather indefinite substance " not unsubstantial ( Cohen 1994 : 62 ) . Barth ( 1994 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ well that . The issue of cultural content versus boundary , as it was formulated , unintentionally served to mislead . Yes , it is a question of analyzing boundary processes , not of enumerating the sum of content ( . ) . But locating the bases of such boundary processes is not a question of pacing the limits of a group and observing its markers and the shedding of members . ( . ) Central and culturally valued institutions and activities in an ethnic group may be deeply involved in its boundary maintenance by setting internal processes of convergence into motion ( Barth 1994 : 17-18 ) . In this vein , groups ' consciousness of historical processes are seldom privileged in attempts to understand a group 's ethnicity ( inter alia : Comaroff and Comaroff 1992 ; Farriss 1984 ; Gruzinski 1988 ) , often bypassing its spatial aspects themselves permeated by history ( cf. Halbwachs 1968 ) . As Foucault put it Space was treated as the dead , the fixed , the undialectical , the immobile . Time , on the other hand , was richness @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spatial terms seems to have the air of anti-history . If one started to talk in terms of space that meant that one was hostile to time . It meant , as the fools say , that one " denied history .. " They did not understand that these spatial terms.meant the throwing into relief of processes--historical ones , needless to say--of power ( Foucault 1980 : 149 quoted by Agnew and Duncan 1989 : 1 ) . Indeed , the inner organization of space is a good place to start for problematizing the cultural side of ethnic identities , as boundaries should be recognized " as matters of consciousness rather than of institutional dictation " ( Cohen 1994 : 69 ; cf. Kuper 1972 ; Pellow 1996 ) . The sense of difference and distinctiveness may reside simultaneously ( although differently ) in the structure and in the minds of the people who express them . Thus , marking the ethnic space , the boundaries of an indigenous group also mark the edge of " two social systems of activity , of organization , or of meaning " ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ enjoins us to consider any social space as composed of an organized set of external and internal social interactions . Thus , in order to understand Teenek ethnicity we must first ask if they use a concept of boundaries at all to think about their territoriality , social groups , and categorical distinctions ( Barth 2000 ) . Following Vermeulen and Govers 's formulation ( 1994 : 4 ) , we may analyze Teenek ethnicity as an element of social organization that implies regulated interaction and as an element of culture that entails consciousness of difference . Teenek ethnic space should then be reconstituted not as a putative concept , but as a cognitive one , with an emphasis on the people 's own experience of boundaries and their perception of them . Thus , ethnicity is explored in this article using a model of ethnic Self and Otherness , as defined by the ethnic group itself through its own perception of its spatial organization . This approach is by no means a return to a sort of essentialism in order to explain the ethnic configuration , but it takes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and elaboration of the differences between " us " and " them " ) in order to understand the mechanisms involved in elaborating ethnic identity ( cf. Fischer 1999 ; Gil-White 2001 ; Watanabe and Fischer 2004 ) . Following this approach , I do not exclude a constructivist or inter-actional analysis of distinct external parameters in order to understand the elaboration of a specific ethnic identity , but I do emphasize the way in which an ethnic group re-elaborates or re-semanticizes its specific social configuration according to its own cultural logic and on the basis of its own autochthonous heritage . The symbolic construction of boundaries , as will be shown , encompasses the social interactions with cultural others and denotes an historical consciousness . In the following section , I analyze how the Teeneks with whom I have been in contact in the hamlet of Loma Larga think about their cultural distinctiveness and similarities , and how they experience it within their communal space.The Social Categorization of Teenek Ethnic Space The Teenek ethno-theoretical model of " us " and " them " might not be readily apparent . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ outside only by the formulated boundary and several cultural markers such as the Teenek language , while its substance is confined to the experience and consciousness locked inside group intimacy . Analyzing the inner meaning of Teenek boundaries helps us understand how the Teeneks manage their space in order to make it ethnic.The Formal Boundaries The Teeneks of the municipio of Tantoyuca essentially live in the framework of dispersed villages where land is owned collectively by their members but is cultivated in separate plots . Contrary to the indigenous municipios of Guatemala described by Tax ( 1937 ; 1941 ) , the fifteen Teenek villages ( comunidades ) are not independent political and social units . Along with another fifteen Nahua and mestizo villages , they belong to Tantoyuca county , and are all administratively and politically dependent on the mestizo county seat of Tantoyuca . The Teenek hamlets , scattered through their villages ' territories do not have formal boundaries . The delimited individual plots might be located far from one 's hamlet but are always within one 's village boundaries , which serve as the primary collective identification @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ its different scattered villages , shares similar heritage and history , language , patterns of subsistence , settlement , and social organization . However , they are not of pre-Hispanic , or even colonial , origin . They are the result of a constituted community land legacy--following the liberal law ( 1856 ) that ordered the dismemberment of corporate properties , but permitted indigenous peasants to collectively purchase ( condueazgos ) hacienda lands they had cultivated as peons and on which they had lived ( Ariel de Vidas 1994b ; Escobar Ohmstede 1993 ) . The demographic growth in the original centers of these communities that occurred in the nineteenth century led to the progressive formation of new adjoining hamlets . This process resulted in the exploitation of all communal territory . It was no doubt parallel to this growing of the population on an increasingly restricted territory that the formalization of rights of access to those communities was established . The lands of the nineteenth century Teenek condueazgos and , subsequently , the contemporary Teenek lands are community properties that can not be transferred except between members of each @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their descendants . These people can therefore not use and dispose of these lands as they wish . For example , in these Veracruzan Teenek villages land bequests are exclusively patrilineal . Thus , as the rules of virilocality apply , an outsider man , married to a local woman , even if he is a Teenek from another village , wo n't be allowed to move in into his spouse 's hamlet . This regulation does not pertain to a group of small private properties owned by each of the members of the community to which access is free to all , but to possession of community lands founded on certain rights and obligations . Therefore , when indivisible private property belongs to several individuals , there is a superposition of public and private laws . In addition , for its indigenous co-proprietors this collective patrimony represents not only their principal means of subsistence ( even if it is not the only one ) , but also the place where their cultural specificity is expressed completely freely ( language , traditions , common law . ) . The community @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which in this case is also a cultural identity . In order to preserve this collective and identitary patrimony the co-proprietors have defined the criteria for belonging to their territorial community on exclusive bases that link the right of the person to the right to the land . The criteria of belonging to the community thus unfold over two axes : one , vertical , involving genealogical relationships ; the other , horizontal , involving social relations . The principle of descent is thus strictly superimposed on the right of access to the community patrimony , which then exhibits an extra-familial dimension . An individual 's descent is not enough to inherit the familial patrimony , since that patrimony is not a true one ; it is rather a matter of a right of use . In order to be able to take advantage of a right of access to the community patrimony , the heir ( on the level of the familial unit ) must thus also have a social relationship with the community , that is , fulfill a series of obligations toward the community ( participation in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ offices ) . In this context inheriting property to offspring therefore also implies the transmission of a community member 's social status that must be assumed and assured in order to take advantage of the patrimony . Since the land of the community is not private property , it can not be transferred to people outside the community . Right of access to the land is thus conditioned by two sets of superimposed rules , those of patrilineal descent and those of residence.Teenek Notion of Community The term " community " ( comunidad ) has a number of connotations in this region . According to the Mexican laws of the Agrarian Reform , it is a legal agrarian structure ( bienes comunales ) originating in the nineteenth century haciendas. ( n12 ) It also refers to a municipal subdivision , sometimes called a " congregation " ( congregacin ) . Finally , as a Teenek concept--kwentsal--it describes the immediate social framework of the Teeneks with its internal division into hamlets . This Teenek term , which is used both for the hamlet and the whole village ( the sum of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ entity of the social group to which people feel they belong . Indeed , the relation between kinship and territoriality , which defines membership in the Teenek community is also expressed linguistically . The term " household " does not exist in Teenek . To describe someone as a " relative , " informants used the Teenek words exlowaal , kidhtal , and ja'uub , which indistinctly express ( according to them ) " an acquaintance , someone close , a relative , a neighbor , a friend . " Although I explained to my interlocutors the semantic difference that exists between these terms , that differentiation apparently does not exist in Teenek . Antonyms of those words , given by the same people , without other commentaries express their meaning better : yab xata u ujna = " he is nothing of me , " " I am not used to him ; " owel toneltsik = " a passerby who comes from far away ; " owel belaltsik = " those who have walked from far away ; " k'e'et'tsik ja'ts = " they are others , not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is not someone known " ( thus an unknown ) . The term kidhtal ( " close , " " relative , " " an acquaintance " . ) applies only to Teenek people , and kidhtalich is no doubt the term that is closest to our concept of family . The root kidh which is a Veracruzan dialectalism and which constitutes part of the word kidhaab = " brother " or " sister , " is added to the morpheme no to make the word kidhno = " vigil " ( among brothers , relatives , friends , acquaintances , neighbors ) , or to the word laab , which results in kidhlaab = " joy , " " happiness " ( to be together ? ) . As for the term ja'uub , according to the dictionary of Tapia Zenteno ( 1985 ) for the seventeenth century Teenek from the San Luis Potos region , it also signifies " lineage " or " descent . " Hence , the term ja'uub that originally denoted only blood ties is currently used in Loma Larga to designate those of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and those of the land are tightly connected . The members of nearby Teenek hamlets are indeed intermarried and linked by bonds of kinship . The absence of a specific term to designate those who live under the same roof and the existence of terms that are applied to all of the local Teeneks might reflect the concept of the group as a vast kindred , a notion reinforced by local endogamy . It is this notion that provides the strongest support for the collective identity and forms the basis for social inclusion or exclusion ( Ariel de Vidas 1993 ; 2005 ) . The Teeneks live as a socially and politically recognized group with definite territorial and historical boundaries . The various Teenek authorities , internally elected , can rule according to common law on cases within the villages and preserve the Teeneks ' exclusive rights to attain their communal property ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . By governing social life within the villages and in all of the hamlets that form a congregation ( or an agrarian community ) , the Teenek authorities are the first to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ members of their communities . These community institutions are not necessarily ethnic institutions in the sense that their functions alone mark the borders between Teenek society and that of the Mestizos . But that is one of their major aspects , one that is perceived in particular by the filtering they exercise vis--vis the municipal and national institutions ( deciding , for example , which cases will be treated locally and which ones will be bought to outside , mestizo oriented , juridical instances ) . Responsible for overseeing the common traditions and the communal lands , they thus reinforce the Teeneks ' internal social relations at the expense of their relationship to the outside world , and by extension , the feeling of ethnic identity in the face of the ejek world that surrounds them . The formal ethnic aspect of the Teenek-ejek dichotomy is reflected in the way in which the Teeneks entrench themselves in their communities , the filters that their authorities put up between the Mestizo and Teenek worlds , their practice of local endogamy , and the various devices they employ to preserve their collective @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spoken , where certain specific customs are still practiced , where people from outside the community , especially Mestizos , are excluded by various means , and where mechanisms of incorporation imply the actual presence of the community 's inhabitants , thus becomes , for the latter , a place that offers emotional attachment and refuge from a rather hostile external world ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . Membership in the ethnic group then appears as an effective way of defending advantages ( land , relative autonomy , customary law , etc. ) and of overcoming disadvantages ( social and economic ) through solidarity and shared circumstances . In such cases of continuous interaction between separate cultural groups , ethnicity , as Glazer and Moynihan ( 1975 : 15-16 ) suggested long ago , seems to emerge as a counter to the definitive and deterministic characteristics of social stratification that arise out of the particular histories of each group . These markers are formal , but the relationships between the Teenek community 's members are not only based on an arbitrary spatial proximity or social cohesion . As will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shared with me by the Teenek people with whom I worked , forms the symbolic basis for their ethnic identity.The Group Identification with the Ethnic Space Before analyzing the ethnic organization of Teenek space , let us bear in mind that the Spanish conquerors who intruded into Mexican lands in the sixteenth century dramatically changed the local social and cultural landscape . Beyond the drastic demographic decline of the indigenous populations that followed the conquest ( about 90 per cent ) , one of its most important aspects , from a socio-cultural perspective , was the conversion to Christianity of those populations whose religions until then had been polytheistic . Today the post-colonial social configuration and the legacies from the Spanish period are deeply embedded in the daily life of Indigenous societies . Still , the memory of the autochthonous past and of ancient beliefs , which was concealed ( and thus transformed ) after the arrival of the missionaries , permeate contemporary indigenous interpretations of the interethnic relations and they are often manifest in the intimate spheres of the indigenous societies such as internal rituals or alluded discourses. ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , one of the formal requirements for full-fledged membership in the community is direct patrilineal descent . Moreover , as predicated by Weber ( 1968 ) , the ethnic aspect of a collective identity is reinforced by a presumed common founding history of the forebears . Indeed , a myth widely known and often referred to by the Teenek villagers I knew , explains , in their own terms , the social , economic , and ontological boundaries that separate them from other groups and ultimately organizes their symbolic internal space as an ethnic and autochthonous one.The Teenek Myth of Origin Everything began when the sun appeared . Before that , the earth was flat and the Baatsik ' who were the pre-human ancestors , lived in the pre-solar darkness . They did not want to receive the sun , believing that destruction would come with it , so they decided to prevent its arrival . In order to obstruct the sun , they buried themselves head first in the earth that was still soft , thereby creating the hills . However , this attempt to obscure the light of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the subterranean shadows , angry with the other inhabitants of the earth who did not fight against the sun . The Baatsik ' are still enraged to this day with the descendants of those who accepted the sun and soil and trample on their ancient territory . At the beginning of this new solar era , ( n14 ) the Baatsik ' resented the new configuration of the universe into two worlds , one subterranean and the other above ground , and they began to kidnap people and animals such as donkeys , cows , horses , chickens , and pigs from the upper world , imprisoning them in the infra-terrestrial world . This situation finally ended when a certain Marcos liberated all the prisoners and locked up the place where they had been held . From that moment on , the chthonic beings could no longer steal material things , only spiritual ones--namely the souls of the Teeneks . Hence , these telluric ancestors appear in the lives of the contemporary Teeneks in the form of whirlwinds or visions , afflicting them and causing the loss of a part @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the soul . " This is a radical synthesis of the Veracruzan Teeneks ' myth of origin , which was conveyed to me in distinct versions ( in Teenek and Spanish ) by different people in several Teenek villages especially in the context of healing rituals . Elsewhere , declining this myth ( and other related tales ) in various socio-cultural contexts with their associated Teenek exegesis , I showed that among the Teeneks this myth sustains a belief system that encompasses the local religion , mythology , historical and social ideologies , all related to their ethnic identity ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . As will be demonstrated here , this system is also closely related to a particular symbolic perception of the space to which the Teeneks attribute temporal dimensions of distinct orders . These temporal dimensions are reflected in various aspects of Teenek daily life that will be analyzed after delineating the main characteristics of the space proper to the Baatsik . ' The Space of the Ancestors The Baatsik ' ( baats=twisted ; ik ' =wind , meaning " whirlwinds " ) belong to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . My Teenek interlocutors described the world of the Baatsik ' as a place where everything obeys a logic that is inverse to theirs . In this world of darkness , where the left side is dominant , the beings walk backwards . Moreover , the Baatsik ' cherish everything that human beings find despicable , such as rotten , dirty , foul-smelling , and tasteless food . The Baatsik ' are merciless and are associated with all that is considered vile , immoral and unchristian . Today , these beings inhabit the wild space , the alte ' ( literally , " in " or " under the woods " ) . Encounters with the Baatsik ' are inevitable and generally occur on the paths , near wells , or in gullies , hollow trees , or caves . The Baatsik ' are found in particular in places where the earth 's crust is uneven , which is to say in the hills and ditches that they themselves created by burying their heads in the ground . In other words , they are found in any cavity , crevice @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( cf. Tousignant 1979 : 356 ) . These spots are called dhakil in Teenek , which means , according to my informants , a white place ( dhak = " white " ) , colorless , insipid , as favored by the Baatsik ' . Among the ancient Mayas ( in whose linguistic family the Teeneks belong(n15) , the color white was associated with the North , the direction from which invasions and evil came , and also with corn ( their principal food ) and with some chthonic spirits ( Gonzlez Torres 1991 : 126 ) . Similarly , the Tzotzils ( Mayas ) from San Juan Chamula in Chiapas State in the Mexican South associate white ( sak ) with the sun 's irradiation ( Gossen 1992 : 224 ) . Although not stated directly by Teenek informants , we might infer that the term dhakil evokes these ancient representations for them , linked as they are to an earlier age , the sun , the earth 's spirits , and basic sustenance . In any case , in daily life , the Teeneks are very attentive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their creation story ( just recall the first narrative in this paper where it is told that " before , " Teenek people lived " in caves , under rocks " eating uncooked food . ) . As will be shown , the Teeneks associate the space of the Baatsik ' , localized in the dhakil , to their autochthonous past and by extension , to their postcolonial interethnic social configuration . Regarding the figure of Marcos , the mythical hero who saved the people by locking up the Baatsik ' in their chthonian condition , ( n16 ) he may represent , in the Teenek syncretic religion , the apostle Mark , author of the second synoptic gospel . Indeed , this text was written precisely for the converted of the pagan world in the Roman Empire . According to the canonic representation of this evangelist , Saint Mark appears in popular Mexican iconography ( popularized through holy images and calendars ) , writing in a large book near the entrance to a cave with an ailing cat by his side . Let us recall that , according to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ often take the form of a terrifying cat . Although Marcos saved the people and animals ( of European origin ) who had been captured by the Baatsik ' and locked up their universe , he did not destroy these chthonic beings . He simply confined them to their telluric realm from which they could steal only the Teeneks ' souls . From that point on the two worlds , pagan and Christian , were delimited and incompatible . Marcos ' deed as related in the myth could thus be perceived as the act that defined the present-day separation of cultural domains between the Catholic faith ( on the surface of the earth ) and the ancient religion ( below the surface of the earth ) . As the Comaroffs stressed , peoples caught up in processes of radical change seldom use suggestive oppositions to come to terms with their history . However , as will be shown , " making sense of the whole process is mediated.by an existing set of cultural categories " ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1987 : 194 ) . This founding myth holds that the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Teenek interlocutors , corresponds to the arrival of Christianity , ( n17 ) created a fundamental distinction between the space of the ancestors who rejected the new faith brought by the " light " and the space of the present-day Teeneks , who accepted it. ( n18 ) In this manner , an initial pair of opposite terms was constituted , in which the " we " of the present was contrasted to the " them " of the past . One must show these " others " respect if one does not want to be subjected to their fury and cause social imbalance . In this way the Teeneks established an entire system of space partitioning themselves from the Baatsik ' , and subsequently creating a distinction between the mythified autochthonous world and the world that thereafter had to be shared with the **25;2318;TOOLONG presence . Broadly speaking , this system separates the communal space between the domestic , Christian space of the present and the wild , pagan space of the past . This organization of the space is evident in various realms , such as those pertaining @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and birth rituals . Taken together , as will be demonstrated , these distinctions reflect a classificatory system of ethnic difference.The Musical Spaces Without describing here in detail the different dances and musical compositions that constitute the Teenek cultural heritage ( see Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) , it is possible to observe a very clear spatial distinction that applies to the dances and to the types of musical instruments that accompany them . The Veracruzan Teeneks practice six dances . Three of them seem to be of ancient origin ( the reed dance--bixom pakaab , the sparrow hawk dance--bixom t'iiw , and the tiger cat dance--bixom padhum ) by virtue of the fact that they are accompanied by instruments such as the bamboo flute , the square frame drum and/or shell rattles . Three other dances are accompanied by a violin and a guitar and therefore seem of European origin or are mutations of ancient dances ( the young girls ' dance --bixom tsidhan , the mirror dance--bixom lam , and the black men 's dance--bixom ejek ) . Furthermore , many variants of these dances are found throughout @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Tepehua and Otomi Indians , a fact that reinforces a fortiori their " imported " nature . These distinctions are not arbitrary ones that I have created , as if I were concealing cultural syncretism . This classification is established by the Teenek dancers themselves who distinguish these dances according to their relation to the Catholic faith or to pagan beliefs and who apply this distinction spatially . Thus , the dances that are considered " foreign " may be executed inside the churches or chapels , while the dances that are considered " ours " and maintain a certain implicit relation with some divinities or rituals of the autochthonous past are not generally performed within Christian sanctuaries . The relation between the space and the autochthonous musical patrimony manifests itself also by the fact that the Baatsik ' , according to local beliefs , refuse to hear the music emanating from stringed instruments , such as the violin and the guitar . As we know , these specific instruments were introduced by the Spaniards , and they accompany the three dances designated as " foreign . " Moreover @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as mountains , caves , and huge trees , all considered dhakil , the sites where one may encounter beings of the autochthonous past , some Teeneks told me that one can hear festive music played on drums and flutes . As noted previously these are the musical instruments of the three ancient dances that still exist today in this region : the dances of the reed , the sparrow hawk , and the tiger cat . It is important to mention that none of the informants has ever indicated hearing the musical instruments of the other dances practiced in the region , such as the violin and the guitar , that were introduced by the Spaniards . Dance and music were thus distinguished by their origin . By the meaning given to them , they contribute to the distinctions on the ground and to the differentiation between contemporary , Christian time and space and that of pagan antiquity.The Corporal Spaces This spatial and temporal partitioning also applies to an essential distinction made in the human body and particularly manifested through the type of illnesses from which the Teeneks may @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with the dhakil--avoiding them , for example , at noon and after dark , which are the Baatsik ' favorite hours for pouring liquor ( aguardiente ) as an offering when passing by them--those places that always remind them of the pre-human ancestors and therefore of their origins and the history of their contemporary social and spatial configuration . Teenek are conscious of occupying a territory that is not theirs , and they know that encounters with these permanently malevolent beings are inevitable . It is indeed this kind of encounter that is at the root of the illnesses of the soul . Illnesses of the soul result from a disturbance of a being 's vital force . According to Teenek nosology , these illnesses are unlike diseases of the body , which are due to a physical abnormality . The diseases in which a bodily malfunction is evident are treated with medicinal herbs , infusions , and , if necessary , after consultation with a biomedical doctor in town . These diseases are considered similar to those from which the Mestizos suffer , and in order to be cured @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ non-Indian neighbors . These are diseases of the present . Illnesses of the soul are altogether different . According to their own exegesis , only the Teeneks can suffer from a disease of the soul , which results from the capture of part of a being 's vital force by the Baatsik ' , the ancestors of the autochthonous past . These diseases are cured by particular therapeutic rites , performed by Teenek healers only , that can liberate the soul from its captivity . Whenever contemporary Teeneks behave in a way judged excessive with respect to the Baatsik ' ( for example , if they trespass on their territory or hunt forbidden animals ) or to the members of their community ( if they differentiated themselves from the others , thereby provoking envy--see Ariel de Vidas 2007 ) , these beings of the underworld appear in the lives of the Teeneks in the form of " winds , " visions of ferocious animals or ghosts that provoke sudden fright ( jik'ltalaab ) , known in Spanish as espanto , or in some places susto . Such fear causes a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ victims of some of their internal heat , that is , part of their animating force , and leading to the " illness of the soul . " The jik'eenib or espanto is manifested by a lack of appetite , dizziness , anxiety , listlessness , inability to concentrate , fainting , and other symptoms of loss of balance . All cases reflect a state of weakness and vulnerability related to the loss of vital forces. ( n19 ) To recover these vital forces , it is necessary to find out where they were lost ( since the effects of espanto are not always immediate ) , and to this end different kinds of therapeutic cleansings ( peedhox , commonly called limpias in Spanish ) and divinations are carried out . The divination rituals detect the dhakil where the soul of the patient is kept captive . This procedure implies a certain familiarity with the wild space . Once the origin of the ailment has been discovered , the Baatsik ' must be appeased in their own territory through invocations and offerings . The invocations are made exclusively in Teenek @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ example of the reinforcement of ethnic identity through language which permits exclusive communication with the ancestors ) . The rite also includes the placement , solely with the left hand , of special food offerings at the foot of certain trees , food that is tasty to telluric beings but repugnant to human beings . Let us recall that the Baatsik ' cherish refuse , spittle , foul-smelling , dirty , raw , rotten , or tasteless food , chicken heads , egg shells , bones , carrion , and especially liquor--mixed with saliva . In exchange , the Baatsik ' return the captive spiritual force to the Teeneks and the symbolic equilibrium between humans and supernatural beings is restored . This transposition of the patient ( or his/her representative ) into the wild space opposes the human realm in order to heal his or her soul , and links the individual with his or her autochthonous past , with the group 's history , and hence with his or her collective identity . The illness of the soul , through the spatial transposition , enhances the relation between the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the return of the liberated soul to the domestic space reinserts the patient into the space of the present , ruled by Catholic divinities , and connects him or her with the extra-ethnic social body.The Domestic Space After the healer has redeemed the captive soul in the wild space , he replaces it in the body inside the individual 's home . This ceremony is performed in front of the altar where the images of the Catholic saints are placed , icons to whom one prays only in Spanish . The house and its adjacent yard are considered spaces where the Baatsik 's influence is thwarted by the power of the saints . The Teenek myth of the healers ' origin ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 : 175-177 ) mentions that the " illness " can not find a man who hides in his own house . Healers always care for their patients in their own domicile because one can be cured only in his or her home . In the healing practices , one can see clearly how the space of the different divinities is negotiated . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ socio-cultural life , and they constitute spaces that were subtracted from the anti-social Baatsik 's territory . The boundaries between the different spaces are permanently maintained through distinct practices . For example , in the not so distant past , when people finished building a house , they invoked a benediction that consecrated it as a Catholic home . Moreover , it was necessary to renew this ceremony once every ten years as , according to my informants , the blessing " vanished " as time went on . A vigil was organized , preceded by a procession of dancers performing the reed dance ( bixum pakaab ) --considered autochthonous--and accompanied by images of the Catholic saints taken from the hamlet 's chapel . Meanwhile , the home owner lit incense made from copal and sprinkled holy water on the house 's four corners and the yard , starting with the right corner ( these activities are all related to the social space ) . The vigil lasted all night , alternating the recitation of the rosary with the sprinkling of holy water and the use of incense on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , after resting the saints ' images inside the house , the dancers were not allowed inside . Periodically , the homeowner went outside the house to pour a libation of liquor on the ground , offering it also to the dancers . My informants explained this detail by stating that " the saint we have inside the house does not rule everywhere , only where we live " i.e. the domestic space . From these descriptions , we can infer that this was a ceremony whose intention was to delimit the territory ruled by the Baatsik ' from that of the Catholic saints . The offerings of liquor and the autochthonous dance were made to the telluric beings in order to pacify them because they had just lost a part of their domain . Moreover , the copal , the holy water , and the right ( the first corner in which the incense was used ) are all an anathema to the Baatsik ' and consecrate the site as a space beyond their reach . These elements serve as markers , both concrete and symbolic , of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ opportunity to attend this practice because a few years ago the priest of Tantoyuca who , although seldom came to the hamlet , discovered this rite and banned it , and from then on only a member of the clergy could bless a house . Clearly , I was not the first one to perceive in this custom some " unorthodox " practices . This principle of displacement from one space to another with their particular connotations is at the foundation of a concrete social and cultural ambivalence . The Teenek body , and by extension , the Teenek house , the dances , the language , etc. contain two dimensions linked to specific sites in the landscape and to distinct historical and social times . However , we are not dealing with precise places in the Teenek space , but rather with a particular dualistic perception that attributes various roles to each one of the temporal dimensions represented by the pagan-autochthonous realm and the Christian-exogenous ( but incorporated ) order . This can be seen particularly in the Teenek birth ritual.The Birth Ritual In the Teenek birth ritual one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ different spaces are established . However , in this case , the entire rite is held inside the domestic space . The illness--as delivery is considered--and the excess of pollution it produces places the parturient and the midwife into the realm of the Baatsik ' from which they have to extract themselves after the first seven days of seclusion . During that week of confinement the house 's space is no longer considered a Catholic and social space . This space becomes a limbo in which the child 's fate remains uncertain . Indeed , the house interior serves as a staging post , both spatial and symbolic , between the universe of the uterine darkness and that of social light . At the end of this spatial and temporal purgatory ( the term is borrowed from Catholic theology without its religious contents ) , the boundaries between the two universes must be marked again . Thus , the midwife sweeps the house 's interior with purging herbs in order to flush the dirt from the domestic space and return it to the wild space of the Baatsik ' . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ inside the house , which produces a pleasant odor that the Teeneks associate only with the Catholic saints of the social realm . It is at the threshold of the house , on the boundary between the social space and the domestic space , which , during the neonatal period remained indefinite , that the parents put the new-born child in the midwife 's arms with the utensils that will serve the baby later in his or her social life and which define him or her as a member of the society . Then , the midwife and the infant circle the house , explicitly symbolizing the life cycle that has just begun . Moreover , this walk begins on the right side , the one that is antithetical to the Baatsik ' , and is performed holding a torch . The light is associated with the Catholic saints to whom one talks only in Spanish immediately after having circled the house . In front of the saints ' images the midwife crosses herself and recites the Ave Maria and the Pater Noster in Spanish . Then the midwife speaks @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to leave the child in good health . As in the healing rituals , the prayers to the saints are always said in Spanish , while the supplications for good health addressed to the Baatsik ' are made in Teenek . These distinctions clearly show the powers and limits of each of these divine entities as well as the sincere devotion to both of them . Due to their extraction from the underworld and their transitory situation that precedes their entrance into the Christian world , non-baptized Teenek children ( in Catholic terms ) are locally associated to the opossum ( uut ' in Teenek ; tlacuache in Spanish ) . Furthermore , Veracruzan Teenek women carry their children in front of their bodies in a round piece of cloth slung diagonally over their shoulders and down their backs . This cloth is called an akilab , suggesting the way in which the offspring of the opossum cling to their mother in the marsupial pouch and echoing the association of a non-baptized Teenek child with that animal . In addition , the evil people one encounters at night ( visions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " ) . The opossum is thus explicitly associated with the Baatsik ' who , while being underground spirits , they interfere with the lives of people . The indigenous baptism is thus complemented afterwards with the Catholic christening that erases , according to my Teenek interlocutors , the child 's condition of opossum . The two baptisms , indigenous and Catholic , are consequently complementary in the formation process of a person . The two ceremonies , the pagan and the Christian , create echoed responses to each other . The first ritual is an extraction of the soul whereas the second one is an immersion of the body . The soul of a Teenek individual is therefore the first element to be separated from the underworld . The body , considered to be that of an opossum--the animal of the Baatsik ' --until the Catholic baptism , follows the soul that has emerged initially . The midwife who carries the utensils that the child will use in his o her active life is replaced in the Christian rite with the godparents who receive food symbolizing the dawn of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the soul of the child , which required a period of time to be integrated into the child 's body and to be shown in society , the body of the child waits a certain time to be integrated into the religious institutional body that represents a much more vast social extra-ethnic body ( cf. Slaney 1997 ) . This time lapse between the travels of the soul and that of the body is repeated upon the death of an individual . His or her soul first leaves the body to go where the souls of the dead go , whereas the body is later buried ( " sown " ) in the earth.Discussion This duplication of the birth ritual in the indigenous and Christian spheres , observed as well among other Indian groups in Mexico(n20) applies among the Veracruzan Teeneks too for other life-cycle rituals like weddings and burials , which are always divided between the Catholic ritual held by the Mestizo priest in Spanish and in a rather impersonal way in Tantoyuca church , and the traditional ceremony held in a familiar fashion within the hamlet by the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : 78-80 ) . Although being part of the Christian world , Teenek people operate a bipartition of those rituals that express , as the other mentioned practices , an internal distinction between their origins , which is , I argue , at the core of Teenek ethnicity . The therapeutic rituals and other practices that demarcate the spaces between the Baatsik ' and the saints , and between traditional and contemporary realms ultimately express the Teenek notion of individual and ethnic person . Thus , the system of ethnic classification that is at the base of any ethnic identity ( Levine 1999 ) is not , in the Teeneks ' case , in itself spatial , but is expressed in the language of space ( cf. Kuper 1972 : 422 ) . Indeed , in the Teenek case , it seems that the different categories of time are linked to different spaces in such a way that Teenek ethnic identity , based on a continuous dialogue with the ancestors as well as with their present-day successors expresses a social and cultural ambivalence . Paraphrasing Blu ( 1996 : 221 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ painfully ) the distinctiveness and reality of Teenek indianness . Furthermore , among the neighboring Catholic Nahua Indians of Postectitla , I observed that during the rain propitiating ritual of Chicomexochitl they demarcate the ritual territory in the mountain by circling it with paper figures representing different pagan deities ( cf. Sandstrom 1997 ) . Instead of representing their ambivalence of faith through symbolic objects , they represent it through a concrete spatial and linguistic partition between the Christian saints , to whom one speaks only in Spanish , and the spaces of those who fled the new faith , to whom one speaks only in Teenek . Like the people of the Malinche region in Central Mexico described by Hill ( 1985 ) , there is a functional balance between the use of Spanish and the native language shaped by the power relations between the national capitalistic sector and indigenous societies . Spanish is the idiom of the city and social distance while the native tongue is one of intimacy and identity ( Hill 1985 : 727 ) . But unlike the Malinche people , the distinctive use of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tension between purists and laxists . The partitioning of space and languages between Teeneks and Baatsik ' , or the alternation between autochthonous and exogenous spaces , is probably organized in order to preserve the balance between opposed forces ( cf. Maybury-Lewis 1989 ) , coping thus with the contradictions arising for a native society in its incorporation process into one single postcolonial society ( cf. Comaroff and Comaroff 1987 : 206 , n. 1 ) . Taken together , these spaces form the contemporary Teenek identity forged out of five hundred years of interethnic contacts and elaborated through the indigenous notion of space and according to a temporal scale . The concrete spatial partitioning resolves the contradiction between the archaic tradition and the Christian universe , preserving the indigenous cultural patrimony in a specific space beyond the reach of the Christian saints and servicing it by a fervent cult . Because the two spaces are antithetical , they are preserved and they are complementary in a dyadic relation that forms the actual Teenek syncretic religion , which is ultimately a bipartite one . As for the Tarahumaras analyzed by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reality is formed within a monist universe because it deals with a unique creed played out in space and time . Moreover , in the villages , Teenek people often told me that a lot of town people in Tantoyuca who behave like Mestizos are actually native Teeneks but they do not believe anymore in the realm of the Baatsik ' . Thus , attachment to place , together with Teeneks ' ideas of their own space , which is not based on ethnic exclusivity but rather on the historic multiethnic inscription into relief , is pivotal for the local sense of group identity . As will be discussed below , although Teenek culture and religion are syncretic , their ethnic identity emanates from the act of internally differentiating , and at the same time linking , the autochthonous space and the extraneous universe.The Shaping of Teenek Ethnicity Around Historical Events and Spatial Configurations Instead of presenting a detailed analysis of a specific practice related to one space , I have opted to present in a concise manner a complex of Teenek practices that make evident the concrete partitioning of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conception of space or , in other words , a structure of meaning . Let us recapitulate the essential elements that appear in this partitioning of spaces . The practices involve spaces that demarcate the two universes in which the Teeneks live simultaneously : the space that belongs to the beings of the pagan past and by extension to tradition , and the space that belongs to the saints of the Catholic present and , by extension , to modernity . Each space corresponds to a specific place in the landscape , for example , the domestic space as opposed to the wild space , or the local chapel as opposed to the sacred pagan sites . These dual spaces may also inscribe themselves in the conception of the body : the left is the side with which one communicates with the Baatsik ' and the right is the side of the humans and the saints . This partitioning appears also in the classification of illnesses : those of the " body " which pertain to this universe and those of the " soul " which link the Teeneks with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to a specific attitude as well as a particular language : Teenek when one is in communication with the Baatsik ' , Spanish when one has to negotiate with the elements considered Christian , foreign , or modern . Thus , if we take into account the Teenek historical narratives as a paradigm behind this symbolic configuration of the spaces--such as the opposition between the Christian and pagan spaces , the cultivated and wild , etc. , which are present in the Teenek practices--it seems to stem not just from a dualistic organization but also from dialogical extrapolations inside the Teenek social universe . In order to concretize my observations and to deepen the analysis , I would like to present the testimony of Dionisio , the healer of Loma Larga , the Teenek hamlet where I did most of my research . His statement defines and amplifies the dualistic spatial conceptions which were discussed thus far : The inside of the earth is populated by the wicked , because those of the interior of the earth are against us , because it occurred this way . But when we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with those we have to . The spirits hear us , they are with us ; the earth as well . This is a malign spirit . They are bad friends , bad brothers , bad ancestors . There they are , underneath the earth . This is the reason one should also talk to the earth , because they live below the ground . There are the dead who went beneath the earth . The spirits of these dead are here underneath . There their life is kept--inside the earth . That is the reason we have to come and see our spirits when we need to ask them forgiveness--first here with God , above , because we belong to this place , and then we also have to speak with the earth because there are the spirits . But we go there because the earth works differently . It has other forces . The earth does n't want to see crosses , does n't want to hear orisons . The earth does n't want us to cross ourselves , that we praise God , that we pray . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ This is the reason that we never pray with the earth , only when we go and look for God . With the Holy Cross , the orisons , we pray our beliefs in God but with the earth , never . The earth does n't like it , does n't want to see you with the cross , praying . The earth does n't want this . If you pray , you wo n't be received . The earth wo n't give you back your ch'ichiin . If you go and see the earth , you should n't pray because the earth does n't like prayers , does n't want candles , copal , nothing , because they are bad . They like bad treatments , loathsome things . What they like is satanic because they did n't want to see God . They did n't want to see the image of God . They did n't want to see good things , and because of that , they plunged underneath the earth . The Baatsik ' , they do n't want nothing . They do n't want to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hear what we like here , they do n't want to see dances with violins , nothing . They are angry , so they take a part of our chalap the thought under the ground , where they stay . They liked to go underneath the earth and we , those who do n't like to go below the ground , we stayed up here because we pray , we go to the baptism , because we go with Christ , with God . Those who did n't want to go with God , they were not baptized . They do n't go to church , they do n't learn to pray , they stay with the Baatsik ' . Those who do n't want to go with God , do n't go to baptism , do n't learn to pray , to sing . They stay with the Baatsik ' and when the time arrives , they go directly where they are . They do n't go to heaven because they are not baptized . They do n't know to pray , to sing . They go directly where @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are baptized we know that we are Christians , that we should pray , that we should know , that we should believe , that we should praise God . That 's the way we are . The ancestors , some of them stayed underneath the earth , others above . That 's the reason there are two places , one here with this one and the other over there with that one . There are two Gods , one is called Jonah , that is the one who runs the earth , and he is under the earth. ( n21 ) The one above , this one is Jesus Christ , father God stays in the sky . Father Satan is inside the earth . He is the big robber of souls . You fall in the path or you see an animal , you go to a place where you meet bad things or bad people , this is coming from them , from Satan . This testimony explicitly sums up the practices described above . As a paradigm behind the expressed dualistic partitioning , we find the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their pre-human ancestors . We find in it , as well , the interiorization of the evangelization ideology as a dominant element in the explanation of current Teenek credo ( cf. Hawkins 1984 ) . The clear connection between the Baatsik ' plunge into the earth to avoid the arrival of the sun and missionary evangelism demonstrates the adaptation of this myth to history but also the interweaving of the indigenous culture with the European . The cultural distinctions between the Teenek and the Mestizos could thus be understood only apprehending them as constitutive of one single postcolonial society ( cf. Grinker 1990 ; Hawkins 1984 ; Slaney 1997 ) . As all of the tales about the appearance of the sun , whether they predate the Christian era or not , this myth reproduces a cosmic battle to become , literally or symbolically , the sole force for lighting the world . The universe of the Baatsik ' is thus associated with ancestry , autochthony , the earth , the Teenek language as well as decay , all of which are constitutive elements of Teenek contemporary culture that stand @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ These elements express the social and cultural ambivalence in which present day Teeneks live , an ambivalence that is at the foundation of their identity . Indeed , the Teeneks consider themselves on the one hand to be descendants of the Baatsik ' , which means that they identify themselves with the archaic and pagan world , and as part of the modern and Catholic world , on the other . However , what seems to be at stake in these series of dualist oppositions in the Teenek practices is not the sort of universalist or Americanist human thought characterized by inversions of polarities , which were qualified by Lvi-Strauss as " the unstable dualism " specific to Amerindian thinking ( Lvi-Strauss 1995 : 231 ) . This kind of analysis , as Rasnake rightly put it , stays at the level of thought , out of time and praxis ( Rasnake 1988 : 138 ) and makes little allowance for an historical consciousness within the mythical corpus ( Hugh-Jones 1989 : 54 ) . In this paper , I am rather interested in analyzing the relationships between myths and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's cosmological reality is indeed characterised by dyadic oppositions. ( n22 ) But in order to understand how the contemporary ethnicity of an Indian group is shaped , not only by its cultural background but also by its extra-communal surrounding and historical processes , it is important to socially and historically contextualize its practices and narratives ( cf. Hugh-Jones 1989 ; Rasnake 1988 ; Roe 1988 ; Tedlock 1983 ) showing that , while they are expressed in a specific metaphorical idiom , myths keep pace with contemporary reality . Thus , interpreting those practices and narratives as " poetics expressions of history " ( Comaroff and Comaroff 1987 ) ultimately allow us to extract from them the cultural idiom through which is expressed the historical and social consciousness of an ethnic group regarding the socio-economic configuration in which it is situated . In order to demonstrate the relationship between the mentioned Teenek practices and narratives with the contemporary interethnic situation , let us hear Dionisio again , this time explicitly regarding an historical and relatively recent event : It is said that the Teenek has become very poor because @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be bad , he did n't want to wander at night , that did n't please him , he does n't like to kill people that is why he stayed like that . The ejek , the Spaniard , it pleased him to steal , to rob from the other . That pleased him to take what he found on the road , to kill , to steal money , to take livestock , because they are the ones who kill the Teeneks . That is why they are richer ; they managed like that to have money , to have beautiful houses , because they did not pity the Teeneks , because the Teeneks did not defend themselves because they are very torpid . All the possessions the Teeneks had , the ejek took from them , they took all the Teeneks 's livestock , they stole everything that is how they managed to have money . That is why now the ejek are settled well in the towns , in beautiful houses , it is because they have money , they took away a lot of animals @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from them , the things they owned . The old people told us all that , when there was the Revolution , here the Huastecs had cows , horses , they had things , but now that the Revolution has ended the poor man has remained without animals as you can now see : they do n't have a house , no animals , nothing else . The ejek is there with his animals , with his cows , with his nice houses . The Huastecs can not fight against that because they are frightened , fearful , they do n't want to fight , they do n't want to kill their enemies , they do n't want to kill . The ejek does n't even have pity does n't even know what it is , they are soldiers , they shoot guns . In Mexico City , when the Spaniards arrived they say that the Huastecs probably the Aztecs fought , but not all , only a few . He who could , those who fought are those who took Mexico City , but not all are the same @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ alte ' . Up until now , we are there , in the alte ' . We are here in the alte ' because my grandparents and my parents did not want to fight , they did not want to fight so they went to hide . Those who like to fight went to the capital that is why those who are in Mexico City are the ones who fought , those who like fights , struggles , they liked killing . Those who did n't like that came here in the alte ' , they stayed here , they walked and ultimately stayed here . Thus we are here , because my ancestors came here , in the alte ' thus , because they did n't want to fight , they did n't want to struggle , that is why there are Huastecs here in the alte ' . Those who did n't want to fight against the Spanish people , against the foreigners , are here . The Spaniard had wars , did things , he frightened us , he took what we had ; he who did @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ situation ( quoted in Ariel de Vidas 2004 : 305-308 ) . In this account one finds the spatial positions of the Teeneks and the Mestizos defined by the power of violence . This narrative shows clearly the subjective construction of a subaltern culture in the articulation of power relations and a community 's identity ( cf. Alonso 1995 ) . The Teeneks did not want to fight against the newcomers and they thus took refuge in the alte ' , the space of nature , the uncultivated space par excellence , the realm of the Baatsik ' which are their ancestors and source of their ethnic identity. ( n23 ) Yet , according to this account , the Teeneks tend to avoid behaving like the Baatsik ' : they do n't wander at night , they do n't kill , they do n't steal and the like . Rather , it is the Mestizos who act that way , ultimately becoming rich at the expense of the Teeneks by taking their property , including their livestock , precisely like the Baatsik ' who stole the Western animals upon the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ejek are reputed to be capable of domesticating the Baatsik 's wild animals , such as snakes , owls , or jaguars-precisely those which Teeneks say they can not be domesticated since they belong to the beings of the underworld . As the " Inca transformation " of the Westerners operates in a Shipibo myth ( Roe 1988 ) , the Mestizos in Teenek myth are associated with the mighty ancestors to explain their wealth and power . " The ejek know how to dominate , they want everything , they want to be fearless . " But the Teeneks seem to exhibit a completely different attitude than that of the ejek . By refusing to fight against the soldiers , they fled , into the space of nature , into the alte ' , the space of the telluric beings--thus rediscovering the mode of life of the pre-human ancestors . There is an imperfect return to the primitive era here , because there was a reversal , experienced as a cataclysm . According to this narrative , the Teeneks returned to the uncultivated space after the Revolution , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ relationship between the two groups is thus shaded by this incomplete reversal . It is like the Revolution , which , although it marked a turning point in Mexican history , did not dramatically change the situation for the Veracruzan Teeneks , and that episode remains in the collective memory rather as a true catastrophe . Recall that the pre-Revolutionary involved the historical creation of the current Teenek communities . Favored by various liberal laws and conjunctures at the end of the nineteenth century , the Teenek peons gradually bought the lands of the haciendas where they worked and held them in co-ownership . The condueazgo is in fact a form of communal land holding relating to the management of internal affairs and private property vis--vis outside institutions . This formula has enabled the territorial anchoring of the Teeneks--the boundaries of the current communities are drawn in most cases over those of the former haciendas--and the beginning of their social organization , as well as their reconstitution as an ethnic group as it is known today . Furthermore , it is difficult to evaluate the degree of the economic and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ twentieth century . One might imagine that those who had already achieved co-ownership experienced a phase of stability . Moreover , at that time , a sizable number of Teeneks still lived under the regime of the hacienda , which in that region was reduced above all to their obligation to work one day a week for the landowner in return for the right to cultivate a plot of land on his domain . Some descendants of hacendados in Tantoyuca assured me that , before the Revolution , the lot of the peons of their forebears was much better than it is today and that they , in fact , owned animals of all sorts , as is mentioned in the narrative cited earlier . Mentioning the current extreme poverty of the Teeneks , a ruddy man who lives off his yields in Tantoyuca asserted : " Their freedom is a good thing , but that does n't help them eat . " The Revolution , which occurred in 1910 and lasted for twelve years , permanently altered this presumed satisfactory situation . During the Revolution the Huasteca region was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they encountered on their way to provide them with food and animals to carry their equipment . Consequently , both sides accused the Indians of collaborating , and there were reprisals and pillaging against them : huts and harvests were burned , and there were thefts , rapes , executions , hangings , and similar assaults. ( n25 ) The Indians were also forced to accept conscription into one or the other fighting groups of the region and , as a result , many of them chose to escape into the alte ' . Today , old people report what their parents told them about that time : there was nothing to eat , and many died of hunger because the people ate only the little they could find in nature--roots of banana and papaya trees , croton seeds , t'udhub ( Vitis mesoamericana--of the Vitaceae family ) , certain herbs , manioc , fruits from the ojox or breadfruit tree ( Brosimum alicastrum--of the Moraceae family ) , and the like . In the aforementioned narrative , the relationship between the Teeneks and the figure of the abusive Mestizo @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it is completely interiorized in the practices and in local Teenek concepts regarding the " Other . " On one occasion , I asked the healer of Loma Larga to cure me . He responded by saying that the Teenek way is not applicable to non-Teenek persons . Arguing that we have the same body , I convinced him to treat me , and when we arrived at a specific tree in the bush where healing rituals are held , Dionisio spoke to that tree explaining , in Teenek , that though I was a stranger ( ejek ) I could harm no one . He added that since I do not steal , and was living in the hamlet , the Baatsik ' should help me . Furthermore , fear of the Mestizo is perceived as an ethnic trait , and when the chief of the dancers of the Dance of the Sparrow Hawk came back to the village after participating in a gathering of Mayan dances in the southern state of Campeche , he told me that all the dancers were actually Teeneks-not only because they were speaking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ too , as they told him , feared the " rich . " Elsewhere , I analyzed in depth the social and abusive relationships endured by the Teeneks from their Mestizo neighbors ( denigration , exploitation , spoliation ) and how these interactions are interpreted and interiorized by the Teenek people I know ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . This narrative rejoins the explanations given by Dioniso of the flight of the inhabitants of the hamlets when I arrived to begin my fieldwork . However , beyond the historical facts , have n't we already heard this same story of escaping into nature after another cataclysm , the one when the Baatsik ' , who , not wanting to fight against the light , buried their heads into the earth ? The Teenek narratives appear to compare Teeneks ' behavior in the face of the revolutionary disaster--and , in general , in the face of the ejek--to that of the Baatsik ' in the face of the arrival of another upheaval , that of the light . The Revolution was thus experienced as another disaster , well anchored in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ myth whose structure brings to mind that of a more distant catastrophe , one that became a founding myth of the Teenek ancestors and also explains their illnesses and their misfortunes . As McAnany rightly put it , ancestor worship is not ultimately " about the dead but about how the living make use of the dead " ( McAnany 2000 : 484 ) and by extension , make use of the past . The same process can be seen among the Chamula Indians described by Gossen ( 1999 : 25 ) where " new waves of others . are systematically relegated to a newly reconfigured past . " The traditional is an interpretative mode to understanding and legitimating the present , transfering the represented world into the past ( Alonso 1995 : 10 ) . Indeed , the same structure of thought is applied to explain illness ( Baatsik ' ) as well as social misfortune ( the Revolution and the Mestizos ) giving the impression that little has changed . These two mythical tales , in the end analogous , seem to surface from a model of conveyance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ identity and which is spatially expressed within the ethnic territory through different religious , social and corporal practices . As pointed out by Hugh-Jones , mythic thought distils from historical experience an ordered set of categories without obliterating its sources from consciousness ( Hugh-Jones 1989 : 57 ) . Indeed , these narrative repetitions and their associated practices ultimately transmit the message of the ethnic conflict that is at the origin of cataclysms and misfortune . In other words , the mythical tales and the practices related to them account for social configurations emanating from historical facts , and place on one side those who erupted into the indigenous world and on the other those for whom only a remembrance of it remains.Conclusions The dualist oppositions , which characterize the Teenek practices and narratives mentioned in this article emanate from a watershed event , evoked in the Teenek myth of origin , that alludes to the advent of Christianity and to their subjugation by a foreign culture . Today the Teenek world is characterized by an ambivalence of beliefs , which we can see in its partitioning of communal space @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the domain of the anti-social , they are nonetheless the ancestors , and as such they forged the group 's history . In other words , the Baatsik ' incarnate the constituent alterity of Teenek identity . Moreover , even while belonging to the infra-terrestrial world , the Baatsik ' remain the guarantors of Teenek morals here on earth . This is done through the mechanism of the illnesses that often strike the Teeneks because of territorial transgression or social lapses ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . The punishment of excess by misfortune safeguards the social order and also serves as a reminder of the group 's common origin and collective memory . Masters of the earth , the Baatsik ' are thus the guardians of Teenek territory in its broadest sense . Hence , alterity is not opposite to the self but is in the self . This may explain the fact that even though historical consciousness among the Veracruzan Teeneks I met is a vivid and specific vision of social inequalities , it did not fuse ( until now ) into an ethno-political movement but rather into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . These symbolic and social configurations resulted in the Teeneks ' doubling of their boundaries . They have external boundaries vis--vis the Mestizo , marking the edge of their territory with strict rules of descent and residence , and internal boundaries vis--vis the Baatsik ' , marking the edge of their contemporary syncretic religion and way of life , even while they acknowledge their faithfulness to their recalcitrant and overthrown ancestors . The internal notion of social marking illuminates the ambiguity of boundaries , which is probably what motivates societies to invest them heavily with symbolism ( Cohen 1994 : 69 ) . The proxemics approach adopted in this paper , that is , " the interrelated observations and theories of man 's use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture " ( Hall 1966 : 1 ) , allows us to grasp the Teenek sense of social singularity . The relation between locality and Indian identity has been well established in the Mesoamerican region . Numerous researchers stress how the dynamic understanding of indigenous practices and discourses is anchored in local worldviews and mechanisms and helps explain @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ecological and extra-ethnic environments ( cf. for example : Brintnall 1979 ; Bunzel 1959 ; Hoffmann and Salmern Castro 1997 ; Tax 1941 ; Warren 1978 ; Watanabe 1992 ) . Nevertheless , my concern in this article is not the analysis of the relation between identity and locality ( town , village ) or Indian identity as a corollary to non-Indian one within the national culture ( Hawkins 1984 ) . Rather , it concerns the analysis of a symbolically constructed space , which , in this case , includes the hamlet anchored in its uncultivated surroundings as well as in its regional , non-Indian context . In other words , it is not only the local social aspects ( " knowledge , experience , and interpersonal familiarity needed to intuit events and individuals within such discourse " Watanabe 1992 : 15 ) but also the symbolic elaboration and practices that accompany them ( which are themselves a contextual historical construction ) that , when related to external parameters , forge the Teenek ethnic identity . My analysis of Teenek worldview as an autochthonous means in the organization of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ how the interethnic hierarchies are interiorized and translated into a symbolic mode in the organization of the intracommunal space . But contrary to other cases in which the " symbolism of subordination " ( Warren 1978 ) is channeled toward exteriorized political or pan-Indian consciousness , Teenek orient it internally . They shape their communal space and boundaries in the same way in which they categorize " others " and identify themselves . Social relations with the cultural other are thus the main issue in this internal construction of ethnic identity , and they are expressed in two distinct spatial realms . The first one is positional and thus external ; as a social organization , Teenek ethnicity relies on regulated interactions through socio-political mechanisms , which maintain the community 's boundaries with the contemporary non-Teenek world . The second one is relational and thus internal ; as an element of culture , the Teeneks ' ethnic reference--that is the inner rationalization for their shared peculiarity and consciousness of unequal difference with their Mestizo neighbors--stems from their relations with their ancestors . These relations are expressed in the internal organization @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exclusively . However , the story of the pre-human ancestors is not unrelated to historical processes and the set of external social relations . On the contrary , both formal and symbolic spatial manifestations of Teenek identity are integrally related . Through these processes of cultural duality , the Teeneks of Loma Larga thus attempt to find a delicate balance , which depends on their assets and on the social and historical context in which they are found . Their symbolic spatial and linguistic organization is in direct relation to the contemporary social order . Like the language of sites among the Swazi ( Kuper 1972 ) , the Teeneks ' spatial classification replicates their complex ethnic classification , embodied both in an enduring system and in historical change . Teenek communities are not separate , incommensurable cultures and Teenek people are not bounded and autonomous selves . Inside Teenek communal space , which is culturally plural ( the inhabitants are Catholics and bilingual , children attend the hamlet 's official school where they are taught Spanish , people work outside the village , etc. ) , spatial classification provides @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the postcolonial situation is evoked but at the same time suspended ( people pay respect to their autochthonous faith solely in the Teenek language ) . Their communal space permits the Teeneks to fully identify with their mythical and defeated ancestors and thus to re-enact in the symbolic realm the daily social drama that emanates from the colonial and post-colonial encounters . Nonetheless , the forms of Teenek resistance to the colonial and post-colonial domination , reflected in the discourses and practices about their ethnicity , mirror the extent to which they are still psychologically , symbolically subjugated . The Teeneks are thus dominated by the very form of their **26;2345;TOOLONG A preliminary version of this article was presented under the title " Luces del pasado , lugares del presente . La reparticin de los espacios entre los teenek de Veracruz ( Mxico ) " at the conference entitled : Espacios Mayas . Usos , representaciones , creencias , held in Paris in December 2000 . Parts of this paper appear in my book Thunder Does n't Live Here Anymore ( 2004 ) . I am grateful for the always-pertinent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ paper.Footnotes ( n1 ) Fieldwork in Teenek villages , particularly in the hamlet of Loma Larga , was carried out between March 1991 and September 1993 . I returned to the region several times between 1993 and November 1995 and again from September 2003 to June 2007 while conducting another research , this time among a nearby Nahua group . Research among the Teenek group was supported by the French Ministry of Education ( 1990 ) , the French Ministry of Research and Technology ( 1990-1993 ) , the Mexican Foreign Affairs Ministry ( 1991-1993 ) and the Seminario de Estudio de la Cultura , CNCA , Mexico ( 1994 ) . ( n2 ) According to data from Consejo Nacional de Poblacin ( CONAPO ) , 2000 . This official body measures marginality using different parameters , based on the percentage of population meeting the following criteria : - Quality of housing : Existence or absence of a sewage system , lavatory , running water , dirt floor , and electricity , as well as the crowding index ( average number of occupants per room ) . - Monetary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : number of inhabitants over the age of 16 who are illiterate or who have not completed primary school . - Population distribution : distribution of communities numbering fewer than 5,000 inhabitants . ( n3 ) Huasteco is the external group denomination in Spanish , the language in which this testimony was given to me . In the Teenek language , Teenek is the ethnonym and it is used mainly among Teenek speakers themselves . ( n4 ) Structured discourses , myths and narratives were told to me essentially by healers ( men and women ) and catechists ( Teenek people who represent the Catholic Church in the hamlets ) from Loma Larga and the surroundings Teenek villages . Other people , with a lesser narrative capacity , were often listening while nodding to the ongoing comments . I could also accompany many people ( men , women , children and elders ) in the healing rituals in the bush . All did certainly not share the same structured knowledge , but the practices related to it were common to all the inhabitants I met. ( n5 ) See for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Huastec people as drunken , dirty , sodomites , and backward ( Sahagn 1977 1547-1582 , vol. 3 : 204 ; Daz del Castillo 1977 1568 , vol. 2 : 85 ) . As for the current institutional approach , and more precisely the educational system expressed in the elementary school textbooks , the Aztec civilization is overwhelmingly privileged while the other pre-Hispanic ones are silenced. ( n6 ) For a discussion on the polysemic uses of the term " ethnicity , " see Blu ( 1980 : 218-227 ) . For an excellent review of the various approaches to ethnicity see Jones ( 1997 : 56-83 ) . ( n7 ) On the question of collective and ethnic identities see also Wachtel ( 1992 ) . ( n8 ) It should be mentioned that , contrary to Indian villages in south Mexico and Guatemala , which are organized in a distinct administrative and social pattern based on colonial or sometimes pre-Hispanic configurations , most villages the Huasteca region were founded and organized in the 19th century or even at the beginning of the 20th century . ( n9 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the " Indian community " see Dehouve 2003. ( n10 ) Veracruzan Teeneks ( population of approximately 62,000 in 2000 ) differ in a number of ways from the Teeneks of the neighboring State of San Luis Potos ( population of approximately 104,000 in 2000 ) analyzed by Alcorn ( 1984 ) . Some of the reasons for the differentiation between the two sub-ethnic groups were analyzed in Ariel de Vidas and Barthas ( 1996 ) . ( n11 ) One of the first ethnographic studies written from this perspective was Cole and Wolf 's The Hidden Frontier ( 1974 ) . ( n12 ) The land owned by the Veracruzan Teeneks is under the communal property regime , which means , in this case , that the Teeneks collectively acquired them before the Agrarian Reform enacted after the Mexican Revolution ( 1910-1920 ) . The dominant presence of cattlemen and their powerful lobbying organization in Tantoyuca is not unrelated to the fact that few post-revolutionary land grants ( ejidos ) were made in the region . For more detail on these topics and the relation between land tenure and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( n13 ) See for example the writings of researchers working primarily among Andean and Mesoamerican societies , which were subjected to European influence far more intensively than the lowland populations such as those in the Amazon area : Abercrombie 1997 ; Ariel de Vidas 1995 , 2002b ; Bunzel 1959 ; Farriss 1984 ; Galinier 2004 ; Lpez Austin 1993 ; Sandstrom 1991 ; Urton 1993 ; and Wachtel 1990. ( n14 ) According to another Teenek myth , there was a preceding solar era ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 : 139 ) . ( n15 ) Although separated from the Mayan populations of Southern Mexico and Guatemala by more than 1000 km , the contemporary Teeneks speak a language whose origin linguists situate in a Mayan migration dating thirty-two centuries ago ( Manrique Castaeda 1979 ; McQuown 1964 ) . ( n16 ) This is not an implied allusion to sub-comandante Marcos--the myth was told to me in May 1993 , prior to the Zapatistas insurrection in Chiapas in January 1994. ( n17 ) For an understanding of the process of change in the meaning of contemporary Mesoamerican @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sun and of Christianity see Lpez Austin ( 1993 ) . ( n18 ) In Loma Larga , so far , all the inhabitants are adepts of a Mesoamerican version of Roman Catholicism . Evangelist religions do have several adherents in some of the Teenek villages of the environs , mainly those which are close to the main road . ( n19 ) Of course , the phenomena of susto or espanto are not restricted to the Teeneks , and this kind of illness is wide spread both among indigenous and non-indigenous Latin American peoples ( cf. inter alia Bolton 1981 ; Crandon 1983 ; Klein 1978 ; Lincoln 2001 ; Rubel 1964 ; Signorini 1981 ; Tousignant 1979 ; Trotter 1982 ) . However , the Teeneks with whom I worked consider this illness unique to them , as it emanates from an imbalance in their specific relationships with their own telluric ancestors ( Ariel de Vidas 2004 ) . ( n20 ) See for example : Marion 1994 : 24-39 ; Redfield and Villa Rojas 1962 : 188-190 ; Slaney 1997 ; Villa Rojas 1978 : 412-415. ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a name deriving from an exogenous mythological corpus , is analyzed in Ariel de Vidas ( 2004 : 257-259 ) . In Teenek , the chief of the Baatsik ' is called buk ik ' -- " seven winds . " ( n22 ) See Lpez Austin ( 1989 ; 1993 ) . For a concise description of Mesoamerican cosmology , see Gossen ( 1986 ) . ( n23 ) Cf. with the spatial ethnic distinction in Zaire between the Lese who are " of the village " and the Efe who are " of the forest " ( Grinker 1990 ) . ( n24 ) Lack of space precludes a proper discussion on Teenek concepts and values of work , which differ from those of the Mestizo , according to Teenek view . For an interesting discussion on the notion of work/labor among native peoples as contrasted to the values of the dominant society , see inter alia : Comaroff and Comaroff 1987 and Good Eshelman 2005. ( n25 ) Comments reiterated by old informants and also described in the autobiographical account of a former revolutionary from the Huasteca @ @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4025741 This article discusses four lessons for school counselors responding to any serious crisis : ( a ) School counselors can expect to take on leadership roles in times of crisis due to their expertise . ( b ) Crisis teams are temporary organizations within a school structure . Membership in two organizations can create role conflict . ( c ) Effective school counselors have found subtle ways to support and counsel formal leaders . And , ( d ) school counselors must be vigilant in their own care , especially during a crisis . The Virginia Tech shootings in Blacksburg , Virginia , in April 2007 set a new " record . for campus carnage " ( Thomas , 2007 , p. 24 ) , almost doubling the number of fatalities of the 1966 University , of Texas shooting incident . Six months prior to Virginia Tech , in October 2006 , the nation watched in horror as children 's bodies were recovered in the small Amish schoolhouse of Nickel Mines , Pennsylvania . Until the massacre at Virginia Tech , the shootings at Columbine High School in Littleton , Colorado , were the most widely known case of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rage and violence have become a wakeup call that our campuses not only are vulnerable to attack , but that our children can be murdered as well . Recent campus violence probably also conjures memories of other shooting events : Frontier Middle School in Moses Lake , Washington ( 1996 ) ; Pearl High School in Pearl , Mississippi ( 1997 ) ; Heath High School in West Paducah , Kentucky ( 1997 ) ; Westside Middle School in Jonesboro , Arkansas ( 1998 ) ; Thurston High School in Springfield , Oregon ( 1998 ) ; and Santana High School and Granite Hills High School in suburban San Diego ( 2001 ) , to name only a few . These school shootings still register on the public radar in the form of lawsuits , insurance settlements , and ongoing community , mental health services for victims and families ( Breen , 2001 ; Flaherty , 2001 ; Pitman , Sparr , Saunders , &; McFarlane , 1996 ) . Campus mass killings and the terrorist strategies employed by both rage-filled students and adults have forced American educators , including @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prepare for and deal with assault situations ( Auger , Seymour , &; Roberts , 2004 ; Carlisle &; Frare , 2003 ) . Public school personnel have recently become conversant in such terminology as " lockdown drills , " " search-and-rescue duties , " and " triage sites " --a vernacular that did not previously exist in school policy books just a few years ago . The demand for trained crisis leadership on campuses has forced new roles for administrators , and not surprisingly , for school counselors . Fein ( 2001 ) interviewed leaders at four North American school shooting sites to understand the leaders ' experience of responding to these incidents . Formal leaders such as superintendents , principals , and other administrators were the anticipated participant pool . However , these formal leaders often named other informal leaders , including school counselors , as key contributors in the aftermath of the shooting incident . Consequently , Fein 's study also included school counselors and other mental health practitioners who assumed leadership roles during the crises . This article will draw on the results of this study @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be faced with disaster situations . School counselors who responded to a major school incident or disaster have voiced feelings of inadequate preparation ( Lovre , 2003 ; Shen &; Sink , 2002 ) . One school counselor stated , " We had nothing . We started at zero . Nothing " ( Fein , 2003 , p. 147 ) . Although school districts attempt to keep training updated and drills current , school counselor preparedness is frequently overlooked ( Auger et al. , 2004 ) . Fein found that professional school counselors played significant leadership roles in the aftermath of some school shootings--especially in the immediate aftermath . Debriefings of counselors and other leaders from high-profile shootings revealed that many school counselors performed duties that were not part of their formal preparation or training . However , the gap between the knowledge and skills required for effective leadership in crisis response and actual counselor preparation is significant ( Allen et al. , 2002 ) . Demands placed upon school counselors in crisis response situations continue to increase as the scope of school and community critical incidents broadens . We @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those who professionally support them , with four lessons.LESSON 1 : BE PREPARED TO LEAD When a disaster occurs , school counselors often must often respond to the needs and demands of students , staff ; and administrators . Student safety and accountability , staff needs , law enforcement communications , fire and rescue squad requirements , administrative directives--all these functions can ( and in some instances , did ) converge on the shoulders of the school counselor . When one is overseeing the needs of children and adults during a crisis response , tensions can run high among those seeking support ( Chibbaro &; Jackson , 2006 ; Luna , 2000 ) . Responding to a disaster or emergency situation distresses everyone , especially those in leadership roles . School administrators who have responded to shootings attempted to contain and control further harm . They were called upon to address the media and perform duties they never dreamed possible . Unanticipated demands on school administrators made them unavailable to make many other decisions . Often school counselors were asked to perform duties that included executive decision-making about issues of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shootings ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ; Riley &; McDaniel , 2000 ) . In the days immediately following the campus shootings , some school counselors , largely due to their training and expertise , became extremely influential , sometimes emerging as a kind of " CEO " of post-shooting events ( Fein , 2001 ) . At one site , the superintendent announced that he planned to close the schools the day after the shooting occurred , but a school counselor advised against the decision , explaining that many children might be left in situations where no adults would be available to help them cope , arguing that the children would be cared for and be safer at school . The superintendent took her advice and district schools remained open the day after the shooting . In another setting , a school counselor refused to allow the district maintenance department to patch up the bullet holes in walls immediately after the shooting , which the department had been directed to do by a central office administrator . The counselor reasoned , " We left the bullet holes there @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' I was here , ' or ' That one came close . ' Those kids needed to do that . I told maintenance when it was time to patch them up " ( Fein , 2003 , p. 140 ) . In another situation , a school counselor , reflecting on the scope of his role , stated that he bore a lot of the weight of what was going on in the school and the entire school district ( Fein ) . Shootings caused school counselors to be thrust into positions of responsibility ( Fein , 2003 ) . Wiger and Harowski ( 2003 ) found that during crises , school counselors took on administrative tasks without incident command training or formal role assignment . One counselor in Fein 's study described how he was selected to head the incident response team : I arrived right after the shooting . There were still bodies on the ground . We got everything under control and got the children home and I went up to the superintendent and said , " You have got to put someone in charge of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ said , " You 're in charge . " ( Fein , pp. 135-136 ) According to Fein , both administrators and counselor leaders worried about making mistakes ; they felt the " weight of leadership " ( p. 147 ) . One " counselor CEO " said , " I never felt so alone in nay life " ( p. 147 ) . This feeling of isolation was a frequent finding for leaders , including school counselor leaders , in similar situations . During a school crisis , a disproportionate transfer of intense emotions from traumatized individuals to school counselors often occurs . One counselor described what he referred to as the " boy-on-a-bike syndrome " ( Fein , 2003 , p. 99 ) to characterize the weight that came with crisis intervention and the need for a team approach under circumstances such as a school shooting : A boy is riding his bike and he falls and scrapes his knee . He gets up and sees three or four people looking at him ; but he wo n't cry . He will get on his bike and peddle @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sees his mother at the door , then he cries . So the boy-on-the-bike syndrome is what happens in schools . Teachers will often hold it together . Students even will hold it together , if they are being informed that the counselors and the crisis response team are on their way . But once we enter into the school , then , like the boy-on-the-bike , there is this invisible , yet tangible transfer of power from the teachers onto our shoulders , in relation to the emotional well-being of the students--and at sonic level , of the staff . Typically only one or two of us go into a school , but how can one or two handle that emotional transfer of power for so many students for an event of the magnitude of a school shooting ? So an entire team went in and worked collaboratively. ( pp. 99-100 ) What this counselor did not state directly , but which no doubt also occurred , was that this same transfer of power onto the shoulders of school counselors also occurs from formal organizational leaders who feel absolutely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ SERVING TWO ORGANIZATIONS CREATES ROLE CONFLICT The crisis response team for an event of the magnitude of a school shooting has as its primary mission the management of both the event and post-event counseling needs of students , staff , and the community . This " organization " remains in place as long as immediate and long-term post-event counseling needs remain to be addressed by the crisis team . The school counselor 's role has historically varied from district to district , from campus to campus , and from day to day . Especially in smaller districts , school counselors have traditionally been assigned quasi-administrative duties such as student supervision or responding to parent or visitor emergencies ( Allen et al. , 2002 ) . At some school shooting sites , administrators were absent or unavailable when shootings erupted . Therefore , when a school is subjected to such a horrific event , leaders arise not only from those who are well versed in crisis situations , but also from those who do not have classroom responsibilities ( Lovre , 2003 ) . In essence , school counselors constitute " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ necessary to conduct daily operations ( DeMarco , 2001 ) . School shootings are such an overwhelming disaster that many organizational adaptations are needed in response . In the aftermath of the shootings , counselors could not simply continue to perform the same tasks for which they were normally responsible ( Auger et al. , 2004 ) . Scheduling , testing , and guidance took a back seat to the needs of traumatized students , teachers , and support staff . School counselors carried out their normal counseling functions , but the scope of their work quantitatively and qualitatively went well beyond their usual routine . Also , counseling needs often exceeded the school districts ' capacity to provide it , so public and private agencies offered to assist ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ) . Although the membership and structures of these outside agencies did not change , their role and their relationship to the public schools changed dramatically . As often occurs in response to a crisis or disaster , new " organic " structures emerge ( Dynes , 1970 ) , and this occurred at some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lead . Freed up to manage some aspects of the chaos ( such as coordination of response efforts and/or channeling of communications ) , school counselors took on administrative roles that forced them to make hundreds of decisions they would not normally have made in more ordinary times ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ) . However , there were very few , if any , structures in place to address issues such as determining licensing qualifications for outside counselors and monitoring their counseling activities . Some non-school counselor volunteers had no experience with children . Some clergy volunteers had no counseling credentials and/or insinuated their particular religious perspectives onto victims . One crisis team leader described having no protocols and no policies or guidelines to consult ( Fein , 2003 ) . One counselor , who served as a kind of lieutenant on the crisis response team , described the organization that emerged at her site : I describe it as a kind of octopus with name of school counselor at the center--not as a negative characterization , but structurally . There were several people who were like the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ basically did the planning process . They formal leaders relied on our expertise . Those of us who were the arms of the octopus were not directly involved in facilitating groups , rather , we just kind of moved around to make sure things were getting done . Quality control . I did very little direct service . ( Fein , 2001 ) Even in non-crisis times there is much confusion about the role of professional school counselors ( Beesley , 2004 ; House , 2002 ; Lieberman , 2004 ; Paisley , 2001 ) , with role confusion exacerbated by the changing needs of schools , by differing administrative views about the role of the school counselor , and by assignments to multiple campuses . The onset of a crisis also contributes to role confusion because crisis response teams became an " organization within an organization " ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ) . School counselors who led the crisis response teams had to set aside one role for another . The goals of the school or district and the goals of the crisis response team certainly overlapped @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ find themselves in these circumstances must understand the inherent role conflicts in serving two different organizations simultaneously . As leaders in the emergent crisis team organization , school counselors had authority and responsibility , often based on their expertise , that they did not have in the larger organization of the school or district . In the immediate aftermath of the crisis , they sometimes " outranked " their principal or superintendent , due to the unusually compelling circumstances brought upon them . The same school counselors seen as heroic during a crisis sometimes became the target of post-crisis criticism for having overstepped their authority . This type of harsh judgment underscores the tension inherent in serving two organizations simultaneously.LESSON 3 : EMPLOY SUBTLE COUNSELING Typically , formal leaders ( i.e. , superintendents and principals ) refused to attend debriefing sessions , and if they did attend , they participated only perfunctorily , or they left early ( Fein , 2003 ) . A typical response from school leaders regarding their participation in critical incident debriefings was they " did n't have time " ( Fein , p. 65 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to protect the children that were still here and had to be concerned about the teachers and the community and you did n't have time to be concerned about yourself . You are kind of forced in a position of leadership where everyone is looking for you for an example , so you just had to set the example that you wanted everyone else to follow . ( Fein , 2001 ) The professional culture of school leaders has promoted care for others over care for oneself . School counselors , sensitive to these leadership norms , often used informal conversations as an effective method of " counseling " despite administrators ' refusals or reluctance to attend formal debriefings . Counselor training and expertise proved invaluable to formal leaders , both organizationally and personally , because district and building administrators were overwhelmed with unfamiliar and threatening issues they had never before faced ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ; Lerner , Volpe , &; Lindell , 2003 ) . According to Fein , formal leaders were poorly equipped to make sense of their own normal responses to traumatic events as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ demeanor . Because of their training , school counselors had a clearer vision of what was needed to address basic human needs than did many school district administrators . One counselor stated that his role and that of the team was to try to mitigate the trauma response by allowing victims " to ventilate some of their feelings in a safe environment " ( Fein , 2003 , p. 89 ) . Another explained that he saw his role as " mega-family therapy .. I applied system principles from the family and broadened it to the school and to the community at large " ( Fein , p. 158 ) . Often what some principals , superintendents , and other central office administrators did not realize was that they did have opportunities to talk about their own experiences when fortunate enough to dialogue with school counselors who practiced " subtle " counseling ( Lerner et al. , 2003 ) . Skilled school counselors employed stress-debriefing strategies and counseling techniques that appeared to school leaders to be just another conversation ( Fein , 2001 , 2003 ) . Even when debriefings @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ school leaders tended not to participate fully . One superintendent 's comment was representative of the attitude toward counseling and debriefing expressed by formal school leaders : We the administrative team thought , " We 're tough , " you know . We can do this critical incident debriefing in a half an hour or two hours in an afternoon and be done . Probably we did n't do that very well . It would be something to learn . Because you need to allow time to debrief . ( Fein , 2003 , p. 65 ) School counselors who understand the school leader culture can address individual leader needs and help leaders to make sense of their own experiences in a crisis . Many school counselors understand their role as serving and supporting others ; by doing so in times of crisis they provided much-needed support to students , parents , and staff , including administrators.LESSON 4 : MINISTER TO THYSELF School counselors were as impacted by the shootings as the formal leaders . Investigations into the depth and scope of mental health issues following campus murders reveal long-term @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , school counselors , teachers , support staff , and any direct witnesses to the event ( Lerner et al. , 2003 ; Riley &; McDaniel , 2000 ) . Fein ( 2001,2003 ) found the most commonly reported physiological response to the shootings by all participants was disordered sleep . Sleep disturbances are a major marker of both short- and long-term traumatization ( Wiger &; Harowski , 2003 ) . One school counselor who headed the crisis team in his school district described his lack of sleep during the first few days after the shooting : " My sleep was four hours max a night , for that week--interrupted sleep . I would wake up , you know a half-hour after falling asleep , panicking over something I forgot to do . Literally , I was hyper-aroused for seven days " ( Fein , 2003 , pp. 52-53 ) . Hyper-vigilance is one of many fallout phenomena that can occur for even the most prepared crisis responders . Other physiological responses to trauma may include a heightened startle reflex , loss of appetite , general nervousness , increased fatigue @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Wigert &; Harowski ) . Emergency personnel are trained to prevent themselves from experiencing secondary trauma exposure and to limit their periods of trench-level work ( Lerner et al. , 2003 ) . Law enforcement officers , fire department personnel , hospital staff , and other emergency responders are usually trained in the Mitchell model of critical incident stress debriefing ( Lerner et al. ; Wiger &; Harowski , 2003 ) . However , in educational settings , neither school counselors nor administrators are routinely trained for crisis response or formal stress debriefing ( Chibbaro &; Jackson , 2006 ) . It is unthinkable for major government organizations that respond to emergencies , such as police and fire departments , to set up work shifts without scheduling incident stress debriefings ( Lerner et al. , 2003 ) . Without these debriefings , emergency responders may be vulnerable to secondary trauma due to either direct exposure to the traumatic event or to interactions with traumatized victims . Disordered sleep , irritability , and impaired judgment are all symptoms of secondary trauma ( Figley , 1995 ) . In times of extreme @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ secondary trauma . In Fein 's ( 2001 ) study , one school counselor acknowledged the effects of secondary trauma on the counseling team : " We were all impacted . We were all traumatized , but at a much lighter rate than the kids " ( p. 121 ) . Counselors reported that they were aware of their own susceptibility to secondary trauma--a result of contact with individuals who were traumatized--but that their desire to help victims trumped the personal risk . Often they did not seek counseling for themselves . One stated , " We did not debrief as much as we should have " ( Fein , p. 121 ) . Therefore , school counselors , like many of the formal leaders of schools where shootings occurred , carry scars from these incidents . One counselor reported , " Emotionally , I am fine " ( p. 110 ) , but then described an experience that suggested otherwise : There 's a memorial case in the school . I walk in there and see some of the things in there . That bothers me , so I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ I get in the front door , I just avert nay head because it bothers me . I do n't know why , but it does . ( p. 110 ) When they were able to draw upon their knowledge and expertise , counselors could access resources that were not available to formal leaders . One school counselor crisis team leader described looking at himself as his own private science experiment . As he experienced several days of hyper-arousal , he was able to look at his own experience and to make sense of it : Is this happening to me because I am weak or because I am going nuts ? Or is this just a normal human reaction ? The crux of crisis intervening is to try to normalize some of what victims experience . I was able to naturalize my own experience as well . At that time I realized that I was probably under more pressure than most folks , so I knew I was okay . ( Fein , 2003 , p. 173 ) CONCLUSION We are indebted to voices from the field , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sometimes at considerable personal cost . They did so because they wanted something good to come out of a horrific event they had experienced . Their experiences and the continued leadership trends in crisis response needs in our society led to the four lessons presented here . Based on these lessons , we offer the following recommendations.Be Prepared to Lead Care-giving is central to the role of school counselors and is what is most needed in a crisis event . Most school district policy and procedure books are woefully lacking descriptions or directions for the school counselor 's role in emergencies ( Wiger &; Harowski , 2003 ) . Critical incident tasks are either unaddressed or omitted entirely in these policy records . Whether or not they are trained , and despite ongoing ambiguities about their role , school counselors will likely emerge as leaders during crises . School districts must identify and prepare all leaders for multiple role responsibilities during and after a crisis event . Formal training can only enhance their effectiveness . School counselors and administrators must be certified in critical incident stress debrief methods in order @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their constituencies . Counselor educators should be able to network at state and national levels to regularly review certification procedures . Changes in certification standards also must be conveyed to school administrators on an annual basis.Serving Two Organizations Creates Role Conflict Crisis teams are organizations that temporarily emerge within an organization , but few recognize them as such . During a crisis , school counselors may find that their roles and duties expand to meet needs and demands that did not exist in pre-crisis times . As reported in Fein ( 2001,2003 ) , the weight of such expanded leadership was stressful . To reduce stress , much of it caused by the extreme ambiguity engendered by major crises , crisis teams should have co-leaders so that responsibilities can be shared . Finally , all school counselors , along with administration , should review incident response roles and duties and understand the inherent role conflicts during crises.Employ Subtle Counseling The culture of school leadership places high value on caring for others over care of oneself . A major crisis is a time when both the school district community and its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ always trump personal needs . Denial is no substitute for the pain of gnawing self-doubt , deep sorrow , guilt , or shame . Leaders are just people , regardless of their assumptions--and sometimes our own--that they are super-human . Leaders who were reluctant to attend critical incident debriefing sessions were willing to spend a few moments checking ill with the crisis team leader . One superintendent described how he casually mentioned that he was n't sleeping well and his appetite was diminished . The school counselor 's response reassured him that not feeling that way would be worrisome . In a crisis , leaders experience substantial anxiety about events over which they have little or no control . Subtle counseling helps reduce some of the anxiety that leaders may have about themselves.Minister to Thyself Care-givers or other responders should not become casualties in incident response because they are overburdened . Despite their knowledge and training about secondary trauma ( Figley , 1995 ) , care-givers in the Fein ( 2001 ) study did not take the time to debrief as often as they should have . One rule of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hours or less on a critical incidence response shift and then be immediately allowed to debrief with trained personnel ( Lerner et al. , 2003 ) . Like the instructions recited by flight attendants before takeoff , crisis responders must put on their own oxygen masks first . One school counselor 's words , responding to the question " What if you had it all to do over again ? " captured what may have been true for many of the mental health professionals who provided assistance in the days following school shootings . His words capture both the horror of counseling work trader crisis circumstances and the tremendous contribution that counselors made : " That was the worst three weeks of my life , but it was rewarding . We sure did a lot out there " ( Fein , 2003 , p. 165 ) . Whatever scars these school counselors suffered from their experiences were seen as preferable to the scars they might have carried if they perceived themselves as not having done all they could have done in such situations . In other words , living with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ personal and professional shame of not serving students--albeit in ways never even imagined when choosing the school counseling profession.References

@@4025841 When preservice teacher programs are failing to adequately prepare collegiate students towards becoming thriving teachers , what can be done ? After many complaints were voiced from my student body , a survey was constructed , which revealed student satisfaction levels were lowest in the following areas : 1 ) The variety of opportunities to teach exceptional learners , 2 ) Opportunities to establish rapport with students , and 3 ) Opportunities to teach one-on-one or small group . As a result , field experiences were redesigned to specifically address these curricular breakdowns by pairing preservice educators with cancer patients to provide meaningful tutoring experiences that would be mutually beneficial to both populations in need . The pilot program had several positive effects on the educational growth and abilities of both the preservice teachers and chronically ill patients . Not only was the program enjoyable by its participants , but it allowed the collegiate students to identify strengths and weaknesses of the child , develop/execute a remediation plan , and interact with a student for a considerable length of time . Tutoring these children/adolescents with cancer fostered a desire to support these individuals with their education and beyond , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ can teach outside the confines of a school.Introduction The start of another semester had in some respects become uneventful . As a collegiate professor , I had become somewhat complacent in doing things as normal : introducing myself , speaking about what the course would entail , and asking students to describe what they would like to gain from taking this class . This particular course was centrally aimed at giving students field experiences in the junior year of their undergraduate education to prepare them for student teaching . After a brief course description , students began voicing their growing concerns and dissatisfaction with many aspects of their previous preservice teacher courses . " All we do is observe.we rarely get to teach , and when we do , it is for brief instances at a time , " stated one apprehensive individual . But what was I to do ? I could not control what they had already experienced in other professors ' courses . Designing programs that prepare prospective teachers to learn from their teaching encounters beginning when they first enter the program is an alternative approach to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1967 ; Hawkins , 1973 ; Nemser , 1983 ) . Nevertheless , urgent action was needed since it was my duty to provide these preservice educators with meaningful field experiences , not tedious assignments and unfulfilled opportunities in the elementary classroom as they had already encountered . In listening to my students ' concerns , I heard many different vantage points about how their limited classroom opportunities seemed meaningless , where they sat watching when they were supposed to be giving whole-class instruction as the classroom teacher seemed to have authoritarian control of the class . Others said they conducted excessive observational studies while failing to have realistic elementary teaching practice . A few of the students even expressed their swaying desires to enter into the teaching career . This particular announcement was not startling , but its reasoning struck several nerves . Although these few did want to teach , work with children , and assist in their development , they were so displeased with their preservice teaching opportunities that they questioned whether their experiences would prepare them suitably for the immense responsibility that goes along with the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ blatantly expressing their disgust with not having adequate preparation ( e.g. , teaching experiences with students ) . Initially , I felt criticized as being one who implemented the preservice teacher program design . How could these undergraduates know more about their needs than those who designed the existing course frameworks ? Soon however , it dawned on me that no one would know better than the students themselves . They experience each course , take those opportunities , and are supposed to develop throughout their teacher education program . Smith &; Lev-Ari ( 2005 ) found that preservice teachers most-heavily weigh practicums in terms of importance out of all aspects of teacher education ; unfortunately , the current design was not allowing my students to fulfill this necessity . Although I could not change the entire program , I could change the logistics of my particular course to better situate it towards their eminent needs . The pursuit of change commenced with designing a noteworthy semester filled with field experiences that would prove more meaningful to both the collegiate students and those elementary/middle school learners with which they came @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of developing future teachers if their needs are not taken into consideration when formulating one 's own curriculum ? No longer would complacency be an option ; I could not accept that the program offered limited realistic opportunities to my students to leave lasting impressions on the lives of youth . Thus , it was back to the drawing board to determine what specific needs were not met by the current preservice teacher program.Theoretical Framework Numerous national and international studies have been conducted peering into preservice teacher preparation , aimed at increasing opportunities for professional development and fostering communication between the university/college and participating schools ( Osterman &; Kottkamp , 2004 ; Zeichner &; Concklin , 2005 ) . Yet , within fragmented programs , piecemeal revisions often prove to be futile ( Tardif , 2001 ) . Instead of minimally altering traditional models of teacher preparation , new prototypes involving specialized instructional experiences permit preservice educators to provide services for elementary school students that they would not otherwise receive ( Tom , 1997 ) . Learning to identify students ' needs is significant , but actually meeting those needs @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with students and implementing individualized instructional plans , my preservice teachers would hopefully become more seasoned in the art of teaching.Methods A survey was constructed in order to better align my course changes with exactly what my students were missing in their other preservice classes . Gathering information from each student would also ensure equal and valid representation of all 52 participatory preservice teachers , and using an electronic questionnaire would expedite the process . The survey consisted of 10 items related to their teacher preparation with the first 9 items rated using a 4-point Likert scale ( poor , fair , good , excellent ) , whereas the final question was open-ended to reveal the students ' satisfaction levels of various aspects of the preservice teacher program , according to their first three years of undergraduate education ( see Figure 1 ) . Data analysis The total number of participants was N = 52 , all of whom were third year collegiate students enrolled in the elementary education program at a major university . Averages of the responses were computed from the Likert rating of 1-4 with Poor = @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Excellent = 4 . Every student completed the rating of nine initial multiple choices questions , while three students refrained from commenting on the tenth question . Scores obtained from those three individuals were still used when computing averages questions 1-9 , since the final question was open-ended and its absence had no effect on the other responses . Analysis of the 52 surveys revealed multiple outcomes : the three lowest-rated areas of the preservice teacher program in order were:The variety of opportunities to teach exceptional learners ( 1.98 ) Opportunities to establish rapport with students ( 2.23 ) Opportunities to teach one-on-one or small group ( 2.54 ) On the other hand , the three highest rated areas of the nine survey questions were:Opportunities to observe ( 3.25 ) Opportunities to teach whole class ( 3.15 ) Classroom teacher awareness of your role ( 3.10 ) Before further analysis was conducted on these nine questions , results of the tenth question were tabulated . Although there were varying answers as should be expected from open-ended questions , specific trends became apparent . The open-ended question , " How @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ requests to provide the collegiate students with meaningful teaching experiences where they could be of actual assistance to learners . One student noted : I really feel like we have n't had the chance to build rapport with the students . We have n't been given any time to really get to know them . I feel like we are thrown in and must immediately start teaching without having a day or two to just spend getting to know them . I feel that if I was given that time , then I would have felt a little bit more comfortable teaching for the first time . Another student commented , " The program should allow more one-on-one opportunities in order for the student to receive the maximum amount of help possible . " Clearly , my students understood that developing relationships with the student body was a significant aspect of teacherhood ; yet , their university experiences did not allow for these interactions to flourish . When questioned in class about their previous experiences with exceptional learners , numerous students exclaimed , " We conducted many observations of special @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teach the students . " The university 's goals were for students to be enriched in a variety of settings acting as and learning from classroom teachers . In actuality , the university was failing to reach this benchmark . Whether the difficulty lied in collaboration between the entire preservice teacher faculty or within the structural foundations of the courses , the problem was real and timely change was compulsory . Upon further reviewing student responses to the open-ended questions , additional light was shed on those areas of the program deemed effective , such as giving opportunities to observe and teach in a whole-class setting , as well as the classroom teacher 's awareness of the preservice teachers ' role in the classroom . Although these were identified as the three highest-rated of the nine areas addressed in the Preservice Satisfaction Rating Survey , comments from the open-ended responses more clearly developed the reasoning behind their rating . For instance , one student said , " I would really like to see preservice teachers be able to go into the schools and tutor more . I went to a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ once did I really tutor students . " Indeed , many courses did allot for observational studies , but seemingly failed to link these towards hands-on teaching experiences . Yes , teaching without observation would be foolish , but observation without teaching is just as ineffective within any preservice teacher program.Purpose of the Study Clearly , significant change was necessary within the entire preservice teacher program , but the more eminent issue was the need for my course to be restructured immediately so that 52 collegiate students would be prepared for student teaching the following semester ; this was not a simple task . Where would I find a population of children with educational needs , who could use the one-on-one tutoring assistance of my students , and who were accessible to my student body ? After deliberating about this predicament , one possibility came to mind . It lied deep within my own previous educational experiences , many of which I had hoped to forget . In adolescence , I faced numerous school-related dilemmas due to a personal illness--one that changed my life forever . At the age of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ NHL ) and instantaneously , my future was unknown . Life , including becoming educated , was exceedingly difficult . Were going to school and learning important anymore when one 's life is being challenged ? High doses of chemotherapy can and did permanent damage to my strength and mental acuity . Brain damage and exhaustion were just two of the symptoms , not to mention the nausea and agonizing pain . According to Armstrong , a professor of pediatrics and director of the Mailman Center for Child Development at the University of Miami School of Medicine , these educational dilemmas are prevalent for many chronically ill children while on treatment . He states : The demands of treatment often lead parents , physicians , teachers , and other adults to decide that education is secondary , something to be addressed when things are better . The consequence of this approach is that learning needs are neglected , leaving children at a disadvantage when treatment is finished . ( p. 16 ) Indeed , my own bout with cancer disallowed me from continuing to receive standardized schooling , so instead @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ public education . This time in my life was indeed full of difficulty , but many other patients at the hospital receiving the same drugs were not affected in the same fashion . The logistics behind educational planning for all chronically ill children is tremendously difficult . The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( 2003 ) co-authored a special report entitled , " Students with Chronic Illnesses : Guidance for Families , Schools , and Students . " One of the prominent issues discussed in the manuscript is encouraging " schools to develop and implement condition-specific and individualized protocols " for these students ( p. 131 ) . Indeed , educational services beyond those provided through state agencies and local schools could dearly benefit these most-deserving children . This served as the purpose behind selecting pediatric cancer patients as a suitable population for tutoring . Remembering my days as a senior in high school , I was home-schooled for the one remaining required course : English IV . Single-handedly , my new teacher provided me with personalized assistance with which I had dreamed . When I needed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ When I needed help with literary analysis , I could count on his support . He allowed me to graduate from high school , restoring my educational aspirations . Perhaps , my collegiate students could also leave a lasting impression on children who struggle to attain health and educational prosperity . How else could my students become more personally satisfied , develop rapport and relationships with students , and see the difference teachers can make ? Framework Because of the lack of standardization across states and public programs , Szilagyi ( 2003 ) stressed that while children 's healthcare needs may be met , other aspects of ongoing care go by the wayside . Katz ( 2003 ) furthered that while " maintaining a consistent educational program can be a real challenge .. Hospital volunteers may also help with educational support during brief hospital stays . " In an effort to fill voids within the preservice program at the university with which I worked while simultaneously providing a much-needed service to ill children and teenagers , field experiences were directed towards tutoring cancer patients . To gain access to this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ volunteer workshop , required by the hospital , where they were trained and given tuberculosis shots , if they had not already been vaccinated within the last 10 years . These preliminary measures were necessary since the tutoring sessions would be taking place at the hospital . Patient families were identified , informed , given voluntary permission forms , and allowed to voice any concerns prior to giving consent for tutoring . Throughout the entire process , I served as a liaison between the participatory patient families and the university 's preservice teachers . Patients ' schedules were given priority when arranging meeting times as my collegiate students could accommodate the youth 's biweekly hospital visits . For instance , if the child came on Wednesdays for blood work and Thursdays for chemotherapy , one of these days was chosen by the preservice teacher for tutoring . In all , the individualized tutoring sessions were geared to the student 's particular needs , according to subject areas . The meetings were conducted within a 12-week timeframe on location at a clinic affiliated with a large pediatric cancer research hospital . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ healing but also during the process of granting my students complete access to tutor **27;1009;TOOLONG During the 12 weeks of field experience , students also regularly participated in whole-class and small-group discussions with their classmates regarding their tutoring sessions . Enabling students to communicate about their ongoing tutoring sessions , both their successes and their struggles , was productive in the sense that collaboration amongst themselves brought forth new ideas ( McDermott , Gormley , Rothernberg , &; Hammer , 1995 ) . Cooperation amongst students and their tutees was another central factor towards a better integrated and a more coherent program . To clearly detail the results of this pilot program , a post-tutoring survey was issued to all 52 participating preservice teachers . Questions were derived from the initial survey , but modified to determine student satisfaction levels of this particular set of field experiences ( Figure 2 ) . Post-tutoring surveys depicted that the implemented changes had an overall positive effect on their fulfillment of field experiences , as the average rating increased from 2.69 to 3.85 on the 4-point Likert scale . The three areas that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The variety of opportunities to teach exceptional learners ; 2 ) Opportunities to establish rapport with students ; and 3 ) Opportunities to teach one-on-one or small group , were targeted by the curricular changes . In turn , those three categories as well as most others in the survey were rated higher on average than before tutoring individual children with special needs . As could be expected , the lowest-rated question , receiving an average score of 3.27 , dealt with the patients ' availability for tutoring . However , these instances were expected as the tutoring sessions were planned for the 12-week period . Preservice teachers had ample opportunities to complete their required eight sessions with their particular pediatric cancer patient . In two instances , patient families decided to withdraw from the program for personal reasons and therefore , those preservice tutors were assigned other patients for continuance with their tutoring services . An analysis of the open-ended question followed which led the investigator to make several determinations . Foremost , working one-on-one with a student population that was in need led to a dramatic increase in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In the process of working closely with those students on a weekly basis , preservice teachers enjoyed developing relationships with children/adolescents , and students gained a renewed sense of their professional purpose . One student stated , " I wish that we would have had this opportunity sooner in the program , so that we could go from working one-on-one to small groups to whole class . " Countless preservice educators commented on how truly inspirational the tutoring sessions were : " My child 's face lit up every time I walked in to see him , " " I did n't want to leave because she was doing so well , " and " I hope that others can experience working with children at the hospital . " These voices were coming from the same group of students complaining so heavily at the first of the semester . Their experiences tutoring children led them to develop new-found attitudes about the preservice program , just as McCabe and Miller ( 2003 ) noted in their own investigation.Conclusion Many of my undergraduate students were not given adequate opportunities to experience the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ incredible patients ranging in age from 7 to 17 were not sufficiently provided with educational assistance . Two populations of students had particular needs that were simultaneously addressed by positioning the groups to benefit from each other . Those one-on-one tutoring sessions between the collegiate preservice teachers and the pediatric cancer patients had positive effects on both participating parties , resulting in a symbiotic relationship . Fulfilling the patients ' desire for individualized attention and educational support served an astonishing purpose in the lives and development of truly unique perspectives within this group of preservice educators , which will inevitably prepare them for teaching children with varying needs and considerations . Tutoring cancer patients , as one of my students commented , " Allowed us to make a difference unlike any other opportunity we have ever had . These sick children love us coming every week . " It was evident throughout the semester that my students were much more pleased with their ability to have a positive effect on their tutees . In an atmosphere such as a hospital clinic , where it is not all fun and games @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Seeing what the patients had to go through each week just to survive contributed to the seriousness with which my students committed to providing these children/adolescents with meaningful learning opportunities . Not only was the program enjoyable by most of the participants , but it allowed the collegiate students to identify strengths and weaknesses of the child , develop/execute a remediation plan , and interact with a student for a considerable length of time . Tutoring these children/adolescents with cancer fostered a desire to support these individuals with their education and beyond . Moreover , it put a name to childhood cancer . What once was something completely foreign to my students was right in front of them- a living , breathing person who was battling for his or her life and required assistance from many others in terms of physical , emotional , and educational support . Learning much more than how to effectively plan and carry out tutoring sessions , my students gained a perspective on life and its preciousness that could not have been possible without experiencing how one can teach outside the confines of a school @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to provide students additional experiences that foster a relationship between teaching and learning in environments that are conducive to educational growth . Inevitably , they will not come without difficulties , but the rewards are like no other.Figure 1 . Preservice Satisfaction Rating Survey Legend for Chart:A - Rate the following areas of your preservice teacher experiences.B - Poor = 1C - Fair = 2D - Good = 3E - Excellent = 4F - Average A B C D E F1 . Organization b/w university and participating school 8% ( 4 ) 15% ( 8 ) 60% ( 31 ) 17% ( 9 ) 2.872 . Classroom teacher awareness of your role 0% ( 0 ) 13% ( 7 ) 63% ( 33 ) 23% ( 12 ) 3.13 . Opportunities to observe 0% ( 0 ) 8% ( 4 ) 60% ( 31 ) 33% ( 17 ) 3.254 . Opportunities to teach one-on-one or small group 19% ( 10 ) 23% ( 12 ) 42% ( 22 ) 15% ( 8 ) 2.545 . Opportunities to teach whole class 0% ( 0 ) 10% ( 5 ) 58% @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to establish rapport with students 23% ( 12 ) 38% ( 20 ) 31% ( 6 ) 8% ( 4 ) 2.237 . Variety of opportunities to teach exceptional learners 33% ( 17 ) 44% ( 23 ) 15% ( 8 ) 8% ( 4 ) 1.988 . Student progress from your facilitation/instruction 0% ( 0 ) 17% ( 9 ) 67% ( 35 ) 15% ( 8 ) 2.989 . Your overall fulfillment 0% ( 0 ) 37% ( 19 ) 58% ( 30 ) 6% ( 3 ) 2.6910 . How would you modify the program ? Figure 2 . Post-tutoring Survey of Field Experiences Legend for Chart:A - Rate the following areas of your preservice teacher experiences.B - Poor = 1C - Fair = 2D - Good = 3E - Excellent = 4F - Average A B C D E F1 . Organization b/w university liaison and participants 0% ( 0 ) 2% ( 1 ) 19% ( 10 ) 79% ( 41 ) 3.772 . Patient family awareness of your role 0% ( 0 ) 6% ( 3 ) 8% ( 4 ) 87% ( 45 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 0 ) 12% ( 6 ) 25% ( 13 ) 63% ( 33 ) 3.524 . Opportunities to teach using individualized instruction 0% ( 0 ) 0% ( 0 ) 2% ( 1 ) 98% ( 51 ) 3.985 . Availability of patients to receive tutoring 0% ( 0 ) 15% ( 5 ) 54% ( 28 ) 37% ( 19 ) 3.276 . Opportunities to establish rapport with patients 0% ( 0 ) 0% ( 0 ) 6% ( 3 ) 94% ( 49 ) 3.947 . Opportunities to meet individual needs 0% ( 0 ) 0% ( 0 ) 13% ( 7 ) 87% ( 45 ) 3.878 . Student progress from your facilitation/instruction 0% ( 0 ) 4% ( 2 ) 42% ( 22 ) 54% ( 28 ) 3.59 . Your overall fulfillment 0% ( 0 ) 0% ( 0 ) 15% ( 8 ) 85% ( 44 ) 3.8510 . How would you modify the program ? References

@@4026841 The 13th century , the age of universities and cathedrals , was a time when Europeans journeyed to unknown realms and encountered different religions . It was also the age of Crusades . William of Tripoli spent his life and ministry in the world around Acre in the Latin Kingdom , a crossroads for art , trade , and contacts between Christians and Muslims . His writings offer not only a positive presentation of Muslim life and faith but also traces of a Christian theology of that religion . TODAY IN A NUMBER OF FIELDS and with new approaches Christians are seeking to go beyond the prejudices with which in the past they had covered Islam . A phenomenological understanding of Islam in the approach of religious studies can describe figures and beliefs common to two faiths . In the last half of the 20th century some Catholic theologians went further and developed a theological perspective that might locate Islam and Christianity in one salvation-history . Advocates of a further approach from comparative theology seek to understand another faith on its own terms , allowing one 's faith to be confronted by the truth of the other without making @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of another tradition . William of Tripoli 's name appears briefly in surveys of the few medieval Christians whose attitudes toward Islam were moderately positive . His writings from the 1270s are unusual in offering a favorable presentation of Muslim life and faith and , even more , a Christian theology of that religion.THE FRIARS AND ISLAM Dominic sent his first co-workers , the first preaching friars , to cities with universities , and so the Dominicans from their foundation placed study at the center of their postmonastic form of religious life and at the heart of their ministries . Study remained important when the friars went outside of Europe . " During this period the 13th century a movement had developed among the mendicant orders seeking a rapprochement with Islam , and study played a role in it . Dominican priories began to study oriental languages after 1236 . Raymond of Peafort in Barcelona sought to prepare apostles for Islamic countries , and the general chapter of Toledo in 1250 authorized 20 religious to specialize in Arabic and to found a studium in Tunis . " ( n1 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ letter to the Dominicans authorizing missionaries working in the East to dress in local clothes , to wear a beard , and to have their hair cut according to the local custom , and in 1256 Pope Alexander IV asked the Dominicans to educate specialists in languages and apologetics for work in Spain and Tunisia. ( n2 ) For some , the study of Islam took a new direction , ending not in contempt but appreciation . A few missionaries in the areas conquered by the Crusaders wrote books to help their fellow friars : some were apologetic manuals giving points for informal discussions and public debates with schismatics , Jews , and Muslims , but other writings described the beliefs and practices of Muslims in different regions . " With the inception of missionary activity among Muslims by the Dominicans and Franciscans in Europe and in the East in the early 13th century a new phase in the encounter between Muslims and Christians began. , one of debate based not on mutual ignorance but on information and argumentation. " ( n3 ) The Dominican approach contrasted with the Franciscan @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ motivation and humility , Franciscan missionaries had less flexibility than their Dominican cousins and often , drawing on rigid academic arguments , annoyed those questioning them by a lack of psychological engagement . If a number of Franciscans courageously accepted martyrdom , they did not adapt evangelization to a deeper knowledge of the people being evangelized. " ( n4 ) Peter Engels sums up that history of encounters : " The Crusades led to a variety of contacts with the world of the Muslims . While the first Crusaders appeared full of prejudices about an idolatrous religion , the next generation more and more changed their viewpoint , noting that the way their opponents thought and lived was quite different from what they had previously believed . In the later time of the Crusades information came from diplomatic contacts between Muslim rulers and Christian kings and the pope . Also the new mendicant orders of Franciscans and Dominicans , whose missionaries were in daily contact with non-Christians and who traveled far into Islamic areas contributed to an improvement of European knowledge of Islam . " ( n5 ) Among those @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was William of Tripoli.A DOMINICAN OF TRIPOLI AND ACRE William was born most likely in Tripoli in Lebanon , the modern Tarabulus , in the first third of the 13th century , and died after 1273 ( his life span may have been approximately the same as that of Thomas Aquinas , 12251274 ) . One suspects that William was of a family that had settled in Palestine in the wake of the Crusades , most likely of Italian or French origin. ( n6 ) Tripoli was a prosperous Crusader city situated at the foot of Mount Lebanon ; it was also a center of Eastern Christian churches . Dominicans had been in the Latin Kingdom since 1226 , and a central organizational meeting , the general chapter held in Paris in 1228 , added four more provinces to the eight instituted by Dominic : Greece , Poland , Dacia , and the Holy Land . The Holy Land remained a small province with six or seven priories. ( n7 ) Dominicans from Jerusalem , Tripoli , and Antioch sought to convert Muslims and to evangelize Jews and members of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ William entered the order in the priory of Tripoli or in that of Acre. ( n8 ) William called himself " Guillelmus Tripolitanus Acconensis conventus Ordinis Praedicatorum " ( William of Tripoli , of the priory in Acre of the Order of Preachers ) . A list of members of that priory for 1280 does not hold his name , so he is presumed dead by then. ( n9 ) The priory of Acre ( an Arabic dialect 's form of Acco or Acca ) , founded around 1228 , was the largest Dominican priory in that region . William lived there during much of his ministry . It was the only house of a religious order located inside the city walls . Experts are divided on William 's knowledge of Arabic . Berthold Altaner says he preached in Arabic , while Engels , admitting that William knew the Qur'an and could translate its texts clearly into Latin , notes that William cited no other Arabic source and concludes that he did not know Arabic well. ( n10 ) Did the future Dominican grow up and live in an Arabic-speaking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ around him ? This seems unlikely in a medieval city with a cosmopolitan society and in light of the Dominican project reaching from Spain to Antioch to master Arabic. ( n11 ) Regardless of his fluency , William reports that his studies of Islamic culture and language made his ministry to Muslims possible. ( n12 ) Acre was a crossroads of Muslim and Christian commerce , a meeting place of all kinds of contacts between East and West . After the reconquest of Jerusalem by Saladin 's army in 1188 , Acre , a diocesan see , was the capital of the Crusaders ' realms . Jaroslav Folda observes : " Besides the commercial activity of Italian and other European maritime cities , there were also other travelers and envoys , both Christian and Muslim , passing through Acre at this time , and that added to the cosmopolitan ambience of the city . " ( n13 ) Folda goes on to describe the evidence for an expanding production of works of art and illuminated manuscripts in the workshops of Acre in the decades after 1260 . Anne Derbes and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of medieval art from the Eastern Mediterranean area , concluded : " The Frankish court and the local population shared this rich city with a cosmopolitan array of soldiers , pilgrims , and merchants from Europe and the entire Mediterranean basin . 13th-century painters resident at Acre have been credited with illuminated manuscripts , including the spectacular Arsenal Bible probably made for King Louis IX of France during his four-year stay there. , and the Perugia Missal with its calendar that cites the dedication of a church at ' Akko. ' " ( n14 ) Sultan az-Zahir Baybars , a Turk aided by the military forces of the Mamluks , was , after 1263 , reconquering the lands of the Latin Kingdom . By his death in 1277 the European settlers were confined to a strip of coastline . Baybars did not attempt to take Acre , perhaps because he recognized its cultural and economic contribution to the Muslims . Sultan Malek-Ashraf did take the city in 1291 , thereby bringing to a conclusion what had been the Latin Kingdom . The end came to the priory in Acre on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The friars and faithful attended the Eucharist in the morning and , as the defense of the Templars collapsed , were massacred . A Dominican friar from Florence , Riccoldo de Monte Croce , living on the Tigris , heard of the fall from the victors and saw the procession of captives and spoils en route to Baghdad including church vessels and a white habit of a Friar Preacher stained with blood , but he met no Dominicans. ( n15 ) " The attacks of the sultans of Egypt on the Christian state in the East had inevitable repercussions on the Dominican province of the Holy Land . When Antioch was taken in 1268 a number of Dominicans were killed . Eleven years later the city of Acre fell into the power of the Muslims who massacred the friars and destroyed their priory .. In 1292 , a General Chapter meeting at Rome after the fall of Acre asked the Master General to reorganize in a suitable way the Province of the Holy Land . " ( n16 ) The province formally continued on in Cyprus until 1571. ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Latin Kingdom fell despite their long history and rich situation because the church and the nobility in Europe were not motivated to help them . With the fall of Acre the era of the Crusades ended . Some scholars understand this event as both a symptom and cause of the subsequent unraveling of a unified medieval worldview. ( n18 ) While in the past century some encyclopedia articles and surveys of positive attitudes by Christians toward Muslims have mentioned William of Tripoli , knowledge about him increased in 1992 when Peter Engels published a critical text and analysis of William 's two treatises and a meticulously researched and critical report on the personages and events touching his life . Engels concluded that many of the incidents long attached to the Dominican 's career , events transposed from source to source , are not historically accurate : ( n19 ) William did not meet Louis IX in 1250 or 1270 ; he was not a cleric from Tripoli named William who was the emissary from the Emir of Hamah to the crusaders in Tripoli in 1239 , nor was he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Louis IX after 1249 to the Great Khan of the Mongols . Some of the writings attributed to him in a text by Matthew Paris in 1236 are not by him. ( n20 ) WILLIAM , POPE URBAN IV , AND THOMAS AQUINAS Certain information about William of Tripoli comes from three bulls issued by Pope Urban IV from Orvieto in 1264 . Urban had been Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem when , attending the papal court in Italy on business , he was elected pope in August 1261 . A first bull issued on January 7 , 1264 , to Louis IX , says that William has informed the pope concerning the attacks of Sultan Baybars and urges the King to send the money collected for strengthening the fortification of Haifa . The bull also says that William would travel to France and report directly to the King on the situation of the Holy Land . " Moreover , this William works ceaselessly for the Holy Land , exposing himself to the dangers of travel on land and sea . " ( n21 ) On the same day Urban wrote @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lord of Haifa , about the needed funds . Six months later the pope wrote again to the archbishop of Tyre ( who was still in France ) about William , his " nuntius " for the faithful in the Holy Land , concerning the fortifications of Acre and the need for money ; the pope implied that the three would meet in Europe . Unfortunately we do not know how William 's role as " ambassador " unfolded . Did he come to Europe ? Did he meet with Louis or the pope ? " Regardless , the observations of the Pope . imply contact over time with William of Tripoli in terms of the crusader states . " ( n22 ) Thomas Aquinas was residing in Orvieto at the time when the pope dispatched letters about William 's efforts . He was the " lector of the priory , " the director of that Dominican community 's intellectual life . During his first months in Orvieto he completed his Summa contra Gentiles . This work was once thought to have had a missionary purpose : to serve as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ countries . It does critically survey dozens of philosophical and religious positions , some of which are Jewish or Muslim . Scholars in the 1960s , however , noting the lack of a presentation of Islam or of any contemporary thinkers and movements , came to see the " Gentiles , " the non-Christians to which it is addressed , as important but long-dead Muslim , Greek , and Jewish intellectuals like Averroes , Avicenna , and Maimonides. ( n23 ) Its field of interest is not Islam but Aristotelian thought ; it offers a consideration of systematic wisdom , not apologetics . Aquinas treated Muhammad at the beginning of that summa where he contrasted the " wonder " of the conversion of all kinds of peoples to the Christian faith without many miracles with a religion based on false miracles , sensual pleasure , and a mediocre philosophy and ethics . This rare description of Islam by Aquinas treated not concrete teachings of the Qur'an but merely summarized prejudices about Islam , probably based on the writings of Peter the Venerable from a century earlier. ( n24 ) Jean-Pierre @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and what he says of them shows that he knew their teaching quite poorly . " ( n25 ) At that time in Orvieto , Aquinas was quite productive , writing a commentary on the Book of Job , and in the month of January 1264 , at the request of Urban IV , composing " an irenic and well-intentioned examination of a collection of texts from the Greek Fathers . " ( n26 ) The Contra errores Graecorum treats passages from early theologians seemingly supportive of Greek theological opinions on issues dividing the Eastern and Western churches : the procession a Filio , unleavened bread in the Eucharist , the primacy of the pope , and purgatory . At the same time he was assembling another work : a biblical commentary in the literary form of a " catena , " a chain , that is , a collection of succinct patristic interpretations of each verse of the four Gospels . More to our topic is Aquinas 's composition of De rationibus fidei contra Saracenos , Graecos , et Armenos ad Cantorem Antiochenum . Scholars date this small @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ contra gentiles to which it refers three times. ( n27 ) A cantor of a church in Antioch asked for some answers to popular objections to Christian dogmas coming from Muslims and from diverse Christian groups . Thomas responded that one should not try to prove what are truths of faith but show that central Christian truths are not irrational or clearly false but are reasonable and attractive . Torrell contrasts this work with the summa just finished . " The exposition is rather precise , the language simple .. Thomas develops an apologetic of a high quality , far removed from the inferior arguments which are repeated in the Contra Gentiles. " ( n28 ) Had something altered Aquinas 's understanding of Islam ? We should note that sections of the Summa theologiae with their openings to wider salvation--the generosity of God 's grace , the different ways of Jesus Christ 's relationship to people throughout history , implicit faith , the desire for what baptism sacramentalizes , and the universality of each individual 's psychological response to God 's call--would be written in the following five or more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) A few researchers on what Aquinas thought of the salvation of peoples who were not Christian mention William . In his early writings Aquinas treated the salvation of non-Christians in terms of the unusual case of a child separated from his parents and raised by animals , a version of Tarzan. ( n30 ) However , in mature works--the Summa theologiae is begun in 1265--he never mentioned the forest-child ( nutritus in silva ) . Instead , he spoke of generic groups of people who do not believe in Jesus Christ or who are not baptized but whose implicit faith in the Incarnation and the Trinity and whose orientation of the will toward a saving God receives and bears God 's supernatural grace . It is possible that the shift in Aquinas 's theology on this point was caused by reports and writings about Islam and peoples to the East composed by Dominicans living there or sent as part of embassies to unusual countries.WILLIAM 'S WRITINGS ON ISLAM FOR EUROPEANS Composed 50 years after the arrival of the first Dominicans in the Latin Kingdom , William 's writings present @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also sought to convert Jews and Eastern Christians , he spent his life and ministry among Muslims . His openness to Islam , derived from his personal experience , sought to fashion a positive relationship between the two faiths . He wanted to show Christians that some beliefs of Islam were close to ( or even the same as ) those of Christians and to suggest that the Bible was a source of the Qur'an . He researched the history and expansion of Islam , using written materials in Latin or Arabic available to him in the Acre priory that held passages from the Qur'an and from stories authentically Islamic in origin . He rejected the previous method of describing Muhammad 's religious life as the product of immorality and illness and of picturing the origins and triumph of Islam in terms of violence , immorality , and religious fantasy . He offered an alternative to the earlier view that Islam was the gospel deformed and that its ethics were contrary to both the natural law and the teaching of Jesus . The pervasive approach had been to treat Islam @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Christianity , rather than as a religion enjoying an independent existence of its own . To compare Islam and Christianity in a positive way was unusual , and in William 's presentation of ideas and facts there is a personal tone. ( n31 ) William wrote two treatises in a simple and direct Latin : De Notitia de Machometo and De statu Sarracenorum : one might translate " notitia " in the first work as " data " and " statu " in the second work as " realm " or " reality . " Both works were prepared for Teobaldo Visconti , an important ecclesiastical ambassador and future pope . He was first a canon of the cathedral of Piacenza , his birthplace , and then a canon in Lyons . During the summer of 1245 he attended the First Council of Lyons whose issues included the financial and military support of the Latin Kingdom . After the council , he studied at the University of Paris during the years from circa 1248 to 1252 when Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure were beginning their careers there as professors. ( n32 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ membership so as to become archdeacon of the cathedral chapter of St. Lambert in Lige . Undertaking voyages in the service of the Roman curia , he became a confidant of the King of England and Louis IX . In early summer 1271 , he arrived in Acre . Meanwhile , in Viterbo Clement IV had died ( he had followed Urban IV as pope from 1265 to 1268 ) , and after 18 months the cardinals had not yet elected a successor . Then a committee of six cardinals was delegated to find a way out of the stalemate : they chose a pope on September 1 , 1271 , and in October their documents reached Acre and the elected Teobaldo Visconti who selected the name , Gregory X. ( n33 ) Returning to Italy , he chose Rome as the place of his consecration as a bishop and coronation as pope on March 27 , 1272 , the first pope to enter the city in years . Gregory 's career had given him an extensive knowledge of contemporary European affairs and direct experience of the Kingdom of Jerusalem @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ new pope 's priorities . On March 31 , 1272 , his bull , Salvator noster , announced an ecumenical council to be held at Lyons , ( n34 ) and a later bull , Dudum super generalis , asked that reports on non-Christians be sent to his administration so that a picture could be composed of challenges facing the church in the world . The Second Council of Lyons--it was to treat the situation in the Holy Land , reunion with the Greek Church , and the reform of the clergy--opened on May 7 , 1274 , with Gregory addressing , among other topics , the situation in the Holy Land . The great Khan of the Mongols sent legates to ask for help against Egypt. ( n35 ) The assembly in Lyons lasted six weeks , until July 17 . At the end of June representatives of the Greek empire and church arrived to discuss reunion , and at the fourth session in July reunion between the Eastern and Western churches was formally concluded . Thomas Aquinas died en route to the council , while the Franciscan theologian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there a few days before its conclusion . Not long after the council , on January 10 , 1276 , Gregory X died in Italy , at Arezzo . His successor , the Dominican Peter of Tarantaise , an earlier colleague of Aquinas at the University of Paris , became Innocent V. He had served as archbishop of Lyons , had been vocal at the recent council there , and had preached at Bonaventure 's funeral . Teobaldo , William wrote at the opening of both works , desired to know what the Saracen people and their book hold concerning the Christian faith . The Notitia might have been finished for Theolbaldo before he left Acre . In 1271 , William began a second treatise on the Qur'an and Muslim history and life , Tractatus de statu Sarracenorum , largely composed and dedicated to Teobaldo before his election to the papacy. ( n36 ) Nonetheless , William revised the Tractatus in July 1273 , perhaps while he was in Europe . Possibly he ( and others ) came to see his book not only as a source of information on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n37 ) The master of the Dominican Order from 1254 to 1263 had been Humbert of Romans . He completed in 1273 a lengthy and influential response to the declining support for Crusades : he argued that bloodshed was legitimate , God favored the Christians , and a military presence in the Holy Land ( ultimately to be directed by the papacy ) was necessary . He described Islam as the most serious threat to Christianity in its entire history and found only negative aspects in its faith and society . What factors , he asked , hinder military recruitment and success ? Incredulity toward the indulgences granted Crusaders , fears of unknown journeys and places , and the atmosphere of sin and violence surrounding the armies ' camps play a role. ( n38 ) Furthermore , efforts to stimulate support in Europe for the Latin Kingdom and for a continuing movement of Crusades faced the indifference of the nobility , the avarice of the clergy , and the popular disillusionment with Crusades . At the council in 1274 , Humbert asked for a different kind of army , one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and high-minded permanent soldiers . What would cover the costs of this distinguished militia ? He suggested to the cardinals and bishops that funds should be raised by the sale of " superfluous ornaments " ( chalices and vessels ) kept in the sacristies of cathedrals , taxes on the rents of church properties , the sale of the property of abbeys fallen into ruins , and financial penalties for prelates leading dissolute lives . Moreover , Humbert was not sympathetic to critics of the use of force , the position of his Dominican confrere William , and argued for the legitimacy of violence against the Saracens . William 's rejection of military force as inevitable was implicitly critical of the project of a new Crusade , although he does not anywhere rule out military action. ( n39 ) The council 's document Zelus fidei did not follow William 's approach but sought new military initiatives and the financial means to support them. ( n40 ) Engels considers William to be the author of the Notitia de Machometo but thinks that either William or an editor produced the De statu @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a second smaller work of similar content. ( n41 ) Engels 's doubt about the second work is new and not convincing . The history of the manuscripts finds both works being kept together at the papal curia , most likely their first destination , and both writings have the same opening paragraph mentioning William and Teobaldo . The first and shorter treatise on Muhammad treats the prophet 's life , his basic doctrine , and the teaching of the Qur'an on things touching Christianity . The text unfolds according to several dozen summary propositions . One states the important Muslim view--of interest to Christians--that Jesus did not die on the cross but was taken up to God and will come again , at which point in time all religions will fade away . The final sections consider the secular and religious leaders of Muslims , and then the mosque and the prayers held within it . William concludes with a summary of how Christians should respond theologically to Muslim views.THE SOCIAL REALITY OF THE SARACENS The goal of the longer work De statu Sarracenorum is to offer information to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , want to learn more about Islam , the dominant religion of the conquered Holy Land . The genre is positive , not controversial ; it stresses similar beliefs and yet presumes the superiority of Christianity . This longer and more systematic work has three parts with 55 paragraphs . The first section gives a portrait of Muhammed , his career and his death ; the second ( and longest ) presents the history of the expansion of Islam from its birth into the 13th century ; the third studies the Qur'an 's authority and its content with particular attention to " what of the Christian faith is contained in it . " ( n42 ) A long history of the Muslim conquest extending to Spain , Provence , and North Africa ( this makes up almost a third of the De statu Sarracenorum ) leads to a section on the political structure of the caliphs and sultans , ending with pages listing good deeds of sultans past and present. ( n43 ) The current Sultan Baybers I--a personage of great interest to Europeans-had been militarily and politically successful . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a humane figure who lives a virtuous life and labors that his subjects might live in peace and prosperity . " If he wanted , he could do much worse toward the Christians than he has done. , taking many Christian cities and fortresses without opposition .. But he says that , for the sake of goodness and kindness , he does not want to ruin the Christians .. Still , some of us assert that he is a benefactor to the Christians so that Akko has a good opinion of him and sees him as a good friend , and then possibly he could easily take the city . A Saracen betrayed this plan to the Christians . " ( n44 ) This historical and political section of the work ends with observations on a pessimistic mentality then existing among some Muslims . They think , writes William , that the future of Islam is uncertain : it will pass away after an approaching time of dominance by the Turks or Christians . Regardless , the end of history may be near . Some Muslims , William thinks , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n45 ) In William 's view of God 's one saving plan , Christianity stands at the beginning of Islam . The story of Bahr , the Christian teacher of Muhammad , shows how Bahr inspired Muhammad and led him to moderation . For Muslims " four books descended from heaven--the law of Moses , the Gospels , the Psalms and the Prophets , and the fifth is the Qur'an. " ( n46 ) The Qur'an is a third covenant , not rejecting the previous two but excelling it. ( n47 ) " A noisy crow bedecked in the feathers of others birds claiming a unique descent from heaven , " ( n48 ) the holy book of Islam contains much drawn from inspired biblical material and is in part a version of Jewish and Christian Scriptures . Eleven paragraphs offer the Qur'an 's picture of Mary , and several pages treat Jesus . " Even if this faith is obscured in poetry and hidden in some falsehoods , still it indicates the Saracens ' fear of God and shows clearly that they are neighbors to the Christian faith and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " ( n49 ) Muslims not only tell about Jesus and Mary ; they venerate them . Christians are praised in the Qur'an--praised in their faith and even in their celebration of the Eucharist . While the Jews failed to recognize the Messiah , here Jesus is superior to the prophets . God 's removal of Jesus from the earth so that he would not die on Calvary shows God 's justice toward the innocent Jesus . For William the faith of Islam can have a positive influence on its followers ; his analysis of Islamic morality looks accurately and sympathetically at some practices , noting their cultural context and their relationship to natural law . Illustrating the Dominican 's pastoral experience is a succinct presentation of how uneducated Muslims will respond if they are questioned about their faith and about what they hold on paradise and on observances like having several wives. ( n50 ) The De statu Sarracenorum is not a handbook on how to evangelize . William 's mode ( and indirectly his theory ) of evangelization builds upon a presentation of Islam as related to Christianity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ practices might arouse interest in the firm and full Christian faith , and his conclusion expounds how the truths of the Trinity , the Incarnation , and the teaching of Jesus might attract Muslims to a deeper theology . The directness of his point of view implies a confidence in his approach as well as long experience in explaining Christianity to Muslims . " They should hear that in Christ 's teaching a full and unstained faith is present , a knowledge of the way of God , an exclusive prescription for believers that is , nonetheless , a prescription of the love and true friendship with God and neighbor . " Basic Christian views on salvation , William argued , should be preached in an attractive way , pointing out similarities and differences . Ultimately Muslims seek salvation and truth . William 's viewpoint--and probably his personal expectations--looked toward a radical shift in Christian and European policies . A different sort of occupation of the Holy Land could take place if it were entrusted not to soldiers but to missionaries . " In this way , on the basis @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the power of weapons , they move like simple sheep to the baptism of Christ and enter into God 's flock . The one who says and writes this has baptized more than a thousand in the name of God . " ( n51 ) Some experts criticize William for being optimistic when the Latin Kingdom was undergoing diminishment decade by decade ; the view of Engels and others is that Christian missionaries in Muslim countries were discouraged and that William 's claims of success could not be true . This , however , does not take account of the varied society in which the Dominican lived and worked during his decades of ministry . Research into the Islamic population in Tripoli or Acre is helpful . Who were the Muslims to which he was preaching ? Some have suggested that it was not the indigenous people fixed in their religion who became Christians , but slaves , prisoners of wars , and refugees from hostile Islamic rulers , all living in a somewhat European and Christian realm . For Altaner , William was describing an Islam in occupied areas @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Benjamin Kedar discusses at length the problems of local churches in cities where refugees ( some Muslims ) from oppressive religious occupational forces sought membership in the church . Indeed , the pastoral and social problems introduced by caring for converts were burdensome . Pope Urban IV ordered that poor Saracens in Acre and needy converts in Bethlehem be given sustenance . " Saracen conversion continued to occur at the lower levels of crusader society . " ( n53 ) For not a few , conversion could have meant social and economic improvement . In light of that variety of social strata among Muslims , what William wrote at the end of the De statu Sarracenorum is not fantastic : " The one who says and writes this has baptized more than a thousand . " ( n54 ) This claim exists not to emphasize an evangelical program but to support the practical and theoretical view of the relationship of Christianity to Islam which he had developed.EVANGELIST AS THEOLOGIAN Any presentation of William is hampered by a lack of information about him . Was he a world-traveler ? Was he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Was he an ordinary Dominican preacher whose experience of his own life and society led him to new ideas , pastoral and theological ? He grew up not in Europe but in a multicultural , polyglot society in which he , in faith and language , belonged to a ruling minority , whose future was precarious . He spent his life in forms of evangelical outreach to Muslims and others . With a growing openness he developed new approaches to a people who in his eyes have a history , a religion , and a faith . The Dominican 's serene directness is the result of experience and insight . He was a person of a milieu , a personality of comparison and dialogue , a man of a particular faith but with a temperament inclined to respect others . William was more or less consciously fashioning a perspective that was new in his own region and largely unknown or unimagined in Europe . Already in 1883 , Heinrich Prutz wrote : " One sees that the enterprise of William of Tripoli , as incomplete and confused as it might @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ different intellectual milieu than the great mass of Christian reports from the time . The author gives Islam more or less its due , and he seeks to understand it . " ( n55 ) In William 's unusual employment of Islamic sources and in its sympathy with the peoples of Islam , comparison becomes theology . " He emphasized the historical and theological connection between Mohammedanism and Christianity , insisting that this connection forms an admirable basis for the successful conversion of the Saracens. " ( n56 ) Although William was aware that many points in Islam are not reconcilable with Christianity , his tone is optimistic , buoyed up by a conviction that Islam , far from being some alien pagan religion , is a relative to Christianity . " Muslims hold the previously listed views on Christ in their hearts and confess them publicly . If these statements are sometimes hidden in what is false or adorned by poetry , still they show a fear of God . " ( n57 ) The friar was part of a creative and optimistic time of exchange between religions that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1291 . William 's pages hold not only descriptions and apologetics but theology . It is one thing to compare views about a supreme being ; it is something else to accept and understand a little how God 's saving power and love are present outside one 's own religion . William was not only a comparative phenomenologist of religions but a theologian of what he named the " via salutis , " ( n58 ) the way of salvation . He located Judaism , Christianity , and Islam in one salvation history . God is the origin and destiny of the one way of saving knowledge. ( n59 ) Christianity and Islam exist within a single plan of God in the human spirit and mind . " What attracts Muslims to the true faith is a depth of belief and a kind of common conception situated in the hearts of all as a pre-knowledge. " ( n60 ) William presented at length the Qur'an 's portrayal of Mary and Jesus to illustrate some sharing of religious ideas and figures . More important than religious similarities is the theological model @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , one group of inspired books coming down from heaven . Muslims believe that God is directing the human race on a path of divine knowledge in various ways : through Abraham , the Mosaic law and the prophets , and Jesus . " God gives knowledge of himself through the holy Gospel , the life and teaching of Jesus who has been given as a professor and teacher of the entire world . " ( n61 ) There is one road along which the human race journeys to salvation . Islam 's origins lie somewhat within the earlier Christian reality . Although for Christians this way has been revealed clearly in Jesus , Muslims with their faith and life are on the same journey to a supernatural destiny . " The Saracens are neighbors vicini of the Christian faith and are near propinqui to them on the way of salvation . " ( n62 ) In the midst of economic exchange and social contacts , challenged by political upheavals , military skirmishes , and threats of wider war , William of Tripoli fashioned a positive approach to Islam . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pondering the source and destiny of God 's plan in the religions of ordinary people . At a time when from afar Muslims were vilified and wars against them were urged in emotional rhetoric , William discovered in the markets and streets of Acre faith in a history of salvation . His ministry then turned to writing , and his experience and theology reached distant Orvieto and Lyons in Europe.Footnotes

@@4027041 Past research shows distinct racial/ethnic differences in substance use . Given the changing racial/ethnic composition of the United States , continued research in this area is important . This is especially true for Hispanics , the fastest growing and largest minority group in the United States . One area of particular importance is nonmedical prescription drug use . The rate of nonmedical prescription drug use has increased substantially in recent years , and current research shows that the prevalence of nonmedical prescription drug use is now greater than the prevalence of the use of illicit drugs other than marijuana . With an emphasis on Hispanics , the current study examines racial/ethnic variation in nonmedical prescription drug use using a large , national sample of adolescents and young adults . Findings indicate that Hispanics are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than Whites , but more likely to report use than Blacks and Asians . Additional analyses , conducted using Hispanic respondents only , indicate that acculturation is significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Nonmedical prescription drug use is defined as use without a prescription from a doctor or use solely for the feeling or experience @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ opiate-type pain relievers , tranquilizers , stimulants , and sedatives ( Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration SAMHSA , 2006 ) . In recent years there has been a sizeable increase in nonmedical prescription drug use , especially among adolescents and young adults ( Gledhill-Hoyt , Lee , Strote , &; Wechsler , 2000 ; Johnston , O'Malley , Bachman , &; Schulenberg , 2006 ; Mohler-Kuo , Lee , &; Wechsler , 2003 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) . The increase has been so dramatic that recent national surveys of substance use indicate that the prevalence of nonmedical prescription drug use is now greater than the prevalence of illicit drug use , other than marijuana ( Johnston et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , Teter , &; Boyd , 2006 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) . The empirical research has not kept pace with the increase in nonmedical prescription drug use ; consequently , many questions remain unanswered . Of particular concern is that nonmedical prescription drug use has been mostly investigated among White adolescents and young adults , paying little to no attention to the patterns of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ investigating racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use represents an important gap in the literature . The examination of racial/ethnic patterns in use is a common area of study in substance use research . Studies of racial/ethnic variation in marijuana and other illicit drug use generally indicate that Whites report the highest prevalence of use , followed by Hispanics , with Blacks and Asians reporting lower rates of use ( Barnes , Farrell , &; Banerjee , 1994 ; Broman , Reckase , &; Freedman-Doan , 2006 ; Johnston et al. , 2006 ) . Although not studied as often as other racial/ethnic groups , research indicates that Native Americans report higher rates of substance use than other racial/ethnic groups ( Beauvais , 1996 ; Oetting &; Beauvais , 1990 ; Plunkett &; Mitchell , 2000 ; Wallace et al. , 2003 ) . An important discovery in recent research indicates that the traditional racial/ethnic differences in substance use may be changing . Findings from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health indicate that rates of past year illicit drug use are very similar for White 20.5% , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are much lower for Asians 7.6% ( SAMHSA , 2006 ) . The need to examine racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use is particularly relevant given the increasingly diverse racial/ethnic makeup of the U.S. population . In 1980 only 17% of the U.S. population was non-White , but the percentage of non-Whites increased to 25% in 2000 and is destined to continue increasing ( U.S. Census Bureau , 2006 ) . Primarily responsible for this change is the substantial increase in the number of Hispanics living in the U.S. between 1980 and 2000 . During this period the number of Hispanics increased from 14.6 million to 35.3 million ( U.S. Census Bureau , 2006 ) . Hispanics are the fastest growing and now the largest minority group in the U.S. ( U.S. Census Bureau , 2006 ) . Because of the substantial growth of the Hispanic population we believe it is important to compare substance use by Hispanics to members of other racial/ethnic groups . We believe it is important to recognize Hispanics for a number of reasons . First , Hispanics are a younger population than non-Hispanics , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; de la Cruz , 2002 ) . This is relevant given that adolescents and young adults report the highest prevalence of substance use ( Johnston et al. , 2006 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) . Research also indicates that Hispanic adolescents are at an increased risk for substance use and abuse ( Vega &; Gil , 1999 ) . This is , in part , due to their rapid population growth and minority status , which is compounded by high poverty rates , low educational attainment , high rates of housing segregation , and overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system ( Molina , Molina , &; Zambrana , 2001 ) . Second , research comparing the prevalence of substance use by Hispanics to other racial/ethnic groups has traditionally found that Hispanics use less than Whites , but more than Blacks and Asians ( Beauvais &; Oetting , 2002 ; Johnston et al. , 2006 ; Ma &; Shive , 2000 ; Parker , Weaver , &; Calhoun , 1995 ; Vega , Zimmerman , Warheit , Apospori , &; Gil , 1993 ; Warner et al. , 2006 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ use among Hispanic adolescents and young adults . In the early 1990s Hispanics had significantly lower rates of substance use than Whites or Blacks ; however , substance use among Hispanics has increased substantially since then and is now comparable to or greater than use by Whites ( De La Rosa , 2002 ) . Third , substance use among Hispanics appears to be more problematic . Hispanics are more likely to initiate substance use at an early age , prior to age 13 , than other racial/ethnic groups ( Delva et al. , 2005 ; Johnston et al. , 2006 ) . Hispanics also have higher rates of use for several " hard " drugs , as findings from the 2005 Monitoring the Future Study indicate that Hispanics have the highest rates of use for cocaine , crack , heroin , and crystal methamphetamine ( Johnston et al. , 2006 ) . The youthful makeup of the Hispanic population in the United States , recent trends of increased substance use among Hispanics , and the problematic nature of substance use by Hispanics suggest that research focusing on Hispanic populations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prescription drug use from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health indicate that around 20% of the U.S. population over the age of 12 report use at some point in their lifetime ( SAMHSA , 2006 ) . Regarding specific classes of prescription drugs , 13% report use of opiate-type pain relievers , 9% report use of tranquilizers , 8% report stimulant use , and 4% report sedative use ( SAMHSA , 2006 ) . These findings highlight the growing trend in nonmedical prescription drug use in recent years . There was a 95% increase in use between 1992 and 2003 in the general population , with a 212% increase in use among adolescents ages 12 to 17 ( The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University , 2005 ) . Research also indicates high rates of use among young adults . The 2001 College Alcohol Study , a national sample of college students in the United State , examines the prevalence of nonmedical prescription drugs among young adults . Findings indicate that about 18% of students report nonmedical use of any prescription drug in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 8% report tranquilizer use , 7% report stimulant use , and 6% report sedative use ( Wechsler , 2005 ) . There is speculation that the growing popularity of nonmedical prescription drug use is based on the assumed advantages of using prescription drugs compared to " street " drugs . The argument is that prescription drugs are easier to obtain , there is less likelihood of arrest , use is more socially accepted , and there is a perception that prescription drugs are safer ( Cicero , Inciardi , &; Munoz , 2005 ) . The relatively scant research literature on the topic is surprising given the dramatic increases in use and the abundance of research on substance use among adolescents and young adults . One notable shortcoming of the existing literature on nonmedical prescription drug use is that it is primarily based on findings from school-based samples ( i.e. , Monitoring the Future , College Alcohol Study , and the Student Life Survey ) . There is a clear need for research analyzing data from samples that are more representative of the U.S. population ( i.e. , National Survey @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ research on nonmedical prescription drug use generally focuses on the use of opiate-type pain relievers ( McCabe , Teter , &; Boyd , 2005 ; McCabe , Teter , Boyd , Knight , &; Wechsler , 2005 ; Sung , Richter , Vaughan , Johnson , &; Thom , 2005 ; Zacny et al. , 2003 ) or the use of prescription stimulants ( Herman-Stahl , Krebs , Kroutil , &; Heller , 2007 ; Kroutil et al. , 2006 ; Low &; Gendaszek , 2002 ; McCabe , Knight , Teter , &; Wechsler , 2005 ; Teter , McCabe , Boyd , &; Guthrie , 2003 ; Teter , McCabe , Cranford , Boyd , &; Guthrie , 2005 ) . While there are a few studies that examine the nonmedical use of any prescription drug ( McCabe , 2005 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ) , there is very limited research on the nonmedical use of tranquilizers ( McCabe , 2005 ) or sedatives . The existing research examines demographic characteristics of users . Similar to other forms of substance use , adolescents and young adults @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Johnston et al. , 2006 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) . Research findings on gender differences in nonmedical prescription drug use are inconclusive . Some research finds that males report higher rates of use ( Kroutil et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , 2005 ; McCabe et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , Knight et al. , 2005 ) , while others report that females are more likely to use ( Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ; Sung et al. , 2005 ) . Finally , research indicates that Whites are at increased risk for nonmedical prescription drug use compared to non-Whites ( Herman-Stahl et al. , forthcoming ; Kroutil et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , 2005 ; McCabe et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , Teter , Boyd , Knight et al. , 2005 ; McCabe , Teter , &; Boyd , 2005 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Sung et al. , 2005 ) . Beyond these basic demographic characteristics there is some additional research On other risk factors associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Individuals who report @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ) , or mental health problems ( Herman-Stahl et al. , forthcoming ; Hser , Hoffman , Grella , &; Anglin , 2001 ; Matzger &; Weisner , 2007 ) are at an increased risk for nonmedical prescription drug use . These health correlates signal the possibility that individuals may be self-medicating with prescription drugs . It is possible that individuals , who can not obtain prescription drugs legally , may be obtaining them via other means in order to treat health-related problems . Prior research indicates that the strongest predictor of nonmedical prescription drugs use is the use of marijuana or other illicit drugs ( Herman-Stahl et al. , forthcoming ; McCabe , 2005 ; McCabe et al. , 2006 ; McCabe , Teter , &; Boyd , 2005 ; McCabe , Knight et al. , 2005 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ; Sung et al. , 2005 ) . These findings suggest that nonmedical prescription drug use may simply be another form of substance use and not a unique phenomenon . There is a noticeable lack @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Most research simply compares Whites to all other respondents . Furthermore , only a handful of studies include Hispanics as a distinct racial/ethnic group in their analysis . These studies indicate that Hispanics are less likely to use stimulants than Whites ( Herman-Stahl , Krebs , &; Kroutil , 2006 ; Herman-Stahl et al. , 2007 ; Kroutil et al. , 2006 ) . However , these studies do not look at other types of prescription drug use ( pain relievers , tranquilizers , or sedatives ) Land do not compare the use of Hispanics to other racial/ethnic groups like African Americans or Asians . One study using the Student Life Survey , a sample of college student at the University of Michigan , reports that Hispanics have the highest prevalence of nonmedical prescription drug use , although this was only a bivariate analysis ( McCabe , 2006 ) . The purpose of the current research is to examine the relationship between race/ ethnicity and nonmedical prescription drug use , with an emphasis on Hispanics . Given the substantial increase in nonmedical prescription drug use in recent years land @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to other forms of substance use we believe this research is important . There is also a lack of research providing a detailed examination of racial/ethnic variation in nonmedical prescription drug use with data from a nationally representative sample . It is important to determine whether existing racial/ethnic patterns in other forms of substance use are similar to or different than the racial/ethnic patterns in nonmedical prescription drug use . In addition , the majority of research on racial/ ethnic differences in substance use generally examines bivariate differences in use , or simply includes race/ethnicity as a control for substance use . More research is needed examining the racial/ethnic variation in substance use while controlling for known predictors of substance use . Furthermore , as the U.S. becomes more racially/ethnically diverse and the Hispanic population continues to grow , it is necessary to understand the racial/ethnic patterns in this emerging form of substance use . It is important to understand whether current demographic changes in the racial/ethnic makeup of the U.S. population , especially those experienced by Hispanics , have an impact on racial/ethnic patterns in substance use . Therefore @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ethnic group of primary interest , comparing nonmedical prescription drug use by Hispanics to other racial/ethnic groups . We believe this strategy is important for a number of reasons . First , Hispanics are the fastest growing , largest , and youngest minority group in the United States . Second , Hispanics initiate substance use at a younger age and report more problematic substance use than other racial/ethnic groups . Third , recent research indicates increased substance use among Hispanics . All of this indicates a clear need to focus on Hispanics as a group of interest in substance use research . In addition , most of the existing research on nonmedical prescription drug use ignores Hispanics . We believe that the current research makes a significant contribution to the literature on racial/ethnic differences in substance use , in general , and more specifically increases our understanding of nonmedical prescription drug use.HYPOTHESES There is a lack of research examining racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use ; therefore , our research hypotheses are guided by prior research examining racial/ethnic differences in other forms of substance use . We expect Hispanics @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ than are Whites . We expect Hispanics to be more likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than are Blacks or Asians . Finally , we expect Hispanics to be less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than " other " racial/ethnic groups . This is likely because the " other " racial/ethnic group includes Native Americans , who report very high levels of substance use.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study uses data from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health ( NSDUH ) , an ongoing household survey of individuals ' ages 12 and older in the United States ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , 2006 ) . The primary goal of the NSDUH , formerly known as the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse , is to measure the prevalence and correlates of substance use in the United States . A multistage area probability sample for all 50 states and the District of Columbia is used to collect data from a sample of 68,308 civilian , noninstitutionalizes persons . The public-use data file used in the current study contains data from only 55,905 respondents @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subsampling step used in the disclosure protection procedures , to control for the risk of disclosing the identity of any respondent ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , 2006 ) . Given the high rates of substance use among adolescents and young adults , the current study limits analyses to respondents ages 12 thru 25 , which further reduces the sample size to 37,154 respondents . In an effort to minimize missing responses during the collection of the data , statistical imputation was performed following logical inference to replace missing responses on selected variables ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , 2006 ) . Therefore , in the current study , only eleven cases were removed from the analyses due to missing data . The dependent variable for the current study is nonmedical prescription drug use in the past year , and is operationalized as a dichotomous variable ( 0 = No , 1 = Yes ) . The NSDUH defines nonmedical use as use without a prescription from a doctor or solely for the feeling or experience caused by the drug . This analysis examines @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the use of opiate-type pain relievers ( i.e. , Darvocet , Percocet , Vicodin , codeine , and Demerol ) , tranquilizers ( i.e. , klonopin , xanax , ativan , valium , and librium ) , stimulants ( i.e. , Ritalin , Cylert , Dexedrine , and adderall ) , and sedatives ( i.e. , halcyon , Phenobarbital , seconal , and restoril ) . In addition to the nonmedical use of any prescription drug , each class of prescription drug is also analyzed separately . The independent variable of interest in this study is race/ethnicity . Respondents are divided into five different racial/ethnic groups : Hispanic , White , Black , Asian , land Other . The " other " category includes respondents who are Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander , Native American/Alaskan Native , or report more than one racial/ ethnic group . The goal of this research is to compare Hispanics to the other racial/ ethnic groups . To do this race/ethnicity is modeled as a categorical predictor , with " Hispanic " as the reference group , in the multivariate models . Several demographic characteristics , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ use , are included as controls in the multivariate models . Gender is coded as ( 0 ) female and ( 1 ) male . Age is also coded as a dichotomous variable , ( 0 ) 12-17 years old and ( 1 ) 18-25 years old . While the NSDUH includes I respondents of all ages , the analysis is limited to respondents between the ages of 12 and 25 because adolescents and young adults report the highest levels of drugs in particular . A substance use , in general , and nonmedical use of prescription measure of total family income is also included : ( a ) less than $20,000 , ( b ) $20,000 to $49,999 , ( c ) $50,000 to $74,999 , and ( d ) $75,000 or more . Population density is also included : ( a ) respondent lived in a Core Based Statistical Area ( CBSA ) larger than one million persons , ( b ) respondent lived in a CBSA smaller than one million persons , and ( c ) respondent did not live in a CBSA . In addition , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( a ) fair or poor , ( b ) good , ( c ) very good , or ( d ) excellent . Finally , respondents are asked if they had any form of health insurance : ( 0 ) covered by some form of health insurance , ( 1 ) not covered by any health insurance . These measures are commonly included in regression models predicting nonmedical prescription drug use ( Herman-Stahl et al. , forthcoming ; Herman-Stahl , Krebs , &; Kroutil , 2006 ; Kroutil et al. , 2006 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ) . Prior research shows that other forms of substance use are strong correlates of nonmedical prescription drug use ; therefore , three measures of substance use are included in the multivariate models . Alcohol use is defined as heavy episodic drinking and is coded ( 0 ) No , ( 1 ) Yes . The NSDUH defines heavy episodic drinking as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day in the past 30 days . Given that alcohol @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ we believe that heavy episodic drinking is a more appropriate measure . Respondents were also asked if they used marijuana in the past year : ( 0 ) No , ( 1 ) Yes . The final substance use measure is the use of " hard " drugs in the past year ( 0 ) No , ( 1 ) Yes , and includes the use of cocaine , crack , heroin , hallucinogens , LSD , PCP , ecstasy , inhalants , or **25;4548;TOOLONG STRATEGY In this research the racial/ethnic variation in nonmedical prescription drug use is examined using data from a large national sample of adolescents and young adults . Data analysis is conducted in three stages . First , the bivariate relationship between race/ethnicity and nonmedical prescription drug use is examined via a series of chi-square tests . Second , baseline regression models are estimated with demographic characteristics and two health-related measures included as controls . Third , complete regression models are estimated by adding measures of substance use to the baseline model . Because prior research indicates that alcohol and other drug use are strong correlates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ useful to estimate the models without substance use measures included . All statistical models are estimated for five different dependent variables : nonmedical use of any prescription drug , opiate-type pain relievers , tranquilizers , stimulants , and sedatives . In order to take into account the complex multistage sampling design of the NSDUH , analyses are conducted using the SVYSET and SVY commands in STATA . These commands allow STATA to consider survey design effects , including stratification and weight variables and the primary sampling unit , when estimating test statistics.FINDINGS The descriptive statistics for all variables are shown in Table l . Approximately 12% of adolescents and young adults report the nonmedical use of any prescription drug in the past year . The class of prescription drugs with the highest prevalence of use was opiate-type pain relievers ( 10% ) , followed by tranquilizers ( 4% ) , stimulants ( 3% ) , and sedatives ( 0.5% ) . These findings also indicate that the prevalence of nonmedical prescription drug use was higher than the prevalence of " hard " drug use , as only 10% of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Regarding race/ethnicity , about 18% of the sample is Hispanic , 61% is White , 14% is Black , 4% is Asian , and 2% is classified as an " other " race . Of the respondents who are classified as " other , " the majority reports being more than one race . To begin , the bivariate relationship between race/ethnicity and nonmedical prescription drug use is examined , findings shown in Table 2 . There are significant racial/ethnic differences in the use of any prescription drug , as well as for the use of pain relievers , tranquilizers , and stimulants . For all of these categories of nonmedical prescription drug use , Whites report the highest prevalence of use followed by other , Hispanics , Blacks , and Asians . The analyses show that Hispanics are less likely to report use than Whites , but they are more likely to report use than Blacks and Asians . The findings of the baseline logistic regression model , with demographic characteristics and two health-related measures as controls , are shown in Table 3 . The analyses indicate significant racial/ethnic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ likely to report the nonmedical use of any prescription drug ( O.R . = 1.74 ) , opiate-type pain relievers ( O.R . = 1.82 ) , tranquilizers ( O.R . = 3.19 ) , and stimulants ( O.R . = 1.92 ) than Hispanics . The " other " racial/ethnic group is also more likely to report the nonmedical use of any prescription drug ( O.R . = 1.42 ) , opiate-type pain relievers ( O.R . = 1.46 ) , tranquilizers ( O.R . = 2.02 ) , and stimulants ( O.R . = 1.79 ) than Hispanics . The findings also show that both Blacks and Asians are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than Hispanics . Black respondents are less likely to report the use of any prescription drug ( O.R . = 0.71 ) , opiate-type pain relievers ( O.R . = 0.79 ) , tranquilizers ( O.R . = 0.47 ) , and stimulants ( O.R . = 0.29 ) , while Asian respondents are less likely to report the use of any prescription drug ( O.R . = 0.41 ) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tranquilizers ( O.R . = 0.24 ) , and stimulants ( O.R . = 0.43 ) . Several of the controls are also significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Respondents between the ages of 18 and 25 are more likely to report use than respondents ages 12 to 17 . There is an inverse relationship between income and nonmedical prescription drug use ; respondents who report a family income under $20,000 are more likely to report use . Finally , both health-related measures are significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Respondents who rate their overall health as being fair or poor are more likely to report use , and respondents who do not have any form of health insurance are more likely to report use than those who do have health insurance . The findings for the complete model , which adds three substance use measures to the baseline model , are shown in Table 4 . For the nonmedical use of any prescription drugs , Whites ( O.R . = 1.30 ) are more likely to report use than Hispanics , while Blacks ( O.R @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 0.57 ) are less likely to report use than Hispanics . Significant racial/ethnic differences persist for certain classes of prescription drug use once other forms of substance use are included in the model . Whites are more likely to report the nonmedical use of opiate-type pain relievers ( O.R . = 1.36 ) and tranquilizers ( O.R . = 2.13 ) than Hispanics . Black respondents are less likely to report the nonmedical use of tranquilizers ( O.R . = 0.53 ) and stimulants ( O.R . = 0.37 ) than Hispanics . Finally , Asians are less likely to report the nonmedical use of prescription opiate-type pain relievers ( O.R . = 0.63 ) than Hispanics . In the complete model several of the controls are significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Males are less likely to report use than females . Respondents who rate their health as very good or excellent are less likely to report use than respondents who rate their health as either fair or poor . In addition , respondents without health insurance are more likely to report use than respondents with some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ substance use measures are robust correlates of nonmedical prescription drug use . Respondents who report heavy episodic drinking in the past 30 days , or use marijuana or " hard " drugs in the past year are much more likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use . In an effort to gain a better understanding of nonmedical prescription drug use we replicated our regression models , for the nonmedical use of any prescription drug , with Hispanic respondents only ( N = 6,062 ) . Ideally we would have included measures known to be associated with substance use among Hispanics such as nativity , acculturation , culture , ethnicity , cultural change , and social and community relations ( Warner et al. , 2006 ) , but the National Survey on Drug Use and Health does not adequately measure these concepts . We were , however , able to use language as a measure for acculturation , as the National Survey on Drug Use and Health administers the survey in both English ( coded - 0 ) and Spanish ( coded - 1 ) . Language use , although a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of acculturation ( Black &; Markides , 1993 ; Caetano , 1987 ; Gil et al. , 2000 ; Vega &; Gil , 1999 ) . In addition , other studies utilize language as an indicator of acculturation since it appears that language is a strong predictor of acculturation and it encompasses the majority of the variation in acculturation levels ( Escobar &; Vega , 2000 ; Turner &; Marino , 1994 ) . Prior research shows that Hispanics that are more acculturated are at greater risk for substance use than Hispanics with lower levels of acculturation ( Amaro et al. , 1990 ; Brook et al. , 1998 ; Epstein et al. , 2000 ; Marsiglia &; Waller , 2002 ; Vega et al. , 1998 ; Welte &; Barnes , 1995 ) . Findings for the regression models estimated for Hispanic respondents only are shown in Table 5 . In the baseline model , older Hispanics are more likely to report use than younger Hispanics , and Hispanics who report being in very good or excellent health are less likely to report use than Hispanics in fair or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than Hispanics who completed the survey in English ( O.R . = 0.50 ) . In the complete model , Hispanic males are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than females . As with the regression models that include all of the respondents , all of the substance use measures are significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use among Hispanics.DISCUSSION The current research analyzes racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use with data from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health . The study findings indicate that there are significant racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use , providing support for our hypotheses . The results of the complete model clearly show that Whites are more likely to report use than Hispanics . The odds of reporting the nonmedical use of any prescription drug are 30% greater for Whites . Whites are also at increased odds for reporting the use of opiate-type pain relievers ( 36% ) and stimulants ( 113% ) . However , Blacks and Asians are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of any prescription drug are 21% less for Blacks and 43% less for Asians . Blacks are also at decreased odds for reporting tranquilizers ( 47% ) and stimulants ( 63% ) , while Asians are at decreased odds for reporting the use of opiate-type pain relievers ( 37% ) . These findings are supported by previous research examining racial/ethnic differences in other forms of substance use ( Beauvais &; Oetting , 2002 ; Johnston et al. , 2006 ; Ma &; Shive , 2000 ; Parker et al. , 1995 ; Vega et al. , 1993 ; Warner et al. , 2006 ) , which indicate that Hispanics are less likely to report use than Whites , but more likely to report use than Blacks or Asians . In addition to these racial/ethnic differences , a number of other variables are significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use . Females are at increased risk for nonmedical prescription drug use , a finding that is supported by prior research ( Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ; Sung et al. , 2005 ) . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prescription drug use . Respondents who report being in either very good or excellent health are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than respondents who report being in either fair or poor health . In addition to health status , respondents without health insurance are also at increased risk for nonmedical prescription drug use . These findings suggest that some respondents may be using prescription drugs nonmedically to self-medicate existing physical and mental health problems and are supported by previous literature noting an association between physical/mental health and nonmedical prescription drug use ( Herman-Stahl et al. , forthcoming ; Hser et al. , 2001 ; Matzger &; Weisner , 2007 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ) . Finally , respondents who report the use of other drugs ( heavy episodic drinking , marijuana use , and hard drug use ) are at the greatest risk for nonmedical prescription drug use . The strong association between other forms of substance use and nonmedical prescription is supported by previous research ( Herman-Stahl et al. , 2007 ; McCabe , 2005 ; McCabe et @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ al. , 2005 ; McCabe , Teter , &; Boyd , 2005 ; Simoni-Wastila &; Strickler , 2004 ; Simoni-Wastila et al. , 2004 ; Sung et al. , 2005 ) and suggests that nonmedical prescription drug use may simply be another form of substance use . Given that other forms of substance use are very strongly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use , it may be helpful to discuss the differences between the baseline and complete regression models . Once the substance use measures are entered , in the complete model , many of the measures that are significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use , in the baseline model , are no longer significant . There are three major differences between the baseline and complete models worth noting . First , in the baseline models the " other " race/ethnic classification is significantly more likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than Hispanics ; this finding is no longer significant in the complete model . It is likely that the " other " race/ethnic group is at greater risk for nonmedical prescription drug use because this category includes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of substance use ( Beauvais , 1996 ; Oetting &; Beauvais , 1990 ; Plunkett &; Mitchell , 2000 ; Wallace et al. , 2003 ) . Given the high levels of substance use among Native Americans it is not surprising that the " other " race/ethnic group is no longer significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use once other forms of substance use are included in the model . Second , gender is not significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use in the baseline model , but it is significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use in the complete model . While the majority of research indicates that males report higher levels of alcohol and drug use than females ( Gledhill-Hoyt et al. , 2000 ; Johnston et al. , 2006 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) , findings regarding nonmedical prescription drug use are inconclusive . Third , age is significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use in the baseline model , as older respondents are at increased risk for use . This finding is supported by previous research that states that substance use generally peaks in the early @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2006 ) . Thus , it is not surprising that age is no longer significantly associated with nonmedical prescription drug use , with the exception of tranquilizers , once other forms of substance use are included in the model . In the regression models estimated with only Hispanic respondents the results lend support to previous research findings that suggest a relationship between acculturation and substance abuse ( See De La Rosa , 2002 , for a review ) . Our findings indicate a positive relationship between nonmedical prescription drug use and completing the interview in English . While we can draw on previous substance use studies that point to the importance of the social environment , at this point , the scarcity of research on nonmedical prescription drug use , in addition to the lack of environmental and cultural factors related to drug use among Hispanics ( e.g. , multidimensional acculturation scales , family dynamics , social integration measures , etc. ) available in the NSDUH data prevents us from establishing any concrete explanations for the association between acculturation and nonmedical prescription drug use . As with the other regression @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ among Hispanics is the use of alcohol and other drugs . The findings of the current research suggest several important implications regarding the concomitant social problems of nonmedical prescription drug use . Given the dramatic increase in the prevalence on nonmedical prescription drug use in recent years , and the fact that nonmedical prescription drug use is now more prevalent than other forms of illicit drug use , it is important to determine if certain racial/ethnic groups are at an increased risk for use . A number of studies suggest that the misuse potential of prescription drugs is a public health concern ( Johnston et al. , 2006 ; Kollins , MacDonald , &; Rush , 2001 ; Poulin , 2001 ; SAMHSA , 2006 ) . While the public is well aware of the risks associated with the use of " street drugs , " there is a lack of research on the negative outcomes of nonmedical prescription drug use . One area of concern is the increasing number of " mentions " of prescription drug use in hospital emergency room reports ( Hurwitz , 2005 ; SAMHSA , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the emergency room due to negative reactions from prescription drug use , especially from adverse interactions with alcohol or other drugs . In addition , research indicates that nonmedical prescription drug use is associated with delinquency/crime ( Ford , forthcoming ; Leukefeld et . al. , 2005 ) . Persons who report nonmedical prescription drug use are more likely to report delinquency/crime and arrest . Given the likely negative outcomes from nonmedical prescription drug use it is important to determine if certain racial/ethnic groups are at an increased risk for use . The established racial/ethnic differences in other forms of substance use and the ever-changing racial/ethnic makeup of the U.S. population makes research on racial/ethnic variation in substance use , especially nonmedical prescription drug use of primary importance . The current study has a number of important limitations that need to be discussed . First , the data analyzed are self-report , which raises the question of validity . For a long period of time researchers were confident that measures of self-reported substance use were valid ( Darke , 1998 ; Hindelang et al. , 1981 ; Huizinga &; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Midanik , 1988 ; O'Malley , Bachman , &; Johnston , 1983 ; Winters et al. , 1990 ) . However , more recent research using advanced techniques to test hair and urine for substance use call the validity of self-reported substance use into question . A number of studies indicate that arrestees ( Dembo et al. , 1990 ; Fendrich &; Xu , 1994 ; Feucht et al. , 1994 ; Mieczkowski et al. , 1998 ; Wish &; Gropper , 1990 ) and persons in treatment for substance abuse ( Ehrman et al. , 1997 ; Lundy et al. , 1997 ; Wish et al. , 1997 ) underreport their substance use . Although it is important to note that these studies examine the validity of self-reported substance use among high risk populations and not persons in the general population . A second limitation is sample coverage . The NSDUH is a household sample of the noninstitutionalized population of the U.S. , and as many long-term substance users are transient or not permanently attached to one particular household , it is unlikely for serious long-term substance users to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; Parsley , 1997 ) . A third limitation is the definition of nonmedical prescription drug use used by the NSDUH . Under the current definition it is possible that nonmedical prescription drug use includes an individual who uses an opiate-type pain reliever that is not prescribed to them to help manage pain . For example , an adolescent who uses their parents ' prescription drugs to manage pain from a sport related injury . This would be classified as illegal instrumental substance use and should be viewed differently than illegal recreational substance use . Finally , the findings of the current study point to a number of areas for future research . First , the findings of the current study indicate that there are significant racial/ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use , but we did not examine the likely theoretical explanations for these differences . Future research should examine whether known theoretical predictors of substance use explain the racial/ ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use . This area of research is of particular importance given the complete lack of research examining the theoretical predictors of nonmedical prescription @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the largest minority group in the U.S. , are younger than other minority groups , show signs of problematic drug use , and have increased rates of substance use in recent years , future research should examine nonmedical prescription drug use among Hispanic populations more closely . Even though the study findings indicate that Hispanics are less likely to report nonmedical prescription drug use than Whites , it is a serious concern that Hispanics are more likely to report use than other racial/ethnic groups . If the current trends in substance use among adolescents continue to evolve among Hispanics , it is only a matter of time before nonmedical prescription drug use becomes a major health concern for this population . Future research should examine a number of variables that are known to be associated with substance use among Hispanics , including nativity , acculturation , culture , ethnicity , cultural change , social and community relations ( Warner et al. , 2006 ) . Third , future research should examine differences in nonmedical prescription drug use among different Hispanic ethnic groups . Although Hispanics are asked about their ethnic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expand the analysis to analyze particular Hispanic groups . Due to concerns regarding the confidentiality of the data , this information is not included in the NSDUH public-use data set . Research examining ethnic variation in substance use among Hispanics is important because the majority of research aggregates Hispanics groups into one category , likely obscuring ethnic differences in substance use ( Caetano , Clark , &; Tam , 1998 ) . The Hispanic population of the United States includes several distinct ethnic groups , with the three largest composed of persons of Cuban , Mexican , and Puerto Rican origin ( U.S. Census Bureau , 2006 ) . Despite some similarities , there are numerous differences across these groups ( Gilbert &; Alcocer , 1988 ; Gilbert &; Cervantes , 1986 ; Moore &; Pinderhughes , 1993 ; Oetting &; Beauvais , 1990 ) . Future research focusing on Hispanic populations would be a significant contribution to the literature ; unfortunately these questions can not be addressed with the National Survey on Drug Use and Health . In conclusion , there has been a dramatic increase in nonmedical prescription @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; however , many important research questions remain unanswered . The current research is one of the first to specifically examine racial and ethnic differences in nonmedical prescription drug use using data from a national sample . Findings indicate that Hispanics are less likely to report use than Whites , but more likely to report use than Blacks and Asians . In addition , there is partial support for a link between acculturation and nonmedical prescription drug use among Hispanics . Given the ever changing racial/ethnic makeup of the United States and the increasing popularity of nonmedical prescription drug use among adolescents and young adults , continued research in this area is important . Specifically , future research should examine why certain racial/ethnic groups are at an increased risk for nonmedical prescription drug use and whether certain racial/ethnic groups are more likely to experience negative outcomes from nonmedical prescription drug use.TABLE 1 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS ( N = 37,143 ) Dependent VariablesAny prescription drug use 12.09%Pain reliever 9.99%Tranquilizer 3.98%Stimulant 2.90%Sedative **27;4575;TOOLONG 17.54%White 61.36%Black 14.35%Asian 4.43%Other 2.32%Demographic ControlsGenderFemale 49.37%Male 50.63%Age12-17 years old 43.84%18-25 years old 56.16%Family IncomeLess than $20,000 26.00%$20,000 - $49,999 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1 million 52.06%CBSA smaller than 1 million 41.42%Not in a CBSA 6.52%Health Related MeasuresOverall HealthFair/pour 4.94%Good 22.79%Very good 40.92%Excellent 31.35%Health InsuranceCovered 81.06%No coverage 18.94%Substance Use MeasuresHeavy episodic drinker 27.83%Marijuana user 21.71%Hard drug user 9.78%TABLE 2 PROPORTION REPORTING NONMEDICAL PRESCRIPTION DRUG USE BY RACE/ETHNICITY Legend for Chart:A - AnyB - PainC - TranquilizerD - StimulantE - Sedative A B C D EHispanic 9.89% 7.73% 2.21% 2.20% 0.62%White 14.52% 11.98% 546% 3.77% 0.54%Black 6.81% 6.24% 0.92% 0.60% 0.34%Asian 4.00% 3.35% 0.47% 0.64% 0.01%Other 12.55% 10.15% 3.61% 3.53% 0.45%Chi-Square 55.65(***) 42.71(***) 38.55(***) 26.95(***) 1.67Table shows proportion that report non-medical prescriptiondrug use in the past year.TABLE 3 BASELINE MODEL : RACE/ETHNICITY AND NONMEDICAL PRESCRIPTION DRUG USE Legend for Chart:A - AnyB - PainC - TranquilizerD - StimulantE - Sedative A B C D ERace/Ethnicity ( Hispanic = REF ) - - - - -White 1.74 ( *** , a ) 1.82 ( *** , a ) ( 0.56 ) ( 0.60 ) 0.08 0.09 3.19 ( *** , a ) 1.92 ( *** , a ) 1.12(a) ( 1.16 ) ( 0.66 ) ( 0.10 ) 0.15 0.16 0.31Black 0.71 ( ** , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( -0.15 ) 0.09 0.10 0.47 ( ** , a ) 0.29 ( ** , a ) 0.60(a) ( -0.75 ) ( -1.24 ) ( -0.54 ) 0.25 0.36 0.43Asian 0.41 ( *** , a ) 0.45 ( *** , a ) ( -0.89 ) ( -0.80 ) 0.20 0.21 0.24 ( * , a ) 0.43 ( ** , a ) 0.15(a) ( -1.45 ) ( -1.21 ) ( -1.90 ) 0.69 0.43 1.04Other 1.42 ( ** , a ) 1.46 ( ** , a ) ( 0.35 ) ( 0.37 ) 0.11 0.12 2.02 ( ** , a ) 1.79 ( * , a ) 0.86(a) ( 0.67 ) ( 0.57 ) ( -0.19 ) 0.24 0.23 0.43Gender ( male ) 1.03(a) 1.07(a) ( 0.03 ) ( 0.07 ) 0.04 0.04 1.02(a) 0.97(a) 1.14(a) ( 0.02 ) ( -0.03 ) ( 0.13 ) 0.07 0.07 0.19Age ( 18-25 ) 1.84 ( *** , a ) 1.76 ( *** , a ) ( 0.61 ) ( 0.58 ) 0.04 0.04 2.57 ( *** , a ) 1.77 ( *** , a ) 0.99(a) ( 0.96 ) ( 0.58 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) - - - - -$20,000-$49,000 0.87 ( * , a ) 0.88 ( * , a ) ( -0.14 ) ( -0.12 ) 0.05 0.06 0.89(a) 0.84(a) 0.92(a) ( -0.11 ) ( -0.17 ) ( -0.08 ) 0.08 0.10 0.24$50,000-$75,000 0.85 ( * , a ) 0.85 ( * , a ) ( -0.16 ) ( -0.15 ) 0.07 0.08 0.88(a) 0.80(a) 0.59(a) ( -0.12 ) ( -0.21 ) ( -0.52 ) 0.13 0.14 0.29> $75,000 0.88(a) 0.89(a) ( -0.12 ) ( -0.10 ) 0.07 0.08 0.96(a) 1.04(a) 0.54 ( * , a ) ( -0.02 ) ( 0.05 ) ( -0.61 ) 0.12 0.12 0.30Pop . Den . ( CBSA >1 million = REF ) - - - - -CBSA < 1 million 1.03(a) 1.06(a) ( 0.03 ) ( 0.06 ) 0.04 0.05 0.91(a) 0.97(a) 1.07(a) ( -0.09 ) ( -0.03 ) ( 0.06 ) 0.09 0.08 0.20Not in CBSA 0.85(a) 0.89(a) ( -0.17 ) ( -0.12 ) 0.09 0.08 0.74 ( * , a ) 0.84(a) 0.82 ( -0.31 ) ( -0.18 ) ( -0.19 ) 0.15 0.18 0.31Health ( Fair/Poor = REF ) - - - @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ -0.25 ) ( -0.18 ) 0.11 0.11 0.63 ( ** , a ) 0.89(a) 0.83(a) ( -0.45 ) ( -0.11 ) ( -0.18 ) 0.15 0.17 0.28Very Good 0.65 ( *** , a ) 0.68 ( *** , a ) ( -0.42 ) ( -0.38 ) 0.10 0.10 0.51 ( *** , a ) 0.74(a) 0.47 ( * , a ) ( -0.67 ) ( -0.29 ) ( -0.76 ) 0.15 0.19 0.33Excellent 0.43 ( *** , a ) 0.43 ( *** , a ) ( -0.83 ) ( -0.84 ) 0.11 0.12 0.34 ( *** , a ) 0.52 ( ** , a ) 0.48(a) ( -1.08 ) ( -0.66 ) ( -0.75 ) 0.18 0.19 0.39Health Insurance ( no coverage ) 1.20 ( *** , a ) 1.22 ( *** , a ) ( 0.21 ) ( 0.22 ) 0.04 0.05 1.63 ( *** , a ) 1.28 ( * , a ) 1.35(a) ( 0.49 ) ( 0.24 ) ( 0.20 ) 0.08 0.10 0.23Table includes odds ratio in ( a ) bold type , with unstandardizedregression coefficient in parentheses and standard error inbrackets. ( * ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , ( *** ) p < .001TABLE 4 COMPLETE MODEL : RACE/ETHNICITY AND NONMEDICAL PRESCRIPTION DRUG USE Legend for Chart:A - AnyB - PainC - TranquilizerD - StimulantE - Sedative A B C D ERace/EthnicityHispanic ( reference ) - - - - -White 1.30(**) 1.36(**) 2.13(***) 1.23 0.79Black 0.79(*) 0.96 0.53(*) 0.37(**) 0.67Asian 0.57(**) 0.63(**) 0.37 0.52 0.23Other 1.03 1.07 1.30 1.18 0.62Gender ( male ) 0.75(***) 0.81(***) 0.71(***) 0.67(***) 0.96Age ( 18-25 ) 1.09 1.06 1.52(***) 0.95 0.70Family Income< $20,000 ( reference ) - - - - -$20,000-$49,000 1.00 1.02 1.05 0.99 1.00$50,000-$75,000 0.93 0.94 0.99 0.88 0.63= $75,000 0.95 0.96 1.07 1.17 0.58Population DensityCBSA > 1 million ( reference ) - - - - -CBSA < 1 million 1.09 1.12 0.96 0.99 1.06Not in CBSA 1.10 1.15 1.01 1.15 0.99HealthFair/poor ( reference ) - - - - -Good 0.92 0.98 0.76 1.20 1.07Very good 0.80(*) 0.84 0.65(*) 1.10 0.65Excellent 0.64(**) 0.64(**) 0.59(*) 1.10 0.85Health Insurance ( no coverage ) 1.17(*) 1.18(**) 1.57(***) 1.18 1.30Substance useBinge drinker 2.05(***) 1.94(***) 1.63(***) 1.87(***) 0.91Marijuana user 3.56(***) 3.48(***) 4.70(***) 3.61(***) 2.62(**)Hard drug user 5.76(***) 4.61(***) 5.97(***) 12.09(***) 8.12(***)Table includes odds ratio ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ < .01 , ( *** ) p < .001 ) . TABLE 5 ANY NONMEDICAL PRESCRIPTION DRUG USE AMONG HISPANICS RESPONDENTS ONLY ( N = 6,062 ) Baseline CompleteGender ( male ) 0.95(a) 0.65 ( * , a ) ( -0.06 ) ( -0.43 ) 0.11 0.15Age ( 18-25 ) 1.79*** 1.14 ( 0.58 ) ( 0.14 ) 0.13 0.15Family income ( < $20,000 = red - -$20,000-$49,000 0.87(a) 0.99(a) ( -0.14 ) ( -0.01 ) 0.15 0.16$50,000-$75,000 0.83(a) 0.87(a) ( -0.20 ) ( -0.15 ) 0.25 0.26> $75,000 1.09(a) 1.12(a) ( 0.08 ) ( -0.11 ) 0.21 0.24Pop. density ( CBSA >1 million = REF ) - -CBSA < 1 million 1.18(a) 1.12(a) ( 0.17 ) ( 0.11 ) 0.14 0.14Not in CBSA 1.09(a) 1.28(a) ( 0.09 ) ( 0.25 ) 0.50 0.52Health ( fair/poor = ref ) - -good 0.80(a) 0.88(a) ( -0.22 ) ( -0.13 ) 0.25 0.26Very good 0.64 ( * , a ) 0.72a ) ( -0.44 ) ( -0.33 ) 0.23 0.24Excellent 0.45 ( *** , a ) 0.60(a) ( -0.79 ) ( -0.50 ) 0.24 0.27Health insurance ( no coverage ) 0.91(a) 0.99(a) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Spanish 0.50 ( ** , a ) 0.98(a) ( -0.68 ) ( -0.01 ) 0.20 0.21Heavy episodic drinker 1.91 ( *** , a ) ( 0.65 ) 0.17Marijuana user 3.13 ( *** , a ) ( 1.14 ) 0.16Hard drug user 6.02 ( *** , a ) 0.80 ) 0.18Table includes odds ratio in ( a ) bold type , with unstandardizedregression coefficient in parentheses and standard error inbrackets. ( * ) p < .05 , ( ** ) p < .01 , ( *** ) p < .001REFERENCES

@@4027241 Based on the perspective of postformal operations , this study investigated whether college students ' role models ( technical teachers vs. lecturing teachers ) and preferred learning styles ( experience-driven mode vs. theory-driven mode ) in collaborative teaching courses would be moderated by their cognitive development ( absolute thinking vs. relativistic thinking ) and examine whether academic achievement of students would be contingent upon their preferred learning styles . Two hundred forty-four college students who have taken the technical courses with collaborative teaching participated in this study . The results showed that those participants with absolute thinking perceived the modeling advantage of technical teachers was greater than that of lecturing teachers , preferred the experience-driven mode over the theory-driven mode , and displayed differential academic achievement between technical courses and general courses . On the other hand , the students with relativistic thinking revealed no difference in perceived modeling advantage of role models , learning styles preferences , and academic achievement between two categories of courses . In addition , this research indicates that college students ' preferred learning styles would interact with course category ( technical courses vs. general courses ) to display differential academic achievement . Implications @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hospitality education is managed by the system of technological and vocational education . In order to maximize the professional skills learned by students , collaborative teaching has been widely adopted in the technical courses which are taught by both the professionals ( technical teachers ) and the academic instructors ( lecturing teachers ) simultaneously . The technical teachers are responsible for demonstrating practical skills , whereas the lecturing teachers are responsible for illustrating the principles and theories underlying those skills . A pioneer concept , i.e. , modeling advantage , which depicts the likelihood of a teacher model being imitated by students over other competing models in a particular class , was developed by Chiou and Yang ( 2006 ) to differentiate the rival modeling of two kinds of teachers under the condition of collaborative teaching . Chiou and Yang found that students perceived a greater modeling advantage of the technical teachers compared with that of the lecturing teachers , and the preferred learning styles of the students were congruent with those teachers as their role models . However , some of the participants did not indicate a significant difference @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ preferences . Hence , this study will further consider the development factor that might moderate unitary or multiple identifications of college students in social learning and their differential engagement in academic learning and achievement . In an effort to more adequately conceptualize the nature of cognitive development following childhood and adolescence , a number of theorists ( e.g. , Arlin , 1984 ; Basseches , 1984 ; Kramer , 1989 ; Labouvie-Vief , 1982 ; Sinnott , 1989 ) have posited stages of thought beyond Piaget 's ( 1980 ) final cognitive developmental stage ( formal operations ) . In general , these theories propose a reorganized progression from formalistic or absolute to more subjectively determined modes of thinking ( Kramer , 1983 ; Kramer , Kahlbaugh , &; Goldston , 1992 ) in which the relativistic and/or dialectical thinking more thoroughly depicts adolescents ' and adults ' adaptation to important real-life issues . These post-Piagetian perspectives suggest that the episetmic level of late adolescence ( i.e. , college students ) is developing from formal operations toward the postformal cognitive ability of relativism ( Kramer &; Woodruff , 1986 ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ late adolescence , formalistic or relativistic are two possible modes of thinking during that period ( Kahlbaugh &; Kramer , 1995 ; Kramer et al. , 1992 ) . Absolute or formalistic thinking leads one to think in terms of absolute principles and ideas . This view holds that the world is stable and fixed . Contradiction is seen as incorrect or undesirable , resulting in such absolute , dualistic conceptions as right vs. wrong , truth vs. falsehood , weak vs. strong . These beliefs are supposed to develop during early adolescence , and find parallels elsewhere in the constructs of dualistic thinking ( Benack , 1984 ; King , Kitchener , Davison , Parker , &; Wood , 1983 ) , intrasystematic thinking ( Labouvie-Vief , 1982 ) , late formal thinking ( Pascual-Leone , 1983 ) , and universal formal thinking ( Basseches , 1984 ) . Relativistic thinking , defined on the basis of Pepper 's ( 1942 ) contextualist worldview ( Kramer , 1983 ) , rests on the concepts of change , subjectivity , and novelty . As one 's standpoint or context changes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ knowledge is seen as subjective and constantly changing due to fluctuating contexts , while contradiction is accepted as inherent and irreconcilable . The concept of relativism is similar to that of Basseches ( 1984 ) and Chandler ( 1987 ) , and is supposed to develop in late adolescence and early adulthood . With other researchers it finds parallels in the concepts of intersystematic thinking ( Labouvie-Vief , 1982 ) , multiplicity ( Benack , 1984 ; King et al. , 1983 ; Perry , 1970 ) , and predialectical thinking ( Pascual-Leone , 1983 ) . Furthermore , relativistic thinking has been viewed as a response to the increasing complexity of roles , responsibilities , and choices emerging among adolescents/young adults of college age ( Kahlbaugh &; Kramer , 1995 ) . From this perspective , truth is subjective and changing . Therefore , single and fixed commitment is less likely because no option is seen as inherently better than another ( Kahlbaugh , 1989 ) . Thus , relativistic thinking may provide a unique vehicle for exploring multiple values and commitments . In the context of collaborative teaching @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and dualistic criteria which tends to result in choosing either of the two kinds of teachers as role models . For relativists , multiple role models are likely to be chosen . Following this rationale , they may also employ different learning styles based on pragmatism in diverse contexts . Regarding academic achievement of college students , flexible and multiple commitments would contribute to their balanced involvement with diverse courses . On the other hand , those students with absolute or formalistic thinking are likely to choose either technical or lecturing teachers as their role models . Furthermore , the dualistic nature of absolute thinking would induce them to classify courses ( e.g. , as important or not important , interesting or not interesting , useful or not useful . Thus these students would be more likely to vary in achievement in different kinds of courses . Research has demonstrated that academic achievement is affected by preferred learning styles ( e.g. , Cassidy &; Eachus , 2000 ; Collinson , 2000 ; Snyder , 2000 ) . From this perspective ( Hayes &; Allinson , 1996 ) , it was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ course category ( i.e. , technical courses vs. general courses ) and affect academic achievement . Specifically , the students who preferred the experience-driven mode would perform better in technical courses than in general courses , whereas those who preferred the theory-driven mode would perform better in general courses . The present study aimed to investigate : ( 1 ) how cognitive development of college students moderate their perceived modeling advantage of two kinds of teachers in collaborative teaching ; ( 2 ) how cognitive development affects their relative preferences for different learning styles ; ( 3 ) whether cognitive development affects academic achievement in technical courses and general courses ; and ( 4 ) whether academic achievement of college students would be determined by the interaction of their preferred learning styles and course category.METHOD Participants and Procedure Participants were 244 college students ( 132 females , 112 males ; ages 19 to 24 years , M = 21.12 , SD = 1.16 ) taking technical courses with collaborative teaching . Students were recruited in collaboration with teachers who engaged in collaborative teaching of technical courses . To increase involvement @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ agreed that participants would receive extra points for participation . Cognitive development of the students was assessed at the beginning of the semester . Students ' perceived modeling advantages of two kinds of teachers and their learning style preferences was measured at the beginning and end of the semester . When the semester was over , the grades of participants in both technical courses and general courses were collected.Measures Cognitive development . The Social Paradigm Belief Inventory ( SPBI ) developed by Kramer et al . ( 1992 ) was applied to evaluate cognitive developmental levels of participants . The original SPI was a 27-item , forced-choice inventory wherein subjects chose one of three statements ( absolute , relativistic , or dialectical ) with which they most agreed . The scale showed internal consistencies ranging from .60 to .84 ( M = .72 , SD = .11 ) , good test-retest reliability , a relationship to responses on an in-depth interview measure of worldview beliefs , and both convergent and discriminate validity . The present study adopted a modified version of the measure by presenting absolute ( M = 14.87 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 12.13 , SD = 1.98 ) statements in each item . The dialectical statement was excluded because research has demonstrated that dialectical thinking usually appears during and after middle adulthood ( e.g. , Basseches , 1980 ; Kramer &; Woodruff , 1986 ; Kramer et al. , 1992 ) . According to Kramer et al . ( 1992 ) , the highest z-score method was applied to separate participants into the absolute thinking group or the relativistic thinking group . Specifically , when a single " stage score " is required , this method which typically produces a definitive and discriminating classification , is used to convert subjects ' frequencies ( for each statement ) into z-scores and assigns the subjects to a level based on their highest attained scores . Applying this method , 153 participants were classified into the absolute thinking group and 91 into the relativistic thinking group . Modeling advantage . The Modeling Advantage of Models Scale ( MAMS ) developed by Chiou and Yang ( 2006 ) was employed to measure participants ' perceived modeling advantage of two kinds of teachers . The MAMS consisted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , eight items with a 7-point scale ranging from totally disagree to totally agree ; e.g. , " To be able to perform like technical teachers is my ultimate goal in this class " ) and the modeling advantage of lecturing teachers subscale ( MALT , eight items ; e.g. , " I really appreciate academic knowledge of lecturing teachers " ) . The MAMS showed satisfactory internal consistency , good test-retest reliability , and construct validity by applying confirmatory factor analysis . Regarding the current data , the internal consistency ( Cronbach 's alpha ) was .90 for the MATT and .87 for the MALT at pretest , whereas the internal consistency was .88 for the MATT and .85 for the MALT at posttest . Learning style preferences . The Learning Style Preferences Scale ( LSPS ) , developed by Chiou and Yang ( 2006 ) , was adopted to assess preferred learning styles of participants . The scale consisted of the experience-driven mode subscale ( EDM , seven items with a 7-point scale ranging from totally disagree to totally agree ; e.g. , " I prefer learning by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the technical teachers , and the theory-driven mode subscale ( TDM , seven items ; e.g. , " Without the guide of principles , practical practice seems to be trial-and-error work " ) that denotes the learning style emphasized by the lecturing teachers . The LSPS showed satisfactory internal consistency , good test-retest reliability , and construct validity . The learning style preferences of participants were assessed twice . Regarding the current data , the internal consistency ( Cronbach 's alpha ) was .89 for the EDM and .87 for the TDM at pretest , whereas the internal consistency was .88 for the EDM and .85 for the TDM at posttest . Academic achievement . Participants ' weighed ( course credits as the weights ) mean grades across the courses they took in the semester when the survey was conducted with respect to technical courses and general ( non-technical ) courses were computed as the indexes of academic achievement . These grade scores ranged from 0 to 100 according to customary practice in the Taiwanese education system.RESULTS The Moderating Role of Cognitive Development Means and standard deviations of participants ' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ First , participants ' evaluations on the modeling advantage of two kinds of teachers at both pretest and posttest were respectively submitted to the conditions of a 2 ( modeling advantage technical teachers vs. lecturing teachers ) X 2 ( cognitive development : absolute thinking vs. relativistic thinking ) mixed factorial model , which treated modeling advantage as a within-subjects factor and cognitive development as a between-subjects factor . ANOVA revealed a main effect of modeling advantage , F ( 1,242 ) = 101.78 , p < .001 , ? = .30 , which indicated that participants perceived the modeling advantage of technical teachers ( M = 44.76 , SD = 7.02 ) to be greater than that of lecturing teachers in technical courses ( M = 38.18 , SD = 6.57 ) with collaborative teaching . More importantly , a two-way interaction of cognitive development and modeling advantage was found to be significant , F ( 1,242 ) = 59.99 , p < .001 , ? = .20 . Follow-up contrasts showed that the absolute thinkers perceived the modeling advantage of technical teachers ( M = 47.55 ) to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 37.73 ) , F ( 1,152 ) = 209.46 , p < .001 , ? = .58 , whereas the relativistic thinkers perceived the relative modeling advantage between two kinds of teachers as not different , F ( 1,90 ) = 2.26 , p > .05 . Moreover , the modeling advantage of two kinds of teachers perceived by the relativistic thinkers at pretest were both significantly higher than the midpoint ( = 36.00 ) of the scale range ( from 8 to 56 ) at p < .001 , t(90) = 13.10 for the technical teachers ( M = 40.08 ) and t(90) = 9.36 for the lecturing teachers ( M = 38.79 ) , respectively . The findings indicated that the relativistic thinkers would be more likely to identify two kinds of teachers rather than either of them as their role models simultaneously . A similar pattern was also observed in the posttest data in terms of the interaction of cognitive development and modeling advantage , F ( 1,242 ) = 39.75 , p < .001 , ? = .14 . The absolute thinkers perceived greater modeling advantage @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that of lecturing teachers ( M = 36.39 ) , F ( 1,152 ) = 158.51 , p < .001 , ? = .51 , whereas the differential modeling advantage between two kinds of teachers was not perceived by the relativistic thinkers as not different , F ( 1,90 ) = 2.24 , p > .05 . In addition , the modeling advantage of two kinds of teachers perceived by the relativistic thinkers at posttest was higher than the midpoint of the scale range at p < .001 , t(90) = 11.61 for the technical teachers ( M = 39.41 ) and t(90) = 9.62 for the lecturing teachers ( M = 38.20 ) , respectively . With respect to learning style preferences participants ' responses at both pretest and posttest were submitted to the conditions of a 2 ( learning styles : the experience-driven mode vs. the theory-driven mode ) X 2 ( cognitive development : absolute thinking vs. relativistic thinking ) mixed factorial model respectively which treated learning style preferences as a within-subjects factor and cognitive development as a between-subjects factor . Results showed that participants scored higher @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ = 6.65 ) than in the theory-driven mode ( M = 30.60 , SD = 5.14 ) , F ( 1,242 ) = 104.87 , p < .001 , ? = .30 . However , a significant two-way interaction was found , F ( 1,242 ) = 58.04 , p < .001 , ? = .19 . Follow-up contrasts revealed that the participants with absolute thinking showed greater preference for the experience-driven mode ( M = 39.29 ) than for the theory-driven mode ( M = 29.69 ) , F ( 1,152 ) = 197.70 , p < .001 , ? = .56 . On the other hand , the relativistic thinkers did not show significant differences between the two learning styles , F ( 1,90 ) = 3.18 , p > .05 . Furthermore , preferences for two learning styles of the relativistic thinkers significantly were higher than the midpoint ( = 28.00 ) of the scale range ( from 7 to 49 ) at p < .001 , t(90) = 9.16 for the experience-driven mode ( M = 33.54 ) and t(90) = 7.31 for the theory-driven mode @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ indicated that the relativistic thinkers would be more likely to adopt two learning styles simultaneously rather than adopt either of them . For the posttest data , a significant interaction of cognitive development and learning styles was also found , F ( 1,242 ) = 28.01 , p < .001 , ? = .10 . The absolute thinkers preferred the experience-driven mode ( M = 35.52 ) over the theory-driven mode ( M = 28.80 ) , F ( 1,152 ) = 98.02 , p < .001 , ? = .39 . On the other hand , the relativistic thinkers did not show a preference for a learning style , F ( 1,90 ) = 2.21 , p > .05 . In addition , the preferences for the two learning styles of the relativistic thinkers were significantly greater than the midpoint of the scale range at p < .001 , t(90) = 8.16 for the experience-driven mode ( M = 33.20 ) and t(90) = 8.37 for the theory-driven mode ( M = 32.07 ) , respectively . Regarding the moderating role of cognitive development on academic achievement , participants @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ M = 80.14 , SD = 5.86 ) and general courses ( M = 77.39 , SD = 6.94 ) were submitted to the conditions of a 2 ( academic achievement : technical courses vs. general courses ) X 2 ( cognitive development : absolute thinking vs. relativistic thinking ) mixed factorial model , which treated academic achievement as a within-subjects factor and cognitive development as a between-subjects factor . A significant two-way interaction was observed , F ( 1,242 ) = 9.81 , p < .01 , ? = .04 . This finding indicated that the achievement differences between technical courses and general courses were moderated by cognitive development of participants . Follow-up contrasts showed that absolute thinkers performed better in technical courses ( M = 79.62 ) than in general courses ( M = 75.88 ) , F ( 1,152 ) = 48.02 , p < .001 , ? = .24 . However , the relativistic thinkers did not perform significantly differently in two kinds of courses , F ( 1,90 ) = 2.91 , p > .05 . Besides , the relativistic thinkers ( M = 80.46 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 77.75 ) in overall achievement , Multivariate F ( 2,241 ) = 10.51 , ? = .08 . The Interplay of Learning Styles and Academic Achievement Participants ' responses on learning style preferences at pretest were further applied to the classification of their preferred learning styles . The participants whose scores in the EDM were higher than theirs in the TDM by at least half of the standard deviation of difference scores were placed in the " experience-driven mode " group ( n = 131 ) , whereas those who scored higher in the TDM were placed in the " theory-driven mode " group ( n = 48 ) . Those who scored significantly differently on preferences in the two learning styles were excluded from subsequent analysis . Participants ' scores ( see Table 2 ) on two kinds of courses ( M = 79.26 , SD = 5.97 for technical courses and M = 76.78 , SD = 6.68 for general courses , respectively ) were submitted to the conditions of a 2 ( academic achievement : technical courses vs. general courses ) X 2 ( preferred learning style @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which treated academic achievement as a within-subjects factor and preferred learning style as a between-subjects factor . ANOVA showed a significant interaction between academic achievement and preferred learning style , F ( 1,177 ) = 87.20 , p < .001 , ? = .33 , which indicated that achievement differences between two kinds of courses were contingent upon participants ' preferred learning styles . As to the participants who preferred the experience-driven mode , their academic achievement in technical courses ( M = 78.78 ) were higher than their achievement in general courses ( M = 74.03 ) , F ( 1,130 ) = 100.81 , p < .001 , ? = .44 . In contrast , those who preferred the theory-driven mode achieved better in general courses ( M = 84.26 ) than in technical courses ( M = 80.55 ) , F ( 1,47 ) = 24.07 , p < .001 , ? = .34 . DISCUSSION Results showed that social learning , learning style preferences , and academic achievement of college students were moderated by their cognitive development ( i.e. , absolute thinking or relativistic thinking ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ terms of particular role model ( i.e. , technical teachers ) and learning style ( i.e. , the experience-driven mode ) , and academic achievement ( i.e. , technical courses ) in a one-semester period , whereas the relativistic thinkers tended to adopt dual commitments regarding their identified role models , preferred learning styles , and academic achievement . These findings clearly support the view that relativistic thinking plays a moderating role in academic learning of college students under collaborative teaching , and echo those of Kramer and Kahlbaugh ( 1995 ) , which indicate that relativistic thinking is involved in the individual 's exploration of pluralistic roles and beliefs and is a predictor of the moratorium status . On the other hand , college students with absolute thinking face two kinds of role models , demonstrating two modes of learning styles in the collaborative teaching context . Compared with students with relativistic thinking , their inability to integrate multiple domains of experience seems to be derived from a dualistic ( Perry , 1970 ) or an absolutist ( Kramer , 1983 ) style of thinking in which they view @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Kramer , 1989 ) . Therefore , the results show that most of them identified the technical teachers as role models and the experience-driven mode as the preferred learning style . For the college students , experiencing identity crisis may lead them to adopt relativistic thinking about the social world - a pluralistic position in which different choices of behavior and attitudes are possible . Attitudes and behavior are adopted pragmatically by considering how well they will work in a given situation . Hence , the findings that relativistic thinking of college students moderate their identification of role models and preferences for learning styles supports this notion that cognitive development of college students is related to their social learning in which multiple role models and their demonstrated learning styles are supposed to be experienced by them . The causal flow of relativism and social learning in collaborative teaching is a topic for longitudinal research in order to explicate the social learning factors that may underlie the development of postformal thought in late adolescence . Furthermore , Chandler ( 1987 ) has argued that the relativist may at times suffer @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and demonstrated learning styles in collaborative teaching require clear-cut dialectical thinking . The adoption of dialectical thinking makes commitments within contradictory situations possible , thereby allowing integration in a complex environment ( Basseches , 1980 , 1989 ; Kramer , 1983 ) . Thus , dialectical thinking may be related to integration of pluralistic choices of college students in a collaborative teaching context . A longitudinal study is required , however , before the relationships among relativism , dialecticism , and different levels of integration in the social learning process can be fully understood . Further , measurement of cognitive development adopted in the present study was a self-reported process with a forced-choice format . Future research might assess cognitive development of college students by adopting a syllogism dilemma ( e.g. , Blanchard-Field , 1986 ; Sebby &; Papini , 1991 , 1994 ) and structured interviews ( e.g. , Basseches , 1989 ; Kramer &; Woodruff , 1986 ) , and then investigate whether the method used to assess worldview assumptions is critical . In addition , this research indicates that college students ' preferred learning styles interact with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) to affect academic achievement . The students who preferred the experience-driven mode performed better in technical courses than in general courses , whereas those who preferred the theory-driven mode did better in general courses . The findings are in accordance with the view that learning styles influence the academic achievement of college students and that certain styles may be more effective for particular courses than others ( Matthews , 1991 ) . In addition , they also echo those of previous studies demonstrating that learning styles of students are closely related to their academic achievement ( e.g. , Cassidy &; Eachus , 2000 ; Collinson , 2000 ; Snyder , 2000 ) . Moreover , the results regarding the interplay of learning style preferences and course category on achievements suggest that the preferred learning style of students in collaborative teaching seem to spill over to the learning process in other courses . Students with relativistic thinking were more likely to exhibit equivalent preferences for different learning styles and to achieve as well in technical courses and general courses as compared with absolute thinkers . Based on these findings , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and academic achievement in college students is enhanced by consideration of postformal types of reasoning , specifically , relativistic thinking . Future research might investigate how the relativistic thinkers flexibly adopt pluralistic learning styles for different kinds of courses based on the matching hypothesis ( Hayes &; Allinson , 1996 ) and the metocognition approach ( Sigler &; Tallent-Runnels , 2006 ) . A number of limitations of the present study should be addressed . The results demonstrated differences in role identification , learning style preferences , and academic performance between absolute thinkers and relativistic thinkers , yet the study was of a one-semester period . A longitudinal study is needed to rule out alternative explanations . Moreover , the current results pertain only to students talking technical courses with collaborative teaching ; thus , generalization is limited . In addition , only one aspect of social learning ( i.e. , role identification ) and two aspects of academic learning ( i.e. , learning style preferences and academic achievement ) were included . A wider examination of psychosocial domains could further the extent to which relativistic thinking moderates late adolescents @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study was conducted in a unique cultural context examining participants from technological and vocational colleges in Taiwan ; thus , the generalizability of its findings to other contexts and disciplines needs to be treated with caution and explored further . In conclusion , the findings provide insight into the moderating effect of cognitive development on college students ' perceived modeling advantage of competing role models and preferred learning styles in collaborative teaching as well as the difference in academic achievement between technical courses and general courses . Within the context of collaborative teaching in technical courses , two types of teachers ( technical and lecturing ) who teach the same students may exhibit different learning styles , personalities , and goals . Policy makers and administrators should try to enhance postformal thought in students and understand how relativistic thinking may impact the modeling effects of teachers and the academic achievement of students because the present study found that overall achievement of relativistic thinkers was better than that of absolute thinkers . This research was supported by a grant from the National Science Council of the Republic of China ( Contract @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( and Standard Deviations ) of the Measures in this Study Measures Cognitive Development Group Absolute thinking Relativistic thinking ( n = 153 ) ( n = 91 ) Modeling AdvantageTechnical teachers at pretest 47.55 ( 6.12 ) 40.08 ( 5.88 ) Lecturing teachers at pretest 37.73 ( 6.35 ) 38.79 ( 6.92 ) Technical teachers at posttest 43.85 ( 6.46 ) 39.41 ( 6.09 ) Lecturing teachers at posttest 36.39 ( 5.44 ) 38.20 ( 6.15 ) Learning Style **28;536;TOOLONG at pretest 39.29 ( 6.21 ) 33.54 ( 5.77 ) Theory-driven at pretest 29.69 ( 4.77 ) 32.13 ( 5.39 ) Experience-driven at posttest 35.52 ( 6.60 ) 33.20 ( 6.07 ) Theory-driven at posttest 28.80 ( 4.49 ) 32.07 ( 4.64 ) Academic AchievementTechnical courses 79.62 ( 5.79 ) 80.99 ( 5.92 ) General courses 75.88 ( 6.88 ) 79.92 ( 6.31 ) Note . Participants ' scores of modeling advantage in each kind of teachers ranged from 8 to 56 , the scores of preferences for each learning style ranged from 7 to 49 , and the scores of academic achievement ranged from 0 to 100 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Academic Achievement by Students ' Preferred Learning Styles Learning Styles Experience-driven Theory-drivenAcademic Achievement ( n = 131 ) ( n = 48 ) Technical courses 78.78 ( 5.68 ) 80.55 ( 6.58 ) General courses 74.03 ( 5.06 ) 84.26 ( 4.47 ) Note . Participants ' scores of academic achievement ranged from 0 to 100 . REFERENCES

@@4028041 " Who is using whom ? Has she been captured by the right wing or is she using the right-wing neo-conservatives for her own interests ? " -- Taslima Nasrin ( Infidel review , Outlook , April 2 , 2007 ) AMONG THE MANY Muslim and ex-Muslim women currently commenting on Islam , particularly in regard to women 's issues , humanists are probably most familiar with four : Taslima Nasrin , Irshad Manji , Wafa Sultan , and Ayaan Hirsi Ali . Though these women come from distinctly different backgrounds , all are vilified by Muslim extremists and live to varying degrees in fear for their lives , and all have left Islam ( except Manji , the Canadian feminist , author , and activist , who regards herself as a devout Muslim while making no apologies for her lesbian sexual orientation ) . Hirsi Ali , however , is surely the most talked about and controversial of the four , having authored a critically praised and widely read book , Infidel ( 2007 ) , describing her remarkable personal journey . A major factor contributing to her notoriety is the uncompromising and seemingly fearless manner in which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reactions : from adulation to loathing among her non-Muslim readers and mostly resentment and anger among Muslims . One of the more unusual aspects of her career , described in detail in Infidel , has been its political side , which in the highly charged atmosphere of the early twenty-first century has perhaps inevitably had strong overtones reaching well beyond her personal life . Since September 2006 she has been a resident fellow of the powerful American Enterprise Institute in Washington , DC , a fact that ca n't be ignored in interpreting her current mindset.CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE Ayaan Hirsi Ali was born in Mogadishu , Somalia , in 1969 as Ayaan Hirsi Magan . Her father , Western-educated Hirsi Magan Isse , a leader of his tribe and of the opposition Salvation Democratic Front , was imprisoned when she was two-years-old . Against her mother 's wishes he insisted that their daughters receive an education . He was also adamantly opposed to female genital mutilation , a tribal practice common in sub-Saharan Africa , but while he was in prison her grandmother had the extremely traumatic procedure performed on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ later her father escaped from prison , and her extended family began a series of moves : to Saudi Arabia ( three years ) , Ethiopia ( about a year ) , and Kenya ( twelve years , with an interlude of several months in Somalia ) . Her father lived with the family at the beginning and the end of this period , but much of the time he was away . Throughout most of this exile Hirsi Ali experienced the strict Saudi form of Islam . She and her sister attended girls ' schools . She also studied the Quran under male tutors at home or in outside classes . One tutor was sent away when she and her sister refused to give the book their attention , but he later returned and attacked her , beating her and hitting her head against a wall , causing a skull fracture that she believes nearly killed her . Much later Hirsi Ali fell in with a youth group espousing the views of Egyptian writers Hasan al-Banna ( founder of the Muslim Brotherhood ) and Sayyid Qutb ( now often @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ inspired and enthralled with their ideas about " true Islam . " From the beginning , however , she experienced doubts , especially when the subject was the different roles of men and women . She began to find the rhetoric predictable and less inspiring , and the teachings inconsistent . Still , at nineteen she strongly approved of Ayatollah Khomeini 's fatwa of February 14 , 1989 , against Salman Rushdie , thinking that if he had insulted the Prophet he deserved to die . All along , her adolescence was further complicated by a series of threatening attractions to males--her brother 's friends and her religious teachers and group leaders . She was especially disturbed when one of these wanted to kiss her while at the same time publicly preaching abstinence . She rejected another promising suitor when he turned out to be an atheist.NEW HOME IN THE NETHERLANDS In 1992 Hirsi Ali 's father promised her in marriage to a distant relative living in Canada . She was to go from Kenya to Canada via Germany , where she would visit relatives . At first she reluctantly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , she escaped the arranged marriage on an impulse by taking a train to the Netherlands , doing so under the ruse of visiting another relative . She sought and was granted political asylum there and received a residence permit . To keep her family from finding her , she gave the surname by which she is now known : Hirsi Ali . But because forced marriage was insufficient grounds for refugee status in the Netherlands , she also claimed she had fled persecution in Somalia . The false information she gave on both these counts would later haunt her , though she confided the facts to those who knew her . Hirsi Ali held various low-level jobs while learning Dutch and studying social work , skills she later used as an independent Somali-Dutch interpreter/translator for a variety of social agencies , including the National Migration Service . Working in this capacity from 1995 to 2001 , she was horrified to learn , repeatedly , that Somali cultural practices like wife beating , female genital mutilation , and honor killings existed in the Netherlands . In September 2000 she earned @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ University of Leiden . For the next several months she tried several different jobs without much satisfaction . Then in June 2001 Hirsi Ali was " thrilled " to be offered a job as a fellow at the Wiardi Beckman Foundation , the think tank of the Dutch Labor ( social democratic ) Party . Her first assignment was to investigate why many Muslim immigrants failed to be integrated into Dutch society and the threat this posed to the country 's welfare state.THE INFIDEL Hirsi Ali was just eight days into her job with the foundation when the events of September 11 , 200l , unfolded . She and her colleagues gathered in horror around a television to watch coverage of the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks . After seeing Muslim children on television celebrating the tragedy , and checking Osama bin Laden 's justification of those attacks with citations of verses from the Quran and sayings of Muhammad , she became convinced that bin Laden 's claims were true . That is , she began to believe that Islam itself was responsible for those attacks . Moreover , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Islam profoundly disturbed her . During the following period of transition and introspection , Hirsi Ali 's research with the foundation began to convince her that Dutch multiculturalism , which created separate " pillars " or immigrant communities organized by culture or religion , made immigrants feel like members of a separate group rather than citizens of the nation . It became clear to her that this system let Muslim immigrants practice Muslim traditions--even some that contradicted Dutch law , in a way that most Dutch citizens would never tolerate among themselves . In short , the cultural relativists were endangering their own societies while Muslims , especially Muslim women , became victims of their own cultures . During that year Hirsi Ali began to accept every opportunity to express her opinions in articles and on television . What she had to say about Islam and its treatment of women and about multiculturalism as practiced in Dutch society gained her the approval and admiration of some and the hatred of others . A few in the latter group made threats against her , requiring her to avoid being seen publicly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The Atheist Manifesto by Leiden philosopher Herman Philipse , given to her years before by her Dutch boyfriend . It deeply influenced her , giving her strength not only to denounce Islam but to acknowledge her disbelief in God . Later that year Hirsi Ali switched from the Labor Party to the more conservative VVD Party ( People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy , also known as the Liberal Party ) , and was persuaded to run for Parliament on the VVD ticket . The VVD 's primary mission is to staunchly defend the free market , advocating minimal government regulation . It views the government 's chief function as providing security . Its focus was made clear to her early on when an elder of the party quizzed her : " Why do you want to be with us ? We 're entrepreneurs . What do you know about business ? " She was ready for him , giving a long answer culminating in the sentence , " The oppression of women in Holland is against the philosophy of your party . " Accepted by the VVD , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ house of the Dutch parliament on January 30 , 2003 . After this she became even more publicly critical of Islam and Islamic culture . In the process of leaving the faith she had come to regard Islam as a monolith--to think of it as unchanged since the time of the Prophet Mohammed , although she knew very little about its complex developmental history ; and to conflate all forms of Islam practiced everywhere , though she had little knowledge of its actual diversity in the lives of individual Muslims in quite different subcultures . Finally , she had come to believe that wherever Islam is practiced it should be held responsible for any mistreatment of women . The next three-and-a-half years were filled with a series of marked highs and lows . During 2004 she saw the publication in Dutch of her collected essays , lectures , and autobiographical accounts of her experiences as a translator , in which she forcefully expounded her militant atheism and her criticisms of the position of women in Islam . She also collaborated with well-known Dutch filmmaker Theo van Gogh on a short @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the word " Islam " ) . In it , Quranic verses they saw as especially oppressive to women were written on the bodies of women wearing transparent clothing . As expected , the film , broadcast on Dutch television on August 29 , 2004 , infuriated the Muslim population and both filmmakers were threatened with death . She had by now already been under the protection of bodyguards for two years , but van Gogh refused any protection . On November 2 , 2004 , in broad daylight , he was brutally murdered on an Amsterdam street . He was shot and stabbed , the knife left pinning a letter to his chest addressed to Hirsi Ali , threatening her and all other nonbelievers . She immediately went into hiding . The murderer was later apprehended and turned out to be a Moroccan Muslim immigrant . The death of van Gogh led Hirsi Ali into prolonged self-recrimination and perpetual fear for her life . Still , during this same period she was honored by a long string of awards . One , in particular , on April 18 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the year 's 100 most influential people in the world . The category was " Leaders and Revolutionaries , " and her profile was written by Irshad Manji . Seemingly undaunted , she prepared an English translation of her 2004 book , entitled The Caged Virgin : An Emancipation Proclamation for Women and Islam ( 2006 ) . She also came under close scrutiny by the Dutch government , ostensibly because of the false statements she had made when she first arrived . Thus on May 16 , 2006 , her Dutch citizenship was revoked and she resigned from Parliament . But a month later , after a fierce debate in Parliament , her citizenship was reinstated . She decided to retain it , and on the same day accepted an invitation from Christopher DeMuth , president of the American Enterprise Institute in Washington , DC , to become a research fellow there , beginning in September . She moved to the United States along with a team of bodyguards assigned to her by the Dutch government.THE INSTITUTE FELLOW The American Enterprise Institute ( AEI ) , an ideological @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1943 . Its stated mission is " to defend the principles and improve the institutions of American freedom and democratic capitalism--limited government , private enterprise , individual liberty and responsibility , vigilant and effective defense and foreign policies , political accountability , and open debate . " Always conservative and business-oriented , its policies since 1986 have been closely identified with DeMuth , who became its president after serving in the White House under Presidents Richard Nixon ( 1969-70 ) and Ronald Reagan ( 1981-84 ) , where his principal areas of expertise were in law and economics as applied to health , the environment , and especially government regulation . His 1995 book , The Neoconservative Imagination : Essays in Honor of Irving Kristol , was published by AEI Press . ( The neoconservative movement and Kristol , its principal founder , have been closely associated with the Institute since the movement began . ) With the marked rise of the neoconservatives during the administration of George W. Bush , AEI has become even more influential . According to Bob Woodward 's State of Denial , it was DeMuth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dozen experts , including Professor Bernard Lewis , on November 29 , 2001 , for a weekend of discussion to produce a strategic report on the Middle East . The report , called " Delta of Terrorism , " concluded that a war was going on within Islam , and that the most vulnerable and menacing threat was Saddam Hussein . Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld 's representative in the group said , " We 're facing a two-generation war . And start with Iraq . " In short , it was these experts who made the definitive argument for the invasion of Iraq . On March 20 , 2007 , Ayaan Hirsi Ali was well established as an AEI fellow when the Irving Kristol Lecture was delivered by Bernard Lewis , for whom she has expressed great admiration . On this occasion Professor Lewis was speaking on a topic close to her heart , " Europe and Islam " His theme was appropriately grave : " In the eyes of a fanatical and resolute minority of Muslims , the third wave of the attack on Europe has begun , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ beginning of Islam . " This exemplifies the heady neoconservative environment Hirsi Ali joined in her desire to concentrate her thoughts in a scholarly milieu upon the nuances of Islamic history . But her stay in the United States was abruptly cut short when the Dutch government announced that it would no longer be responsible for her security if she remained here . On October 1 , 2007 , Hirsi Ali returned to the Netherlands . It seemed to be the government 's intention for her to live there indefinitely under guard in a secret location , but she evidently thought otherwise , fighting publicly for the matter to be resolved to her satisfaction . Clearly she would be satisfied only with full government financing of her security together with complete freedom of her speech and mobility . As recently as November 21 , the outcome remained uncertain.REASON INTERVIEW It 's worth asking : what effect , if any , has Hirsi Ali 's brief time at AEI had on the development of her ideas ? She has been interviewed many times in the past year . By far the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at times challenging exchange with Dutch born journalist Rogier van Bakel in the November 2007 issue of the Libertarian magazine Reason . She began by saying that , in spite of an initial aversion to the AEI ( because she " thought they would be religious " ) , she finally chose it because they were " enthusiastic about " her , and none of the other Washington institutions she visited seemed to offer a good match . ( One of those she mentioned was Georgetown University , where it has been reliably reported that most of the Muslim and non-Muslim women in one class studying Islam had expressed offense at some of her anti-Islamic views . ) " At AEI I have complete freedom of thought , freedom of expression , " Hirsi Ali added . " No one here imposed their religion on me , and I do n't impose my atheism on them . " When asked , " Do you see eye to eye with high-profile AEI hawks such as former Bush speechwriter David Frum and former U.N . Ambassador John Bolton ? " she replied @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instance , I completely and utterly agree with John Bolton that talking to Iran is a sheer waste of time . " The following exchange was particularly revealing : Q : Do you think Islam could bring about desirable social and political changes ? A : Only if Islam is defeated . Q : Do n't you mean defeating radical Islam ? A : No . Islam , period . Q : We have to crush the world 's 1.5 billion Muslims under our boot ? In concrete terms , what does that mean , " defeat Islam " ? A : I think that we are at war with Islam .. you crush your enemy . Q : Militarily ? A : In all forms . Q : Are we really heading toward anything so ominous ? A : I think that 's where we 're heading . Asked to respond to the comment that " we are not at war with Islam , " she offered , without answering directly , " There is no moderate Islam . " Q : So when even .. Daniel Pipes says @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Islam is the solution , " he 's wrong ? A : He 's wrong . Sorry about that.WHAT IT ALL MEANS Hirsi Ali and her writings have many merits . Millions of people around the world celebrate her liberation from the hardships and horrors of her childhood years and rejoice in her emancipation into an intellectually more fulfilled adult woman . Beyond this , she wants to share her joy with others , wants to teach them what she has learned , and hopes that they will become as free as she is . Though she has won universal approval for her eagerness to help other individuals who have suffered human rights abuses , a storm of controversy has arisen over her criticism of certain morally and legally relativistic forms of multiculturalism . These practices are stoutly defended by many who may consider themselves social liberals , not only in the Netherlands but elsewhere in Europe , on the grounds that they are " respectful of other cultures . " But as Hirsi Ali correctly points out , such an argument ignores fundamental principles of human rights . No @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when laws and customs turn a blind eye to human rights abuses if and only if they occur in the context of minority communities , they inevitably injure some members of these communities . What may ultimately be even worse is that they tend , apartheid-like , to prevent genuine integration of both the injured individuals and the communities into the larger society . They are perhaps best understood as racist vestiges of colonialism , motivated more by a desire for low-cost labor ( " guest workers " ) than by sympathy or understanding for the workers , their families , or their cultures . So far so good . But the methods she has chosen for achieving her desirable goals , and the results they would be likely to achieve if widely adopted , are another matter . Her approach is poorly informed about the past and present of Islam , ineffectual at best , mainly counter-productive , and at worst potentially catastrophic in its consequences . It is here , too , that the influences of her principal intellectual environments since 2003--the VVD Party in the Netherlands and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ whole , have clearly discouraged her development as a well-balanced defender of human rights and security . Hirsi Ali 's prior experience of Islam was confined to her youthful and often painful life in Africa : the tribal variety in Somalia , the strict Wahhabi version in Saudi Arabia , and in Kenya the Islamist political formulations of the Muslim Brothers and even more radical Sayyid Qutb--all followed by her intense contact with mainly African ( e.g. , Somali and Moroccan ) immigrant women who had suffered abuse in the Netherlands . She knew little about the complex history of Islam in other times and other places . With this background she was much too quick to accept Osama bin Laden 's novel revolutionary interpretations of the Quran as " truth . " She did n't acknowledge that such tribal practices as female genital mutilation and " honor killings " were contrary to Islamic ( Sharia ) law . She did n't sympathize with Muslim women who told her that her insulting and inaccurate generalizations about Islam were harmful to their own efforts to reform Islam and improve the position @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who said that they had loving relationships with their own husbands , and that Islam was n't a problem for them . She did n't recognize the efforts of " progressive " and secular Muslims to introduce reforms or " renew " Islam to make it more compatible with democracy and human rights . Perhaps most importantly , she did n't take into account the predictable loss of trust that her complete rejection of Islam and embrace of atheism would create among those whose lives and relationships were centered on Islam . Now , after a year in the United States , when she appears to favor " war against Islam " unconditionally , readers may ask what she might actually mean by this . In further refusing to acknowledge the existence of such an entity as " moderate Islam " and thereby positioning herself to the right of right-wing author Daniel Pipes , who has far better knowledge of the history of Islam , she ends up in a tiny minority of ultra-right , anti-Islamic commentators on these fundamental issues . Incidentally , these extreme conclusions go far beyond @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ American Enterprise Institute . But there is a better way . Hirsi Ali has sometimes characterized allusions to moderate , benign , and peaceful forms of Islam as " wishful thinking . " In the light of Islamic history and prospects for the future , " hopeful " would seem a better word . More importantly , if solutions to the current impasse between radical Islam and modern society are to be found , it will be necessary for people of good will to work toward building a world where the beneficent features of Islam are encouraged to grow , naturally and spontaneously , and the noxious , destructive interpretations of Islam allowed to languish . By David Schafer and Michelle Koth David Schafer is a retired physiologist , a consulting editor for the Humanist , and the current president of the HUUmanists Association , representing Unitarian Universalist humanists . He has studied and taught about Islam for many years . Michelle ( Mickey ) Koth is a member of the Humanist Association of Connecticut and a Yale University librarian who for several years has studied women 's issues in @ @

@@4028541 In 1856 , American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne hired a carriage for a 10-mile journey from , the rural town of Salisbury to Stonehenge . Of the great megaliths he wrote/There never was a ruder thing made by mortal hands as if Nature and man had worked upon it with one consent , and so . all the stranger and more impressive from its rudeness . " Some 150 years later I 'm following Hawthorne 's route across Salisbury Plain , along a rough track that opens onto sweeping fields and skies . I can see Stonehenge less than a mile away , on a gently sloping spur , dwarfed by surrounding hills . There , massive blocks of sarsen sandstone rise 17 feet , encircling even larger sarsen stones and rings of bluestones up to eight feet high that had been transported more than 200 miles from the Preseli Hills in Wales . Scattered around the landscape are earthen mounds 12 or more feet high , covering the Bronze Age graves of people once thought to have built the mysterious monument . The view has changed little since Hawthorne 's time , but my vision of Stonehenge today is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ contemplated the stones for centuries , calling them everything from a place to summon demons to the world 's first computer . Hawthorne did n't find any answers here . It is , he wrote , " a mystery as to who built it , and how , and for what purpose . " But now , as modern archaeology reaches beyond the stones , we are finding a ceremonial landscape as unique as the megaliths within it . My first excavation at Stonehenge took place nearly 30 years ago , at the start of my career studying Britain 's stone circles . On that project I found a pit that once held a large megalith ; its location strengthened the idea that the stones were aligned with the rising and setting sun . But I ran into the same problem that then impeded all new Stonehenge research--the results of nearly a century of intermittent excavation at the site had been largely unpublished and jealously guarded by the archaeologists . Resolving this shameful situation took a new generation of scholars , as well as a determined push from English Heritage @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the publication of all twentieth-century excavation results was completed and a new era of understanding began . All information about the stones is now accessible . Controversial road construction plans led to extensive surveys of the surrounding landscape . Substantial monuments excavated in the last century , once thought to be older than the stones , now seem to be contemporary , according to a refined radiocarbon chronology . These include the sites of Woodhenge and Durrington Walls , which sit only 200 feet apart . The sites feature hundreds of tall oak posts that seem to mimic Stonehenge . New excavations at Durrington Walls , named after a nearby village , have revealed a Neolithic settlement where heaps of artifacts and animal bones suggest complex rituals . We are in the midst of the most dramatic era of Stonehenge discovery and debate since burials near the monument were first excavated 200 years ago . While the new excavations have yet to be fully analyzed , let me share with you some of the excitement and surprises that enliven what many have seen as a monument with nothing more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ believed to have been built in the Bronze Age because of the exceptional number of nearby graves that contained bronze daggers and other fine artifacts . Richard Atkinson , director of Stonehenge excavations in the 1950s and ' 60s , favored 1500-1400 B.C. as a time frame for the erection of the megaliths . It came as a shock when the 1995 radiocarbon dates indicated the stones were erected up to a thousand years earlier , pushing Stonehenge back to the Neolithic period . Use of the site as a monument began with construction of a circular ditch and bank at about 2975 B.C. ( That date , the most precise we have for Stonehenge , was derived from analysis of nine digging tools made of red deer antler . ) The new date puts Stonehenge in an entirely different context . Now we understand the megaliths are roughly the same age as the ceremonial timber rings at Durrington Walls and Woodhenge . Late Neolithic people ( 3000-2200 B.C. ) knew how to work stone to make cutting tools and weapons . And it is now possible to understand that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ structures ( see " The Wooden Henges , " page 52 ) in everything from the carpentry-like jointing of the sarsen stones to the very concept of a monumental arrangement of freestanding uprights . This new context may offer insight into how the stones fit within the belief system of the people who erected them . The apparent similarities in the layout of the stones at Stonehenge and the posts at Woodhenge and Durrington Walls particularly struck Mike Parker Pearson , an archaeologist at the University of Sheffield , while he was conducting fieldwork in Madagascar . Ritual megaliths and posts are still erected on the large island off the east coast of Africa . Some Madagascans associate stone with their deceased ancestors , and wood with living people . Perhaps , thought Parker Pearson and his Madagascan colleague , Ramilisonina , the same principle applied more than 4,000 years ago in southern England . The landscape , they argued , could be divided into two " domains , " that of the ancestors around Stonehenge in the west , and that of the living beside the River Avon in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , had been recovered from the timber monuments at Woodhenge and Durrington Walls but no evidence of feasting and few artifacts have been found at Stonehenge despite structural similarities between the sites . That , said Parker Pearson and Ramiliso-nina , was because the stone monument was inhabited only by the spirits of the ancestors . Stonehenge and Woodhenge-Durrington Walls are close enough to be visible to each other were it not for a ridge separating them . There is , however , a link between them marked by parallel banks and ditches 70 to 110 feet apart , known as the Stonehenge Avenue . Parker Pearson and Ramilisonina believe it shows the two locations were connected physically and spiritually . The avenue begins at Stonehenge with a straight section aligned with the site 's solar axis . It then takes a sharp right turn , crosses the ridge , turns right again , and ends near the river south of Woodhenge . The circuit formed by the avenue and the river--about five miles between Stonehenge and Woodhenge--linked the living and the dead . In 2003 , Parker Pearson and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Stonehenge Riverside Project , named for the concentration of earthworks and monuments on the west bank of the Avon . To date , eight more universities and 30 researchers ( myself included ) have joined the project , making it one of the largest in the history of British archaeology . We have conducted fieldwork at numerous locations , but the Neolithic town at Durrington Walls has held an iconic fascination for us since landmark excavations at the site 40 years ago . To get down on our hands and knees and pick up the debris left by people who might have seen Stonehenge being built--at the same time as the Great Pyramid in Egypt--is an unexpected privilege . Woodhenge is the most famous timber henge , but its six concentric rings of posts were totally excavated in 1926-27 , leaving nothing for modern archaeologists to discover . Luckily , a comparable structure dubbed the Southern Circle was partially revealed during roadwork at Durrington Walls in 1967 . Now another part of this site has been excavated , revealing that one ring is oval , not circular . The design @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Pearson . He has even found a short path with parallel banks connecting the circle to the river , just like the Stonehenge Avenue . Naturally , he calls it the Durrington Walls Avenue . It is well known that Stonehenge faces the summer solstice sunrise , but the site is also aligned to the winter solstice sunset . Parker Pearson argues that the winter alignment also links Stonehenge and Durrington Walls . Analysis of huge numbers of pig teeth recovered from Durrington revealed that most of the pigs had been killed when they were nine months old . It is likely they were born in the spring , so they probably died in the winter as part of a " midwinter cull , " he says . Archaeoastronomer Clive Ruggles , professor emeritus at the University of Leicester , provides further support for the winter solstice link . Citing the results of a new archaeological survey , he says the entrance to the Southern Circle faces the rising winter solstice sun . Unlike Stonehenge , this site is in a small valley , and the reverse summer alignment is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be a winter one . Parker Pearsons vision is of a great winter solstice festival . People from a wide area gathered at Durrington Walls to feast and conduct ceremonies among the oak rings before walking down the short avenue to cast the cremated remains of the dead in the river . Among the dead , he argues , a select group of individuals would have had their ashes carried by hand downstream , and up the Stonehenge Avenue , to be buried in a ring around the stones . At least 50 cremations had been interred at Stonehenge , and perhaps many more , making the site the largest cemetery of its type in Britain . Discoveries of houses in the new excavations at Durrington Walls made headlines . The New York Times called it " the largest Neolithic village ever found in Britain , " which is less impressive when it is noted that no other such " village " is known in England . To date , only seven houses have been found at Durrington Walls--talk of " hundreds or even thousands of small dwellings " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 300 . But their presence alone has caused great excitement among archaeologists . Each house has a clay floor with a central hearth . The walls are marked by stake holes where slender wooden frames rose to support plastered mud and straw walls and roofs , and impressions in the floors suggest furniture such as beds . The houses are square , with sides between eight and 16 feet long ; they could not have accommodated more than a nuclear family , or perhaps a few workmen . Each house appears to have had garbage pits close by , promising unique insights into daily village life . Uphill from these houses and the Southern Circle are two more buildings that have become the subject of debate . Both buildings were enclosed by circular ditches and timber palisades . One house featured two pairs of pits that held vast standing posts . Were they homes for important people , perhaps the families of priests or chiefs , implying a political or ritual hierarchy ? Or were they shrines , overlooking the ritual feasting ? Julian Thomas , archaeology professor at Manchester @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " cult houses , " places where unknown religious rituals occurred . Excavations will continue in 2008 , but already Parker Pearson claims his ideas are supported by the finds . The avenue that connects Durrington Walls to the river , the oval ring of posts in the Southern Circle , and the winter solstice alignment emphasize the parallels between Durrington Walls and Stonehenge , he says . The evidence for feasting , timber structures , and disposal of artifacts at Durrington Walls , however , contrasts markedly with the lack of such finds at Stonehenge . Watching the summer solstice dawn at Stonehenge was popular a century ago ( as postcard photos show ) , but has become a contentious national issue in my lifetime . On my first chilly visit when I was still in school , only a few friends and curious onlookers watched the white-robed Druids commemorate the solstice . By 1985 the celebration had changed into an anarchic pop festival with the Hell 's Angels providing security . That year , the festival had grown so large that site managers had to shut it down @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and 420 were arrested . Today a new peace prevails , English Heritage assists thousands who come to celebrate the sunrise among the stones , but they leave no room for the original Druids ( " Solstice at the Stones , " September/ October 2003 ) . More than 4,000 years ago , Stonehenge was a monumental construction site , as megaliths and posts were shaped , positioned , and rearranged . Over time , ideas and rituals probably changed as well . Perhaps there was more to Stonehenge than a place for ancestors . Timothy Darvill , a professor at Bournemouth University , but not a member of the Riverside Project team , certainly thinks so . He finds the ancestor model " overly simplistic , " and emphasizes the significance of Stonehenge to the living . He takes his inspiration from two historic sources : a controversial Greek text and a medieval story about Stonehenge 's origins . Both , Darvill believes , contain memories handed down since Stonehenge was built . Around 330 B.C. the historian Hecateus of Abdera wrote about the Hyperboreans , as the ancient @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on which Apollo was honored at " a notable temple.spherical in shape . " Darvill interprets this as a literal reference to Stonehenge . While not suggesting a direct link between Classical Greece and Neolithic Britain , he believes that people of both regions drew on a common religious tradition that reached from northern Europe to the Middle East . In classical mythology , Apollo was a solar deity associated with healing who spent the winter among the Hyperboreans . At Stonehenge , Darvill guesses that the tallest pair of megaliths , the great trilithon at the site 's center , represent the local equivalent of Apollo and the female lunar deity Artemis . The healing theme is echoed in a mythical history of Britain written around A.D. 1135 , in which the wizard Merlin builds Stonehenge with stones of " medicinal virtue " from Ireland . These , claims Darvill , must be the bluestones , which geologists say came from the Preseli Hills , an area surrounded by sacred springs in southwest Wales . Among the uncremated remains excavated around Stonehenge , says Darvill , " a good @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ He concludes that Stonehenge was the site of winter solstice pilgrimages . ( A skeptical Parker Pearson claims there are at most three graves of " unwell " people . ) The most impressive " unwell " figure near Stonehenge was excavated in 2002 , when an exceptional grave--by far the richest of its type in Britain--was found during construction of a housing development on the opposite bank of the Avon . The man suffered from a jaw abscess , a limp , and a badly damaged knee . Radiocarbon dated to 2450-2200 B.C. , the Amesbury Archer , as he was dubbed , caused a sensation . Among his grave goods were 16 flint arrowheads , but more telling were gold ornaments and copper daggers--Britain 's oldest dated metalwork--and a stone possibly used in smithing . The artifact styles suggest he came from central Europe , an idea that is supported by isotopic analysis of his teeth ( see " Britain 's First Immigrant " below ) . He made the journey says Darvill , to a prehistoric Lourdes in search of cures . Much now hangs on radiocarbon @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ yet to be analyzed . Huge numbers of animal bones , artifacts , and structural evidence remain to be studied and described . Will Stonehenge and Durrington Walls prove to be precisely contemporary ? What will the finds from the houses reveal ? Will archaeologists discover the function of the two " cult houses " ? Darvill , like many scholars , has focused on the Welsh bluestones , but the really big stones are sarsen . The largest are 22 feet high , and weigh more than 50 tons each . Nowhere in ancient Europe can there have been a project as challenging--and dangerous--as moving a large sarsen to Stonehenge . And unlike most of the bluestones , they were subjected to laborious dressing and surface finishing . To understand Stonehenge we need to know more about the sarsens , how they were moved and carved , and exactly where they came from . Ideas about why Stonehenge was built need to account for Neolithic politics . The authority to gather the resources and organize the labor to build the monument would have brought power and respect to whomever @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ labor force greater than local communities could have provided . The route along which the bluestones traveled must have traversed several territories , and even the sarsens may have come from a neighboring realm . Unfortunately , archaeology gives us no clues as to whether these territories might have been controlled by tribes , chiefdoms , or other types of government . It is difficult to prove , but negotiations and alliances would surely have been needed , and may even have been a factor in the decision to use Welsh stone . The people at Stonehenge could have used the bluestones to extend their authority . Toward the end of Durrington Walls ' history , around 2300 B.C. , a massive earthwork enclosure more than 500 yards across was built on the site--a " henge " distinguished by a ditch inside a bank . Three other earth henges of similar scale were dug in a line between Avebury in the north and the coast to the south . I have proposed these henges mark the centers of rival territories . Timber palisades and large numbers of flint arrowheads suggest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have also yielded a human bone with arrow wounds . ) Stonehenge may have been part of power games involving living people as much as the gods or ancestors to whom it was home . During last June 's summer solstice , I joined the crowd at Stonehenge , estimated to be 24,000 . We knew where to look , but we still checked our watches for the moment of sunrise as pink-tinged clouds obscured the horizon . The brightening day revealed no sun , but instead a packed mass of tired , brightly clothed people trailing saxophones , drums , and plastic bags full of belongings . Many of these celebrants like to think they are sustaining , at least in spirit , their remote ancestors ' festivities . Yet now archaeologists claim the significant time was the winter solstice . In contrast to the carnival atmosphere of the summer solstice festival , winter solstice is an occasion of near-private tranquility . This has become my favorite moment , when the sky darkens on December 21 . It is cold , and I have to watch from outside the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disc sets between the megaliths , the effect is spectacular . We are uncovering a new , rich story of Stonehenge that promises to affect our modern engagement with the site as much as our understanding of its history . When the winter solstice comes around this year , I hope to be there , seeing something that was important to people thousands of years ago , and wondering what our new excavations will reveal in the years to come . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : In this artist 's rendering a late summer rain surprises a mother and her children who bring food to the teams of workers carving megaliths on England 's Salisbury Plain 4,500 years ago . Stonehenge had 75 of these huge " sarsens , " dressed sandstone boulders that were quarried 20 miles away . Each sarsen weighed between seven and 55 tons and had to be carefully maneuvered into place . It was probably the most dangerous and challenging job in ancient Europe . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Despite centuries of erosion and the number of stones that have fallen or were carried @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ one million visitors each year . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : A Beaker pot from the Amesbury Archer 's grave is one of two ceramic styles that distinguish the people who lived at Stonehenge . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : New excavations at Durrington Walls are revealing links between an ancient village and this ritual site by the River Avon and nearby Stonehenge . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : This beautifully finished stone mace head was found with a human burial at Stonehenge , the site of Britain 's largest ancient cremation cemetery . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Animal bones and artifacts from Durrington Wails testify to ceremonial feasting . At Stonehenge such finds are scarce , implying separate ritual areas for the living and dead . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The Welsh bluestones ( pair in center ) were added to Stonehenge around 2200 B.C. and were believed to have healing powers . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Red deer antlers recovered from the ditch at Stonehenge were used as digging tools , and provided surprisingly old radiocarbon dates . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : At dawn @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tradition . Some archaeologists believe the winter solstice was more significant to the megaliths ' builders . By Mike Pitts Mike Pitts is an archaeologist , editor in chief of British Archaeology , and author of Hengeworld . The Wooden Henges The term " henge " was first used independently of its stone namesake in 1926 , when archaeologists excavated an unusual arrangement of postholes two miles northeast of Stonehenge . The site was first noticed by World War I ace pilot Gilbert Insall as he flew over a field where the chalky fill of ancient pits showed up as white spots . Called Woodhenge , the largest of its six concentric oval pit rings is 144 feet long , and the site shares some design features with Stonehenge ; both are oriented to the summer solstice sunrise . Archaeologists soon appropriated the word " henge " -- probably Anglo-Saxon for gallows--for a variety of circular ritual structures unique to Late Neolithic Britain ( 3000-2200 B.C. ) . As further post rings were excavated across the country , the phrase " timber henge " became common . In 1967 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Woodhenge , in excavations conducted before a road sliced through the previously ignored earthwork henge of Durrington Walls . The newly discovered timber henge was named the Southern Circle . A second timber henge at the site , called the Northern Circle , had been nearly obliterated by farmers ' plows . However , the Southern Circle 's enormous postholes--an estimated 166 set in six rings--were particularly well preserved . The site 's function has been debated ever since ( scholars have only recently noticed that its entrance aligns with the rising winter solstice sun ) , and the new excavation of the structure , begun in 2005 , has drawn intense interest . An important question is whether the wood henges were roofed . Had they been huge cult houses or arrangements of free-standing posts similar in design to Stonehenge ? For a variety of reasons , however , most archaeologists now envision Woodhenge , the Southern Circle , and other oak henges as unroofed arrays of posts . English Heritage geophysicists made the key discovery that led to this change of opinion in 1997 . When they surveyed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of Stonehenge , they were astonished to see nine concentric rings within the stones , consisting of 400 to 500 postholes . The largest circle is 300 feet across--far too large to roof . Roofing would also have channeled rainwater into gullies on the ground , and archaeologists found no signs of such erosion at the excavation of the Southern Circle at Durrington Walls . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Concrete cylinders mark the locations where wooden posts stood 4,000 years ago at the site of Woodhenge . Britain 's First Immigrant Who built Stonehenge ? It happened in an era of small-scale farming toward the end of which people made rare ornaments or weapons from gold and copper ( 3000-2200 B.C. ) . Were the builders those who had lived in Britain since the end of the last Ice Age , about 13,000 years ago , or were they a later immigrant population ? Farming began in Britain around 4000 B.C. Scholars have long debated whether a new people pushed out the hunter-gatherers or the original inhabitants simply adopted a new economy and way of life . Most archaeologists @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ out--a view endorsed by genetic studies of modern English people that suggest a substantial pre-farming component . Nonetheless , the idea that immigrants introduced metalworking , along with new rituals and styles of artifacts--seen in distinctive graves containing pots known as " Beakers " --retains a popular following since it was proposed in the last century . A difference between long-headed skulls in older burials and round-headed skulls in Beaker graves , first noted in the 1850s , might seem to support the immigration idea , though studies have been unable to prove the population was replaced . Prehistoric pottery is scarce at Stonehenge , but the little that remains is dominated by Beaker sherds : perhaps Stonehenge was built by " the Beaker people . " The discovery of some spectacular graves of Beaker people on Boscombe Down , Amesbury , in 2002-03 has revived this somewhat tired debate . The richest ( the " Amesbury Archer " ) contained an unprecedented five whole Beaker pots and several artifacts whose styles more closely resemble central European than British . Researchers applied a new technique to measure the oxygen and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with regional patterns of strontium and oxygen isotopes across Europe ( " Written in Bone , " May/June 2007 ) . The results showed that the Amesbury Archer grew up in central Europe . Three men whose remains were discovered in a nearby mass grave may have come from Wales or France . Are these findings unique , or do they point to large-scale migrations ? The Beaker People Project , run by Mike Parker Pearson , scientists from the British Geological Survey , and others , is exploring this question . They are examining the teeth of hundreds of Beaker individuals . They are also radiocarbon dating their bones to see if the Beaker phenomenon really is as old as Stonehenge--or , as many believe , some thing that happened long after the hard work of building the monument was done . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The Amesbury Archer lay in a shallow grave , surrounded by some 100 artifacts , including two hair ornaments , Britain 's oldest dated gold artifacts . PHOTO ( COLOR )

@@4070041 DEEP IN THE LIBYAN Desert , 125 miles west of Luxor , lies Kharga , Egypt 's largest oasis . The North Kharga Oasis Survey ( NKOS ) , of which I am codirector , has established that this remote area -- more than 100 miles long and from 12 to 60 miles wide -was continuously occupied throughout Egyptian history . We now know that it is home to an extraordinary variety of sites , including prehistoric rock art , Neolithic encampments , pharaonic monuments and burials , Roman settlements and water-supply systems , and the stars of the oasis -- five unique Roman forts that guarded this part of the empire 's southernmost frontier . Newly discovered ancient graffiti has even provided the name of a previously unknown ruler , King Aa , in power around 3000 B.C. , who sent an expedition to this remote area . The NKOS 's results are also changing our understanding of ancient Egypt 's connections with its neighbors . We can now show that Kharga played an important role in trade between Egypt and other parts of Africa , from the Old Kingdom up through the modern period . <p> Until @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oasis , a depression in the desert that in the distant past was a large body of water that shrank over time , leaving smaller lakes and an easily tapped underground water supply . While a French team has been investigating the oasis 's southern part for the past 20 years , the north remained an enigma . Then , in the winter of 1998 Corinna Rossi , of the College of Milan , went to Kharga on vacation and saw several astonishing Roman forts , which were , for the most part , undocumented . The following year , she and I met in Cairo and , over coffee , discussed the use of aerial photography and balloons to explore the vast area . We soon became friends and in 2000 established the NKOS . The project 's goal is to survey the entire northern part of the oasis -- close to 2,000 square miles -- and locate new archaeological sites . Because of the area 's enormous size , we use a variety of methods such as kite aerial photography , satellite imagery , and field-walking . Once @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ GPS , map and photograph it , draw the buildings , gather and study the pottery and small finds , and collect archaeobotanical and archaeozoological samples for later study . <p> Although not now as verdant as in antiquity , since much of the water supply has disappeared , the Kharga Oasis was a rich agricultural center that produced wheat and barley , and several varieties of dates , grapes , and other fruits and vegetables . Kharga 's wine was exported throughout the ancient world , particularly from the 26th Dynasty ( 664-525B.C. ) onward . Alas , wine is no longer produced there . The oasis was also known for its mineral resources , including alum , an ingredient in mummification , medicines , tanning , and dyeing , and ochers , used in paint and cosmetics . A text found in Luxor from the time of King Rameses II ( ca. 1298-1296 B.C. ) lists some of this mineral wealth as being sent from Kharga into the Nile Valley . <p> Apart from its rich soils , Kharga 's other chief asset was its location -- it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Dakhla Oasis that lies west of Kharga to the Nile Valley . These oases may have offered an alternative to the Nile route to Nubia and other parts of Africa for travelers , traders , and smugglers ; provided more freedom of movement ; united remote areas of Egypt with the Nile Valley ; and granted access to a wealth of trade goods from other regions . For example , the walls of the Egyptian explorer Harkhuf 's ( ca. 2279-2181 B.C. ) tomb records taking the " oasis route " to an as-yet-unidentified land in Africa and bringing back a dancing pygmy to play with seven-year-old King Pepi ( 2290-2196 B.C. ) . We now think the route he took was an extension of the routes that connected the Kharga Oasis to the Dakhla Oasis . By the Roman era , the track through Kharga to Darfur became a well-known trade route for the transport of grain , gold , camels , ebony , ivory , and slaves along what is now called the Darb el-Arbain , or Forty Days Road , for the time it takes to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ traced portions of this ancient route . <p> Today about 90,000 people live in Kharga . Most are oblivious to the ancient monuments , although a few are happy to have tourist attractions that boost the local economy . Although the NKOS has covered a lot of ground , a great deal remains unexplored . Our work is crucial since the population is growing , and agricultural activity , in the form of enormous new watermelon plantations , is encroaching on archaeological sites . Sites here also suffer from antiquities thieves and vandals . Convinced that the ancients had buried gold under the floor , robbers driving a front-end loader almost completely destroyed a temple at Umm el-Dabadib in 2004 before we had a chance to discover its date or the deity to whom it was dedicated . Other thieves have attempted to steal petroglyphs , damaging many in the process . <p> Frequent sandstorms , high winds , extreme temperatures , and poisonous snakes make working in Kharga challenging . But I never know what is behind the next sand dune . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ likely built over an earlier pharaonic one . The oasis 's Roman forts are found at the north , south , east , and west limits of the oasis , often near water supplies . Unlike others in the Roman world , they are made of mud brick , not stone . A walkway on top allowed soldiers to survey the surrounding area . The primary function of the forts was probably not defense as their walls are , for the most part , only one brick thick . However , especially from a distance , their massive appearance conjures up the might of the Roman Empire , so the facades must have deterred nomadic attackers while the forts performed their real function -- administration of the empire 's southern limits . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : North Kharga Oasis Survey ( NKOS ) co-director Corinna Rossi ( left ) and I uncover a rock-art panel dating to about 3700 B.C. depicting giraffes , elephants , and humans , with later drawings of cattle . On the same milelong rock surface , the NKOS has discovered panels featuring animals @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . They date to an era when the Sahara was greener and could support more animals . The people who carved the petroglyphs either lived here as hunter-gatherers or traveled through the territory . We also found evidence for an ancient lake nearby , which is probably why this was an attractive stopping place over the centuries . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The NKOS has identified several small Neolithic ( 7000-3500 B.C. ) encampments , complete with grinding stones ( left ) for making flour ; stone tools , including scrapers , blades , pounders , and awls ; fragments of bone tools ; and ostrich eggshells that were used as containers and to make beads . Although some evidence of Kharga 's history was recorded by the prehistorian Gertrude Caton-Thompson in the 1930s , we were surprised by the number of Neolithic sites we found . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : I have a passion for animal mummies , so I was excited to discover that the temple of Ain Dabashiya was associated with animal cults , particularly that of the canine-headed god Anubis . In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ A.D. Temple , we found a tomb containing a group of dog mummies , and a similar deposit less than half-a-mile away . Here Corinna and I examine some of the dog mummy skeletons that have sustained wind and sand erosion , causing the loss of their mummy wrappings . The deposit contains the remains of several hundred dogs , ranging from few-week-old puppies to adults , possibly bred in the area . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Until the NKOS 's work , people thought the structure at Muhammed Tulaib , below , was a fort . But the architectural style and a piece of inscribed plaster telling of its dedication to a form of the god Horus identified it as a temple dating from the second century B.C. to first century A.D. Later ( we are still trying to establish precisely when ) , the temple was expanded to include an administrative area . Surrounding it is evidence of large fertilized wheat fields dating from the second century B.C. , industrial areas for producing pottery and textiles , and a cemetery that contained graves belonging to both @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) : At Umm el-Dabadib and elsewhere in the oasis , neatly laid-out Roman settlements surround the forts . A particularly interesting feature of some of the houses across the oasis is a main public room enhanced by two niches -- one in the pharaonic style decorated with a cornice on top and edged by a molding ( seen at the center in the photo at left ) and the other in a more classical style with an arch supported by pillars ( on the right wall ) . Each niche likely contained a statue , although none have been found yet . Given that the houses date to a period of transition from paganism to Christianity , it is tempting to think that the houses ' inhabitants were hedging their bets and that one niche contained an image of an Egyptian deity , and the other a Christian one . This idea is supported by the existence of both a temple and a church at the site . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Corinna Rossi examines the ancient conduits that took water from the underground aqueducts at Umm @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ qanats , were probably first introduced by the Persians in the sixth century B.C. , and later lengthened by the Romans . The qanats made Kharga extremely productive . We have located and mapped several qanats across the Kharga Oasis . At Umm el-Dabadib , we explored the qanat 's underground tunnels , learning how it felt to be an ancient worker who had to walk hunched over to avoid snakes . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : El-Deir is the largest of five Roman forts in the Western Desert and the one closest to the terminus of several routes that lead to Kharga from the Nile Valley . In this form , the structure dates from the third to the fifth centuries A.D. Throughout its existence , it probably held the largest number of troops in Kharga . During World War I , the fort was used by British soldiers who made a new gate and stayed inside , leaving a lot of graffiti like names , ranks , and hometowns . The cliffs in the background contain tombs dating from the fourth century B.C. to the fifth century @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ filled with evidence of ancient cultivated fields , a temple , and a settlement contemporary with the fort . <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : An unusual feature of several fort complexes are pigeon towers , which may also have existed at other locations in the Kharga and Dakhla oases . The birds were eaten and their guano used as fertilizer . Some of the birds may even have been used as carriers , an early example of a pigeon post . Here architect Nicholas Warner records the oasis 's best-preserved tower at Ain el-Dabashiya . Because of its vulnerability to wind and soil erosion , we chose it as NKOS 's first restoration project . <p> By Salima Ikram <p> PHOTOGRAPHS BY Ken Garrett <p> Salima Ikram is a professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo and co-director of the North Kharga Oasis Survey . She works at several sites in Egypt and studies collections in Egyptian museums . <p>

@@4070141 Our research summarizes challenges unique to obtaining institutional review board ( IRB ) approval for longitudinal substance abuse research , focusing on solutions and lessons learned . Thirteen senior principal investigators with experience conducting research on substance abuse treatment and health services outcomes recalled instances from the prior five years when obtaining UCLA and non-UCLA IRB approval , which were hampered by differences in the interpretation of regulatory guidelines , and how those differences were resolved . Comprehensive yet flexible research protocols regarding ( a ) informed and voluntary consent , ( b ) participant payment , and ( c ) recontact efforts are essential for securing IRB approval of longitudinal substance abuse studies . Specific examples of lessons learned are provided . These experiences can help researchers provide appropriate and explicit justification for longitudinal substance abuse research protocols , thereby minimizing the burden and cost associated with meeting regulatory requirements as well as enhancing the efficiency , quantity , and quality of data collected . <p> Substance abuse continues to be a widespread and persistent public health problem in the United States , often occurring over the life course ( Claus , Mannen , &; Schicht , 1999 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Prendergast 1997 ; Scott , Foss , &; Dennis , 2005 ) . The consequences of substance abuse account for a significant number of costly events such as emergency room visits , arrests , and incarcerations ( Office of National Drug Control Policy ONDCP , 2004 ; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration SAMHSA , 2006 ; U.S. Department of Justice , Office of Justice Programs OJP , 2005 ) . To accurately capture the chronic nature of drug abuse and the course of recovery , researchers increasingly affirm the need to focus on the long-term interplay of multiple events over time such as drug use , health services utilization , psychosocial mediation factors , major life events , and intervention outcomes . A longitudinal perspective is particularly relevant to the chronic disease management concepts proposed in current health services policy and practice ( McLellan , 2002 ; McLellan , Lewis , O'Brien , &; Kleber , 2000 ; Moos &; Moos , 2005 ; Weisner , Mertens , Parthasarathy , Moore , &; Lu , 2001 ) . <p> Conducting longitudinal drug abuse research is challenging for numerous @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) is the application of research practices that are scientifically rigorous and , at the same time , adequately address concerns raised by IRBs . Institutional review boards are charged with protecting the rights and welfare of all human research participants and are guided by principles codified in federal and state statutes . These principles inform necessary oversight , but , sometimes problematically , they are also subject to interpretive changes over time . It is not uncommon for PIs and IRB members , who have different priorities , missions , and agendas , to occasionally differ on what constitutes appropriate research conduct . This difference of opinion encourages healthy debate and can result in improved research procedures , but , from a researcher perspective , it also generates lengthy correspondence , delays the initiation of data collection , and results in the expense of scarce resources . As IRBs become stricter ( Oakes , 2002 ) , fulfilling additional IRB-initiated human subjects protection requirements poses a significant research burden , one that can be compounded by other complications like the involvement of multiple regulatory agencies , IRB member turnover @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conflicting state and agency statutes . While these issues are not unique to longitudinal substance abuse research , in this arena other noteworthy regulatory issues commonly arise . <p> During a longitudinal study , the physical and emotional states of participants may change over the course of time . From enrollment to follow-up , substance abusers may transition in and out of various health and other service settings ( e.g. , drug or mental health treatment , jail or prison , homeless shelters ) , activities ( e.g. , using drugs , in withdrawal or abstaining , criminally active , employed ) , economic circumstances , and states of physical or emotional health ( e.g. , mentally ill , medically or cognitively impaired ) ( Scott &; White , 2005 ) . This ongoing change in states precipitates the emergence of unanticipated issues during the life of a study , necessitating research protocols that are comprehensive and flexible enough to address diverse scenarios . <p> Much has been written on the difficulty of conducting follow-up studies with " deviant " populations ( Hansten , Downey , Rosengren , &; Donovan @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Parente , 1981 ; Mackenzie , Funderburk , Allen , &; Stefan , 1987 ; Moos &; Bliss , 1978 ; Walton , Ramanathan , &; Reischl , 1998 ; Wright , Allen , &; Devine , 1995 ) . Also well documented are techniques for successfully tracking , locating , and retaining substance-abusers in research ( Cohen , Mowbray , Bybee , &; Yeich , 1993 ; Cottler , Compton , Ben-Abdallah , &; Horne , 1996 ; Desmond , Maddux , Johnson , &; Confer , 1995 ; Goldstein , 1977 ; Passetti , Godley , Scott , &; Siekmann , 2000 ; Ribisl , Walton , Mowbray , &; Luke , 1996 ; Sullivan , Rumptz , Campbell , Eby , &; Davidson , 1996 ) . However , more recently , follow-up research practices are increasingly informed by a heightened sensitivity for privacy concerns ( i.e. , the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act HIPAA ) as well as the utilization of technology-driven resources . Passed in 1996 and revised in 2004 , HIPAA has contributed to an atmosphere of confusion and concern regarding the confidentiality @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ realm , and over whether methods for safeguarding personally identified health information adequately meet patient privacy regulations . The widespread use of computer-based search engines , databases , and communication methods means that accidental disclosure of sensitive information is more common , greater numbers of people are impacted , and the potential consequences are more significant ( e.g. , identity theft , computer crime ) . Together , these two forces have dramatically altered the environment in which the requirements of research and regulatory agencies are mediated . Consequently , now more than ever before , the responsibilities assigned to regulatory agencies are expanding and standards for privacy and confidentiality change continually , usually in a direction that is more restrictive and cautionary . <p> It is in this new environment that PIs must successfully navigate the regulatory review process before initiating a study , an experience that can prove increasingly formidable as voiced in numerous recent publications featuring researcher-IRB interactions ( Dougherty &; Kramer , 2005 ; Fitch , 2005 ; Green , Lowery , Kowalski , &; Wyszewianski , 2006 ; Koerner , 2005 ; Lincoln , 2005 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2006 ; Sansone , McDonald , Hanley , Sellbom , &; Gaither , 2004 ) . Only a handful of studies have documented variations in how IRBs handle health services research ( Dziak et al. , 2005 ; Gold &; Dewa , 2005 ) or the research ethics review process itself ( Fitzgerald , Phillips , &; Yule , 2006 ) , and none have provided guidance specific to longitudinal substance abuse research . Our purpose in this paper is to summarize challenges unique to attaining the IRB approval necessary to conduct longitudinal research on substance abuse , focusing on solutions and lessons learned . <p> L : METHODS Sponsored by UCLA 's Center for Advancing Longitudinal Drug Abuse Research ( CALDAR ) , this paper stems from one of CALDAR 's primary themes of enhancing the efficiency , quantity , and quality of data collected for longitudinal research . Experiences with IRBs were provided by thirteen senior UCLA PIs who completed a one-on-one semi-structured interview with a postdoctoral fellow . Collectively , contributors had conducted over 100 federal- and state-funded studies in substance use and health services outcomes for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ asked to recall and provide documentation of instances from the prior five years when obtaining UCLA and non-UCLA IRB approval for longitudinal substance abuse research was hampered by differences in interpretation of regulatory guidelines and how those differences were resolved . Copies of IRB correspondence were reviewed as needed . For context , findings were compared to relevant journal articles . <p> PIs identified three broad topics that we will briefly review : ( a ) creating an environment for informed and voluntary consent , ( b ) designing appropriate participant payment , and ( c ) balancing privacy rights and recontact efforts . This paper is not an exhaustive account of regulatory difficulties likely to be encountered when conducting longitudinal drug abuse research , but is instead intended to capture current successful practices and serve as a preparatory resource for researchers planning to initiate studies of a similar longitudinal nature . <p> L : FINDINGS CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR INFORMED AND VOLUNTARY CONSENT <p> Obtaining informed and voluntary consent from individuals who participate in longitudinal substance abuse research poses several distinct issues . Informed consent is not merely the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but is a continuous process in which competent and autonomous potential participants are invited to learn about the research procedures and asked to participate . In order to obtain informed consent , the prospective participant should be presented with sufficient and comprehensible information about the research protocol so that he or she can make an intelligent , informed decision ( Grunder , 1978 ) . Informed consent must cover particular elements that include , but may not be limited to , these topics : study purpose and procedures , potential risks and discomforts , anticipated benefits to subjects and to society , alternatives to participation , payment for participation , possible commercial products resulting from the research , financial obligations , emergency care and compensation for injury , provisions for safeguarding confidentiality , procedures for withdrawal , identification of the investigators , and rights of the research subjects . <p> EXTRA PROTECTIONS FOR VULNERABLE POPULATIONS <p> When substance abusers are presented with information about a longitudinal study they may be in a " vulnerable " state ( e.g. , intoxicated , suffering from withdrawal symptoms or co-occurring mental illness , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that may impair their ability to weigh the risks and benefits of the study and impede independent decision-making . Diminished autonomy is commonly thought to exist among children because of their incomplete intellectual development and among prisoners because of their altered societal status ( Amdur , 2003 ) . Vulnerable individuals such as these are considered to be deserving of extra protections designed to ensure respect for individual autonomy . <p> Extra protections are typically translated into practice as lengthy and complex consent forms . PIs strive to design forms that follow regulatory guidelines and are also informative and written in simple language . The last criteria is especially relevant to materials designed to convey information to chronic substance abusers , given their changing physical and emotional states , but also since many have low rates of educational attainment ( Fothergill &; Ensminger , 2006 ; Gfroerer , Greenblatt , &; Wright , 1997 ; Kogan , Luo , Brody , &; Murry , 2005 ) or may be cognitively impaired ( Hanson &; Luciana , 2004 ; Prosser et al. , 2006 ) . But all too often during @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and confusing , inadvertently contravening evidence on enhanced comprehension and memory of short and simple forms ( Murphy , O'Keefe , &; Kaufman , 1999 ) , or omit information that later becomes crucial for conducting long-term follow-up . <p> INFORMED CONSENT FORMS FOR LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH <p> Consent forms for longitudinal research are particularly susceptible to verbosity and misapprehension . PIs must include specific language required by regulatory agencies and also find it useful to summarize prior interactions to help participants remember that they have enrolled in a longitudinal study . The combination of these two aims in one consent form can result in a document that decreases participant comprehension rather than improving it . Too much regulatory language , often perceived by participants as legalese , and historical or extraneous detail can trigger participant paranoia and undermine researcher credibility , deterring some from participating in the study . <p> As an example , one PI related an experience in which participants completing their one-year follow-up interview were invited to provide saliva samples for substance abuse genotyping . These samples were collected as part of an innovative study supplement that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which focused on health services utilization and outcomes following initial treatment . The PI developed a separate saliva consent form and during IRB review was directed to include verbatim language on participant rights to be informed of parental heritage via DNA testing . The PI 's appeal to omit the language , because there was no intent to perform parentage tests and DNA samples had not been collected from parents , thus making such tests impossible , was denied . During the consent process research staff explained to participants reasons why the language was required but not applicable . Nevertheless , participants were suspicious and voiced concerns that all of the current and prior study procedures were not being stated . Inclusion of extraneous information in the saliva consent form had effectively tainted participant perceptions of the entire study . In the end , research staff relied upon their rapport with participants , built over the life of the study , to calm fears and restore confidence in the research . <p> Conversely , sometimes consent forms do not provide enough information . Long-term follow-up studies may be conducted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for locating people were available . However , new locating resources increase research efficiency and practicability , resulting in benefits that outweigh potential risks . This argument was successfully made by one PI who was granted IRB approval to utilize electronic search engines available in the public domain to locate participants who were last contacted 25 years previously . The PI reported that some participants were initially apprehensive at re-contact , primarily because participants could not understand how they had been located after so many years . Some worried that the study 's association with federal funding meant that investigators had access to information that violated their rights to privacy or that the research center was masquerading for other government entities . To address these concerns , research staff explained how new technology had been used to locate participants . Additionally , the PI included in the latest consent form explicit agreement for possible future follow-up as well as the use of electronic records to relocate participants later , making it an important document for the explanation of privacy rights . <p> REFUSALS AND THEIR IMPACT ON LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study , in order to honor participant autonomy informed consent must be provided at each time point . Reconsent is important because over time many participants may have difficulty remembering the research study or distinguishing it from clinical assessments done during their drug use history ( Dennis et al. , 2004 ) . However , longitudinal researchers are particularly aware that each consent interaction explicitly affords the opportunity for refusal . Participants who previously agreed to be interviewed , even many times previously , may refuse participation . This may not be due to an aversion to study aims or protocols , but instead the result of impulsive decision-making related to their current mood or situation . Distinguishing between capricious and genuine refusals can be tricky . In some cases reapproaching participants at a later time yields a change of heart , while in others it is appropriate to discontinue interactions altogether . Longitudinal researchers are reluctant to accept a refusal without first confirming its sincerity . During some types of longitudinal analyses , one missing data point can trigger case wide deletion , jeopardizing data about that participant not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but at all time points during years of work . <p> One example where the right to refuse was at risk of being impracticably broadened occurred when the IRB asked that the consent form include the right to withdraw any data that had been provided during the course of the study . This stipulation could have resulted in years of lost work if participants had dropped out of the study and withdrew all of their data from multiple assessments . The PI responded with a reminder that the formerly approved procedures represented a high and appropriate degree of protection , participants had provided consent prior to data collection , and there was no precedent for such a limitless opportunity to delete or discard data . In this case , the PI 's appeal was granted and the study was approved . <p> PRISONERS <p> From one follow-up interview to another , it is not uncommon for substance users participating in a longitudinal study to become incarcerated or be released from jail or prison , making it difficult for PIs to know at study initiation whether to include special precautions to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ participants may be incarcerated at follow-up , PIs are also likely to neglect to ensure prisoner-specific review requirements have been fulfilled . <p> The decision to participate in research must be made without any pressure from outside sources ( Grunder , 1978 ) , making the inclusion of inmates problematic . More than other prospective participants , prisoners may feel coerced to participate in studies , acting out of a misapprehension that such " good behavior " will please legal authorities and enhance their chances of release . To protect inmates , federal law requires that several extra conditions be satisfied prior to IRB approval ( Prentice , Gordon , Kratochvil , Kotulak , &; Amdur , 2002 ) . For example , precautionary protocols must be designed to prevent research participation from affecting parole board decisions and to avoid coercive compensation . Furthermore , a prison representative must be present at IRB review of any study involving incarcerated populations . <p> This last condition negatively impacted one long-term follow-up of substance-abusing individuals subject to review by two separate IRBs , one of which agreed to defer to the decisions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ indicated that prisoners would account for a portion of the study population , the prisoner representative happened to be absent from the meeting when the project was reapproved during annual continuing review by the prevailing IRB . This omission was revealed when , to meet federal requirements , the subordinate IRB requested documentation that a prison representative had participated in the approval meeting . The oversight was corrected several months later when the prevailing IRB reviewed the project again with the prison representative in attendance . However , so much time had lapsed that the subordinate IRB 's approval had expired and the PI was invited to resubmit the protocol as a new study . The PI decided that resubmitting the project was not worthwhile because the subordinate IRB 's approval was primarily needed for the use of administrative data records , which were determined to be of limited use and could be supplanted by equivalent self-reported data . While the PI understood that it was appropriate for the study to receive prisoner advocate review and approval and that the subordinate IRB was justifiably fulfilling its role by taking an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PI was equally frustrated with the bind the study faced and the apparently limited amount of flexibility and celerity the two IRBs were able to employ in trying to resolve the situation . In the end , the PI chose to rely only on the approval of the prevailing IRB . While this issue was resolved with an uncommon tactic , from this experience it was learned that IRBs can make mistakes , which may impact the study in ways that are beyond the control of PI . Also , it was learned that it is prudent for PIs to assume that a proportion of participants will be incarcerated at follow-up . Consequently , to minimize IRB-related delays , as illustrated by this example , PIs must pro-actively communicate with IRBs to ensure that prisoner-specific protocols and review requirements are met before data collection begins . <p> LESSONS LEARNED <p> Longitudinal research on substance abuse raises some unique but not insurmountable regulatory issues related to voluntary and informed consent . Although the process may be influenced by participants ' changing emotional and physical states , there is no empirical evidence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disorders or cognitive deficits , are incapable of providing informed consent ( McCrady &; Bux , 1999 ; Walker , Logan , Clark , &; Leukefeld , 2005 ) . Drug craving and drug use should not automatically exclude individuals from research , especially since such sample selection restrictions may bias findings and result in failure to recognize issues relevant to this population ( College on Problems of Drug Dependence , 1995 ) . <p> Longitudinal substance abuse researchers can do several things to create an environment conducive to obtaining true informed consent . First , when designing study protocols , PIs must include procedures to ensure that consent occurs when participants are not acutely intoxicated or in withdrawal , evaluate refusals for sincerity ( i.e. , allow for recontact of insincere refusals ) , and address the likelihood that the proportion of the sample deemed deserving of special precautions ( e.g. , incarcerated or cognitively deficient ) will change over time . Second , PIs must design consent forms that : observe regulatory guidelines and reference prior study activities but do not compromise clarity and conciseness ; include explicit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study completion ; and , as applicable , ask for permission to use electronic records to locate participants later . Finally , PIs should be prepared to : appeal unwarranted precedents , especially those that limit the scientific rigor of the study , such as deletion of prior data upon refusal to participate in ongoing research ; treat consent as a process and develop strong rapport with participants to secure continued participation despite new consent requirements that may upset participants ; and start the IRB process early , especially when multiple IRBs are involved or when the study includes participants who were last contacted many years ago , as time will be needed to mediate unexpected or unusual events . Withdrawing a study from IRB review is typically not an option available to researchers and , in any case , should be considered only in extreme and rare instances . Instead , researchers are better served by working collaboratively and pro-actively with their IRBs . Utilizing the appeals process and working closely to understand the viewpoints and responsibilities of IRB members will improve communications and facilitate future researcher-IRB interactions . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ short-term studies ( e.g. , cross-sectional surveys , time-limited clinical trials ) , substance users enrolled in longitudinal research typically contribute to the study at multiple time-points over several years or even decades . In return for their continued contribution , participants commonly expect to be monetarily compensated with an amount that reflects the current fair market value of their time . Moreover , they may expect that payments increase over time . The perceived value of payments has been found to be a key factor in increasing participation rates ( Festinger et al. , 2005 ; Reilly , Roll , &; Downey , 2000 ; Rosado , Sigmon , Jones , &; Stitzer , 2005 ) , and this is particularly salient to longitudinal studies that are necessarily dependent on data that has been accumulated over time . Inappropriate or undesirable payment protocols ( e.g. , a gift certificate instead of cash ) can result in feelings of discrimination ( Seddon , 2005 ) or demoralization and participation refusal . However , providing appropriate monetary payments to substance users over the life of a longitudinal study can generate IRB @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of vulnerable populations , and fears that monetary payments will be used by this population to obtain illegal substances to continue the same behavior that is under investigation in the research study . <p> THE ETHICS OF COERCION VS . COMPENSATION <p> Voluntary consent to participate in a study implies that there is an absence of coercion to participate . Specifically , individuals should not feel forced to participate due to the direct influence of other individuals ( e.g. , researchers , prison guards , treatment staff ) or the allure of a payment that is too valuable to resist . Especially problematic are situations where payments may induce people to participate in studies without considering its risks and benefits other than the benefit of the payment itself ( Gordon , Brown , Kratochvil , Prentice , &; Amdur , 2003 ) . To protect participants from coercive payments , IRBs must determine whether a proposed payment is a reimbursement or an inducement . A payment is considered a reimbursement when it is meant to compensate for direct expenses resulting from study participation ( e.g. , transportation , parking , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . Reimbursements are not considered coercive . In contrast , an inducement is intended to encourage participation in return for financial gain ( Gordon et al. , 2003 ) . An inducement is considered coercive because it violates the fundamental ethical standard that research participation be completely voluntary without the influence of outside sources such as financial gain . <p> NEED FOR FLEXIBLE PAYMENT OPTIONS <p> Prior to IRB approval , PIs are required to explain all protocols and procedures including payment practices . However , designing appropriate payments for longitudinal studies is complicated by changes in participant states during the course of the study . PIs may not know at study initiation whether special precautions are needed to protect prospective participants because the current status of individual participants is unknown until after re-contact has been made . Consequently , payment options may not be flexible enough to allow for all contingencies . For example , non-cash payments may be more suitable for current substance abusers or treatment clients because they may be overly vulnerable to the influence of payments ( Seddon , 2005 ) . Active users may @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ drugs ( Sieber &; Sorensen , 1992 ) without proper consideration of research participation risks . Similarly , payment to mentally or medically ill participants might be more appropriate when accompanied by specialized informed consent procedures ( i.e. , an evaluation of mental status ) to preclude coercion or exploitation . Parents may respond better to payments for child-related or household items ( e.g. , grocery vouchers or gift cards to a household retailer ) . Compensating incarcerated individuals must also be carefully considered as this practice is sometimes viewed as ( a ) an effectual reward for criminal behavior ; ( b ) the endorsement of inequitable compensation for prisoners ( who are often paid less for the same interview than non-incarcerated participants on the basis that the value of money is greater in a controlled setting ) ; and , ( c ) in some cases , unjust to jail and prison staff whose hourly wage is less than the payment for research participation ( Seddon , 2005 ) . <p> Principal investigators should also keep in mind that offering payments to friends and family who help contact @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ received IRB approval to offer family members and friends a $10 referral reward if participants scheduled a follow-up interview , while in another study this same procedure was rejected by a different IRB as an invasion of participant privacy . In yet another study , the PI expressed the need for caution when alerting significant others about the availability of payments , especially money , since participants may be coerced by their family or friends who are motivated by the chance of receiving money themselves . PIs reported that spouses , more than any other associate , serving as gatekeepers may be inappropriately influenced by payments , either denying access to the respondent or coercing their participation . <p> SUCCESSFUL PAYMENT STRATEGIES <p> Institutional review boards have considered a range of payment strategies to be appropriate for longitudinal research . These include non-cash payments such as gift certificates and grocery scrip for current substance users ( i.e. , those in treatment ) ; payment that reflects the economic standards of the day ( approximately $10 to $15 per hour for those interviewed in 2006 ) but is low enough so @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ earn money for drugs outside of the research ; payments that increase with each interview completed over time ; dividing large payments into separate smaller amounts that must be collected incrementally per research activity ( e. g. , $5 for a urine sample , $20 for an interview , $20 for a medical exam , $5 for referring a friend ) ; cash to reimburse travel expenses ; modest bonus payments ( beyond the main payment ) for participants who respond promptly or who precomplete some study forms prior to the actual study interview ; payment to friends and family who help with recontact ; and , for incarcerated participants , either placing on their trustee account an amount less than what is paid for the same interview done with a non-incarcerated individual or offering to provide full payment to a non-incarcerated friend or family member . <p> LESSONS LEARNED <p> When considering the amount and type of payment for participation in a longitudinal substance abuse research study , incorporating a range of payment options is essential . There is some concern that voluntary consent is violated by excessive payments @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , are considered a vulnerable population that is easily tempted by financial gain . However , participants may perceive a low or undesirable payment as patronizing , jeopardizing their decision to remain enrolled in the study . It is worth remembering that even among the substance using population , variation exists in reasons for study participation , understanding and expectations of procedures , and feelings of freedom to participate or refuse participation ( Grady , 2001 ) . In fact , evidence indicates that among substance abusing research participants , payments are generally not spent on drugs ( Festinger et al. , 2005 ) . Instead , reasons for participation include citizenship , altruism , and " drug user activism " ( Fry &; Dwyer , 2001 ) . Enjoyment of behavioral research participation and receipt of associated non-monetary benefits has been documented among other vulnerable populations ( Carey et al. , 2001 ) . Similarly , many substance abusers may participate in research not just for money but also for other reasons such as the opportunity to contribute to research that may benefit fellow substance abusers in the future @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are desirable enough to facilitate and maintain participation rates while simultaneously appropriate so as not to be coercive . <p> BALANCING PRIVACY RIGHTS AND RECONTACT EFFORTS <p> Many substance users have a transient and chaotic lifestyle that hinders efforts to track them for longitudinal studies , necessitating frequent and creative contact strategies . There is often no evidence that participants actually receive mail or phone messages about the study , and some participants may be more responsive to letters , or phone calls , or a combination of both types of contact strategies . Systematic procedures employing various types of communication at different time-points are most effective ( Hall et al. , 2003 ; Scott , 2004 ) . <p> MULTIPLE AND FREQUENT CONTACT ATTEMPTS <p> While multiple and frequent contact attempts may enhance follow-up rates , many IRBs consider them to be an invasion of privacy . One PI stated that as few as two mailing attempts were allowed with their study of a prison sample . In another example , telephone calls were prohibited altogether and research staff had to rely entirely on letters . Interviews had last @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so , predictably , many had moved and could not be reached through their last known address . After one year of attempted contact by mail and a response rate of only about 20% , the PI requested IRB rereview . The PI explained that such a restrictive contact method was compromising the response rate , thereby jeopardizing findings as well as future funding , and the appeal to allow for telephone calls was granted . In yet a third longitudinal study , many subjects ignored the initial mailed invitation to participate in the 25-year follow-up interview , viewing the unopened envelope as just more " junk mail " or forgetting about it in the midst of ongoing daily activity . Upon receipt of subsequent requests ( by mail and telephone ) , many participants were prompted to respond , often after a period as long as six months after the initial invitation . <p> PERSONAL IDENTIFIERS <p> To conduct longitudinal studies , PIs must necessarily record and archive participant identifiers so that later follow-up is possible . Social security number and date of birth , in addition to full @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these items tend to remain unique despite name changes resulting from marriage or divorce . Personal data can be kept confidential by restricting access and taking precautions to prevent any potentially damaging information from being disclosed to unintended sources ( Amdur , 2003 ) . These procedures are usually articulated in protocols explained to participants in the informed consent process . In keeping with principles of privacy and confidentiality , plans to re-contact participants are also usually included in the consent form . But , as experienced by one PI , complications occur when an unexpected opportunity arises to extend the length of a study and prior consent forms do not include a statement regarding plans to recontact participants beyond original time frames . In this example , the original consent form stated that follow-up interviews would be conducted six and 12 months later . After the initial study had ended , the PI was awarded funding to conduct a five-year follow-up on the same population . The IRB refused to grant approval for the new follow-up since participants had not been previously asked about re-contact . The PI maintained @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : It did not raise significantly different human subject protection concerns than contacting a new cohort of individuals would ( participation is voluntary and informed consent must be provided in both cases ) ; and the majority of participants would be interested in further follow-up since they had not discontinued participation during prior interactions . The appeal was granted . <p> FAMILY MEMBERS AND FRIENDS <p> Family members and friends often provide emotional and economic support to substance abusers ( Clark , 2001 ; Kumpfer , Alvarado , &; Whiteside , 2003 ) , making them ideal individuals to contact when attempting to locate participants for long-term follow-up . One PI who was interviewed for this study stated : <p> Investigators have the task of obtaining consent within relatively few attempts to contact participants . The restrictions do not allow the investigators to develop a rapport with participants through multiple mailings and reminder calls . Given this , investigators must be creative and resourceful on how to successfully retain participants . It is crucial to convince the participant as well as those in their network ( e.g. , family members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is beneficial to both the participant ( e.g. , payments ) , to society at large , and to others like themselves ( e.g. , those that may benefit from the research ) at the initial interview . Keeping the interest of participants to remain in the study is an art as well as a science , and relationship-building is vital . <p> Despite the benefits of building relationships with family and friends of participants enrolled in a longitudinal study , there can be a number of problematic issues associated with interacting with these contacts . The researcher must be careful to avoid revealing personal participant information , particularly when a participant 's life course has dramatically changed since the last contact and current friends and family are not aware of their past substance abusing lifestyle . Conversely , participants who have relapsed may feel embarrassed that they have " let down " the interviewer with whom they formed a personal bond . In both situations , participants may avoid follow-up , introducing inadvertent attrition bias . All PIs agreed that as the " face " of the study it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ respond to re-contact attempts and it is the PI 's responsibility to ensure that staff are trained to ameliorate embarrassment among participants with an empathetic and caring attitude . Principal investigators noted their IRB 's request for assurances that interviewing staff are well-trained , that the nature of the study is described with non-stigmatizing words in letters and phone messages , ( e.g. , by referencing " a public health study " instead of " drug abuse research " ) , and that protocols are in place to maintain participant privacy during day-to-day research activities . <p> USING ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS TO SUPPLEMENT SELF-REPORTED FOLLOW-UP DATA <p> When designing a longitudinal substance abuse study , PIs may decide to acquire administrative records on participants as a supplement to ( or in lieu of ) data obtained from face-to-face follow-up interviews . Official records provide a historical perspective on events , and they exist on most activities relevant to research on longitudinal substance abuse and services utilization outcomes , such as treatment for drug use , medical or mental illness , arrests , incarcerations , motor vehicle accidents , receipt of government @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ especially useful to obtain prior to initiating follow-up interviews since with this information PIs can avoid contacting grieving relatives and reserve locating efforts for individuals who are still alive and able to participate . Records extraction can be accomplished only if the researcher has obtained permission from the agency that maintains the data and has also recorded the variables needed to link data , most commonly full name , social security number , and date of birth . Plans to acquire administrative data on individuals must also be stated in the consent form , although , even with participant consent , this procedure typically raises a number of IRB concerns . One PI met IRB opposition after having received supplemental funding to acquire administrative data from a source that was not specifically named in the protocol or consent form . IRB board members felt that the original consent language was too broad and asked that it be modified to explicitly name the agency and the variables to be provided . The PI explained that participants had already signed a consent form that listed the parent organization of the agency that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the data without naming the actual variables . Additionally , the PI argued that it would be impracticable to relocate and reconsent the more than 20,000 people who had already agreed to participate in the study and that plans to minimize potential risks associated with sharing data were extraordinarily cautious . The IRB approved the request to acquire data . In three other longitudinal studies , acquisition of administrative data prompted IRB interest in distinctions between public and private data , adequate data security procedures , and protocols regarding data destruction and archival . In two of these studies , approval was facilitated by the fact that both studies had resulted from legislative mandates . The other study was so large and utilized data on a population that had last been contacted more than 10 years ago ; thus reconsent was impracticable and a waiver of written consent was granted . <p> LESSONS LEARNED <p> Privacy and confidentiality regulations are intended to prevent potentially sensitive information from being disclosed and guide research procedures for recontact . Based on our experiences , limitations regarding when , how , and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ participants can be indirectly contacted through family members and friends , should be flexible . However , to gain IRB approval to recontact participants for long-term follow-up , it is essential for PIs to demonstrate that : there is value in multiple , frequent , and varied contact attempts ; follow-up can not occur without the collection of participant identifiers ; there are adequate protocols for securing participants ' personal information ; and research interviewers have been trained in research ethics and are tactful and skilled at projecting an empathetic and caring attitude . Acquiring administrative records on participants requires appropriate consent , and PIs should be prepared to explain measures taken to minimize potential risks . Further , researchers must anticipate and address IRB concerns that contacting subjects indirectly through friends and family may increase the risk that sensitive information will be disclosed . Finally , methodological research on these recontact issues is needed to assist both PIs and IRBs in their decision making processes . <p> L : CONCLUSION Variability exists across IRBs and time , and the information presented in this paper was collected from a limited @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to their psychosocial studies . There are likely critical regulatory issues relevant to the medical field and related disciplines that are not covered in this paper . However , the researchers who contributed to this paper are affiliated with a large substance abuse research center that probably has the largest portfolio of longitudinal studies in the world and , collectively , over the past 30 years these investigators have conducted numerous long-term follow-up studies on a wide and diverse range of drug abusing populations . From these experiences , it is clear that ethical review of research is necessary and , in the current environment of heightened privacy concerns and widespread availability between technological resources , PIs conducting longitudinal drug abuse research in particular are obligated to articulate not only their intent but also specific procedures for respecting participant rights . <p> Researchers and IRB members do not always agree , but they can often work together to resolve their differences . There are times when IRB members have not previously dealt with certain issues , and in other situations , researchers have not adequately addressed the risks associated with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ collide , PIs and IRB members are often best served by raising awareness of one another 's issues by engaging in ongoing dialogue . Greater understanding among IRB members of the oddities and idiosyncrasies common to longitudinal substance abuse research , and more appreciation among PIs of the roles and responsibilities fulfilled by regulatory entities , will benefit both arenas and , more often than not , facilitate solutions that are satisfactory to both parties . <p> The value of anticipating necessary protocol changes and building in time to accommodate modifications to study activities can not be emphasized enough . Longitudinal studies are likely to precipitate events that require particular attention and planning , such as the desire to conduct further follow-up with research subjects , increases in incentive amounts , the addition or modification of forms , and contacting incarcerated research subjects . Researchers benefit by anticipating how their study might evolve and how IRBs might react to the original protocol , as well as to the changes it may undergo . IRBs are as active and as invested as ever in reviewing research protocols , and interacting with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ However , these are also good reasons for researchers to incorporate a sufficient amount of resources into their study plans in order to accommodate the time and funding needed to secure approval for longitudinal studies that involve human subjects . Also , individual investigators , particularly junior investigators , within research centers might find it useful to create a centralized mechanism for learning from one another 's IRB experiences , principally by utilizing a core set of staff who routinely prepare IRB applications and respond to related correspondence and thus have acquired the expertise , communication skills , and rapport needed to navigate the IRB process successfully . Researchers can learn from experiences like ours to provide appropriate and explicit justification for protocols , thereby minimizing the burden and cost associated with meeting regulatory requirements . <p> Balancing the interests of research participants with the needs of scientifically rigorous procedures requires compromises and affects in at least three areas : ( a ) informed and voluntary consent , ( b ) participant payment , and ( c ) recontact efforts . Comprehensive yet flexible research protocols are essential for securing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ one hand and enhancing the efficiency , quantity , and quality of research data collected on the other . <p> L : ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by The UCLA Center for Advancing Longitudinal Drug Abuse Research ( CALDAR ) by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse ( NIDA ) - P30 DA016383 . Dr. Hser is also supported by a Senior Scientist Award ( K05DA017648 ) . 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American Journal of Community Psychology , 26(2) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , J. , Parthasarathy , S. , Moore , C. , &; Lu , Y. 2001 Integrating primary medical care with addiction treatment : A randomized control trial . Journal of the American Medical Association , 286(14) , 1715-1725 . <p> -- Wright , J. D. , Allen , T. L. , &; Devine , J. A. 1995 Tracking non-traditional populations in longitudinal studies . Evaluation and Program Planning , 18(3) , 267-277 . <p> By Elizabeth Evans ; Christine E. Grella ; Debra A. Murphy ; Michele Mouttapa and Yih-Ing Hser <p> Elizabeth Evans , M.A. , is a project director at the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) Integrated Substance Abuse Programs . <p> Christine E. Grella , Ph.D. , is a research psychologist at the UCLA Integrated Substance Abuse Programs . <p> Debra A. Murphy , Ph.D. , is director of the Health Risk Reduction Projects within the UCLA Integrated Substance Abuse Programs in the Department of Psychiatry . <p> Michele Mouttapa , Ph.D. , is an assistant professor in the Health Science Department in California State University , Fullerton . Yih-Ing Hser , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Biobehavioral Sciences , UCLA . <p> Yih-Ing Hser , Ph.D. , is a professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences , UCLA . <p>

@@4070441 We conducted a study to determine how accurate various ENT specialists were in estimating the size of 100 tympanic membrane ( TM ) perforations with standard otoscopy . The specialists included , in descending order of rank , 2 Consultant Surgeons , 2 Senior Registrars , and 2 Registrars , all of whom had confirmed good vision . We compared their estimates , which were made independently and expressed as a percentage of the total area of the TM , with exact measurements calculated with computer-based video-otoscopy . We found that the video-otoscopic calculations were far superior to the estimates of the specialists , even the most experienced Consultants ( p < 0.01 ) . We recommend that video-otoscopy be used whenever possible . <p> Tympanic membrane ( TM ) perforations--which can be caused by suppurative otitis media , trauma , middle ear tumors , and iatrogenic injuries--appear in a variety of sizes , shapes , and sites . The size of a TM perforation in affected patients is closely related to the degree of hearing loss and sound transmission across the middle ear cleft. ( n1 , n2 ) The size and other characteristics of TM perforations usually @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at presentation . For ex ample ; perforations located along the edges of the TM are believed to be associated with more complications than those that are centrally located. ( n3 , n4 ) <p> While some perforated TMs heal spontaneously , others persist and require treatment . And just as the specific features of a particular perforation determine its presentation , so do they have an impact on its management and outcome--particularly size. n5 For example , it is known that tympanoplasty failure rates are higher in patients who have larger perforations. n6 Also , hearing aids are less beneficial in patients with large perforations. ( n7 ) <p> In most cases , otologists evaluate size , shape , and site by simply looking through a handheld otoscope . In other cases , we use an operating microscope . But while these methods are usually sufficient to characterize shape and site , they are not as precise in approximating size as a percentage of the total area of the TM . The accuracy of estimating size by standard otoscopy is limited not only by interobserver errors but by the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , their area is not easy to gauge by simple observation or to calculate on the basis of the TM diameter . <p> The development of computer-based video-otoscopy systems that precisely calculate the size of a perforation relative to the size of the TM has obviated many of these problems. ( n8-n11 ) These systems are accurate and their measurements are reproducible . As such , they provide a standard against which we can measure the accuracy of subjective estimates made by otolaryngologists . <p> L : Subjects and methods This prospective study was conducted between Dec. 1 , 2005 , and Nov. 27 , 2006 . The subjects of this study were 6 ENT specialists ; from highest rank to lowest , they included 2 Consultant Surgeons ( O.G.B.N. , A.A.A , and later P.A.O. ) , 2 Senior Registrars ( T.S.I. and D.D.K. ) , and 2 Registrars ( H.O.L. and P.O.O. ) , all of whom were randomly selected from among their colleagues at our institution . All 6 specialists had undergone an eye test prior to the study , and their vision was certified as normal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ perforations in 76 patients ( 52 unilateral perforations and 24 bilateral ) . <p> After all 6 observers had subjectively estimated the size of a particular perforation , the eardrum was then assessed objectively by video-otoscopy ( CompacVideo Otoscope , models 23120 NTSC and 23120P PAL ; Welch Allyn ; Skaneateles Falls , N.Y. ) . All images were adapted through a Cute ! TV USB driver ( model 03020701 ; VVmer Technology Corp. ; Taipei , Taiwan ) and recorded on a computer ( Inspiron 600M with Pentium M processor ; Dell ; Round Rock , Tex . ) . The ImageJ image-processing program ( version 1.35j ; National Institutes of Health ; Bethesda , Md. ) was used to calculate the area of the perforation ( figure 1 ) . Comparative analysis and statistical significance were tested with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software ( version 11 ; SPSS ; Chicago ) . <p> Ethical clearance was granted by the University of Ibadan/University College Hospital Institution Review Committee , and informed consent was obtained from all patients . <p> Figure 1 . A video-otoscopic image shows a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> L : Results The sizes of the perforations expressed as a percentage of the total area of the TM as calculated by video-otoscopy varied greatly--from 0.9 to 98% ( mean : 44.09% ) ( table 1 ) . Overall , the video-otoscopic calculations revealed that each group of specialists significantly overestimated the sizes of the perforations ( p < 0.01 ) . Although the Consultants and the Senior Registrars were significantly more accurate than the Registrars ( p < 0.01 and p = 0.02 , respectively ) ( table 2 ) , they were still significantly less accurate than video-otoscopy ( figure 2 ) . <p> Figure 2 . Scatter graph plots the estimates of the various ENT specialists and the video-otoscopic calculations . The Consultants were the most accurate of the specialists , but the video-otoscope was far superior . <p> L : Discussion In this study , greater clinical experience was correlated with greater accuracy in visually estimating the size of TM perforations , even though the difference between the findings of the Consultants and the Senior Registrars was not statistically significant . The Consultants ' estimates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the Senior Registrars were more accurate than those of the Registrars . Still , even the Consultants ' estimates were at significant variance with the video-otoscopic calculations ( p < 0.01 ) . Our findings in this regard were similar to those reported by Hsu et al n11 and Hampal et al. n12 In those two studies , the differences between visual estimates and video-otoscopic calculations were also statistically significant ( p < 0.01 in both studies ) . <p> Our findings do conflict with the study by Hsu et al n11 in one respect . They found that Residents were more accurate than Consultants . However , they made no mention of the vision status of the assessors in the methodology section of their report . Such an omission might be relevant because , of course , most Consultants are older than residents and more likely to be affected by presbyopia . In our study , we obviated this possibly militating factor by ensuring that all the ENT specialists had good vision . <p> We conclude that visual estimation of the size of TM perforations is inaccurate . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ possible . <p> L : Acknowledgments We thank the Consultant Surgeons in the Department of Otorhinolaryngology at University College Hospital in Ibadan for recruiting the patients used in this study . We also thank the staff of the Department of Ophthalmology for helping us with screening the vision of the ENT specialists . Finally , we thank Dr. Emmanuel Orimadegun for performing the statistical analysis . <p> The information in this article was originally presented at the 47th Annual Scientific Conference of the West African College of Surgeons ; Jan. 17 , 2007 ; Dakar , Senegal . <p> L : Table 1 . ENT specialists ' estimates of TM size relative to the video-otoscopic findings pre-formatted table L : Table 2 . Statistical significance of differences in accuracy among the three groups of specialists pre-formatted table L : References -- ( n1 . ) Mehta RP , Rosowski JJ , Voss SE , et al . Determinants of hearing loss in perforations of the tympanic membrane . Otol Neurotol 2006 ; 27(2):136-43 . <p> -- ( n2 . ) Voss SE , Rosowski JJ , Merchant SN , Peake @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ transmission ? Acta Otolaryngol 2001 ; 121(2):169-73 . <p> -- ( n3 . ) Schraff S , Dash N , Strasnick B. " Window shade " tympanoplasty for anterior marginal perforations . Laryngoscope 2005 ; 115(9):1655-9 . <p> -- ( n4 . ) Ibekwe TS , Ijaduola GT , Nwaorgu OG . Tympanic membrane perforation among adults in West Africa . Otol Neurotol 2007 ; 28 ( 3 ) : 348-52 . <p> -- ( n5 . ) Angeli SI , Kulak JL , Guzmn J. Lateral tympanoplasty for total or near-total perforation : Prognostic factors . Laryngoscope 2006 ; 116 ( 9 ) : 1594-9 . <p> -- ( n6 . ) Fadl FA . Outcome of type-1 tympanoplasty . Saudi Med J 2003 ; 24 ( 1 ) : 58-61 . <p> -- ( n7 . ) Martin HC , Munro KJ , Lam MC . Perforation of the tympanic membrane and its effect on the real-ear-to-coupler difference acoustic transform function . Br J Audiol 2001 ; 35(4):259-64 . <p> -- ( n8 . ) Jones WS . Video otoscopy : Bringing otoscopy out of the " black @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> -- ( n9 . ) Sullivan RF.Video otoscopyin audiologic practice . J Am Acad Audiol 1997 ; 8(6):447-67 . <p> -- ( n10 . ) Patricoski C , Kokesh J , Ferguson AS , et al . A comparison of in-person examination and video otoscope imaging for tympanostomy tube follow-up . Telemed J E Health 2003 ; 9(4):331-44 . <p> -- ( n11 . ) Hsu CY , Chen YS , Hwang JH , Liu TC . A computer program to calculate the size of tympanic membrane perforations . Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 2004 ; 29(4):340-2 . <p> -- ( n12 . ) Hampal S , Padgham N , Bunt S , Wright A. Errors in the assessment of tympanic membrane perforations . Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1993 ; 18(1):58-62 . <p> By Titus S. Ibekwe , FWACS ; Onyekwere G. B. Nwaorgu , FWACS , From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Ibadan , Nigeria. ; Aderemi A. Adeosun , FWACS , From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Ibadan , Nigeria. ; Daniel D. Kokong , MBBS , From the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nigeria. ; Hakeem O. Lawal , MBBS , From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Ibadan , Nigeria. ; Patrick O. Okundia , MBBS , From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Ibadan , Nigeria . and Paul A. Onakoya , FWACS ( Ib ) , From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Ibadan , Nigeria . <p> Corresponding author : Dr. Titus S. Ibekwe , Senior Registrar , Department of Otorhinolaryngology , University College Hospital , Queen Elizabeth Rd. , Ibadan , Nigeria . Phone : 234-8-0334-84380 ; e-mail : ibekwets@yahoo.com <p>

@@4070541 All parents like to take their children to a playground , and every child likes to play in one . But what do you do if your child has a disability or special needs ? Most playgrounds are not accessible , and the mismatch between some children 's size/height and their mental age excludes them fr0om activities that they would otherwise enjoy . <p> " The number of places that parents can take children are restricted , " says Georgina Rhymes , whose 11-year-old son has special needs . " Children have to have very complex needs to get any help from statutory services , and during the summer even special schools do n't run after school clubs , which means that some children might go several weeks without seeing another child . " <p> It was those frustrations that , 11 years ago , led a handful of parents from Braintree , Essex , to set up the Play and Adventure Resource Centre ( PARC ) . Today it is a place where 200 children -- half have autism , half have physical disabilities -- can enjoy adapted swings and a climbing frame , a wide slide , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ You want to lead a normal life when you go outside , but it is quite hard , " says Michael Knight , one of PARC 's co-founders , who has two autistic and epileptic sons . " PARC provides somewhere for parents to leave their children and take some time out to do things , knowing that their children are safe , being cared for and are stimulated . " <p> The organisation runs playgroups and after-school clubs for young people until the age of 25 , including specialist sessions such as a disability football team and premature sick baby support group . Parents pay a contribution for using its facilities . <p> PARC 's work has been recognised locally , and this year it won a national GlaxoSmithKline award . But it has n't been easy , with accommodation a regular problem : PARC has had to move premises several times and in 2001 a bid to fund a purpose-built facility was turned down by the National Lottery , which was not convinced of the need for the group 's work . <p> But the parents did not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ local hospital donated a building to them . " It was n't ideal , " says Rhymes , who is PARC 's fundraiser as well as a parent . " It needed re-roofing , painting and partitioning , and a disabled ramp and other standards had to be put in . We spent around 25,000 on getting it right . " <p> Despite the expense , the facility gave the organisation some stability . PARC took off when Braintree Council leased it some land on a country park -- an ideal setting for the children -- and a grant from the Children 's Fund enabled them to recruit a centre manager and a second full-time play leader . <p> Today , there is no shortage of demand for PARC 's services : for many sessions the requests for places are twice those available . In fact , the parents are about to secure their dream -- during the past 18 months , they have raised 500,000 towards having their own purpose-built facility , securing along the way donations of more than 50,000 each from three local charities ( the Fowler @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and the Baily Thomas Charitable Fund ) . <p> A hiccup with the building 's construction has delayed the opening until the autumn , but the parents remain enthusiastic . The new facility will have a sensory room , with a water-bed and fibre optic lights , and a room for therapists to work in . There will also be dedicated rooms for first aid and parents ' meetings -- activities that now take place among other children . And outside there will be a sensory garden and other play areas . <p> " PARC has been invaluable -- my son adores going to clubs , like other children , " says Victoria Grice , whose 10-year-old son Daniel has autism . She and her husband get no help from social services , so the threehour respite session on Saturday morning provides them with a break for a few hours . The family also takes advantage of PARC 's sibling sessions , which the Grices ' three children can attend together . <p> " PARC is fantastic from a social point of view , for the children , " says @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ grow as they build friendships and try things out on their own . " But even more important , she explains , is the impact it has had on parents . " If parents feel supported rather than isolated , and can network with other parents , it has a positive impact on their relationship with their children , who benefit as a result . " <p> -- For more information about PARC see www.parc-essex.org or contact 01376 528999 <p> " PARC is fantastic for children . You can see their confidence and self-esteem grow as they build friendships and try things out on their own " <p> L : TOP TIPS * If you are determined you can make it happen . * Build relations with funders , to encourage repeat donations . * Use your local council for voluntary service ( CVS ) , who can help with legal issues , finding volunteers , and so on . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Ten-year-old Daniel Grice takes the wheel , flanked by PARC co-founder Michael Knight , dad Andrew Grice and team leader Sam Fray <p> REPORTS BY @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @

@@4070641 This article examines begging in the northeastern Chinese city of Shenyang as a form of street theater rather than as simply a sign of poverty . Begging performances play upon key cultural scripts and anxieties to unsettle and disturb potential donors , thus increasing the size of the gift . Using the story of an encounter between a street beggar and a foreign English teacher , the article argues that for ordinary Chinese urban residents , begging is an uncomfortable reminder of the costs of development and modernization . <p> Keywords : Begging ; Performance ; Poverty ; Modernity ; China <p> It is as if the beggar were saying , ' But it is obvious , there is no getting away from it , here I am begging from you and by this fact alone I have a claim on you . So what can you be thinking of ? Why do n't you do something about it ? ' ( Lvi-Strauss 1974:136 ) <p> Beggars are a common sight on the urban streets of the northeastern Chinese city of Shenyang ; they include people from all age groups and both genders . Old people , their hair @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shoes muddied and full of holes , sit on the sidewalks in front of shopping centers and fast-food restaurants , with battered metal bowls in front of them . As a few odd coins are thrown in , they bow to passersby muttering " Thank you , thank you , save my life ( jiuming ) . " Or deformed children , their limbs bent at crooked angles , hard flat pieces of rubber tied to their waists , drag their bodies across the pavement on their hands . Men doze on the streets , wrapped in old winter coats with their bowl laid out in front of them , while women tow dirty children behind them , pleading with pedestrians . As they amble or crawl through the crowds on the main streets , the flood of humanity parts and flows around them , and they are left as wounded and dirty islands in an otherwise endless stream of people . <p> The visceral reaction to the beggar 's appearance leads me to focus , in this article , on how beggars ( qigai ) and begging ( qitao @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ As the historian Hanchao Lu ( 1999 ) points out in his study of begging in republican Shanghai , Chinese popular culture at the time attached multiple meanings to beggars : as pitiful wretches , as parasites who lived richly on the nave generosity of almsgivers , and even as disguised deities or immortals who came to test the compassion of humans . In the contemporary post-Mao era , beggars have been recruited into wider social discourses about modernization and development , about the success or failure of China 's capitalist economic experiment and reform efforts . It is , in the words of one group of Chinese scholars " a greatly disconcerting phenomenon " that should " attract the highest degree of attention from the Party and government " ( Wang , Xu and Jiang 2003:13 ) . Their greatest concerns are that begging will negatively influence China 's " favorable international image " and affect international trade , tourism , and foreign relations . Key to these discourses is the idea that beggars are now more than a simple domestic issue ; by attracting the attention of foreign @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ international presence . Chinese interpretations of the begging phenomenon , and of beggars ' stories , motivations , and morality , therefore implicate foreign viewpoints and ethics , drawing upon both the perceptions and presumed reactions of foreign visitors . As a result , I pay attention in this article to the involvement of foreigners in Chinese urban affairs , to the actions and interpretations by foreigners of the begging phenomenon , and to how Chinese people both accept and contest their interpretations . <p> However , I want to resist making beggars the hapless pawns around whom these particular internationalist dramas play out . Beggars are far more than passive recipients of alms ; they are aware of these social discourses , of how their appearances and stories influence the emotions of others , and of the silent commentary their presence makes on China 's modernist narrative . As I will argue in this article , beggars do not wait for coins , but attempt to create for Chinese urban residents a spectacle of poverty and flesh which both shocks and compels potential donors--constituting , as Lvi-Strauss writes at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on those who pass by . In an ironic twist , it is the prosperous urban residents of China , drawn reluctantly into the beggars ' performances , who often find their own agency curtailed and themselves one coin poorer as a result . I argue here that this curious inversion prompts much of the popular ambivalence towards beggars as a whole . It is enabled , not simply by the act of claiming , but by the narrative tenor of the claim itself which , evoking new social and structural inequalities ( rich versus poor , urban versus rural ) reminds urban residents of their rural origins and of the contingency of their own relative affluence . The periodic encounters between pedestrians and beggars are not simply personal or one-to-one meetings on the streets , but evoke larger social formations and cultural scripts. n1 The poor rural beggar is a spectral and uncanny reminder of what the urban resident has ostensibly transcended and left behind : poverty , backwardness , reliance on the state and on others. n2 Begging , conceived here as a type of meaningful cultural performance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ potential donors in an already prescribed role--as givers--and leaves them only one way out of the play : to perform that role or to disrupt the entire performance by , as it were , stomping off the stage . The discomfort felt in such an action is not shame in the traditional sense , but something more akin to what Geertz ( 1973:402 ) calls " stage fright " among the Balinese ; a sense that , like the actor fumbling his or her lines , the person will become the object of conscious attention by those around. ( n3 ) <p> Therefore , begging in China is not simply an economic problem , although its presence is rooted in the structural inequality of urban poverty . Rather , begging is a performative enactment of the relations of poverty , indexing its perceived causes , ethics , and solutions . Such ideas about begging are not fixed , but are culturally variable . In Shenyang , the methods of mendicancy display striking historical continuities to those practiced in the late imperial Qing and republican periods--roughly corresponding to the late nineteenth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ begging during the Maoist era after 1949 , when the state both alleviated the worst effects of poverty and suppressed begging as a potential source of income ( Lu 2005 , Schak 1988 ) . The continuity of practices can not simply be ascribed to persistent economic relations or the stable transmission of cultural knowledge . Rather , the form of begging practices , and their stability , stem from the strategic exploitation of Chinese concepts and concerns such as face ( mianzi ) and filiality ( xiao ) , as I will attempt to show in the examples below . <p> My aim is to place perceptions of begging within a larger context of contemporary Chinese notions of moral behavior . I argue that what might appear on the surface as callousness towards the plight of beggars is actually a response rooted in cultural assumptions about beggars as cheats and frauds , and the subsequent interpretation of their actions as a form of deception . I begin with a brief overview of the reforms in China which have made poverty an issue once again after the relative economic parity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ how foreign perceptions of begging have shaped Chinese responses and interpretations to it . I then turn to an episode which occurred during my fieldwork involving a beggar and a foreign English teacher , and examine the varying interpretations of Chinese and foreign participants in the encounter . Finally , I attempt to place both of these interpretations in context to understand how the same encounter generated wildly variant interpretations . <p> L : The Return of Beggars to the Urban Landscape The very presence of beggars in China , let alone their conspicuous numbers , marks a radical departure from the Maoist era . While begging was a familiar presence in Chinese urban areas in both the imperial and republican eras--an accepted , if not highly valued , profession--after the founding of the communist state in 1949 , beggars were largely integrated into the massive labor and agricultural reorganization initiated by the new government ( Fernandez-Stembridge and Madsen 2002 , Lu 1999 ) . Begging disappeared , at least as a viable livelihood , for many years and only began to surface again during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966-1976 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . As agricultural production faltered , famine-stricken peasants travelled to urban areas to beg , often with the tacit support of local political leaders ( Fernandez-Stembridge and Madsen 2002:214 ) . During the period of economic reforms in the 1980s , which saw the loosening of government control over the planned economy and the development of private enterprise , begging became once again both highly visible and socially problematic . <p> Although the reforms have been the catalyst for the massive growth that has propelled China to the status of a world economic power , they have been a mixed blessing for Shenyang and for many other peripheral regions . A sprawling city of nearly seven million people in China 's northeastern Manchurian region , Shenyang was once the capital of the Manchu dynasty which conquered China in the seventeenth century . Today it is a center for steel production and heavy industry . The economic reforms brought with them a shift from heavy to light industrial production which led to the closure of many factories in the area . Workers who have been laid off--called " step-down " ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for finding new employment ( Hung and Chiu 2003 ) . Government statistics show the official unemployment rate for the region rising from 2.2% in 1990 , to 6.5% in 2004 ( National Bureau of Statistics 2005:178 ) although , as Khan and Riskin ( 2001:153 ) point out , actual rates of unemployment in China are estimated to be far higher than government statistics might indicate . <p> It is difficult to determine exactly how many people engage in begging in modern Shenyang , or how much money they earn from these practices . In his study of a begging community in Taiwan , for instance , Schak ( 1988 ) notes that begging was not simply an individual pursuit , but involved the coordinated efforts of entire households to bring in money through a variety of practices . Begging was often combined with other forms of devalued labor , including peddling small items , manual labor , seasonal construction work and petty crime , and by providing services such as mourning or fortune telling . Begging also shaded into other types of activities , with monks seeking alms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ begging . Analyzing the current situation in Shenyang , Chen ( 2006:134 ) enumerates four groups of people who are the source of the urban begging population : poor farmers , migrant laborers , the disabled , and criminals . The wide array of groups involved and varying practices makes estimates of the number of beggars difficult to construct and verify . <p> As a product of the reform era , begging is linked to wider social and economic changes in China . Although government policies in the post-Mao era have greatly raised the standard of living in both urban and rural areas , bringing , according to the World Bank ( 1992:23 ) , one hundred million people out of absolute poverty in the 1980s , inequality between urban and rural , coastal and interior , and industrial and agricultural areas has increased ( Khan and Riskin 2001 , 2005 ) . Many beggars are migrants from rural areas who find that they can earn a significantly higher income begging in the city than farming in the countryside . In a study of a " begging village " in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to beg in the cities , Hongxu Liu ( 2008 ) found that a single individual could earn 6000 yuan ( or $875 ) annually by begging , about twice the average income for a rural household . Once in the cities , however , rural migrants are severely limited in terms of their employment opportunities by the household registration ( hukou ) system , which restricts the provision of government services to those households which are registered in their area . As a result , rural migrants to urban areas have trouble finding housing , schooling for their children , and healthcare , lack legal protection and may face harassment from public security officials ( Chan and Zhang 1999 , Wang 2004 , Zhang 2002 ) . Beggars are mingled in with a larger " floating population " ( liudong renkou ) of other migrants who are all forced to seek out a living in the city without many of the benefits of household registration . <p> L : The Critique of Confucian Morality : Beggars and the Foreign Gaze For European outsiders who traveled to or lived in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was linked to an overall critique of Confucian morality . To their minds , little was done to either rescue beggars from their terrible fate or to alleviate poverty. n4 Many travel and missionary accounts from the pre-Maoist era evince a righteous level of disgust at how the Chinese state organized welfare and charity ( Smith 2001 , Gee 1925 , Bennet 1931 ; see also Schak 1988 for an overview of the historical literature ) . Official practices largely served to incorporate beggars into the governing apparatus of the state ( by organizing them into gangs whose leaders answered to local magistrates ) rather than to ameliorate the conditions under which they lived ( Lu 2005:5-8 ; Schak 1988:20 ) . Chinese citizens , in turn , while at times generous with beggars , were more often likely to step around , or even over , the beggar 's prostrate form , reluctant to glance down or acknowledge the human suffering at their feet . These responses were the result , the foreigners posited , of a system of ethics which was relational in orientation rather than universal ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ perspective , begging thus often became the focus of an overall indictment of Confucian morality , exemplified by what we might term the lack of regard for beggars as strangers . Beggars were ignored , in this sense , not because they were pitiable or dirty people , but because they were pitiable or dirty strangers . An early missionary in Shenyang , while noting that Chinese were very generous with friends and relatives , also lamented the fact that most Chinese would ignore a stranger and not take the time to help a person they did not know : <p> A man is taken suddenly ill when walking alone along a busy city street . He staggers and falls near the door of an evidently prosperous shop . What happens ? Passers-by glance at him curiously and go on ; a few stand and look at him , but no one touches him or meddles in any way ; the shopkeeper keeps studiously out of sight . He is unconscious and a stranger , so no one can inform his friends , but after a time the shopkeeper gives @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of city affairs , and he is removed . All this time no one has so much as brought him a cup of water , or tried to make him more comfortable . ( Christie 1914:53 ) <p> These valuations of Chinese moral behavior have continued into the present , when foreigners in China--no longer just missionaries , but English teachers and business owners as well--frequently note the duality of Chinese ethics , a focus on members of kin and social networks accompanied by a lack of regard for those outside them . Compare the missionary account above with Peter Hessler 's memoir of teaching English in Sichuan during the 1990s : <p> The average citizen seemed to react to a person in trouble by thinking : That is not my brother , or my friend , or anybody I know , and it is interesting to watch him suffer . When there were serious car accidents , people would rush over , shouting eagerly as they ran , " Sile meiyou ? Sile meiyou ? " --Is anybody dead ? Is anybody dead ? ( Hessler 2001:112 ) <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ body of the accident victim--parallels the deliberate indifference towards the beggar : those to whom I am not related are but objects of my pity or amusement , not kin I am indebted to help . Hessler makes the argument that such actions stem from the collective nature of Chinese cultural norms , and that " collectivism was limited to small groups , to families and close friends and danwei , or work units , and these tight circles also acted as boundaries : they were exclusive as well as inclusive , and the average Fuling resident appeared to feel little identification with people outside his well-known groups " . We might be tempted to think of this evaluation as simply the imposition of a foreigner 's cultural bias on Chinese patterns of behavior , but it is also in many ways an element of the conventional Chinese orthodoxy of difference--we Chinese are socially cohesive , you foreigners are individualistic--and was an active construction of Hessler 's students . <p> As I will show below , this presumption of difference informs the interpretation of begging in Shenyang--the idea that foreigners @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of their varying cultural backgrounds . As Tu Wei-ming has noted , the lack of a universalist morality which would , in theory , extend equal treatment by individuals to all others is often positioned in China as one of the most significant differences between Confucian and Christian doctrines . " Confucian salvation , as it were , takes the basic dyadic relationships in the family as its point of departure , " while the universal application of ethical action is burdened by the possible devaluation of family relationships ( Tu 1985:123 ) . Tu outlines the thinking of Mencius , the most prominent ancient interpreter of Confucian philosophy , as follows : <p> If we reduce the richness , including the fruitful ambiguities , of the father-son relationship to the one-dimensional encounters we normally have with people on the street , our good intention of caring for strangers as dearly as we care for our parents may result in treating our dear ones as indifferently as we treat strangers . The insistence that we begin our tasks of self-realization in the context of the immediate dyadic relationships in which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ father-son relationship in Confucian symbolism . ( 123-124 ) <p> Ignoring a beggar both recognizes and reinforces an ideology of difference , where Chinese can position themselves as distinctly and irreducibly Confucian in the face of the foreigner 's gaze--a counterpoint to the foreigner 's presumably universalist Kantian ethics . <p> L : The Encounter Between John and Xiaoping This ideology of difference in regards to begging played out in the summer of 2005 in an encounter between John , a white South African English teacher , and an urban beggar named Xiaoping. n5 John was cycling on his way to work one afternoon at a private English language training center in Shenyang . His school was located in a busy downtown shopping district , with a great deal of foot traffic and more than a few beggars . One beggar , who had taken up a place outside his school 's entrance , was Xiaoping , a 12 year-old girl with two club feet and open wounds on her arms and legs . According to a pamphlet published by the charity which later took up her case : " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to passersby . And many did pass by her . But John , as he drove past her , noticed that she had open wounds all over her feet , legs , hands and arms . They looked so raw and infected that he was touched with compassion for her and decided to help her to get cleaned up at a hospital " ( SHIC 1996:3 ) . <p> As John was talking to Xiaoping , a crowd of people began to gather , some of whom included his own English students who were arriving for class . Several tried to intervene . According to John " people were telling me , ' No , do n't help her , it 's not your business ' and ' There 's many people like this . ' " John told me that he was disgusted by the " apathy " of the crowd , a quality he attributed to ordinary people in both Shenyang and around the world : " But it 's not only Chinese people , it 's Americans as well and South Africans and everybody ... it 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ him there was nothing he could do , he claimed to become even more certain that he should take some form of action . <p> John went into the school to ask someone to call the hospital , but the Chinese staff of the school refused to get involved and asked him to drop the matter . Meanwhile , his students who had followed him inside , attempted to dissuade him from doing anything . I have excerpted several portions of our interview below : <p> And the whole time , some of the students are telling me , ' It 's not real , it 's not real . ' Some of the students say , ' These children , they are working for gangs . ' What does it matter if these children are working for gangs , they 're being exploited you know ? And some of them are telling me it was dangerous , that gangs can do something to me and ... I might save this girl , but I can not save the other children that 's working for the gang ... . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , tell me , ' John , it 's fake blood . It 's makeup . ' And I grab them and I push them to the girl , I pushed them down , and I said , ' Look at that , ' because ... they only glanced . They glanced for a second . It 's too horrible for them to look at , so they glance for a second and then they go with their preconceived ideas of this , like ... of avoiding responsibility or something like that ... . <p> And then I heard the crowd gasp , and I turned around and this girl had to take a leak . Now the skateboard was about this big a foot wide and had a big round hole in it , and she just pulls her pants down a little bit and she can pee through the hole . But she opens her back , her lower back and her buttocks to do that and she had a massive thirteen-centimeter bedsore ... deep , deep , deep it was deep to the bone ... and it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . She must have been smelling herself , you know ? It was rotting away ... . I turned around and the crowd gasped and then I realized , well fuck , I 'd better get her to a hospital . <p> John persisted until the police arrived , and then through a translator ( one of his students ) he convinced them to take him and the girl to the hospital . He was reluctant to leave her alone because he suspected that the hospital staff would simply discharge her as soon as they could , or that the gang his students had mentioned would come and claim her again . <p> His concerns were not without merit . According to Xiaoping , several months before , an elderly Chinese woman had tried to get her treated by a doctor as well , but her " big brothers " ( dage ) arrived at the hospital at mid-night and took her away . They beat her for leaving the street and letting the woman take her to the hospital ( SHIC 2006:5 ) . As more information became available @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ because of the spectacle of a foreigner helping a Chinese beggar , it became clear that Xiaoping 's big brothers were actually members of a begging ring that used handicapped children from the countryside as beggars in the city , taking whatever money the children earned for themselves. n6 They had approached Xiaoping 's foster father , a rural farmer from a neighboring province , with an offer that they would give his disabled foster daughter a job in a toy factory in the city . Once they brought her to Shenyang they put her to work as a beggar . " Xiaoping said those men put things in her wounds , like acid and other dirty things that made them even worse ... They required her to make a certain amount of money each day by begging otherwise they would not give her food and they would treat her badly " ( 9 ) . <p> John spent the night in the hospital and eventually managed to arrange for the treatment of her most serious wounds . Word spread quickly through the foreign English-teaching community , and John arranged @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Xiaoping at the hospital . He also tried to raise funds for Xiaoping 's treatment by setting up a collection box at his English school , and organizing a fund-raising event at a local bar . In total , John and other foreign English teachers raised over 12,000 yuan ( about $1500 ) for Xiaoping 's continued treatment and care . A doctor at the hospital also suggested contacting SHIC ( Serving Humanity in Crisis ) , a charitable organization which was able to provide more funds and took over the administration of Xiaoping 's case . After two corrective surgeries and a course of physical therapy , Xiaoping 's feet were straightened . She is now able to walk with only some difficulty and began elementary school in 2007. ( n7 ) <p> How does one attempt to interpret or evaluate the actions and viewpoints of various parties to this episode ? We might , for instance , view John 's interpretation of events ( that he had to do something , that nobody else would do anything , that even when forced to look his Chinese students refused @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ encounter between domestic and foreign ethical frameworks in China . Like the missionaries of old , he interpreted the actions and words of the crowd which opposed his efforts to do something as a moral indictment of the Chinese character , although John was also careful to frame this within a general moral shortcoming throughout the world . In our interview , though , he emphasized to me at one point , " This you have to put in , because this is the favorite Chinese saying for avoiding responsibility : ' There 's many people like this in our country . ' " <p> Several of the students at the English school where John taught took a negative view of his actions . One woman in her early 20s was upset when John brought the collection box into the school , and laughed as she described how it sat empty at the reception desk because everyone at the school knew that none of the money would end up helping the girl but would instead go to the criminals who had organized the begging ring . At this point , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ broke into the conversation : " This pisses me off ! This is a social problem , a complicated social problem . How does one person think he can solve it ? " She later explained to me further ( this time switching into English ) n8 that what she meant was attacking the problem one beggar at a time would not lead to any long-lasting solution . " This is China 's problem . Maybe foreigners , they want to be like heroes and save everyone . But really they save no one . They just , oh , give this person money , and it 's okay ? " <p> A Chinese man in his late 30s whom I regularly talked to about his English school knew some of the students who had witnessed the event . " It 's not so good what this man did . I do n't trust beggars . They always cheat people . Now that they know foreigners are like this , they will take advantage of them . " In fact , the idea that beggars cheat , by either exaggerating @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ John noted , using fake blood and makeup , was a common concern. n9 Many people were convinced that the beggars with twisted limbs were actually trained acrobats who found that they could make more money begging . At the end of the day , I was told , they would straighten their arms and legs , walk back to their expensive BMW automobiles and drive home to their luxury apartments . <p> While , as was noted above , beggars are capable of earning a comfortable living , especially in comparison to life as a farmer , it seems unlikely that individual beggars would be able to earn enough to sustain the luxuries some people attributed to them . I prefer to think of this as a fantasy which undermines the ethical claim of the beggar to the urban resident 's money . Imagining the beggar as secretly possessing all the markers of wealth and status in the new China justifies a moral disregard for the beggar 's plight . This is a powerful narrative , which makes the beggar in the China the quintessential persona non grata , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ encouraged me , when walking near beggars or when being approached by them , to look away , to ignore them , and to keep walking as if they did not exist there , right in front of me , blocking my way . Uncontested , this narrative might easily convince urban residents to leave beggars to themselves . In the next section of this article , I examine in more detail the structure of the beggar 's claim on the potential giver and the culturally specific form of Chinese begging . Beggars assert their own narratives about their practice through the stories they tell to donors , attempting to justify their actions through appeals to traditional Chinese values , which forms an interesting counterpoint to the idea of the beggar as an affluent cheat or hustler . <p> L : The Practice of Begging Beggars in Shenyang stimulate the pity of givers through a host of related strategies that coalesce around exploiting facets of Chinese cultural experience . Certain begging practices " made sense " in Shenyang , both to the beggars and to potential donors ; they appealed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dominant cultural ideologies . In the United States , a man holding a sign by the side of the road reading " Will work for food " appeals to an ideology of affluence and security through concerted and directed labor--the sense that my wealth was built by me and not by the alienated production of others , and the beggar is here reaffirming that ideology by merely asking for the same opportunity . Brackette Williams describes how some New York subway beggars " read us reading the U.S. American Creed : nothing for nothing and God helps those who help themselves " ( 1994:28 ) . Their strategies draw upon this ethic by providing token compensation for donations , or by performing minor public services such as announcing subway stops . Such begging practices are deeply entwined with cultural biases and assumptions that determine the success or failure of particular strategies . <p> In a study of begging among Anandapuram lepers begging in Mumbai , James Staples ( 2003 ) elucidates what might be considered an Indian cultural logic of begging . " Their enactments evoked both a worshipper 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ brow , for example ) , and the conventionalized postures appropriate to those displaying deference to the authority of elders and lordly superiors , as in the touching of the feet of actual or potential alms-givers " ( 302-303 ) . The strategies he describes bear many resemblances to Chinese practices ; for instance , the display of wounds and deformities , and the performance of obeisances . As he notes , however , " the meaning and practical effects of deformities are often contextually defined " ( 301 ) . Disfigured hands granted legitimacy and force to the Indian beggar 's claims , while a deformity of the face was stigmatizing in so far as it suggested a moral or divine cause for the disfigurement . For all of a certain similarity of form , the meaning of begging practices is quite specific to the cultural context in which they are found . <p> The script and rules of play for begging thus vary cross-culturally , making certain strategies prominent and efficacious in China . The most common strategies I observed in Shenyang might be allocated to four categories @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , strategies that assert bonds of kinship with donors to override the lack of social ties and stimulate compassion , strategies that involve public humiliation of the donor , and strategies that play upon the significance of the rural peasant in the Chinese national imagination . <p> In terms of the first , many Chinese were awed by the lengths beggars would go to in soliciting the sympathy of donors , engaging in practices that they would themselves consider embarrassing , demeaning , and injurious to a sense of face and pride . Face ( mianzi ) is the social representation of a person 's prestige and character , and as such is thought to be completely absent in beggars who demean themselves by the act of begging for money ; therefore the idea that one would even engage in begging was considered by some as evidence enough of the beggar 's desperation . While riding in a taxi with one of my informants , as we watched several old beggars knock on car windows at a busy intersection 's stoplight , she told me ( in English ) , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ no money , I would rather die than do this all day . " I asked if it was because she thought the work was hard , or too dangerous ( the cars sometimes coming perilously close to running down a tottering old beggar ) . " No ! Just people see me like this , I want to die . " <p> There were other means of defying the conventions of face as well . In a place where illness and bodily deformity are a source of profound discomfort ( Kohrman 2005 ) , beggars usually bring attention to their wounds and deformities by putting them on display . A clubbed foot or a paralyzed leg is left uncovered , even in the cold of winter . An amputated or missing limb is revealed , not by an empty sleeve or pant leg , but by the stump brought into the open , often wrapped in bloodied bandages to enhance the effect . The wounds on display both fascinate and repel . The beggar not only forces the donor to recognize the wound , but makes the wound visceral @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , feels a momentary twinge of identification ; they feel the pain as the beggar must feel it , establishing a connection between the two of them . <p> Bearing and locomotion add to the pathos and the visual representation of the beggars ' obeisance , spatially configuring their relative status to the donor . They hunch themselves over and shuffle when they walk . Beggars must eschew whatever comfort their coins might buy for them , such as new shoes or clothing ; even a bath has to appear to be beyond their means . If they were to use the gains of their begging in this way , it would undermine the continued flow of money into their bowl . A beggar has to appear to maintain a perpetual state of misery and poverty to be successful . <p> Words are rarely exchanged between beggars and donors , other than a brief thanks . When I tried to speak to beggars , words seemed meaningless . Language failed . They would wail to me , cry , strike their head or limbs against the ground , but in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ old woman a question in Chinese , she simply began repeating again and again , " I do not understand what you are saying , I do not understand . " <p> Yet despite the failure of communication , some beggars do indeed have stories . The second set of strategies I describe here rely on appeals to common values in order to arouse compassion . On one of Shenyang 's main shopping streets , a group of four men would regularly set up a large information center , complete with full-color posters in front of them on boards . The posters explained that they are the parents of children sick in one of the city hospitals with leukemia , and described the symptoms of the disease to the public and the course of treatment . The posters also explained that the families of these children were from the countryside and could not afford treatment for their children , and so they were seeking donations . A large red wooden box was set in front of the line of fathers with a slot in the top for people to deposit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ few coins or a bill , the line of men would intone , " Thank you for your kind heart " ( xiexie ni de aixin ) and bow as one . On another shopping street , a similar story was told , but with a slight bite of hatred . A man stood beside a portable stand he had set up with a large board featuring pictures of a young girl playing , dancing , and then shots of her in the hospital . On the ground in front of him his story was written in chalk : his daughter had been diagnosed with a liver problem , and he took her to the clinic near his village , but the doctor was a drunken incompetent and only injured her more seriously . He brought her to the city hospital for an expensive treatment which he can not afford . However , his sign stated that he was not only asking for money to help with the treatment , but for the government or the media to expose the problems in rural health care . <p> Another beggar I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ unkempt hair and a club foot extended on a spindly leg in front of him , would sit on the asphalt in front of a large market and write out a Buddhist prayer in chalk . It would extend in four character sets down the road for several feet , and when he had finished writing it , he would settle himself down with his battered metal bowl in front of him waiting for money . The poem , repeated every day , read : <p> pre-formatted table All of these beggars appealed to donors through the logic of Confucian ( and in the final case Buddhist ) obligation. n10 The men with the poster could claim that they were not simply begging , but were doing what was expected of a parent who could not afford to care for a sick child . Some able-bodied beggars accompanied a blind or crippled parent as a means to solicit sympathy from donors at the hardships they endured as responsible children. n11 These beggars framed their needs in the language of filiality and kinship . Similarly , the beggar with the chalk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so invokes their own obligations to care for him . The same language of obligation , for instance , informs criminal confessions broadcast on the local television station . The shackled and defeated criminals frequently cite the financial responsibilities they have to their families as the cause , if not precisely the justification , for their actions . <p> These begging strategies were intimately tied to appeals of conscience . By couching their claims within matters of circumstance , rather than choice , beggars forced people to consider the contingency of their own relative prosperity and the possibility that if some misfortune were to befall them--if they were to become lame , or need to care for a sick child--they too might be forced to beg . But there is a coercive element to this claim as well , in that beggars demand this recognition from their potential donors . In his ethnography of a Taiwanese begging community , Schak ( 1988:46 ) describes the concept of kho-lian-iu : or the " image of pitifulness , " the means by which beggars inspire the charity of others . The image @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ often carefully devised and , if necessary , faked . Women would borrow children from their neighbors so that they could beg as single mothers caring for a host of dependents . Beggars intentionally matted their hair , dirtied their faces and tried to demean themselves in front of potential givers in order to increase the potential size of donations . <p> Strategies in the third group are more overt and confrontational . Very rarely were these violent ; instead , they relied on creating a sense of embarrassment or spectacle that maneuvered donors into the social equivalent of a checkmate . I once observed an encounter between a well-dressed middle-aged man and a young dirty street girl . The girl was about six years old , with stained and patched clothes , matted hair and a dirty face . As the man strode along the street in his sharp dress pants and new golf shirt , the girl skipped along with him , dogging his steps and keeping a battered tin bowl firmly centered in front of him . The man used his arm to brush her aside , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shouted , " Out of the way ! " ( gunkai ) . When it became evident to her that he was not going to hand her any money , the girl suddenly knelt down and grabbed on to his leg . The man tried to shake her off , but she squeezed even harder , her face pressed into his trousers . She screamed . Other people stopped to watch . A crowd began to gather . No one attempted to intervene or help either of the parties , and as the man berated the child loudly and tried to wrench her fingers apart , tears began to streak down her face . He finally pulled a small bill from his pocket and put it in her hands . The girl let go and ran over to an equally dirty woman squatting nearby and handed the money to her . To become the center of such a spectacle is deeply uncomfortable to most Chinese because there are no face-saving ways out of the situation other than giving money . Hitting the child , shouting , making a scene , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to sacrifice some cash and leave with dignity . <p> Finally , beggars juxtapose their rural origins ( even where those too might be faked ) with the urban resident 's cosmopolitan sophistication . Beggars ' clothing is nearly always marked as rural and traditional : padded , layered , and bulky , even in summer . They typically wear traditional cloth shoes . If they speak , it is in the rural dialect and with a distinctly non-urban accent ; if they have a story to tell , it almost invariably identifies them as migrants from rural areas . At bus and train stations , I frequently encountered young couples bundled in thick clothes , their hands and faces reddened and smudged with dirt . The mother would carry a sleeping toddler , his inert arms and legs dangling from her grasp , bundled against the wind or cold . The man would approach , holding his hands in front of him . " We are from the village , we came here just a few days ago . Our money was stolen , we ca n't afford a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stay , we are living on the street . I do n't have any food for my child ... " Many of my informants confirmed that they had been approached in similar ways , and this technique was even the subject of a news expos on a local television station which used a hidden camera to film such beggars buying designer clothing. ( n12 ) <p> For beggars to cast themselves as rural migrants in this sort of urban drama , trapped in the city against their will or because of their infirmities , is not an anomaly of narrative geography . It is difficult to overstate the importance of the countryside in the Chinese national imagination . The Maoist state often staked its legitimacy on its identification with , and support from , the peasantry . Mao himself , as a consequence of his Report on an Investigation into the Peasant Movement in Hunan ( 1967 ) , has often been credited with shifting the focus of communist struggle from factories to farm fields , and as a result , the communist revolution in China proceeded from rural to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who were associated with the capitalist exploitative classes after the communist victory in 1949-- " the evil gentry and the lawless landlords " ( 25 ) --were often reformed through labor in the countryside . Even the greatest crisis of state legitimacy , the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 , was addressed by shifting large numbers of urban youth to rural and agricultural work-teams ( MacFarquhar and Schoenhals 2006 ) . Very few people are more than a generation removed from the countryside ; they are linked to it by way of origin or through extended periods of labor . Even today , schoolchildren are periodically sent to the countryside for " learn from the farmer " events . <p> But the dominant forces of Chinese modernity , deriving from the sources of capital rather than the essence of socialism , spring today from the cities . This shift in the geographic basis of social legitimacy has been accompanied by a new form of human classification defined through the metric of " quality " ( suzhi ) ( Anagnost 2004 , Kipnis 2006 ) . Suzhi is a measure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an index of origin , with rural migrants classed as " low " quality and urban residents as " high . " Just as Bourdieu demonstrates , in the case of French art consumption , that the development of taste is a product of socialization , the discourse of suzhi in China fulfils " a social function of legitimating social differences " ( 1984:7 ) which automatically classes people by dress , speech , habit , and physical appearance . Possessing the lowest level of quality , an attribute marked by their vocation , their clothing , and their speech , the condition of beggars is self-fulfilling for the vast majority of urban residents , who can also assert that their own good fortune is a result of their own individual quality . Yet beggars appear to take on the burden of low quality willingly , to accept the denigration of their suzhi even as other , upwardly mobile migrants , strive to alter their dress and demeanor to suit urban tastes . By dressing and acting as rural peasants , beggars deliberately invoke the regional basis of authenticity of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that arises within the modern : the sense that , for the urban resident , the past has been successfully transcended , only to find its negation , in the form of the beggar , staring one in the face . Giving money in a sense stitches that fantasy back together and allows the pedestrian to continue on his or her way . <p> The coercive nature of begging , of being forced to identify and empathize with beggars and their plight , was greatly disturbing to many of my Chinese informants . By turning away and not looking , it was almost as if , by not seeing , the beggar 's claim could be annulled . Beggars , in turn , used the strategies outlined above to make their presence known , to force the pedestrian to recognize them and the particular condition of their humanity . The performative aspect of begging is the conflict between these competing interpretations and their eventual resolution in either the giving of alms or in the pedestrian walking resolutely past . <p> L : Cheating and Deception In China , the social @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ encounters as well , encounters which , once again , involve the imposition of someone 's agency over another . As I stated above , many people in Shenyang are concerned that beggars cheat , that they fake their wounds , conditions , and stories to provide a financially secure living for themselves , inconsistent with their terrifying appearance . But the feeling of deception was not simply an excuse not to give money to beggars ; being cheated was a constant concern and threat to face , pride , and prosperity . During my time in Shenyang , I was continuously being warned by my informants about the ways I might be cheated , about how to protect myself from pickpockets , and other strategies meant to protect the guileless foreigner from being taken advantage of . A person who cheats another can be called a pianzi ( cheater ) or by some variation of the word tuor , which is a slang word for a scam artist or hustler . A pianzi is a regular cheat , someone who rigs a mahjong game or a deck of cards @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or someone who overcharges you for shoddy goods ( see Blum 2007 ) . A tuor is more of a trickster , and the act of deception requires more skill . The term describes anyone who , usually in cooperation with a business owner , acts as a customer or innocent to help sell that person 's products . I was told to be careful if anyone approached me in a clothing store claiming that I was exactly the same size as her boyfriend , and requested that I try on some clothes . After modeling a few outfits for her , I was told , she would thank me for my help and leave with some of the clothes . The store owner would then approach me and ask me to pay for the clothes my " girlfriend " had just left with . <p> But tuor could also be more specialized and participate in any of a host of other common scams . For instance , there were marriage hustlers ( huntuor ) who worked with matchmaking agencies : beautiful men or women who would be set up @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ agency 's services . After the customer had paid his or her non-refundable fees , the huntuor would give an excuse for ending the relationship and the customer would have to choose among other legitimate , but perhaps less attractive , clients . A bar hustler ( batuor ) , usually a beautiful woman , tries to attract men in public places and then suggest meeting for a drink in one of her favorite cafs . After ordering an assortment of drinks and snacks , her phone rings and to get better reception she goes outside ; after which , of course , she simply leaves , and the poor man finds himself stuck with a sizable bill ( the menu , of course , not printing the set of outrageous prices ) and a well-muscled server waiting to be paid . The caf then splits the proceeds with the batuor . None of these scenarios actually happened to me , or to any of my informants , but were told with the heavy ring of truth as cautionary tales by multiple people . Despite displaying all the marks of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from sensationalistic media reports ) these tales were used as object lessons in informing me how not to be cheated . <p> Many Chinese lump beggars in with tuor and pianzi , arguing that all of them cheat people . This was especially the case with beggar children , whom I was told to avoid as they were actually thieves . One female informant told me that the moment she realized her cellphone had been stolen while she was outside shopping , she looked around for child beggars who might have taken it . This Dickensian stereotype of the child thief , which resonates with the common Chinese word for pickpocket , " little thief " ( xiaotou ) , does carry some degree of truth . While lunching with an American , the loud and gregarious headmaster of a local English school , one afternoon at a Xinjiang restaurant ( serving halal food from China 's westernmost province ) a gaggle of children rushed through the entrance giggling and teasing each other . He called out to them in English , " What 'd you guys get today ? @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cellphone out of his pocket before he was herded into the back of the restaurant by the owner . The headmaster told me that the children were related to the restaurant 's owner , and that he used to have problems with them because they would steal from customers outside his English school . He had managed to broker an agreement where they stayed away from his school , and now he ate at the restaurant quite regularly . <p> The notion that beggars cheat is compounded by a concern for the financial status of otherwise able-bodied beggars ; people are irked by the idea that even a modest amount of money should enable beggars to become self-sufficient . " Why are they here everyday ? Why do they have to beg ? Even if they make ten yuan , they can take that and buy some bottles of water for one yuan each , and then sell them for two ! " one of my informants said to me exasperated one day as he fended off a beggar . Bottled water can be purchased for one yuan a bottle @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ two ( fifteen and thirty cents , respectively ) . The standard price at a newsstand or from a vendor though is two yuan for water and three for an iced tea or soda . One disabled man did operate a small stand at a bus stop near my home selling newspapers and , in summer , cold drinks , making enough money for a living . Many of Shenyang 's poor also make money collecting empty plastic drink bottles and taking them to the recycling station . For two empty bottles , a person can receive three mao ( about four cents ) . Men and women too old to take a job as a laborer often wander through busy shopping districts dragging a large nylon sack behind them filled with crushed plastic bottles . They approach anyone with a drink and ask for the bottle , or sometimes stop and rummage through garbage receptacles . This willingness to operate at the extremes of poverty and yet not resort to begging leaves many people with a lack of respect for those who do decide to hold out their hands @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on these emotions and the question of falsity and deception in begging . In the show , the lead character Ma has also " just come from the village " and is , in truth this time , robbed of his money while riding the bus into the city . With no money in his pocket , and having also lost the address of his only relative in the city , Ma is forced to wander around during the day and sleep in the train station at night . While walking through the park one day , he sees a blind man playing an erhu--a Chinese stringed instrument--with a hat placed in front of him containing a collection of coins . Ma squats in front of him , smiling , staring at his frail body and thick dark glasses . The old blind man sits unaware , no expression on his face , his head cocked slightly to one side and staring blankly at nothing , his hand merely sliding the bow back and forth over the erhu . Ma shuffles forward a step and squats down again , this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ blind man 's face . He gets no reaction . He moves forward another step , looks first over one shoulder , and then the other , and slowly reaches his hand down into the hat . <p> " Put it back . " <p> Ma falls over backwards , and utters dumbfounded , " What ? You 're not really blind ? " " Of course not ... " The old man tells Ma to move on and let him work , but Ma strikes up a bargain . " I can play better than you ... we can split the money . " So Ma takes his place , fluttering his eyes closed and staring upwards while playing noticeably better . The old man then completes the con by publicly praising the blind performer to those walking nearby and boasting that for such a performance he will personally give ten yuan-- " Who can do better ? " The scam progresses well until the police show up and take Ma away for not having a license to perform ( as his now sighted partner slips away into the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they have been taken in by a ruse . <p> The television audience both shares this sentiment--the disgust at the pretense taken to relieve them of their money--but are eventually won over by the bumbling and honest Ma , and the lengths his character goes to in order to make enough money to find his relative , and then later to pay for his girlfriend 's medical care . In fact , much of the series revolves around Ma 's increasingly strange and sometimes desperate attempts to earn enough cash , including becoming a public wailer at funerals ( which ends when he mistakes the address and winds up at a wedding instead ) , a willing target dummy for an aspiring boxer and his eccentric family , and acting as a slightly dim intellectual to entertain a retired official who thinks that nobody in the culture ministry thinks well of him anymore . Another group of characters in the series are a gang of young beggars and thieves whom Ma befriends and eventually adopts as his " godchildren . " Their ability to go from a life of indigent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the idle beggar , holding the donor hostage by falsifying the severity of his condition . For many people in Shenyang , it is the feeling that one is being tricked , cheated , and manipulated by beggars that evokes their feelings of frustration and anger , and leads them to hold onto their money rather than depositing it in the beggar 's bowl . <p> L : Conclusion So let me return now to the story of John and Xiaoping , their encounter on the street , and the varied reactions and interpretations of that encounter by John himself and the Chinese spectators who witnessed the event . It is tempting , as John originally did , to view the Chinese reactions as a form of apathy , just as the early missionary did in regards to a man taken suddenly ill on the street . To foreign critics , this evaluation of the crowd 's lack of regard , and of John 's students ' later mirth and anger towards his actions to help Xiaoping , frames larger questions about the Chinese moral economy and the implicit prejudice @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ argues that we should care , about beggars or anyone else who is in need , and that failing to do so demonstrates a certain deficiency of moral character . <p> I do not claim to have resolved here the ethical dilemma that lies within the Chinese experience of begging . I only hope that I have successfully accounted for some of the ambivalence of Chinese urban residents towards beggars . Beggars , by their very presence in Shenyang , are agentive insofar as they call into question the fantasies of modernity and development widely promulgated and expressed throughout China. n14 They also draw upon and challenge dominant cultural ideologies of face , filiality , kinship , and citizenship ( differentially based on urban or rural residence ) . As such , it is not so much the beggars themselves--though dirty and wounded--which both repulse and compel urban residents as it is the figure of the beggar , representing as it does the cracks within the taken-for-granted doxa of modernity itself . <p> John saw in Xiaoping a tragic figure , a child disfigured and alone , completely bereft of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of a group of cruel thugs . Some might argue that it was the fact of his foreignness alone which caused him to act , although I would disagree , conscious of the many foreigners in China who do pass beggars by without a second thought . Undoubtedly John 's foreignness freed him from , or at least made him indifferent to , the responses of others which might have constrained the actions of most Chinese . But what seems more important was John 's ability to see past Xiaoping as a representation of something else and to take her humanity at face value . Their encounter became an event ( something that gathered a large crowd of people ) simply because John , in taking an inordinate concern in the welfare of another , went decidedly offscript . His actions made the script itself an explicit object of discussion and negotiation , shocking the unspoken into very obvious presence . We can see a similar shock when I questioned the old woman begging in the street . She responded , " I do not understand . " Looking back @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ simply , " I do not understand your speech , " but " I do not understand why you are speaking . " <p> In contrast to John 's reaction , his Chinese interlocutors--urging him not to be taken in by the beggar 's deception ( it is " not real " after all ) --imputed a very powerful agency to Xiaoping . This was framed within a conception of begging as a kind of trick perpetrated by secretly affluent ( and purportedly very flexible ) individuals on unsuspecting and nave others . Such notions speak to the deeply unsettling discomfort that the beggar provokes . They are also informed by an ideology of deception as one of the constants of human interaction , something to be guarded against in the case of the pianzi or tuor , or to be amused by in the case of the television show Ma Dashuai , but always and indelibly present . <p> At the beginning of this article , I called begging a form of street theater , with clearly defined roles which follow a script . There is an implicit contest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , each strategically trying to stimulate or limit the breadth of the donor 's compassion , and thus the size of the gift . The beggar appears to say--to re-enact Levi-Strauss ' opening monologue-- " I am a beggar and you are a donor . You pity me because I represent both what you might have been and what you claim to have left behind . To comfort this guilt , I will accept your money and you can go along your way . " The potential donor , in turn , approaches the encounter by weighing his or her options through a set of questions : " How moved am I with the image of this beggar ? Is this beggar trying to cheat me , to make herself more pitiable than she actually is ? What will be the cost to me , in terms of face or the guilt of recognition , of simply walking past ? " The answers to these questions and the force by which they are spoken ( by beggars and donors ) determine the outcome of the encounter , whether urban pedestrians @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , or whether they will become drawn into the play , trapped as it were by the force of the beggar 's claim . <p> L : ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This article , based on research in Shenyang , China from January to December 2005 , was supported by grants from Cornell University 's East Asia Program , the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada , and by a Dissertation Fieldwork Grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation . My thanks to Keith Hjortshoj , Peet van der Walt , Jen Shannon , Elana Chipman , Sara Shneiderman , Marcie Middlebrooks and Ionu Epurescu-Pascovici for reading earlier versions of this paper , and to three anonymous reviewers for their comments . <p> L : Footnotes n1 The notion of " cultural scripts " derives from social-psychological attempts to describe the patterning of human behavior , often taking the semantic constituents of language as core units of a type of worldview which informs social interaction ( Wierzbicka 1996 , 2003 ) . Here , I employ the term less as a description of " rules " by which people act , and more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ use to identify a given event ( what kind of performance is this ? ) and act within its framework ( see for instance Bateson 2000 , Goffman 1974 , Turner 1974 ) . In the case of China , Xin Liu ( 2002 ) takes this particular argument much further , describing how cultural scripts and roles ( businessman , government official , and the mediating presence of the massage girl ) define and shape the conduct of business exchanges in the southern Chinese city of Beihai . <p> n2 The figure of the beggar as an uncanny specter or ghost evokes both Marx 's description of the impending global revolution--his famous opening to the Communist Manifesto claiming " A spectre is haunting Europe ... " ( Marx 1988:54 ) --and Freud 's equally famous essay , The Uncanny ( 1960 ) . Here , the beggar is both a traumatic reminder of the failed promise of Chinese socialism and a threat to current forms of economic accumulation and distribution . See also Royle ( 2003 ) . <p> n3 My recourse to the language of performance here is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the Chinese " character " which intimated that Chinese people were locked into empty dramatic forms . Smith ( 2001:16 ) writes : " Upon very slight provocation , any Chinese regards himself in the light of an actor in a drama . He throws himself into theatrical attitudes , performs the salaam , falls upon his knees , prostrates himself and strikes his head upon the earth , under circumstances which to an Occidental seem to make such actions seem superfluous , not to say ridiculous . " Smith , of course , fails to consider in turn the Chinese viewpoint ( an odd lapse considering his own assertion that the Chinese lacked sympathy ) and regard the strange actions of the " Occidentals " in China as themselves likewise theatrically inspired . <p> n4 Many accounts from the republican era ( 1911-1949 ) were from celebrated European intellectuals who traveled to China during this relatively open period . See for instance Russell ( 1966 ) . <p> n5 The following narrative is based upon my own interviews with several of the participants and a pamphlet ( SHIC @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) Inc . Asian Health Services Exchange , the charity which took up the girl 's case . I have altered the names of participants to protect their identities . I should also be clear here that I chose not to interview Xiaoping herself , based on my own discretion and at the request of several of the participants in these events . We felt that since her story had already been well-documented , and because of the magnitude of the trauma she had suffered , it was best to let her focus on her future and leave this tragedy in her past . <p> n6 Chinese accounts of begging often mention a growing " professionalization " ( zhiyehua ) of begging , with beggars no longer working independently but operating as begging groups ( qitao qunti ) . At the same time , however , any mention of a criminal element to these groups is usually avoided ( Li and Han 2008 ; Liu 2008 ; Wang , Xu and Jiang 2003 ) . An exception is Chen ( 2006 ) who identifies criminals as one source of beggars @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the " mafia-ization " ( heishehuihua ) of begging . <p> n7 Xiaoping 's story is in many ways tragic simply because it is also representative of the stories that are not told ; only rarely does a beggar 's life turn out so well and one can only be horrified to think of how many other child beggars succumb , nameless , to disease , injury and environment the way Xiaoping almost did . Although newspapers reported that the police had arrested several men and broken up the begging ring which recruited Xiaoping , there were undoubtedly multiple others working within the city . <p> n8 Consistent with my overall project , which examines the construction and use of Chinese forms of English , I have not altered or corrected speech that I recorded in English from my Chinese informants in order to preserve its feeling and cadence . In the text , I have indicated where people spoke in English . <p> n8 Holcombe ( 1895:328-329 ) presents a case of this from premodern China : " Then , without hesitation or sign of shame , a beggar @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pair of socks padded with cotton in order to represent his feet as swollen and out of shape . They were made of canvas , and so accurately painted into the resemblance of feet with toenails dropping off and the flesh a mass of putrefaction , that they had deceived me in broad sunlight and on many occasions . " I do not believe that any of the beggars I personally encountered were " faking " their wounds in this manner , although some may have been exaggerated through the use of bloodied bandages . But it was still a common belief among Chinese that many disabled beggars were actually frauds . <p> n9 There is a sense in which Confucian and Buddhist logics of obligation are contradictory , in so far as the Buddhist is prompted to give to the beggar in order to receive rewards in the next life , while the Confucian responds to the assertion of kinship or to the righteousness of others fulfilling their obligations to kin . In practice , however , most of my informants were unwilling or unable to make such fine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deeply held beliefs and emotions . I thank an anonymous reviewer for making this point . <p> n10 For other examples , see Lu 's ( 2005:173 ) description of " piggybacking the goddess of mercy " ( meaning a beggar carrying an elderly woman , presumably his or her mother , to beg for alms ) and Schak 's ( 1988:88 ) discussion of beggars using their own children or borrowing the children of others . All of these were traditional practices which would have been familiar to Shenyang 's modern urban residents . <p> n11 The performance of rural identity here does not conform to reality ; it is , instead , a representation constructed by migrants for the benefit of urban residents , playing upon urban stereotypes of the migrants . The " image " of the rural is thus virtual in every sense , the product of a mutually constructed mirage of rural existence . <p> n12 Notar ( 2006 ) documents a similar feeling of suspicion ( which she terms " authenticity anxiety ' ) in a Dali marketplace in southern China . While this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ constituted objects ( 71 ) , Notar 's larger thesis ( that authenticity becomes a concern where capitalism alienates production from particular places ) applies equally well to concerns about the authenticity of beggars . The suspicion that beggars cheat is a product of them arriving from elsewhere , while concerns about cheating in general can be linked to a growing feeling of social and communal alienation . <p> n13 Ma Dashuai played for three seasons on China Central Television ( CCTV ) beginning in 2004 , and dramatized the many tensions between urban and rural residents . Zhao Benshan , who both directs and plays the eponymous main character , was born in Tieling , one of Shenyang 's satellite cities , and as such was a household name . The television show itself was widely watched and commented on by my informants , who identified with the main characters and the dilemmas they faced living in the post-socialist economy . <p> n14 Both Ivy ( 1995 ) and Willford ( 2006 ) use a similar analytic to talk about the problematic constitution of the modern , and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Malaysia respectively . <p> L : REFERENCES -- Anagnost , Ann . 2004 . " The Corporeal Politics of Quality ( Suzhi ) . " Public Culture 16(2):189-208 . <p> -- Bateson , Gregory . 2000 . " A Theory of Play and Fantasy . " In Steps to an Ecology of Mind , pp. 177-193 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . <p> -- Bennet , James . 1931 . " China 's Perennially Unemployed . " Asia 31:215-19 . <p> -- Blum , Susan . 2007 . Lies that Bind : Chinese Truth , Other Truths . Lanham : Rowman &; Littlefield . <p> -- Bourdieu , Pierre . 1984 . Distinction : A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste , trans . Richard Nice . Cambridge : Harvard University Press . <p> -- Chan , Kam Wing and Li Zhang. 1999 . " The Hukou System and Rural-Urban Migration in China : Processes and Changes . " The China Quarterly 160:818-855 . <p> -- Chen , Zhao. 2006 . " Chengshi xin qitao xianxiang fenxi ( Analysis of the new urban begging phenomenon ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ College ) 8(1):134-135 . <p> -- Christie , Dugald. 1914 . Thirty Years in Moukden , 1883-1913 . London : Constable . <p> -- Fernandez-Stembridge , Leila and Richard Madsen . 2002 . " Beggars in the Socialist Market Economy . " In Perry Link , Richard Madsen and Paul Pickowicz , eds . Popular China : Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society , pp. 207-230 . Lanham : Rowman &; Littlefield . <p> -- Freud , Sigmund . 1960 . " The Uncanny . " In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , Vol. 17 . London : Hogarth Press . <p> -- Gee , Nathaniel Gist . 1925 . A Class of Social Outcasts : Notes on the Beggars in China . Peking : Peking Leader Press . <p> -- Geertz , Clifford . 1973 . The Interpretation of Cultures . New York : Basic Books . <p> -- Goffman , Erving. 1974 . Frame Analysis : An Essay on the Organization of Experience . Cambridge : Harvard University Press . <p> -- Hessler , Peter . 2001 . River Town : Two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> -- Holcombe , Chester . 1895 . The Real Chinaman . New York : Dodd , Mead &; Co . <p> -- Hung , Eva and Stephen Chiu. 2003 . " The Lost Generation : Life Course Dynamics and Xiagang in China . " Modern China 29(2):204-236 . <p> -- Ivy , Marilyn . 1995 . Discourses of the Vanishing : Modernity , Phantasm , Japan . Chicago : Chicago University Press . <p> -- Khan , Azizur Rahman and Carl Riskin. 2001 . Inequality and Poverty in China in the Age of Globalization . Oxford : Oxford University Press . <p> -- Khan , Azizur Rahman and Carl Riskin. 2005 . " China 's Household Income and Its Distribution , 1995 and 2002 . " The China Quarterly 182:356-384 . <p> -- Kipnis , Andrew . 2006 . " Suzhi : A Keyword Approach . " The China Quarterly 186:295-313 . <p> -- Kohrman , Matthew . 2005 . Bodies of Difference : Experiences of Disability and Institutional Advocacy in the Making of Modern China . Berkeley : University of California Press . <p> -- Levi-Strauss , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Doreen Weightman . New York : Atheneum . <p> -- Li , Yan and Han Dong . 2008 . " Chengshi liulang qitao wenti zonghe zhili yu falu sikao ( Comprehensive administration and legal thinking on the problem of urban vagrants and beggars ) . " Sheke zongheng ( Social Sciences Review ) 23(5):93-94 . <p> -- Liu , Hongxu. 2008 . " Xibei nongcun zhiye qigai tanxi--jiyu M xian Z zhen " qigai xiang " de diaocha ( Analysis of rural northwestern professional beggars with regards to an investigation of " beggar villages " in M county , Z town ) . " Neimenggu shehui kexue ( Inner Mongolia Social Sciences ) 29(3):114-118 . <p> -- Liu , Xin. 2002 . The Otherness of Self : A Genealogy of the Self in Contemporary China . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . <p> -- Lu , Hanchao. 1999 . " Becoming Urban : Mendicancy and Vagrants in Modern Shanghai . " Journal of Social History 33(1):7-36 . <p> -- Lu , Hanchao. 2005 . Street Criers : A Cultural History of Chinese Beggars . Stanford : Stanford @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Michael Schoenhals. 2006 . Mao 's Last Revolution . Cambridge : Harvard University Press . <p> -- Mao Zedong . 1967 . " Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan . " In Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung . Vol. 1:23-59 . Beijing : Foreign Languages Press . <p> -- Marx , Karl . 1988 . The Communist Manifesto , ed . Frederic Bender . New York : Norton . <p> -- National Bureau of Statistics of China . 2005 . China Statistical Yearbook--2005 . Beijing : China Statistics Press . <p> -- Notar , Beth . 2006 . " Authenticity Anxiety and Counterfeit Confidence : Outsourcing Souvenirs , Changing Money , and Narrating Value in Reform-Era China . " Modern China 32(1):64-98 . <p> -- Royle , Nicholas . 2003 . The Uncanny . New York : Routledge . <p> -- Russell , Bertrand . 1966 . The Problem of China . London : George , Allen &; Unwin . <p> -- Schak , David . 1988 . A Chinese Beggar 's Den : Poverty and Mobility in an Underclass Community . Pittsburgh : University of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Crisis ) . 2006 . Aixin jiuzhu gaibian rensheng mingyun de gushi ( Story of a Life Changed by People Who Dared to Care ) . Shenyang : SHIC , Inc . Asian Health Services Exchange . <p> -- Smith , Arthur . 2001. 1894 . Chinese Characteristics . Safety Harbor , FL : Simon . <p> -- Staples , James . 2003 . " Disguise , Revelation and Copyright : Disassembling the South Indian Leper . " Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 9(2):295-315 . <p> -- Tu , Wei-ming. 1985 . Confucian Thought : Selfhood as Creative Transformation . Albany : SUNY Press . <p> -- Turner , Victor . 1974 . Dramas , Fields and Metaphors : Symbolic Action in Human Society . Ithaca : Cornell University Press . <p> -- Wang , Baozhuang , Xu Fang and Jiang Huaizhong. 2003 . " Dangqian wo guo shehui qitao xianxiang de diaocha yu sikao ( Investigation and reflection on the present begging phenomenon in our country ) . " Hunan shifan daxue shehui kexue xuebao ( Journal of Social Science of Hunan Normal University ) 32(4):13-19 . <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and New Targeted People : China 's Hukou System in the 2000s . " The China Quarterly 177:115-132 . <p> -- Wierzbicka , Anna . 1996 . " Contrastive Sociolinguistics and the Theory of ' Cultural Scripts ' : Chinese vs English . " In Marlis Hellinger and Ulrich Ammon , eds . Contrastive Sociolinguistics , pp. 313-344 . Berlin : Mouton de Gruyter . <p> -- Wierzbicka , Anna . 2003 . " Russian Cultural Scripts : The Theory of Cultural Scripts and its Applications . " Ethnos 30(4):401-432 . <p> -- Willford , Andrew . 2006 . Cage of Freedom : Tamil Identity and the Ethnic Fetish in Malaysia . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . <p> -- Williams , Brackette. 1994 . " The Public I/Eye : Conducting Fieldwork to Do Homework on Homelessness and Begging in Two U.S. Cities . " Current Anthropology 36(1):25-51 . <p> -- World Bank . 1992 . China : Strategies for Reducing Poverty in the 1990s . Washington : The World Bank . <p> -- Zhang , Li . 2002 . " Spatiality and Urban Citizenship in Late Socialist @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Henry , Carleton University <p>

@@4070741 Istanbul , with its historic sights and culture , great shopping , and vibrant nightlife , attracts a growing number of tourists but still remains something of an undiscovered treasure . However , that is all set to change when Istanbul becomes a European Capital of Culture in 2010 . <p> Following in the steps of previous Capitals of Culture such as Glasgow , UK , and Lille , France , Istanbul hopes that the prestigious title will breathe new life into the city and attract more tourists it is expecting between ten and twelve million visitors in 2010 . <p> The title will also foster closer links with the EU and will serve as the platform for the regeneration of this great city . " Being selected as a European Capital of Culture will give a boost to the city 's economic and political relations with Europe as well as contributing to its cultural relations , " says Nuri olakoglu , executive chairman of Istanbul 2010 , the agency that is overseeing the project . <p> Being a Capital of Culture will provide a showcase for Istanbul 's remarkable history as well as create a legacy for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this project , about 750 million euros of which will be used for the restoration and renovation of world heritage sites , including the restoration of the world famous Topkapi Palace Museum , " says Mr. olakoglu . But there will also be an emphasis on new venues , Mr. olakoglu explains : " Istanbul is one of the most important cities in the world in terms of cultural heritage , but it does n't have enough artistic and cultural spaces , so we will create new ones . " <p> New museums will be established to protect and display cultural assets , and historical buildings will be renovated , given new roles , and opened to the public . The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is converting the historic slaughterhouse on the Golden Horn ( Hali ) into a performing arts and conference center and the Ayazaga Cultural Center , under construction since 1995 , is set to be the biggest arts venue in Turkey by 2010 . <p> Mr. olakoglu says that Capital of Culture status wo n't just benefit tourists but all the people of Istanbul . " This @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ live . Unfortunately only a small number of them are involved in the arts and culture , so we want to reach out to the underprivileged people living in and around the city through artistic and cultural programs , " he says . <p> Sir Jeremy Isaacs , chairman of the EU panel that selected Istanbul , says that the city 's bid " made a very considerable impression " on the jury and was judged " advanced , innovative , and forward-looking . " <p> Being a Capital of Culture is also expected to create employment . In the British city of Liverpool , which was a Capital of Culture in 2008 , it 's estimated that there was a 138 percent rise in jobs in architecture and engineering . In addition , jobs in the city 's tourist infrastructure , such as in hotels and bars , rose by 29 percent , and jobs in the creative industries rose by 50 percent , says research by the University of Liverpool . Jobs will be created in Istanbul for a large number of people , ranging from communications to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fields . <p> Being a Capital of Culture will not only bring Istanbul 's heritage to global attention but also its sense of style and its cosmopolitan atmosphere . Ahu Kerimoglu Aysal , owner of the luxurious Htel Les Ottomans , which is located on the shores of the Bosporus and is a favorite with the international jet set , says , " When I was living abroad , I was able to see what Istanbul needed a hotel that represents our Ottoman ancestors . We send a Rolls Royce to the airport to pick up our guests and then they are transported to a boat and brought to the hotel . Then they go back home and tell everyone they stayed in a beautiful Ottoman palace . " <p> And as the world 's gaze turns to Istanbul in 2010 , it will bring long-term effects making the city a year-round destination , drawing in more business conventions , and attracting the cruise market . <p> Raul Salcido , manager of the Ritz-Carlton hotel , one of Istanbul 's top luxury hotels , says that more conferences , delegations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ city . He adds , " I always tell our guests that there are many fascinating sides of Istanbul waiting to be discovered . It is a blissful city of contrasts , where you find history , exotic arts and music , wonderful food , an amazing culture , and , of course , the strategic location . " <p> " Being selected as a European Capital of Culture will give a boost to the city 's economic and political relations with Europe . " <p> Nuri olakoglu <p> Executive Chairman of Istanbul 2010 <p> PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Newly Opened Htel Les Ottomans has revived Ottoman Luxury and Hospitality on the Bosporus <p>

@@4070841 LISTENING TO TALK RADIO is like picking a scab . Its hard to stop . And why stop ? Despite its reputation for offering little more than anonymous plebeian banter , there is often some wisdom to be gleaned from hosts and callers alike . There are thoughtful , intelligent people saying thoughtful , intelligent things . There are also plenty of morons saying thoughtless , unintelligent things . <p> In the latter category , the latest phrase to permeate talk radio is " Tower of Babel . " For Michael Savage and Sean Hannity callers , bilingual signage , schools , and 1040 forms mark the beginning of our next cataclysmic fall . These concerned citizens seem to believe that just as homosexual marriage threatens heterosexual marriage , other languages threaten English . ( I agree that English is clearly under siege , but the threat is not from other languages , rather , it 's from English speakers themselves incorrectly conjugating verbs and confusing nominative and accusative pronouns . ) <p> It may be no accident that " Tower of Babel , " the tidy , three-word phrase used to describe the " threat " has biblical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the tower was an act of hubris by men who wanted to leave their mark on the earth . " Now nothing will be restrained from them , which they have imagined to do , " God says in Genesis 11:6-7 . " Go to , let us go down , and there confound their language , that they may not understand one another 's speech . " So if the multitude of languages came about as God 's punishment , we certainly ca n't blame today 's pious Christians for our inability to understand each other . <p> Of course , every pious Christian who laments this sad state of affairs seems to regard his own language as God 's preference . In fact , echoes of other-language disdain are not confined to the United States . When I lived in Spain , I encountered a curious turn of phrase , hablar en cristiano ( " to speak in Christian " ) , an expression that in modern times simply means , " to speak clearly . " While now a quaint , and generally secular expression , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Jews and Moors . <p> Likewise , under Francisco Franco 's program of National Catholicism , Spain wrote language censorship into law in 1941 . While the rest of Europe subtitled foreign films , all audiovisual products entering Spain were dubbed over in Castilian Spanish lest a French- , German- , or English-speaking Spanish moviegoer understand risque--or political--dialogue . A rewritten , more wholesome dialogue could then easily replace any objectionable exchanges between the characters . ( Dubbing , as a preference to subtitling , remains to this day , although the naughty dialogue is no longer rewritten but rather embraced . ) <p> As it was in medieval and Franco 's Spain , and as it is in the present-day United States , otherness is scary . The known trumps the unknown and the familiar , the mysterious--whether the strange thing in question is a religious icon or a foreign phoneme . Clearly , language , culture , and religion are intimately yoked . Religious tolerance sounds like a pie in the sky when restaurant owners with immigrant clientele implement " English-only ordering policies " or mayors encourage @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's bad enough that private companies are discouraged from using tactics to increase their customer base ; states across the country have invoked various " English-only " laws and bills are always being reintroduced in the U.S. Congress to make English the official national language . Even the most enlightened among us nod respectfully as the talking heads describe Islam as a religion of peace , but ca n't quite get past Islam 's sacred language sounding like random glottal noise . <p> Is it possible that linguistic tolerance has to precede religious tolerance ? Even the most philistine thinker knows that camaraderie begins with words : rewarding requests with responses , having our own utterances , however trivial , rewarded with acknowledgement . Anyone who has ever learned to ask for the toilet or a beer in a second language has felt the uncanny welling-up of warm fuzzies upon receiving the requisite response from his query . Likewise , nary a woman alive is numb to the enchantment of a heavily accented and fumbled remark about her beauty . Savvy advertisers make vegetables and Chihuahuas talk . Sponges and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was just another cute mammal until she learned sign language , seducing us with words and stealing our hearts with articulate phrases . Ultimately , her consummate cuddliness was just icing . <p> Love may be the universal language , but , more appropriately , language is the universal love . After all , it allowed our ancestors to usurp the mammalian throne and to pass on the spoils as every human 's birthright . Plenty has been written about how encouraged we are to talk , from the moment we emerge from the womb . ( Were a toddler 's first successful communiqu " martini , shaken , not stirred , two olives , " would we not be inclined to reach for the vermouth , if only to show the burgeoning sophisticate that his petition was understood ? ) <p> What 's more , Desmond Morris , Robin Dunbar , and other psychologists and anthropologists postulate that language developed as a proxy for the primate bonding activity of grooming . Thus learning and using the languages of our fellow earthmates could conceivably be a way to mutually pick @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " Amazingly , vowels and consonants can and almost always do implant themselves in a fecund infant brain and eventually sprout polysyllabic words and cogent sentences . A vast plain of moldable virgin neurons lies ahead for the acquisition of a second or third language . It would follow that demystifying linguistic diversity opens the door to demystifying religious and cultural diversity . <p> I admit , language education may be a naive or mawkish solution to the world 's problems , but I suggest it nonetheless to help ferry our dying tolerance back across the River Styx . The altar of social camaraderie is cluttered with saccharine offerings and cloying displays of noblesse oblige . Yet none are so simple , poignant , and genuine as the willingness to tie one 's tongue into knots to be understood . By comparison , " diversity training " looks like nose picking . <p> Perhaps in the end , it 's neither the color of your skin , nor the content of your character . It 's the coherence of your sentence . To sow the seeds of cross-cultural comity , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ thousand choruses of Kumbaya . <p> L : GIVEN THE EVIDENCE Disenchantment triumps modern science . In April the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life released a new survey , " Faith in Flux : Changes in Religious Affiliation in the United States . " It was a follow-up to their " U.S. Religious Landscape Survey " conducted in 2007 and released in 2008 , which found that Americans change religious affiliation early and often . <p> Reiterating that those who are unaffiliated with any particular religion ( the " nones " ) make up the fastest growing group of Americans ( religiously speaking ) , the new survey also found that this group has one of the lowest retention rates . Most of the people surveyed who had been raised without religion now belong to one . Reasons given include : <p> -- the attraction of religious services and styles of worship ( 74% ) <p> -- having been spiritually unfulfilled while unaffiliated ( 51% ) <p> -- feeling called by God ( 55% ) <p> What about the nones ? Losing a belief in God or religious @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ people became unaffiliated , closely followed by not having found the right religion . Other reasons : <p> -- thinking of religious people as hypocritical <p> -- excessive focus by religious organizations on rules , money , and power <p> Fewer people , however , lost their religion because modern science revealed it to be superstition . Pew concludes : " the belief that science disproves religion is a less important reason for becoming unaffiliated than disenchantment with religious people or institutions . " <p> L : GIVEN THE EVIDENCE A pain in humanist ethics ? NPR recently ran " The Science of Spirituality : Is this Your Brain on God ? " The five-point series looked at how researchers at Harvard , Penn , and Johns Hopkins are using new technologies to analyze the brains of people who " claim they have touched the spiritual . " <p> Part I , " The God Chemical " reported : " In the 1950s and ' 60s , researchers studied the effect of LSD trips on patients with end-stage cancer . Many of those who enjoyed mystical experiences , researchers found @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ death , and with reduced pain--or at least a different perspective on pain . Roland Griffiths of Johns Hopkins University Medical Center in Baltimore is now recruiting patients to test whether a synthetic spiritual experience might aid them in any way . " <p> Does this raise ethical questions for humanists ? If we support using drugs to reduce pain , must we also support mystical experience--induced , delusional , or otherwise--for similar purposes ? <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) <p> By Katrina Voss <p> Katrina Voss worked for ten years as a bilingual broadcast meteorologist at The Weather Channel Latin America and AccuWeather . She is now a research associate in the department of anthropology at Penn State University and is collaborating with her husband , a geneticist , on a science education video project , as well as a book about race and genetic ancestry . She is a regular columnist for Free Inquiry and has also written essays for The Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . <p>

@@4070941 Standards organizations historically use a consensus approach to develop new technologies . But in the modernization of a key pressure vessel code , the objective of consensus-building took on an expanded scope . <p> The newest version of one of ASME 's pressure vessel codes , known as Section VIII , Division 2 , has been updated not only in its content , but also in the organization and presentation of the information it contains . What 's more , the method by which the new edition was developed differed in many ways from earlier practice . The new VIII-2 , which becomes mandatory on July 1 , may serve as a model for future standards development . <p> Before the project to rewrite the Section VIII , Division 2 pressure vessel code began , an ASME committee of industry veterans surveyed potential users in the petrochemical and manufacturing industries to build consensus on what these target users wanted . " Make the code more user-friendly " was one of the top requests . <p> In a business environment where modern technology serves up an abundance of information on illuminated screens , industry experts increasingly believe that userfriendly presentation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their active use . The survey results confirmed that not only do users demand the latest technology innovation , but also a structure that makes the standard easy to use and understand . <p> " We had no choice if we were to develop a worldclass pressure vessel design code that would exceed our customers ' needs , " said Louis Hayden , ASME 's vice president of Pressure Technology Codes and Standards , who served as project manager for the rewrite . " To be blunt , the standard was difficult to use , particularly for early-career engineers . We needed to start from scratch after reviewing pressure vessel codes from around the world . " <p> The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code was first published in 1915 , and the initial edition of the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code , Division 1 , was distributed in 1925 . As far back as the 1960s , it was recognized that the special requirements for design of pressure vessels operating at pressures over 2,000 psi ( 13.7 MPa ) called for special rules , and ASME issued Section VIII , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . <p> These codes have been actively maintained and updated by a dedicated group of volunteers , but it was becoming difficult to work within the older format . The increased understanding of failure mechanisms and advances in material science , nondestructive testing , and computeraided design have progressed to the stage where a new approach was needed not only in the content of design codes , but in the way they are presented and organized . <p> By doing a clean-sheet rewrite , the standard has been modernized not only with the latest technical advances in pressure vessel construction , but also in a structure that is friendly for both users and the committees that maintain it . <p> L : International Pressure International codes and corporate engineering practices had demonstrated with over 30 years of operating experience that a lower design margin , along with advanced engineering practices , resulted in safe pressure vessel construction . With a design margin of 3.0 , the old Section VIII , Division 2 was not commercially competitive with European standards . In the new edition of VIII-2 , the design margin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ old VIII-2 required a lot of extra and unnecessary analysis , and was not very cost effective . <p> According to Tom Pastor , Hartford Steam Boiler vice president and chair of the ASME Subcommittee on Pressure Vessels that authorized the rewrite , " Senior volunteers felt it was time to turn our attention to VIII-2 . VIII-2 was not a heavily used standard , and thus it was not kept up to date at the same pace as VIII-1 . " <p> Traditionally , the development of new standards by ASME is carried out by volunteer committees . The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee consists of a volunteer manpower base of about 800 engineers . But experience with previous new code or rewrite activities demonstrated that the volunteer manpower base did not have enough industry-sponsored time to finish the project quickly and efficiently . The last major standard developed completely by volunteers was Section VIII , Division 3 , for vessels operating at pressures above 10,000 psi , which took nearly 15 years to complete . <p> The Section VIII , Division 2 code applies to vessels like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ <p> " Accomplishing this using only the volunteer manpower base would have detracted significantly from the quality of the new code and added significantly to the required development costs and time by a factor of two or more , " said Guido Karcher , who chaired the Board on Pressure Technology Codes and Standards from 2005 to 2008 , the ASME board responsible for the rewrite process . " Even with such a resource , it would have been necessary to provide an overall project management activity to coordinate volunteer reviews and consistency between the reviewing efforts . " <p> With the development of a European pressure code , waiting 15 or more years for a needed update to Section VIII , Division 2 was not an option , so ASME decided to use an outside organization to develop the first draft of the new standard . The project was awarded to the Pressure Vessel Research Council ( PVRC ) , which in turn formed the Task Group on Continued Modernization of Codes to oversee development . PVRC then engaged the Equity Engineering Group as the lead investigator , editor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from Japan Steel Works ' Web site shows the plan of construction for a pressure vessel built at its Muroran Plant . <p> A steering committee made up of ASME Section VIII members was formed to provide technical oversight and direction to the development team , with the goal of facilitating the eventual balloting and approval process . ASME also hired a project manager to coordinate the activities required to bring the new standard to publication . <p> Numerous international groups have written standards covering pressure equipment . The most important are the European Committee for Standardization , or CEN , which has 30 national members , and the International Standards Organization , a non-government organization that builds consensus through a network of national standards from more than 150 countries . The developers of the new Division 2 code believe it enables ASME to maintain a pre-eminent position in pressure vessel technology globally , because it advances design practices beyond standing CEN and ISO codes . <p> " The new Division 2 provides for many of the longstanding accreditation and design practices that are not in the CEN or other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ provides for a more efficient and adaptable code for international use via the new recognitions of engineering certifications outside of the U.S.A. and Canada . " <p> L : Feedback Before Publication The rewrite of Section VIII , Division 2 broke new ground for ASME in several areas , from hiring a project manager to publishing the document in single columns and formatting it to satisfy ISO guidelines . Also , the project team initiated two other activities to ensure both high quality and acceptance of the Division 2 rewrite : a validation of all design rules , and beta testing of the document . <p> The new Division 2 contains hundreds of equations and polynomial expressions for curve fits used in the design rules . Even where rules were taken from Section VIII , Division 1 , they were rewritten in most cases to facilitate computerization . The net result was that to check each equation , figure , and polynomial expression would have been a major undertaking . If volunteers were asked to perform this work , it would have delayed publication of the document . <p> Instead @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ software was contracted to assure the quality of the design rules . It performed this work by programming all the design rules in Mathcad and running numerous examples . Whenever possible , examples from the old VIII-2 and VIII-1 were used for the validation work . In all , over a thousand pages of calculations were performed and the process did identify some errors , mostly in the equations used to model design curves . This validation work will serve as the starting point for an examples manual to be developed for future publication . <p> Everyone on the Division 2 project team was interested in receiving feedback from users , and normally this feedback is received once a standard is published and used for production vessels . This time , however , it was decided to test the standard prior to publication , during the last stages of approval . Invitations to participate were sent to several Division 2 certificate holders , who were asked to select a recently completed Division 2 vessel and re-execute the project on paper using the new standard . A large number of interested @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vessel to be used in the evaluation . <p> The beta test provided validation of many of the goals set forth when the project was initiated . As expected , significant cost savings were reported due to the increase in allowable stress for many carbon and low-alloy steels . Of equal importance , most of the testers also reported a reduced amount of reinforcement required for openings resulting in a reduction in forged nozzle thickness . <p> All the beta testers reported the standard was easy to use and that the design rules were clear and concise . Many said they prefer the new format of the document . <p> Early in the project , developers surveyed code users , including vessel users , manufacturers , and regulatory organizations . According to Karcher , " These responses were used as building blocks in the new Division 2 . Some resulting examples are the use of non-North American professional engineers , a more comprehensive and better focused user design specification , single column ISO numbering and format . " <p> After publication , surveys were conducted to assess the new code @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Canada , and the U.S. According to Hayden , " Attendees were surveyed as to their likes and dislikes of the new code . Their input has been factored into addenda and plans for continued publication of this code in its current format . " <p> L : Extended Transition Originally published in 2007 , the new Section VIII , Division 2 was to become mandatory Jan. 1 , 2008 . A code case was approved ( Code Case 2575 ) that allows for an 18-month transition period during which VIII-2 certificate holders will be able to construct to either the old VIII-2 ( 2004 edition through 2006 addenda ) or the new VIII-2 . The transition period ends July 1 this year , when the new edition will become the only one in effect . <p> ASME is offering training seminars for the new code at locations around the world . As user communities are identified , ASME has also set up international interest groups that can nominate engineers for delegate membership in the ASME code committees of interest . These delegates may participate by attending meetings , teleconferencing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ engineers can visit the ASME Web site at www.asme.org for more details on these programs . <p> From the first polling of users to its publication in July 2007 , the revamping of VIII-2 took six years . <p> Would ASME use this development process again ? " I believe the answer is yes , " Pastor said . " Times have changed such that the number of volunteers , and more importantly , the number of volunteer hours donated to ASME continue to reduce each year , so that large projects such as the Division 2 rewrite will need to be directlv funded as R &D."; <p> And what may be the next step ? Karcher said , " Looking to the future , the predicted evolutionary process would be a rewrite of Division 1 to address so-called simple pressure vessels , and a merging of Division 2 and Division 3 to benefit from the advanced technologies and to avoid the burdening of the small and mass produced pressure vessel industries with unnecessarily complex and tedious construction requirements . " <p> This might take some time and more pressure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ users want one pressure vessel code , and ASME would be more than happy to give it to them , but it is not that easy . Pressure equipment is ordered based on regulatory requirements , price , manufacturer 's experience with a standard , and the like . " <p> Hayden sees the new document setting a standard for code development . " I believe that the development of the 2007 edition of Section VIII , Division 2 is a bellwether of things to come from ASME , " he said . " The development process , leading edge technical content , and use of user input/feedback in developing this code have set the standard for new code development activities at ASME . The staff and volunteers have seen what can be accomplished and are willing and ready to use this model for future codes and standards development . " <p> The developers believe that a completely new and more user-friendly organizational structure to the Section VIII , Division 2 pressure vessel code , coupled with adoption of the latest technology available for the construction of pressure vessels , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and other industries for decades to come . <p> " The new Division 2 provides for many of the longstanding accreditation and design practices that are not in other international codes . <p> " Volunteer hours donated to ASME continue to reduce each year , so that large projects such as the Division 2 rewrite will need to be directly funded as R &D."; <p> By David A. Osage and Steven J. Rossi <p> CONTRIBUTED BY Kathy Powers , Marketing and communication director for The Equity Engineering Group <p> David A. Osage , president and CEO of The Equity Engineering Group Inc. in Shaker Heights , Ohio , is a member of the ASME Board on Pressure Technology Code and Standards , a member of the ASME BPV Committee on Pressure Vessels . He was the lead investigator and author for the effort to rewrite the Section VIII , Division 2 pressure vessel code . <p> Steven J. Rossi is an ASME project engineering administrator and secretary to the BPV Committee on Pressure Vessels . <p>

@@4071041 Last month 's issue described the printing process in the Windows operating system . In this column , the discussion will be repeated as it applies to the Mac operating system . <p> The preliminaries are finally complete and it 's time to make a print . The color corrected RGB image has been resized for the desired print , and has been sharpened ( Figure 1 ) . In addition , it has been proofed to the planned paper/ink/ printer that will be used , and a rendering intent selected . <p> One caveat before going any further ... the screen captures in this column are for Epson printers . Accordingly , they will differ from those for an HP or Canon printer . Pretty much the same functionality exists on those systems , but it will probably be necessary to do a little hunting to find the relevant " switches . " <p> Start the process with the command File>Print ( Figure 2 ) . Begin by checking the drop down box at the top center of this large dialog to see that the correct printer has been selected . The next go to is the large @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dialog . Recall there are two ways to print : one can let Photoshop manage the printing process OR one can let the Printer driver do that job . This means that one method must be turned ON . It also means the other must be turned OFF , Falling to turn the other system OFF , results in BOTH trying to manage the process and invariably produces a terrible result ( print ) . This is the most common problem users have with the printing process ! <p> Most recommend using Photoshop to manage the process , and that option has been selected in Figure 2 . Printer color management will be turned off later , on one of the printer driver screens . With Photoshop managing the process , one must also select the appropriate profile to be used . Here an Epson supplied profile has been selected for the Enhanced Matte paper . Relative Colorimetric Rendering Intent has been selected because there are few out-of-gamut colors . Black Point Compensation has been turned ON . <p> In the center of Figure 2 there are two large boxes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Size . Position allows one to place the image at any desired location on the paper . With Center Image unchecked , drag the image to the desired location . In Figure 2 , Center Image has been checked which positions the image at the center of the sheet . The preferred procedure is to resize the image to the desired print size in Photoshop ; however the Scaled Print Size section of this dialog is another option , in particular , selecting the Scale to Fit Media is a good choice when the objective is a preliminary test print . <p> The next step is to select the Page Setup option on Figure 2 . This opens the dialog shown in Figure 3 for an Epson 4000 ; other Epson printers may have slightly different dialog , but the information content of these screens is similar . Use this dialog to select Paper Size , Orientation and to confirm the correct printer has been selected . Notice that Orientation and Scaling are redundant to what 's included in Figure 2 . This is because one is created specifically for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and the other is created for Photoshop by Adobe . The redundancy is a consequence of the very large number of makes and models of printers used with Photoshop . Clicking OK here takes one back to Figure 2 . <p> It 's a good idea to reconfirm all of the settings on Figure 2 before pressing Print . Print takes one to a series of printer driver screens ; two of these are critical to print quality . Use the drop down box to navigate amongst the screens . On the Printer Color Management screen ( Figure 4 ) , turn printer color management OFF . The box says ' Off ( No Color Adjustment ) ' , but this is a Printer screen , so what it really means is no color management from the printer driver , Having chosen OFF here , and having previously turned Photoshop Manages Colors ON ( see Figure 2 ) , accomplishes the " one ON other OFF ' requirement mentioned in the second paragraph of this column . Finally , on the Print Settings screen ( Figure 5 ) : enter @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ used to make the printer profile . Clicking Print on this ( or any other of the seven screens ) initiates the printing process . <p> While this entire process may seem unduly complicated , keep in mind that it involves an interaction between software ( Photoshop and the printer driver ) and hardware ( the printer itself ) . Furthermore , there are a very large number of printers that could be involved , only some of which are inkjet type . Like most such processes , you learn by doing and with a little experience this process too will become both better understood and intuitive . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 1 : This is the image to be printed . It has been resized to print on 13x79 ? paper . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 2 is the File>Print screen for the Mac . The marked boxes are of special importance and the recommended settings are described in the text . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 3 is the Page Setup screen on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Figure 4 : this is the Printer Color Management dialog for the Mac , and should be turned OFF . <p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Figure 5 : this is the Print Settings dialog for the Mac . These settings should duplicate the settings used to make the printer profile . <p> By Fred Drury , Wheaton , IL <p>

@@4071441 Title : Measuring Dignity in Care for Older People <p> Authors : Helen Magee , Suzanne Parsons and Janet Askham <p> Institution : The Picker Institute Europe for Help the Aged <p> L : OBJECTIVES The value of this study is revealed by a perceptive remark from the authors : " It is easier to make pronouncements about dignity than to ensure that dignified care happens . " This is particularly the case for anyone responsible for measuring or assessing dignity in care . <p> It is noted , as a preliminary , that dignified care in health and social care continues to be especially problematic for older people . The researchers heard many reasons for this , ranging from the priority given to targets and budgets which sometimes undermines dignified care to what others see as the replacement of compassionate nursing care for more technically skilled nurses . Others cite the power of ageism in society and ageist attitudes among staff . <p> This study reviewed qualitative research that had explored older people 's perceptions of dignified care ( or the opposite ) across settings of hospital , care homes and home care . It asked older people @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ indicators for dignity in care . The researchers reviewed existing measures and indicators within a set of dignity domains identified by Help the Aged . <p> This work was lent urgency by the government 's focus on dignity and by the changes under way in the creation of the Care Quality Commission . Many older people 's groups are keen to see that the commission shows a strong commitment to social care and is not sidetracked by NHS-related issues . <p> L : METHODS This five-month study set out to identify a group of indicators that could measure the extent to which older people are treated with dignity and respect by health and social care professionals . <p> The research team carried out an electronic search to find qualitative studies that explored older people 's perceptions of dignity in care in hospitals , care homes and domiciliary care . To supplement this they held focus group discussions with care home residents , home care service users , people who had recently returned home from hospital and carers . <p> Eleven interviews were held with key informants from organisations which the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which , for example , the Royal College of Nursing or British Society of Geriatrics represent older people would doubtless be questioned by older people 's groups and campaigners . <p> In the context of these sources of information , the research team identified and developed indicators for nine domains , looking at questionnaires , assessment tools and benchmarks that are used to assess dignity in care . Many of these related to hospital care and treatment , some to care homes but few to home care . Indeed , the evidence is limited about social care , particularly new forms of social care which focus less on tasks and their completion and more on personally agreed outcomes . <p> L : FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS There are many interesting findings in this study , including the results of further analysis of older people 's responses to the 2007 National Inpatient Survey , focusing on hospital care and treatment . <p> What is significant is the finding that over-70s often gave more positive answers than younger older people when asked whether they were treated with respect and dignity . They were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ food , pain control and cleanliness . In contrast , the qualitative studies , when older people were interviewed in depth and often after they had left hospital , found numerous instances where people expressed concerns and gave instances of things going wrong . <p> Perhaps both methods should be used to enable these experiences to be heard . <p> This study focused on dignity in care in hospitals and care homes and there is less about social care . One section that covers most of these settings is that of personal care or practical assistance . <p> It is important to avoid confusion about the broad term personal care . The researchers note that the term " personal care " was often confused with " personal hygiene " in health care settings ; in social care it can be defined more widely , almost as covering the same territory as social care itself . The researchers suggested renaming personal care " practical assistance " , although this was not discussed more widely . <p> Social care debates , for example , have taught us that if care work is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ overlooking psychosocial interventions that often support people at home . Indicators of dignity in personal care might cover : <p> * Knowledge of an individual 's preferred lifestyle ( including clothing preferences , routines , pets , religious and cultural preferences ) and need to show respect for an individual 's preferred lifestyle , including the flexibility to meet a person 's needs . * Timetabling of services to suit the client . * Assistance that reflects individuals ' wishes . * Respectful delivery of care and support . * Support to maintain personal standards . * Regular information about changes to help and assistance . * Consistency of care workers . * Respect for property and possessions . * Enough time for home care visits . * Regular monitoring of the service . All this is familiar to people working in social care or commissioning services , but there is little recognition that fulfilling many of these domains will need investment . Personalisation is one way to enhance dignity in such transactions and fresh indicators may need to be considered for this new world . <p> L : RECOMMENDATIONS @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that we should use a set of indicators to measure dignity that includes common " core " elements , relevant to any care setting , together with indicators specific to a particular setting . <p> They recommend that indicators should be part of the early work of the new Care Quality Commission ( CQC ) so it can think about the use of indicators in its secondary legislation , regulations and compliance criteria . They advise further research to explore the perceptions that older people and professionals hold about dignity in care across various settings . <p> However , the researchers also note that many of those responding to their enquiries in the telephone interviews and focus groups sympathised with the pressures facing frontline staff . They say that if practitioners are to deliver care with respect and dignity then they too must be treated with respect and dignity , in contrast to the more usual situation of being poorly paid and feeling undervalued . <p> In a trenchant statement they propose that , before creating further indicators with which to measure their performance , it might be worthwhile considering @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ meet the needs of older people more effectively . <p> This challenge draws attention to the broader context in which care takes place and the potential for thinking about dignity beyond regulatory systems . Some see dignity as fundamental to human rights . The potential for human rights legislation to help change systems and practices is illustrated in a study of instances where raising questions about human rights seemed to promote action to restore dignity in care . <p> The British Institute for Human Rights ' report , Changing Lives , makes clear the scope of the act to strengthen the ability of people to secure the best possible standard of services from public bodies and the right to be treated with respect , dignity and fairness . It argues that , because the government 's expressed purpose in introducing the Human Rights Act 1998 was to promote a culture of respect for human rights , it is important that public sector staff work within human rights standards and principles . They have responsibilities to ensure that services , in-house or commissioned , deliver on respect , autonomy , fairness @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " still a long way to go , and many people , particularly the most vulnerable , remain in need of the protections afforded by the Human Rights Act " . <p> Lack of dignity was a common thread in the breaches of the act that this study reported and the examples provided are inspiring learning points for practitioners . <p> L : LINKS AND RESOURCES * Measuring Dignity in Care for Older People , Help the Aged at www.helptheaged.org.uk * Cass E , Robbins D and Richardson A , 2006 , Dignity in Care , Social Care Institute for Excellence * The Department of Health in England is running a Dignity in Care campaign ( **71;4428;TOOLONG ) . This includes a Dignity Challenge ( set of principles ) , a National Dignity Ambassador , National Dignity Tours by the minister , a measurement system for the grading of hospitals ' regard for dignity and respect among its older patients , a Dignity in Care Public Survey and the Queen Mother Award for Dignity in Care . * British Institute for Human Rights , 2008 , The Human Rights Act @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ table PHOTO ( COLOR ) : The research found that over-70s were more complimentary about care than under-70s <p> By Jill Manthorpe <p> EDITED BY Natalie Valios <p> Jill Manthorpe is professor of social work and director of the Social Care Workforce Research Unit at King 's College London <p>

@@4071541 IN THE GAME OF BLAME THAT FOLLOWED THE deepest financial implosion since the Great Depression , bankers and money managers have borne their share of attention . But how much blame should lawyers bear ? Plenty . <p> As legislators , they helped remove restrictions on commercial banks that allowed them to get involved with subprime mortgage-backed securities . <p> As regulators , they allowed leverage at investment banks to increase largely unchecked . As judges , they made it harder for shareholders to bring suits to stop the financial shenanigans . <p> As counsel , their legal opinions gave sanction to deals that , in the words of the analysts behind them , " could have been structured by cows . " <p> There were also lawyers who did their jobs , only to find their voices lost in torrents of money , rationalization or plainspoken hostility toward the rule of regulation . <p> Lawyers will have their say in the recovery . There will be lawyers aplenty to prosecute the culpable , rescue the bankrupt and reconfigure legislation that will attempt -- yet again -- to stimulate profits while throttling pure greed . <p> And there is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ believe that their practice specialty would have provided a safety net of sorts for regulators whose hands were tied by Congress , or for investors who tagged innocently behind what they believed was due diligence , only to find that a whole global marketplace had been built on unsupportable loans . <p> " We could well have seen someone file suit years ago over these derivatives , but nobody could today because the hurdles are so high and the risks so great , " says Jonathan Alpert , a semiretired securities lawyer from Tampa , Fla . <p> Deregulation meant looser laws and even looser enforcement , they argue , and the credible threat of lawsuits might have helped derail the popularity of the credit risk marketplace -- or , at least , expose the frailty of the assets on which it was based . <p> In recent years , the legal and political tide has turned against the use of the courts as a backdoor regulator of questionable lending practices , faulty consumer products or even the safety of food and drugs . <p> Could lawsuits have helped us @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ too far ? Regulators and plaintiffs lawyers are certain the questions are worth debating . Even defenders of tort reform are split on the value of their own success : some questioning whether the pendulum swung too far to endure as public policy and others wondering why the question is even being asked . <p> L : OF BOOM AND BUST AT THE CORE OF ANY DEBATE ABOUT WHAT WENT WRONG is the issue of deregulation -- a matter of economic philosophy often in conflict with the law . <p> " One of the early causes of today 's problems was the deregulatory ripple that started in the Reagan administration , " says Meyer " Mike " Eisenberg , who held two high-level jobs in the Securities and Exchange Commission over a span of almost 40 years , and now lectures at Columbia Law School in New York City . " That included the appointment of people who did n't believe in regulation . " <p> Introduced in the early 1980s , the role of deregulation was quickly tested in the financial markets by the plight of savings and loans @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and early 1980s , the so-called thrift banks were struggling to make profits from low-interest , long-term home loans based on money gathered from regulated passbook savings accounts , as well as money borrowed from the Federal Reserve . <p> All that changed in 1982 with the enactment of the Garn-St . Germain Depository Institutions Act . Thrifts were suddenly free to act more like banks : making commercial loans , issuing credit cards and getting involved in real estate investments far more risky and complex than traditional 30-year mortgages . <p> The problem proved twofold : By being allowed to take substantial upfront profits just by approving the loans , thrifts lost their incentive to vet the deals accordingly ; and though their lending powers had been made similar to those of banks , they had no comparable level of oversight . Examiners accustomed to approving title insurance and fair housing practices were suddenly required to evaluate multimillion-dollar commercial loans for shopping centers , office buildings and casinos . <p> Short-term profits , however , became long-term headaches , as thrifts and their borrowers used federally insured deposits for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ projects . During the mid-1980s through the early 1990s , 747 thrifts failed . Funded mostly by federal taxpayers , the bailout cost more than $160 billion , a figure that seems almost quaint by current standards . <p> As the thrift scandal unfolded , names emerged as celebrity symbols of the untethered greed that had driven it . Perhaps best known were Ivan Boesky and Michael Milken , who made high art of insider trading : Boesky in corporate takeovers , Milken with junk-level bonds . <p> " Those were not systemic , however , " says Eisenberg . " It was far-reaching and very dramatic , but they just went too far too fast and screwed a lot of people . There was n't a need for new legislation or regulation . " <p> Banking institutions eventually absorbed the savings and loan system . But as they began to compete for business with investment banks and brokerages , chartered banks demanded a larger view of their fundamental services . And the answer was , once again : deregulation . <p> The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 repealed the Glass-Steagall @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to bank failures triggered by the Great Depression . The new regulatory structure permitted commercial banks many of the same powers as brokerages and investment bankers . Banks and their holding companies -- leaving home loan due diligence to largely unregulated brokers -- concentrated on mergers and acquisitions , retail brokering , and the underwriting of securities based on subprime loans and collateralized debt obligations . <p> The sheer scale of these subprime deals led to larger and larger packages ( and larger and larger fees and commissions ) , which in turn led to even less incentive to scrutinize the underlying loans and assets on which these packages were based . <p> In 1997 , Brooksley Born , a former Arnold &; Porter partner who chaired the Commodity Futures Trading Commission , asked for public comment on a proposal to force more transparency and nominal supervision over derivative markets . Testifying before Congress , she expressed concern that if left unregulated , derivatives could become a threat to " our regulated markets or , indeed , to our economy without any federal agency knowing about it . " <p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were fiercely opposed . Disclosure of the increasingly complicated derivative trades , they feared , would lead to a demand for increases in capital reserves against potential losses . And stricter regulation would drive the highly profitable derivative markets overseas . <p> Born , unfazed by increasingly scathing criticism , pressed forward with the CFTC derivative proposal . By June 1998 , Greenspan and Rubin had taken their complaint to Congress , urging it to intervene . Congress obliged in late 1998 with a six-month moratorium on any action on derivatives to be taken by the CFTC . <p> After Born resigned as CFTC chair in 1999 , Greenspan and Rubin asked Congress to make permanent their ban on CFTC supervision of derivatives . Without Bom 's persistence behind it , the proposal simply died . <p> Born retired from Arnold &; Porter , and she has refused all comment about the recent credit crisis . <p> L : A TAILORED RULE WHEN THE DERIVATIVE MARKETS DID BECOME REGULAT-ed , it was in a rule finalized by the SEC in 2004 that many believe may have supersized subprime losses from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those names that is salve for insomniacs : Alternative Net Capital Requirements for Broker-Dealers That Are Part of Consolidated Supervised Entities . Significantly , the rule resulted from a request for regulation by five of the meltdown 's largest losers : Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley , Merrill Lynch , Lehman Brothers and Bear Stearns . <p> To repeat : They asked to be regulated . <p> Well , sort of . <p> The rule was tailored in such a way that it pertained only to those who had requested it . And it came in response to a 2002 decision by the European Union to regulate subsidiaries of foreign investment banks -- particularly those from the U.S. -- out of concern about financial scandals . There was , however , a loophole : Foreign entities would be exempt from the EU 's rules if they had equivalent oversight in their own countries . In order to avoid EU oversight , the five investment houses asked that the SEC begin to regulate them -- if in name only . <p> Essentially , the SEC let the financial concerns regulate themselves @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ company . That allowed investment bankers and bank holding companies to greatly expand their debt-to-capital ratio requirement . The resulting growth proved disastrous . <p> As a leading expert in securities regulation , John C. Coffee , a professor at Columbia Law School , is blunt : " The staffers were probably junior lawyers up against dozens of quantitative Ph.D.s from MIT working the computer models , and it was a mismatch from day one . It was not a level playing field . " <p> Sure enough , the investment companies did n't just go beyond the usual limit of 15-to-l debt ratio ; they more than doubled it . The computer models , however , reflected less leverage , a practice greatly discredited in the scandal that followed the failure of Enron . <p> " Increasing leverage is the best way to increase profitability , " says Coffee . " Unless you fail . " <p> And fail they did . Spectacularly . <p> Last year the government forced Bear Stearns to merge with JPMorgan Chase ; Lehman went into bankruptcy ; Bank of America acquired Merrill Lynch @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to another species as a bank holding company , and now are regulated by the Federal Reserve . <p> L : THE RULE OF RISK WHY TAKE SUCH RISKS ? COFFEE SAYS IT IS BECAUSE EXEC-utive compensation is equity-based with stock options and similar incentives . Thus they are more likely to " make decisions based on short-term stock-price reactions . If you made them hold on to stock options until two years after leaving the company , they 'd have a very different view . " <p> Whatever the reason , risk ruled . <p> Last September the SEC 's inspector general released a report saying the agency had failed to sufficiently monitor Bear Stearns , which had collapsed six months earlier . The agency 's chairman , Christopher Cox , issued a statement saying the consolidated supervised entity program was being shut down . It had become , he said , " abundantly clear that voluntary regulation does not work . " <p> Critics say that regulation and enforcement were curtailed during Cox 's tenure , which began in 2005 , when corporations were fuming about the strictures @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a spate of accounting scandals at Enron , Adelphia , Tyco International and WorldCom -- the Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act sought to renew transparency in publicly traded companies . <p> But publicly traded firms began to argue that renewed transparency made strict regulation by the SEC unnecessary . Given the proper information , they argued , the market could punish wrongdoers on its own . <p> The SEC under Cox reduced fines and penalties dramatically . Last January , the Morgan Lewis law firm issued an analysis saying the SEC had reduced penalties by " a staggering degree . " They dropped from $1.5 billion in 2005 to $507 million in 2007 . <p> According to the law firm 's analysis , " the numbers suggest a philosophical shift by the Cox commission in what constitutes an appropriate penalty . " Whether part of a philosophical shift or not , the agency pursued fewer big fish during Cox 's tenure and went after smaller operations , such as Ponzi schemes . <p> Cox has responded to such criticism , saying it resulted from a change in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ after the big accounting scandals were dealt with . <p> Whether transparency was inadequate or laws were ineffective or regulators were simply failing to regulate , plaintiffs lawyers say they were marginalized from every direction -- to the point that a lot of them simply disappeared . <p> L : LAWSUIT TO PUBLIC POLICY TAMPA LAWYER ALPERT HAD GROWN HIS LAW FIRM TO A dozen or so lawyers in the early 1990s , doing some employment law and insurance defense work . He sued the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on behalf of season ticketholders and the Rays baseball team to get use of Tropicana Field for an annual festival honoring Martin Luther King Jr . <p> In 1993 , he brought a class action against what was then NationsBank , saying it sold uninsured securities to customers who were led to believe they were FDIC-insured . <p> " It was complex as the dickens , " Alpert says . <p> The class action was in some way related to the changes in the banking system that took place in 1987 when the Federal Reserve removed restrictions on federally chartered banks , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Chairman Paul Volcker had voted against the measure that passed 3-2 , arguing that the banks might drastically lower standards and cause problems . Volcker resigned a few months later and was replaced by Alan Greenspan , who had always favored innovation in financial markets . <p> Alpert 's lead clients included a tollbooth operator and a retired military policeman . They charged that NationsBank , like many other banks , had sold securities such as mutual funds in their lobbies -- often to older and more vulnerable customers who were led to believe the investments were FDIC-insured when they actually were not . <p> Alpert filed a class action in Tampa federal court . Eventually , the bank settled for $60 million : 100 cents on the dollar for the plaintiffs , which was on top of Alpert 's fees . <p> There were a spate of similar cases around the country against other banks . And by 1998 the self-regulating National Association of Securities Dealers adopted a rule requiring prominent disclaimers on bank products not federally insured -- a standard subsequently adopted by the Federal Reserve , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The lawsuits , Alpert says , had actually influenced policy . <p> But in 1995 , a Republican-controlled Congress passed the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act , which was designed to raise the bar on plaintiffs and lawsuits like Alpert 's . <p> The PSLRA required that the lead plaintiff in a class action have the largest loss , replaced joint and several liability with proportionate liability , and offered safe harbor for forward-looking statements . The act also restricted discovery until after a complaint survives a motion to dismiss . <p> In effect , the PSLRA restricted lead plaintiffs to institutional investors and their big-firm lawyers . <p> " Lawyers like me definitely got pushed out of securities litigation by the PSLRA , " says Alpert . " And the individual consumers did , too . " <p> Only a handful of firms now are handling the bulk of securities class actions , owing in no small way to the tightening brought on by the PSLRA and the subsequent Securities Litigation Uniform Standards Act of 1998 that limits securities class actions to the federal courts . <p> The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the courthouse by one and all to become lead counsel , which often enough led to suits that were not well thought out . <p> " The dynamic has changed somewhat , " says Elliott J. Weiss , a professor emeritus at the University of Arizona James E. Rogers College of Law . " I do think the litigation tends to be more merit-driven and client-driven than before . " <p> Weiss co-authored an article in 1995 that was adapted by Senate committee staffers from galley proofs as the basis for the PSLRA . <p> Three years ago , Weiss entered the trenches himself after years in academia . He is of counsel to Bernstein Litowitz Berger &; Grossmann , one of the handful of firms now handling major securities class actions . <p> " Right now I 'm looking at a response to a motion to dismiss , and my firm spent $150,000 on experts just for work incorporated into an amended complaint , " says Weiss . " That 's different from dashing off boilerplate complaints when a stock price drops . It now takes serious research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to develop enough facts to survive a motion to dismiss . " <p> Weiss says he has no idea how many meritorious cases might have been shut out by the PSLRA . " I do n't think a lot of them get thrown out , " he says . " But I 'm sure some get chucked . " <p> Adam C. Pritchard , who teaches securities law at the University of Michigan Law School , says it is wrong to assume that weak cases have been chased out of the system . Big cases brought by institutional plaintiffs with big settlements often follow SEC investigations or earnings restatements and tend to be meritorious , he says . <p> But the median settlement value is only about $7 million , he explains . " And you can not defend a securities lawsuit for less than $7 million . If half the settlements are for what looks like less than settlement costs , it gives reason to think a lot of them do n't have substantial merit . " <p> L : COURT INTERVENTION THE COURTS HAVE TAKEN UP WHERE CONGRESS @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for private litigation over securities regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission until 1964 , when the U.S. Supreme Court found an implied right to sue in Case v. Borak . The opinion noted that " private enforcement of the proxy rules provides a necessary supplement to commission action . " <p> But for the past dozen years , the court has been tightening requirements for such litigation , requiring more and more knowledge of wrongdoing and causation -- particularly regarding suits that seek deeper pockets when the primary defendants are asset poor or defunct . <p> In Central Bank v. First Interstate Bank in 1994 , the Supreme Court ruled there was no liability for merely aiding and abetting , but that such liability still would obtain for anyone who " employs a manipulative device or makes a material misstatement ( or omission ) on which a purchaser or seller of securities relies . " <p> In 2005 , the Supreme Court ruled in Dura Pharmaceuticals v. Broudo that plaintiffs must show a direct link between their economic loss -- the value of their securities -- and a defendant @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ raising the bar -- even for filing a lawsuit . In Tellabs v. Makor , the court said it was not enough to allege facts that might cause a " reasonable person " to infer fraudulent intent . Inferences of wrongdoing must be " cogent , and at least as compelling as any opposing inference of nonfraudulent intent . " <p> And a year later , the Supreme Court issued what many have called one of the biggest securities-fraud victories for business interests in many years -- in effect , shielding lawyers , accountants and bankers as secondary parties in securities litigation . <p> In Stoneridge Investment Partners v. Scientific-Atlanta , a cable TV provider enlisted two cable-box suppliers to help create sham transactions and backdated documents to inflate its apparent revenues by $17 million so the company would not fall short of Wall Street estimates . <p> The Supreme Court ruled 5-3 that investors did not show that they relied on that deceptive behavior behind the scenes in deciding to buy stock in the company . Justice Anthony M. Kennedy wrote in the majority opinion that such behavior was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ times . " <p> Even within the Bush administration , the case was viewed as highly volatile . In a friend-of-the-court brief prepared by the Justice Department on behalf of the SEC , the agency had sided with Enron investors . <p> But the brief was never filed . Following a complaint to the White House by Secretary of Treasury Henry Paulson , the solicitor general reversed field and filed a brief for the other side . <p> " As far as any of us can recollect , and I 've been around a long time , the White House has never before interfered in a securities case , " says former SEC staffer Eisenberg , who filed an amicus brief favoring the investors on behalf of several former SEC officials . <p> Stoneridge had immediate impact . Just days after its decision , the court threw out a similar claim of $40 billion by Enron investors against Merrill Lynch &; Co. and other firms and banks that made loans to Enron -- claiming they had helped the troubled company inflate revenues and hide debt . <p> L : KEEPING @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ STONERIDGE DECI-sion as an aria by a metabolically challenged diva . <p> " The door is still cracked open a bit , " says Larry Ribstein , a securities law expert who teaches at the University of Illinois College of Law . " There still are questions about what exactly needs to be proven in terms of lost causation arid what allegations are sufficient to prove liability on the part of nondirect participants . " <p> Coffee suggests that the role of credit agencies in the meltdown might be a good place to start . <p> " The credit rating agency was the gatekeeper that failed most in the recent derivatives scandal and they 've never been held liable for malpractice , negligence or securities fraud , " Coffee says . " That could change . " <p> Jonathan Macey , a professor at Yale Law School and noted libertarian scholar on corporate issues , thinks the importance of Stoneridge lies in the eye of the beholder . <p> " If you 're in the bubble fantasy world of the plaintiffs bar and think there 's social value in bringing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Macey . " It permitted people who were pretty active participants in an accounting fraud to be let off as defendants . <p> " But if you say these suits are like kudzu or cancer on corporate America , with massive amounts of costs and no benefits , then Stoneridge cuts away massive amounts of civil suits against extraneous parties . " <p> Ribstein , however , says he does n't think the credit meltdown , at its core , can be solved by either litigation or regulation . " It was a failure of judgment , a failure to recognize the obvious risk , " he says . " The fact that a lot of executives bet their companies , like at Lehman , on the proposition that real estate prices will always go up , seems to indicate a governance failure , and I 'm not sure how we fix that . " <p> Greenspan might well agree . He admitted to Congress that in his own analyses , he had failed to account for human nature . " Those of us who have looked to the self-interest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ especially -- are in a state of shocked disbelief . " <p> " WE COULD WELL HAVE SEEN SOMEONE FILE SUIT YEARS AGO OVER THESE DERIVATIVES , BUT NOBODY COULD TODAY BECAUSE THE HURDLES ARE SO HIGH AND THE RISKS SO GREAT . " <p> -- JONATHAN ALPERT <p> " ONE OF THE EARLY CAUSES OF TODAY 'S PROBLEMS WAS THE DEREGULATORY RIPPLE THAT STARTED IN THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION . THAT INCLUDED THE APPOINTMENT OF PEOPLE WHO DID N'T BELIEVE IN REGULATION . " <p> -- MEYER " MIKE " EISENBERG <p> " THE FACT THAT A LOT OF EXECUTIVES BET THEIR COMPANIES , LIKE AT LEHMAN , ON THE PROPOSITION THAT REAL ESTATE PRICES WILL ALWAYS GO UP , SEEMS TO INDICATE A GOVERNANCE FAILURE , AND I 'M NOT SURE HOW WE FIX THAT . " <p> -- LARRY RIBSTEIN <p> By Terry Carter <p>

@@4080041 NASA 's Space Shuttle program had a problem , yet no one at NASA knew . It was the type of problem that is becoming increasingly common in large organizations . Many of NASA 's systems projects rely on an extensive network of project teams , contractors , and subcontractors . Many of the relationships between NASA leadership and key players are mostly or completely virtual . In 2004 , NASA launched a project to develop the Orbital Boom Sensor System to inspect Space Shuttle tiles during orbit . The project had a strict , hard deadline -- a spring 2005 launch -- and involved the development of a number of key subsystems . One of the subsystems , the integrated boom , was subcontracted to a Canadian firm . Because most communication between NASA leaders in Houston and the engineers in Toronto was virtual , it was not apparent that the project had fallen seriously behind schedule . The Canadian firm , thinking it could catch up , never let NASA know where things stood . It finally became clear that the Canadian firm was not going to meet its deadline . Because all the project 's components @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Shuttle to make its launch date , the result was a project in crisis . This incident is typical of the types of problems caused when people and organizations communicate mostly or solely through electronic technology . Today 's telecommunications make it easier than ever to share complex information instantaneously . It is easy for managers to think this enables them to manage a project , a team , or a business . Yet the same telecommunications used to share information also makes it easy to lose touch with the people on the other end of those e-mails . It is easier than ever to make assumptions about what coworkers understand or how they will approach a task . We call this problem " virtual distance , " and engineering leaders are going to have to learn how to manage it . VIRTUAL DISTANCE Virtual distance occurs when individuals work together and communicate primarily through electronic media . After five years of research , we find that virtual distance is not about geographic distance alone . Instead , it has three major components : * Physical distance involves differences in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ includes the psychological gaps that arise from day-to-day problems in the workplace . * Affinity distance embodies the emotional disconnects among virtual team members who have no relationship with one another . Most virtual team leaders zero in on physical distance because it looks like the sole problem : team members feel far away because , for the most part , they really are . Yet physical distance is more complex than location alone . It also encompasses differences in time zones and organizational structure . Physical distance was part of the problem at NASA . The leadership was in Houston ; the subcontractor , in Toronto . When teams are far apart , they tend to interact less , and when they communicate , it 's usually through e-mail . This creates a sense of remoteness . In addition to space and time differences , the two organizations differed in terms of history , structure , and organizational culture . All the elements of physical distance were present and contributed to overall virtual distance . Yet operational and affinity distance played a much greater role than physical distance in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ call from hell " and wondered whether you lived on the same planet as the people on the other end , then you understand operational distance . It is the lack of connection between you and your counterpart in daily conversations . There are many reasons for it . In the past , strong teams shared a location . If an e-mail was not clear or a hard drive broke down or someone was overwhelmed by deadlines , a team member could walk over to the manager and discuss it . In virtual teams , those few simple steps are harder to take . The lone project member in Bhopal , India , may feel isolated when the rest of the project team is in San Francisco or Beijing . Multitasking and conflicting deadlines may overwhelm an engineer , who then responds more quickly to requests from people down the hall than from others across the country . Communications distance grows when e-mail is overused , abused , or simply relied on for all communications . Technical issues sometimes interrupt the flow of information , leaving unnoticed gaps . People @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they try to make their way through harried and sometimes difficult days . Most of the time , operational distance intensifies without conscious awareness . Yet , of the three components that contribute to virtual distance , operational distance is the most easily controlled by an alert and skilled leader . Many of these problems played out at NASA . Team leaders were managing multiple projects , all of which had a hard deadline . Most of the team was centered in Houston , isolating role players on the periphery . Because managers favored electronic communications , they could not read the clues that they might have noticed during site visits or even through phone calls . Our research indicates that the most important source of virtual distance is the lack of personal and social relationships among coworkers . We call this affinity distance . It is a product of shared culture , social distance within organizations , relationships , and interdependence . Cultural differences often show up as differences in communication styles and values , and grow out of mismatches in worldview , work ethic , and other values @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at the expense of teamwork and common purpose . Relationship distance escalates when team members have little or no shared history , friends , or acquaintances . This makes it hard to trust or be trusted by other team members . Mutual interdependence is also very important . Effective teams share a vision , a mission , and an understanding of how team members will carry out their interconnected tasks . Problems often arise when distance workers fail to see how their tasks fit into the big picture . These four factors -- values , social behaviors , shared experience , and mutual interdependence -- provide the context in which we develop and retain relationships . They are the glue that holds functional and fruitful teams together . Both NASA and its Canadian subcontractor shared strong affinities within their organizations . Unfortunately , those ties did not exist between the two organizations because their leaders had not taken the time to establish inter-partner affinity . BRIDGING DIVIDES Our initial book , Uniting the Virtual Workforce , detailed the phenomena of virtual distance . Our latest work , Leading the Virtual @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on extensive interviews with some of the most successful leaders of today 's virtual , global organizations , we identified important skills that effective leaders have used to minimize virtual distance . We have developed a virtual distance leadership model , which identifies and details the key competencies and actions critical for today 's virtual workforce leadership . The most important competencies are what we call techno-dexterity , traversing boundaries , glocalization , and authenticity . Techno-dexterity refers to the ability that successful leaders have to match the right technology with the right message so it has the most impact . They know when to use e-mail , video conferencing , or phone conferencing , and when face-to-face meetings are essential . When a message has a lot of data , e-mail can be the right choice . When it needs to communicate emotion , a face-to-face meeting works better . A few leaders use video conferencing for regular core team meetings . Others rely on personal blogs and social networking sites that encourage feedback to communicate with employees , partners , customers , and the public . Some have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Life . Traversing boundaries is the bridging of the differences that contribute to virtual distance . Boundaries arise for a variety of causes , ranging from dissimilar culture and organizational structure to gaps in age , tenure , and experience . If not managed properly , boundaries can create an " us vs. them " mentality . Today 's leaders have to be able to cross many dividing lines to bring virtual teams together . Phil McKinney , a VP at Hewlett-Packard , uses something he calls reverse mentoring , spending time with his company 's college interns to understand what motivates them and how they work . Most leaders prefer to deal with technological and market uncertainty but retain their hierarchical roles . To transcend boundaries , they should force themselves out of their comfort zone and face social situations that are often difficult to predict or control . Glocalization requires that a manager keep the big world and the immediate community both in focus . Successful leaders " think global but act local " when managing their workforces . They recognize that people live and work within the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be willing and able to act on behalf of a worldwide mission . To motivate employees , leaders need to communicate glocally , sending messages and employing work practices that speak to both the local culture and the global effort . They need to translate from local to global and back again as needed . Authenticity takes a little talent , some practice , and unrelenting commitment to oneself and the virtual workforce . After all , it 's one thing to exude genuineness when one is face to face with others . It 's another thing to demonstrate authenticity through virtual channels . Transparency goes hand in hand with authenticity . Those in authority must be willing to share information that may or may not be seen as favorable . Bill George , former Medtronic chairman and the author of Authentic Leadership , said that workers want inspiration . " People are too well informed to adhere to a set of rules or to simply follow a leader over a distant hill , " he wrote . This is especially true during this economic downturn , when so many @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . While information technology makes employees better informed than ever , they also know that much is still hidden from them . Combine this with reports of leaders gone bad and it creates a sense of pervasive distrust . To overcome this , leaders must not only communicate authentically , they must also make public the information that their virtual workforce needs to know if they are to earn and keep their team members ' trust . KEY COMPETENCIES Techno-dexterity , boundary breaking , glocalization , and authenticity are four key competencies effective leaders use to manage virtual distance . We believe these competencies support three key actions that are essential for effective leadership : creating context , cultivating community , and co-activating new leaders . Virtual distance often leads to communication breakdowns because leaders fail to create a commonly shared vision , mission , inspiration , and enthusiasm . Such shared context is like air in traditional work settings , barely noticeable because it is everywhere . Leaders and followers sit and work together . They are surrounded by peers who have bought into the message . Their shared @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ such social cues as knowing where people live and their affiliations outside of work . Researchers have consistently found that the members of high-performing teams see things through the same lens . That is not always the case in the virtual workforce , where shared context is often lost amid the intensive eye contact with screens instead of with other human beings . We found the best distance leaders establish and promote context by : * Viewing context as a continuous process and using every meeting -- face-to-face or virtual -- to repeatedly reinforce vision , mission , and goals . * Encouraging perspective-sharing . This is particularly important when multiple disciplines and cultures are represented in a project . Asking others to state how they understand an issue enables all team members to better understand one another 's values and style . * Serving as constant anchors when priorities , situations , and other factors change . Effective leaders act as the stable , familiar voice and face of the project . Creating context reduces the impact of physical distance , and reduces operational distance by illuminating others ' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a more closely shared set of values and allowing stronger relationships to emerge as understanding grows between culturally distinct groups . Cultivating community encourages engagement . Traditional notions of community are changing as communications and relationships move increasingly online . Successful leaders that we spoke with all have the capacity to build and maintain communities of individuals who are motivated to go beyond their prescribed roles and engage in " organizational citizenship . " This includes mentoring others , serving as technical resources , and taking on special projects . The people in these leader-inspired communities have several characteristics . First , they are cooperative . They go beyond gathering information and learning to initiate actions for the betterment of the organization . They are also constructive , finding ways to positively add to the greater good . And they are committed to the community and help build and maintain it . These living communities reduce the impact of physical distance by enabling greater interaction between employees and other community members . Operationally , their rich communications reduce the sense of loneliness that isolated workers sometimes feel . Even more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and values , as well as direct and indirect relationships . Co-activating new leaders is the process by which team members become influencers . The term " shared leadership " is often used when discussing virtual teams . The notion is that because teams are geographically distributed , most or all of the team members play a role in leadership . Our data tell us that great leaders go beyond shared leadership and engage in what we call co-activating leadership . These leaders seed virtual employees with the knowledge and skills that enable them to be leaders themselves . Co-activating leaders emphasize not only global experience , but the ability to bond with and understand different cultures . They also use both forward and reverse mentoring to both teach and learn from their employees . Co-activing leaders reduce the impact of physical distance by encouraging new and emerging leaders to take on leadership roles . Affinity distance is reduced by developing a greater understanding of cultural values and styles and by deemphasizing formal status . Operational distance is reduced by building a social network with embedded leadership to support and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ NEW RULES New leadership models are scarce . In fact , it 's easy and comfortable to say that we need the same kinds of leader behaviors , personalities , and situational positioning in the virtual workforce as we do in the traditional workforce . In part , that 's true . We are not arguing that these models are completely irrelevant . We are , however , saying that relying on old models alone , built using outdated assumptions that no longer apply , is not going to work any better for us than it did for NASA or any one of the thousands of organizations with virtual workers around the country or around the globe . Those workers come to the job with different perspectives , values , cultures , and skills . The virtual distance leader pulls these people together across virtual landscapes , fostering a sense of hope and a shared responsibility for creating a brighter and more solid foundation for the future . To Read Ware Uniting the Virtual Workforce : Transforming Leadership and Innovation in the Globally Integrated Enterprise by Karen Sobel Lojeski and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; Sons . They report on subsequent research in Leading the Virtual Workforce : How Great Leaders Transform Organizations in the 21st Century , written by Sobel Lojeski with contributions from Reilly . It is due to be published this month by Wiley . " Relying on old models alone , built using outdated assumptions that no longer apply , is not going to work . " " When a message has a lot of data , e-mail can be the right choice . When it needs to communicate emotion , a face-to-face meeting works better . " REDUCING VIRTUAL DISTANCE THROUGH CONTEXT BUILDING PHYSICAL DISTANCE * Stress common purposes for virtual workforce members to counter the negative effects of lack of shared physical spaces . * Understand organizations that others work for and how they relate to other team members , thereby reducing organizational distance . OPERATIONAL DISTANCE * Be aware of the workloads that everyone has been assigned , so no one is overloaded by unrealistic multitasking demands . * Have team members share information about their responsibilities to the project , and make sure that everyone understands @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ express their own ideas of the project during virtual meetings so that others will understand how values align . * Include time for social discourse during meetings so team members can make natural connections and formal status differences can be neutralized . REDUCING VIRTUAL DISTANCE THROUGH CULTIVATING COMMUNITY PHYSICAL DISTANCE * Tightly integrate members ' shared mission and vision to reduce effects of large geographic , time , and organizational distances . * Stress positive attitudes and respect for one another 's time and schedules . OPERATIONAL DISTANCE * Help team members understand the meaning of what others have to say to reduce chances of misunderstanding and conflict . * Confine criticism to the professional level . * Intervene , if necessary , to stop conflict at the personal level , thus freeing people to share new ideas and innovate on larger scales . AFFINITY DISTANCE * Make clear how goals are aligned so each individual can set personal goals to achieve the team 's mission . This kind of buy-in unites people and motivates them to act on behalf of one another . * Arrange for social interaction during @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ community become familiar with others and social distance overall is kept to a minimum . REDUCING VIRTUAL DISTANCE THROUGH CO-ACTIVATING LEADERS PHYSICAL DISTANCE * Mix face-time with screen time to reduce the negative impacts of physical distance . * Give team members global experience by letting them spend as much time as possible in the field and face-to-face with others . OPERATIONAL DISTANCE * Strive to maintain cross-communication among co-activated leaders within the context of the mission . * Give people opportunities to internalize the way others communicate , and see the context in which they work , live , and view the world . This insight can heighten the value of virtual communications when face time is not available AFFINITY DISTANCE * Draw out what team members have in common-cultural values , shared purpose , social ties -- to foster respect for everyone 's contributions . * Help people understand each other in terms of value systems . Establishing social ties with others while in their locale helps to cement long-term relationships . By Richard R. Reilly and Karen Sobel Lojeski Richard R. Reilly is Emeritus Professor in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Karen Sobel Lojeski is a professor in the Department of Technology and Society at the State University of New York . Stony Brook .

@@4080141 Wow , what a week of excitement ! The Photographic Society of America ( PSA ) celebrated its 75th anniversary with an outstanding conference and the most attendees in several years , totaling 617 . There were 203 First Timers , an absolutely huge number that accounted for over one third of the conference attendance . This was the largest attendance since Colorado Springs in 1994 . Flags of 15 countries were displayed in the main exhibition room in recognition of the 65 attendees from those countries . Could it be due to the fact that the conference hotel was only one mile from the entrance to Yellowstone National Park ? There were 35 tours that took PSAer 's into the park and close attractions beyond . The tours left early and stayed late in many instances to capture the early morning and late afternoon light as well as the animals in their most active state . The tours included Oxbow Bend in Grand Teton National Park , Old Faithful . Yellowstone Canyon , West Thumb and Hayden Valley , Midway Geyser Basin . Mammoth Hot Springs , Madison River and Firehole Falls . One tour that left at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ grizzly bear . More of the images that were captured included otters feeding in the river , an eagle and her immature offspring feeding near their nest , bulk elk and his harem of cows , moose , coyote , deer , chipmunks , and various others . A black wolf crossed the road rapidly near Oxbow Bend but was very elusive in his search for food . The plentiful geysers provided an interesting backdrop in the early morning light as well as many pleasing images at any time of day with their hot spewing waters glistening in the sun . The weather could n't have been better providing great lighting conditions at many hours of the day . The fall color at Oxbow Bend enhanced the picturesque scenery and the reflections added much impact to the images . The bull elk at sundown in the field with 12 cows provided many with a golden opportunity to capture the nature story of the fall season . Three otters fed in the river in great morning light for almost 45 minutes to provide many photographers with the opportunity to capture the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a three-mile backup on the park road , where the park ranger had to conduct traffic calls ! The eagle was another big attraction when it stole a fish from the immature eagle feeding on its catch . After much squawking , the adult prevailed ! There were many other great opportunities for photographs in such a natural wonder as Yellowstone National Park . Many thanks to Gerry Emmerich , FPSA , EPSA , for having the foresight to pursue such a wonderful area for the conference , it provided many with unforgettable images . The official opening of the conference was on Sunday afternoon with the Opening Ceremonies followed by 75 Years of PSA . This program showcased the Society 's birth , growth , and present-day functions . The 75th Anniversary Book was presented through a projected showing of all the accepted images . A Welcome to Yellowstone examined each of the tour destinations to provide attendees with places of great photo opportunities . An Anniversary Reception followed for camaraderie and refreshments . Chapters , Club , and Councils ( CCC ) sponsored the PSA Chapters ' Showcase @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Showcase . Chapters ' Salute to the 75th Anniversary , and the Best of ' Chapters ' Showcases . The Color Projected Image Division ( CPID ) programs included travel in Armenia and Georgia , low light and night photography , and composition with photographic seeing . It also sponsored essays , the best from Interclub competitions , the best of creative images , and the Color Projected Image Division International Exhibition . The Electronic Imaging Division ( EID ) held workshops on High Dynamic Range , Adobe Photoshop Elements . Intermediate Photoshop , Photoshop Lightroom , and Pro Show Gold . Classes also included using a digital SLR camera , essays , using Bridge , enhancing images with additional software , and the Electronic Imaging Division International Exhibition . Thanks to the presenters who held digital classes at the beginning of the conference . The Nature Division ( ND ) sponsored speakers to show migrations of the wildebeest and see life of the mountain gorillas , birds in the Falkland Islands , and how to best capture images of birds . Essays , an anniversary salute of outstanding images @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nature Division International Exhibition were also presented . The Photo Travel Division ( PTD ) took attendees to Burma , The Silk Road in China , and the Road to Timbuktu . Presented were PTD Travelettes , a discussion of what is and what is n't a photo travel image , and the Photo Travel Division International Exhibition . The Photojournalism Division ( PJD ) gave tips on finding photojournalism in a small town , quicksilver mining , photographing major sports , and PJD photo stories . They presented the Photojournalism Division International Exhibition . The Pictorial Print Division ( PPD ) gave techniques on using the digital darkroom to accomplish printing equivalent to the wet darkroom prints , presented images on four seasons in the wilderness , repairing defects and photo restoration , and presented the Pictorial Print Division International Exhibition . The Stereo Division ( SD ) highlighted the Montana and Wyoming region with images from various stereographers , showed 3D images from PSA members from around the world , and presented the top ranking stereo slide from the 2008 exhibitions . The Stereo Division International Exhibition was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ find the best light for landscapes and nature , getting the image right in the camera first using good techniques , sharing this week 's images in Yellowstone , easy ways of doing macro photography , and a preview of Charleston . South Carolina , the site of next year 's annual PSA conference . Many thanks to Canon USA for sponsoring George Lepp , who explored the Rockies with new technology and techniques of the digital realm , reinterpreting the landscape with photographic perspectives of panoramas , unlimited depth of field , high dynamic range , digital time lapse , and high-definition video . His recent shoot of the Chilean Patagonia captured amazing panoramic images of a unique location . Thanks also to John and Barbara Gerlach , professional photographers , for sharing their wonderful images in Yellowstone . Their program explored strategies and techniques-including back-button focusing , metering with the RGB histogram , high dynamic range ( HDR ) images , and how to use prevailing weather conditions and time of day and year to get outstanding images . Thursday evening brought another great program sponsored by W @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ African Audio Visual Safari . Presented by Barrie Wilkins , Hon. PSA , FPSA , and Jill Sneesby , the program concentrated on the magnificent natural history photo opportunities in southern Africa . The images were enhanced with a specially devised sound track , being divided into a number of sequences , each with their own distinctive sounds and images . Each image was a nature story of how the animals live and co-exist . Many thanks to W B Hunt Co. for sponsoring this terrific program . Another great evening presentation on Friday was given by Art Wolfe , and sponsored by Canon USA . The program entitled Heaven and Earth : A Multi-Media Presentation began with a look back at the history and events in Wolfe 's formative years that led the way to blend his creativity with his photographic skills . Visiting India , China , Nepal , and Bhutan , he portrayed the landscapes , wildlife and cultures of this area of the world . Again , many thanks to Canon USA for this outstanding program . A very popular presentation on Saturday by Julieanne Kost @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ new in Adobe CS4 and demonstrated the differences between Lightroom . Bridge , Adobe Camera Raw , and Photoshop . Many thanks to Adobe Systems for sponsoring this informative program . The print exhibition hall was the place of many gatherings for conference attendees to view the acceptances from the international Exhibition . Many thanks to PSA and the Pictorial Print Division for having receptions each night after the programs . They provided many tasty treats and an opportunity to meet and greet friends . Thanks also to W B Hunt Co. , B &; H Video/Photo , and Tamron for setting up displays for purchases , loans , and knowledge . It is difficult to express the gratitude and thanks to all the volunteers who spent countless hours in preparation for the success of the great conference . It will be one that will be remembered not only for its location , but the celebration of the 75th Anniversary of PSA . On behalf of all attendees , thanks to PSA for the four gifts that each received as a reminder and keepsake of the anniversary . The love @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fellow photographers was evident in the many members who made this conference a huge success . Prepare to join the Photographic Society 's Conference in Charleston , South Carolina on October 3-9 , 2010 at the Embassy Suites Hotel for some true Southern charm ! Many beautiful architectural designs and plantations as well as southern hospitality await you . Be a part of this continuing tradition and join us in Charleston . South Carolina ! See you there ! PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : PSAers enjoy photographic opportunities at Yellowstone . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Jan Todd and Icy Sowards , APSA , greet members at the Registration/ Information Desk , Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Ed ( APSA ) and Marge Gervais hanging prints . Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Popular evening presenters Jake Mosser III , FPSA , EPSA and Rick Cloran , FPSA , EPSA tell attendees " Where to shoot what . " Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Al Sieg , Hon. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PSA , FPSA admire stereo image display . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Presenters Barrie Wilkins , Hon. PSA , FPSA , and Jill Sneesby from South Africa . Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : PSAers gather on the bus for a Yellowstone photo tour . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Fred Greene , FPSA , EPSA , presents Norbert Heil from Germany with Proficiency ( PPSA ) award . Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Pat Gordy is presented with the Joseph Fallon Memorial Award by Membership VP , Joanne Stolte , APSA , EPSA . Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Distinctive Image medal winners Jozef Aertz , FPSA , EPSA ; Joanne Stolte , APSA , EPSA ; Bailey Donnally , FPSA , EPSA and Sam Shaw , FPSA , PPSA . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Fred Greene . FPSA , EPSA , presents Felice Frankel with the Progress Medal winner for 2009 -- PSA 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; WHITE ) : Lee Cares , APSA , and Jennifer Doerrie attend honors party O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Presenter Art Wolfe and visiting member . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Dick Frieders , Hon PSA , FPSA ( past president and outgoing Public Relations Vice President ) with wife Judy Frieders-dressed for the annual Honors Banquet , Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Banquet attendees . Photo Jerry Hug PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Jean Timmermeister , FPSA and Norma Mastin , FPSA at the banquet O. Truman Holtzclaw PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Rick , FPSA , EPSA and Marilyn Cloran , FPSA attend banquet . Photo O. Truman Holtzclaw By Carole L. Hagaman , FPSA

@@4080241 Gender-based violence ( GBV ) affects women across race , ethnicity , age , socioeconomic status , religion , sexual orientation , and geographic boundaries . No segments of society are immune from the vestiges of this problem . Yet GBV has been particularly harmful within communities of African ancestry African American communities suffer with greater lethality and more severe injuries than other racial and ethnic groups as a result of GBV . Despite this , there are limited culturally based services available to assist this population . The black experience-based social work ( BEBSW ) perspective , developed by Elmer and Joanne Martin , offers a framework that can be applied with black communities to address GBV . The central themes of BEBSW , which are separation and loss , are applied to considering strategies to address GBV within the African American community . KEY WORDS : African Americans ; black social work ; cultural competence ; domestic violence ; gender-based violence Gender-based violence ( GBV ) is defined as " physical , sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women , including threats of such acts , coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty , whether occurring in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . GBV includes childhood sexual abuse , " prenatal sex selection in favor of boys , female infanticide , dowry deaths , honour killings , female genital mutilation , trafficking and forced prostitution , forced early marriage , sexual assault and intimate partner violence " ( Renzetti , 2005 , p. 1009 ) . Although GBV is a critical problem within communities of color , limited culturally competent interventions are available to address this issue . The black experience-based social work ( BEBSW ) perspective , as discussed by Martin and Martin ( 1995 ) , offers a culturally based framework that can be applied within black communities . The central themes of BEBSW are separation and loss and are explained by using the three concepts : moaning , mourning , and morning . The purpose of this article is to explore how BEBSW can be applied to finding solutions for GBV among African American women . SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM Although this article discusses GBV solutions for African American women , it is important to contextualize the problem of GBV . It is estimated that one out of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Ellsberg , 2006 ; Stevens , 2001 ) . In a World Health Organization study on women 's health and domestic violence within 10 countries , physical violence , sexual violence , or both existed among 15 percent to 71 percent of the women ( Garcia-Moreno , Jasen , Ellsberg , Helse , &; Watts , 2005 ) . In another multicountry study on domestic violence , between 21 percent and 58 percent of the women surveyed experienced physical and sexual violence in their lifetime , and between 17 percent and 48 percent of these women experienced the same type of violence at the hands of an intimate partner ( Kishor &; Kiersten , 2004 ) . Intimate partner violence ( IPV ) is the most common of these types of violence . In a review of 70 population-based studies , the rate of IPV among women was between 10 percent and 60 percent ( Ellsberg , 2006 ) . In country after country , the statistics are staggering : Nearly 50 percent of women in Bangladesh have experienced IPV from a male partner ; 80 percent of women in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ every 83 seconds , a woman is raped in South Africa , with only 20 percent of these women reporting the case to police annually ( Family Violence Prevention Fund , 2007 ; Pan American Health Organization , 2005 ) . The United States is not exempt from these forms of violence . More than 30 percent of U.S. women have reported experiencing physical or sexual abuse by a husband or boyfriend each year ( Commonwealth Fund , 1999 ) , with estimates as high as 5 million U.S. women experiencing domestic violence each year ( National Center for Injury Prevention and Control , 2003 ) . African American women have been particularly vulnerable to more lethal forms of violence and greater severity of violence than other groups of women ( Bent-Goodley , 2001 ; T. West , 1999 ) . Women of color face increased barriers to treatment and are less likely to obtain services that are culturally responsive and , hence , more targeted at the social and cultural contexts in which they live ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ; Sokoloff &; Pratt , 2005 ) . African American @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the home and become incarcerated under mandatory arrest laws compared with women from other ethnic groups ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ) . African American women are more likely to be resistant to receiving services for fear of being treated poorly or misunderstood by the practitioner ( Bent-Goodley , 2004 ; T. West , 1999 ) . They have also experienced discriminatory treatment ; for example , African American women have been turned away from services , arrested , and prosecuted because of negative stereotypes ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ; T. West , 1999 ) . Increasingly , GBV has been acknowledged as a serious reproductive , sexual , psychosocial , and public health issue for women . Women who have experienced GBV have been more likely to experience poorer health , chronic pain , memory loss , spontaneous and induced abortion , and greater abuse during pregnancy ( Campbell , 2002 ; Women 's International Network News , 2003 ) . The connection between GBV and HIV has also received increasing attention as the rates of HIV are soaring in communities of African ancestry around the world ( Bent-Goodley @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to negotiate condom usage , can interfere with her ability to obtain needed medical or drug treatment , and can place her at risk of violence if it is determined that she has HIV/AIDS ( Decker , Silverman &; Raj , 2005 ; Garcia-Moreno &; Watts , 2000 ; Go et al. , 2003 ; Maman , Campbell , Sweat , &; Gielen , 2000 ) . Having a history of forced sex places women and girls at an even greater risk of contracting HIV/ AIDS ( Andersson et al. , 2004 ; Dunkle et al. , 2004 ; Fullilove et al. , 1993 ; Wyatt et al. , 2002 ) . Finding solutions to this problem must include a culturally based approach . Cultural Responses to GBV Because GBV touches the lives of people from such diverse cultures , it requires a culturally based approach . The different social and cultural contexts are critical to developing responses that are effective and make sense to the particular population ( Duffy , 2005 ; Jones et al. , 2001 ) . Women of color have acknowledged the importance of looking not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also at how they intersect to make women even more vulnerable to violence and other forms of oppression ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ; Guedes , Bott , &; Cuca , 2002 ; Sokoloff &; Pratt , 2005 ; van der Hoogte &; Kingma , 2004 ) . As such , stereotypes of women of color , lack of trust of outsiders and public officials , and fear of reporting due to the potential for discriminatory treatment and further violence are all reasons that women of color have given for why services should be culturally grounded and based on the recommendations of women in the community . Interventions should be holistic and should not just focus on the individual ; they should include an emphasis on the pervasive social ills , formidable health challenges , social and economic inequities , community perceptions , and social hierarchies that perpetuate these issues . Those in the international community , particularly women of color , have already begun the process of developing initiatives targeting GBV ( Guedes , 2004 ; Melendez , Hoffman , Exner , Leu , &; Ehrhardt , 2003 ; O'Hara @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 2001 ) . However , similar initiatives within the United States have been limited . This article offers one conceptualization of how to use a culturally based approach to address domestic violence in the African American community . BLACK EXPERIENCE-BASED SOCIAL WORK ( BEBSW ) There are strengths among African Americans that can be used to respond to domestic violence . The BEBSW approach builds on these strengths ( Bent-Goodley , 2005a ; Carlton-LaNey , 2001 ; Graham , 2000 ; Harvey , 2001 ; Martin &; Martin , 2002 ; Myers , 1988 ; Schiele , 2000 ) . BEBSW stands out as one way of addressing this complex issue through a culturally based approach . Using this approach does not dishonor the great variation and diversity of historical and contemporary experiences within the African American community , but , instead , builds on the notion of connectedness that still exists within this rich culture . BEBSW " drawls from a social work emphasis on black experiences , black values , black perspectives , and black methods of problem solving " ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ traditional Africa , slavery , and rural life after emancipation ... had their own ways of identifying problems and their own tools of intervention " ( p. 12 ) . African Americans have developed effective mechanisms to address social and community problems . BEBSW allows providers to build on that tradition . Martin and Martin ( 1995 ) argued that at the heart of many social problems in the black community is the struggle to deal with being separated from and losing family and friends . As a result , the three major concepts of BEBSW are moaning , mourning , and morning : " a linear progression from suffering ( moaning ) to collective healing and support ( mourning ) and finally toward an ideal state of health , happiness , and transformation ( morning ) " ( pp. 15-16 ) . Each concept is centered on the problem of separation and loss and the associated historical and contemporary trauma . Concept One : Moaning Moaning " refers to black pain , suffering and grief . Through moanin ' , or crying or shouting out , black people sought @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of its reality " ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 , p. 15 ) . Social workers are encouraged to focus on the problem of separation and loss and its associated trauma during this point of engagement in the helping relationship . Assessment is a part of this phase , as the social worker is required to assess the presenting issues and determine the nature of the problem . Essential to this concept is understanding that the survival of black people has largely rested on the ability to mask the problem . Building from historical and contemporary examples , Martin and Martin ( 1995 ) suggested that three major challenges to problem definition and assessment are ( 1 ) being able to see beyond the mask , ( 2 ) developing a trusting helping relationship , and ( 3 ) continuing use of inadequate assessment tools that do not consider cultural influences and strengths that can aid in the assessment process . In application , Martin and Martin ( 1995 ) emphasized the importance of using different assessment tools to ascertain what has happened and what is happening and to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ need for diverse tools of assessment that not only identify what is happening now , but also assess cultural history and how it applies to the current dilemma . The assessment process should not be limited to the individual and the present situation , but should also include an examination of the larger collective and historical context that could ' shape the individual 's experiences , circumstances , interpretations , and perceptions of the situation ( Carlton-LaNey , 2001 ; Franklin , 2000 ; Hill , 1999 ) . Using a BEBSW approach to assess GBV , its presence and severity , one must consider the nature of the helping relationship and how GBV is identified . A practitioner must work to develop trust with a woman before expecting the woman to divulge personal information that may , in her mind , have implications for herself , her family , and her community ( Bent-Goodley , 2005a ; Boyd-Franklin , 2006 ) . It is also critical to recognize that , as part of surviving the situation , past experiences , and the contemporary reality of her situation , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Martin &; Martin , 1995 ) . Without understanding the need to use the mask , the practitioner could incorrectly assess the problem or become unwilling to work with the woman because she is being perceived as resistant , defiant , or unpleasant to engage . In addition , some black women may not be perceived as needing help because their masks may not demonstrate a high risk to the worker . It is critical to identify the use of the mask and then figure out how it can be used to address the situation at hand . Finally , assessment tools and protocols are often ill-prepared to deal with these complex issues and realities . Current assessment tools and protocols often require that women share " the problem " within a specified timeline ( Boyd-Franklin , 2006 ) . Without respect for the sensitivity of the information being sought and the need to develop trust and a working relationship to ask the question , the process can then fuel the woman 's sense of mistrust because it could appear that the system is ill-equipped to deal with the situation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 2005a ) . In addition , the assessment could be faulty , incomplete , or both , diminishing the effectiveness of the assessment . Tools that include a focus on cultural influences and strengths are needed to create more informed and more accurate assessments ( Boyd-Franklin , 2006 ; Hill , 1999 ) . However , there are other issues of assessment to consider . How and when questions are asked is worthy of greater attention . It is insufficient to expect that a woman of color will divulge GBV within the context of living in a racist , sexist , and oppressive environment without considering the potential risks ( Bent-Goodley , 2004 ) . Assessment must take place within this context . There should be more time to develop the relationship ( Boyd-Franklin , 2006 ) . Other assessment strategies should include an honest discussion of issues of race and discrimination and their impact on the helping relationship and the perception of the situation ( C. West , 2003 ) . Assessment should also include an acknowledgment of stereotypes that affect a woman 's experiences and her perceptions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . The practitioner may find that the woman may not say how she truly feels to be socially acceptable or to not offend the practitioner . This decision can affect the flow and accuracy of communication and inhibit obtaining critical information . Finally , issues of separation and loss should also be discussed to not just include individuals lost through death , but also individuals lost through other means , such as abandonment ( Brice , 1999 ; Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 ) . Concept Two : Mourning Mourning " pertains to a collective effort to overcome grief and involves a collective process of identification , empathy , and catharsis " ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 , p. 15 ) . The mourning concept encompasses the problem-solving process and focuses on collective healing in the black community . The mourning process addresses the problem of hopelessness by providing relief and instilling hope among individuals and the larger community . Part of diminishing the secrecy and shame associated with GBV is helping those within the community to understand the concept of vulnerability , which is the idea that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and oppression ( Hill , 1999 ; Martin &; Martin , 1995 ; Schiele , 2000 ) . Finally , there is the idea that there are hidden injuries of race that often are not apparent but are present in each human interaction . Consequently , the color-blind approach counters effectively meeting the needs of the individual and the community ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ; Gondolf &; Williams , 2001 ) . The hidden injuries of race result in many African Americans feeling suspicion when working with formal service providers . The client may be reserved about sharing personal experiences and pain because of fear of being further isolated or viewed negatively by the practitioner ( Boyd-Franklin , 2006 ) . These types of issues can become so challenging that many African American clients try to ignore racial issues for fear of rejection , lack of validation , and further alienation . The cumulative effect of these components is the inability to mourn . Mourning is critical , as it represents a time when the person can be reaffirmed , where the problem can be reexamined and redefined to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , address the problem , and eventually heal ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 ) . Without the ability to mourn , the person might feel a profound and staggering sense of hopelessness and emotional vulnerability . In application , Martin and Martin ( 2005 ) stressed that the goal of the mourning process is cultural versatility , not social adaptation . The social worker is encouraged to examine the problem of loss , separation and trauma , and the historical and economic nature of the individual 's problems ( Brice , 1999 ; Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 ) , with an emphasis on a collective approach , to include informal networks and mutual aid groups . The social worker is encouraged to help the client recognize barriers , to facilitate a collective approach , and to bring individual pain to the surface so that there can be a collective reaffirmation , reexamination of the problem , and redefining of the issues . Ultimately , the social worker is helping to instill hope by earning the client 's trust and showing evidence of an emotional commitment to the client @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The social worker is called to ensure that the intervention is culturally relevant , addresses issues of separation and loss , and helps to instill hope within the individual and the community ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 ) . The mourning process reminds us that there can not be a color-blind approach to addressing GBV . It is insufficient to think that all black women experience GBV in the same way . Instead , the approach must respect the diversity among black women both as an ethnic group and as individuals , acknowledging that there may be central experiences and strengths within the black experience that lend themselves to intervention ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ; T. West , 1999 ) . Cultural relevance , in this context , would incorporate the use of mutual aid groups and informal systems into the intervention . Social workers can work with community- and faith-based organizations to develop creative solutions and mechanisms to address GBV ( Bent-Goodley &; Fowler , 2006 ) . They can also support indigenous practices and help to validate those practices that have been developed in the community @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Being culturally relevant is bigger than having pictures of African Americans on the walls or having frontline African American staff . Cultural relevance includes furthering the advancement of people of color who understand culturally specific practice and the cultural context , in senior administrative and board roles , and creating administrative policies that respect the culture . In short , people of color should be represented within the full spectrum of decision making , with policies and programs to foster an environment open to diversity and change ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ) . Having people of color in leadership roles does not mean that they are the only ones capable of providing such services . All practitioners , regardless of race , ethnicity , or role in an agency , should be held accountable for providing services that are culturally relevant to the population being served . Because separation and loss are central to understanding BEBSW , grief therapy is an essential component that can be used to address the problem . Grief therapy and the mourning process must acknowledge and incorporate cultural influences , reflect an understanding of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ build on cultural strengths ( Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 ) . The woman could be grieving the loss of a relationship , companionship , or having another person to help with parenting . Although the woman wants the violence to stop , she could also feel a loss , nonetheless , from an emotional and economic standpoint . It is important to acknowledge this separation and loss within the context of the cultural and historical experience . In addition , many black women choose not to talk about the violence they have experienced for fear of bringing shame to the family and community , because they do not want " everyone in their business , " or to protect the man ( Bent-Goodley , 2001 ; C. West , 2003 ; T. West , 1999 ) . It should be understood and relayed that there are cultural dynamics associated with grief and mourning ( Brice , 1999 ; Moore &; Bryant , 2003 ; Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 ) . There are also cultural strengths and tools associated with addressing issues of separation and loss that can be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so that she can heal in the future . Culturally based grief therapy must address all types of separation and loss , including non-death loss , from a cultural perspective . There is a cultural perspective to addressing separation and loss that is unique for African Americans and " often entangled with issues of racism and discrimination " ( Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 , p. 168 ) . This cultural perspective " refers to distinctively African American music , religious institutions , community life , values , culturally meaningful historical events and processes , foods , historically important and contemporary leaders , writings and much else " ( Rosenblatt &; Wallace , 2005 , p. 168 ) . It is vital to find ways to instill hope . Although a practitioner does not want to instill false hope , it is difficult for him or her to help people believe in the possibility of change if they do not see a part of the practitioner 's role as instilling hope . To instill hope , it is necessary to influence those systems that stifle hope . It is necessary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ To instill hope , one must have a vision , something to work toward that transcends the situation and points to a brighter future . To instill hope , one must be prepared to engage those systems that challenge the growth and potential of those who are oppressed . The social worker 's role is to instill hope for the individual and the community . Instilling hope does not mean that the worker should make promises or break professional boundaries ; instead , the worker should recognize the possibilities in a given situation . The worker then must convey this information to the client and create similar communications to the community . In addition , the practitioner is required to understand that the client empowers herself and that through the practitioner 's knowledge , skill , and enthusiasm , he or she can help the client connect or reconnect to her sense of power and potential ( Bent-Goodley , 2005a ) . Instilling hope is an important emphasis of the morning phase , and it is accomplished when the individual and collective empowerment of the group is targeted in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and that addressing the problem is worthy of all of us . Concept Three : Morning " Mornin ' ... represents a significant breakthrough , the arrival of a brighter day , a new beginning , a transformation , or a change " ( Martin &; Martin , 1995 , p. 15 ) . The goal of the morning concept is to strengthen the capacity of black people to face their problems and take action toward collective social , economic , and political empowerment that leads to social change . In application , the focus of the morning process is to foster the healing and growth of the community through collective empowerment . The role of the social worker is to help the client strengthen his or her sense of identity and connectedness to the community and historical legacy ( Carlton-LaNey , 2001 ; Hill , 1999 ; Schiele , 2000 ) . In addition , advocacy targeted toward social and economic change is emphasized as a means to foster the empowerment of the black community . The morning phase emphasizes the need for practitioners to invest in the individual @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to help her find ways to heal from violence . Indeed , the BEBSW approach stresses that knowledge of historical and contemporary events must translate into applied approaches to address the vestiges of generational oppression ( Bent-Goodley , 2005b ) . It is critical to include the community , as the woman defines it , through community education and organizing . This helps the community to not relegate violence against women and girls as a problem rooted in gender alone , but to also acknowledge the far-reaching impact of GBV so that it is not considered a woman 's issue only , but also a community issue ( Bent-Goodley , 2005a ; T. West , 1999 ) . The safety and protection of women and girls must be paramount , but its connection to the survival and strength of communities and nations must also be highlighted . The social worker must go beyond the individual and also serve as an advocate for policy and programmatic change on multilevels . Social workers are needed to strengthen advocacy efforts in this area and to broaden the discussion to include the need to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and finding ways to address the intersections of oppression ( Davis &; Bent-Goodley , 2004 ) . Social workers are uniquely positioned to foster greater dialogue and efforts to address GBV as the social work profession has a focus on social and economic justice . Understanding the direct service needs of this population , social workers are intimately aware of the broad spectrum of systemic needs and challenges experienced by this population ; consequently , they can serve as optimal advocates who can illuminate issues unknown to others , more efficiently mobilize those within the population , and intently influence necessary systems to better serve this population . It is critical that the community education process take place on multiple levels . The immediate community must be engaged . If a woman is being served in a community , then community education should ensue to facilitate collective affirmation . The communal approach has been acknowledged as a key cultural strength and an opportunity for social workers to better engage and respond to issues within African American communities ( Carlton-LaNey , 2001 ; Harvey , 2001 ; Hill , 1999 ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ allows social workers to develop sustainable responses to stopping violence within these communities . It further creates opportunities for community accountability regarding this issue . Culturally specific community education approaches are necessary to more effectively educate communities about this issue and to ensure their support in stopping the violence . These approaches must be specific to the community and recognize the residents ' diverse cultural thoughts and experiences . Community education provides a viable opportunity for social workers to fortify their response to GBV and create lasting solutions in response to this issue . CONCLUSION BEBSW provides a means of examining GBV from a culturally specific perspective and offers ways of responding to GBV . Using a black perspective , BEBSW roots the assessment , interventions , and healing from within a culturally responsive framework that posits change on multiple levels , including the individual , family , community , and societal levels . The BEBSW approach offers a framework to better understand how GBV is unique within the black experience . The approach reinforces the importance of instilling hope and addressing issues of separation and loss , both through @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to focus on culturally specific grief and community education approaches that evidence respect and awareness of the diversity , strengths , and challenges within this population . Social workers are uniquely and irreplaceably prepared to address the problem of GBV by offering new culturally specific strategies , enhanced advocacy , and greater awareness of this issue . The author thanks Dr. Joanne Martin and , in memoriam , Dr. Elmer Martin for laying such a critical foundation for many social work students to build on for the future . REFERENCES Andersson , N. , Ho-Foster , A. , Matthis , J. , Marokoane , N. , Mashiane , V. , Mhatre , S. , et al . ( 2004 ) . National cross-sectional study of view on sexual violence and risk of HIV infection and AIDS among South African school pupils . British Medical Journal , 329 , 952-956 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( 2001 ) . Eradicating domestic violence in the African American community : A literature review and action agenda . Trauma , Violence and Abuse , 2 , 316-330 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( 2004 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ African American women . Health &; Social Work , 29 , 307-316 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( 2005a ) . An African-centered approach to domestic violence . Families in Society , 86 , 197-206 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( 2005b ) . Culture and domestic violence : Transforming knowledge development . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 20 , 195-203 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( 2007 ) . Health disparities and violence against women : Why and how cultural and societal influences matter . Trauma , Violence , &; Abuse , 8 , 90-104 . Bent-Goodley , T. B. , &; Fowler , D. ( 2006 ) . Spiritual and religious abuse : Expanding what is known about domestic violence . Affilia , 21 , 282-295 . Boyd-Franklin , N. ( 2006 ) . Black families in therapy : Understanding the African American experience ( 2nd ed . ) . New York : Guilford Press . Brice , C. ( 1999 ) . Lead me home : An African American 's guide through the grief journey . New York : Aron . Campbell , J. C. ( 2002 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 13 , 1331-1336 . Carlton-LaNey , I. B. ( Ed. ) . ( 2001 ) . African American leadership : An empowerment tradition in social welfare history . Washington , DC : NASW Press . Commonwealth Fund . ( 1999 ) . Health concerns across a woman 's lifespan : 1998 survey of women 's health . New York : Author . Davis , K. E. , &; Bent-Goodley , T. B. ( Eds. ) . ( 2004 ) . The color of social policy . Alexandria , VA : Council on Social Work Education . Decker , M. , Silverman , J. , &; Raj , A. ( 2005 ) . Dating violence and sexually transmitted disease/HIV testing and diagnosis among adolescent females . Pediatrics , 116 , 272-276 . Duffy , L. ( 2005 ) . Culture and context of HIV prevention in rural Zimbabwe : The influence of gender inequality . Journal of Transcultural Nursing , 16 , 23-31 . Dunkle , K. L. , Jewkes , R. K. , Brown , H. C. , Yoshihama , M. , Gray , G. E. , McIntyre , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Prevalence and patterns of gender-based violence and revictimization among women attending antenatal clinics in Soweto , South Africa . American journal of Epidemiology , 160 , 230-239 . Ellsberg , M. C. ( 2006 ) . Violence against women : A global public health crisis . Scandinavian Journal of Public Health , 34 , 1-4 . Family Violence Prevention Fund . ( 2007 ) . The facts on international gender-based violence Fact Sheet . Washington , DC : Author . Franklin , D. L. ( 2000 ) . What 's love got to do with it ? Understanding and healing the rift between black men and women . New York : Simon &; Schuster . Fullilove , M. , Fullilove , R. , Smith , M. , Winkler , K. , Michael , C. , Panzer , P. , &; Wallace , R. ( 1993 ) . Violence , trauma , and post-traumatic stress disorder among women drug users . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 6 , 533-543 . Garcia-Moreno , C. , Jansen , H. , Ellsberg , M. , Helse , L. , &; Watts , C. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ health and domestic violence against women : Initial results on prevalence , health outcomes and women 's responses . Geneva : World Health Organization . Garcia-Moreno , C. , &; Watts , C. ( 2000 ) . Violence against women : Its importance for HIV/AIDS . AIDS , 14 , 253-265 . Go , V , Sethulakshmi , C. , Bentley , M. , Sivaram , S. , Srikrishnan , A. , Solomon , S. , &; Celentano , D. ( 2003 ) . When HIV-prevention messages and gender norms clash : The impact of domestic violence on women 's HIV risk in slums of Chennai , India . AIDS Behaviour , 7 , 263-272 . Gondolf , E. , &; Williams , O.J. ( 2001 ) . Culturally-focused batterer counseling for African American men . Criminology &; Public Policy , 6 , 341-366 . Graham , M. ( 2000 ) . Honouring social work principles : Exploring the connections between anti-racist social work and African-centred worldviews . Social Work Education , 19 , 423-436 . Guedes , A. ( 2004 ) . Addressing gender-based violence from the reproductive health/HIV @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ DC : The Population Technical Assistance Project . Guedes , A. , Bott , S. , &; Cuca , Y. ( 2002 ) . Integrating systematic screening for gender-based violence into sexual and reproductive health services : Results of a baseline study by the International Planned Parenthood Federation , Western Hemisphere Region . International Journal of Gynecology &; Obstetrics , 78 , 57-63 . Harvey , A. R. ( 2001 ) . Individual and family intervention with African Americans : An Africentric approach . In R. Fong &; S. Furuto ( Eds . ) , Culturally competent practice : Skills , interventions and evaluations ( pp. 225-240 ) . New York : Haworth Press . Hill , R. ( 1999 ) . The strengths of African American families : Twenty-five years later . Washington , DC : R &; B Publishers . Jones , D. , Weiss , S. , Malow , R. , Ishii , M. , Devieux , J. , Stanley , H. , et al . ( 2001 ) . A brief sexual barrier intervexation for women living with AIDS : Acceptability , use and ethnicity . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , &; Kiersten , K. ( 2004 ) . Profiling domestic violence : A multi-country study . Calverton , MD : ORC Macro . Maman , S. , Campbell , J , Sweat , M. D. , &; Gielen , A. C. ( 2000 ) . The intersections of HIV and violence : Directions for future research and interventions . Social Science &; Medicine , 50 , 459-478 . Martin , E. P. , &; Martin , J. M. ( 1995 ) . Social work and the black experience . Washington , DC : NASW Press . Martin , E. P. , &; Martin , J. M. ( 2002 ) . Spirituality and the black helping tradition in social work . Washington , DC : NASW Press . Melendez , R. , Hoffman , S. , Exner , T. , Leu , C. , &; Ehrhardt , A. ( 2003 ) . Intimate partner violence and safer sex negotiation : Effects of a gender-specific intervention . Archives of Sexual Behavior , 32 , 499-511 . Moore , J. L. III , &; Bryant , C. D. ( 2003 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Ed . ) , Handbook of death and dying ( Vol. 2 , pp. 598-603 ) . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage Publications . Myers , L. ( 1988 ) . Understanding an Afrocentric worldview : Introduction to optimal psychology . Dubuque , IA : Kendall-Hunt . National Center for Injury Prevention and Control . ( 2003 ) . Costs of intimate partner violence against women in the United States . Atlanta : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . O'Hara , M. , Garbharran , H. , Edwards , M. , Smith , M. , Lutchmiah , J. , &; Mkhize , M. ( 2003 ) . Peer led HIV/ AIDS prevention for women in South African informal settlements . Health Care Women International , 24 , 502-512 . Pan American Health Organization . ( 2005 ) . Gender-based violence and HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet . Washington , DC : Author . Renzetti , C. M. ( 2005 ) . Gender-based violence . Lancet , 365 , 1009-1010 . Rosenblatt , P.C. , &; Wallace , B. R. ( 2005 ) . African American grief . New York @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Human services and the Afrocentric paradigm . New York : Haworth Press . Sokoloff , N.J. , &; Pratt , C. ( 2005 ) . Domestic violence at the margins : Readings on race , class , gender and culture . Piscataway , NJ : Rutgers University Press . Stevens , L. ( 2001 ) . A practical approach to gender-based violence : A programme guide for health care providers and managers . New York : United Nations Population Fund . United Nations . ( 2007 ) . Declaration on the elimination of violence against women . Retrieved April 15 , 2007 , from http : **39;54001;TOOLONG ( Symbol ) /ARES.48.104.En van der Hoogte , L. , &; Kingma , K. ( 2004 ) . Promoting cultural diversity and the rights of women : The dilemmas of ' intersectionality ' for development organizations . Gender and Development , 12 , 47-55 . West , C. ( Ed. ) . ( 2003 ) . Violence in the lives of black women : Battered , black and blue . New York : Routledge . West , T. ( 1999 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and resistance ethics . New York : New York University Press . Williams , O.J. ( 2007 ) . Concepts in creating culturally responsive services for supervised visitation centers . Minneapolis : Institute on Domestic Violence in the African American Community . Women 's International Network News . ( 2003 ) . Gender-based violence and reproductive health and HIV/AIDS . Lexington , MA : Author . Wyatt , G. E. , Myers , H. , Williams , J. , Kitchen , C. , Loeb , T. , Carmona , J. , et al . ( 2002 ) . Does a history of trauma contribute to HIV risk for women of color ? Implications for prevention and policy . American journal of Public Health , 92 , 660-665 . Original manuscript received May 17 , 2007 Final revision received January 26 , 2009 Accepted February 3 , 2009 By Tricia B. Bent-Goodley Tricia B. Bent-Goodley , PhD , LICSW , is professor , School of Social Work , Howard University , 601 Howard Place , NW , , Washington , DC 20059 ; e-mail : **30;53554;TOOLONG

@@4080441 Many authors have noted an association between Mnire syndrome and migraine headache . In an attempt to explore a possible link between these two disorders , we performed an epidemiologic study . The National Health Interview Survey ( NHIS ) includes interviews with tens of thousands of patients annually to estimate the incidence of various diseases . In this study the data collected from the NHIS for the years 1986 to 1988 and 1994 were analyzed to determine the incidence of Mnire syndrome and migraine headache . A total of 423,400 individuals were interviewed over the combined 4 years included in this evaluation . The incidence of migraine headache was calculated at 3.8% , and the incidence of Mnire syndrome was estimated at 0.14% . The incidence of migraine headache in patients with Mnire syndrome was estimated at 4.5% . The incidence of migraine headache was not substantially elevated in patients with Mnire syndrome when compared to the general population . Mnire syndrome classically involves episodic sensorineural hearing loss , tinnitus , aural fullness , and vertigo . In his landmark publication in 1861 , Prosper Mnire noted that many of his patients presenting with what we now know @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , " Some hemicranias accompanied by vomiting very often terminate in deafness .... They are accompanied by noise , vertigo , and gradual weakening of the hearing . " n1 Since that time , substantial controversy has ensued regarding a link between these two disorders . Many authors have purported an increased incidence of migraine headache in patients with Mnire syndrome . Radtke et al identified 78 patients diagnosed with Mnire syndrome according to the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery ( AAO-HNS ) criteria. n2 Telephone interviews revealed an increased incidence of migraine headaches ( 57% ) when compared to matched controls ( 25% ) ( p &lt; 0.001 ) using the International Headache Society criteria . Parker , in a 1995 study , performed a computer review of 1,630 cases of dizziness and found 85 patients with Mnire syndrome. n3 Twenty nine ( 34% ) of these patients also had migraine headache ; however , the International Headache Society criteria were not used . The quoted incidence for migraine headache in the general population was approximately 18% in women and 6% in men ; this difference was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ large retrospective study of migraine headache and identified 6 patients with Mnire syndrome of the 280 patients with migraine headache ( 2.1% ) . n4 They argued that this increase over the usual incidence of Mnire syndrome ( 0.05 to 0.1% ) was evidence for a pathophysiologic link between the two disorders . Hinchcliffe identified 42 patients with Mnire syndrome and asked them , " Have you at any time suffered from migraine or severe headaches ? " n5 He found 76% answered yes , which was statistically significant when compared to a control population . Still other studies refute such a link . In a study by Rassekh and Harker , 38 patients were selected who fulfilled the criteria for Mnire syndrome according to the AAO-HNS. n6 Of the 38 patients , 7 ( 18.4% ) also fulfilled migraine headache criteria . This compared with a 33% incidence of migraine headache in control subjects. n6 A careful review of the literature for a link between the incidence of Mnire syndrome and the incidence of migraine headache remains inconclusive . In the hope of clarifying this controversial issue , an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Survey ( NHIS ) was performed . The NHIS is an annual survey of the noninstitutionalized population within the United States across ages , races , and sexes . The study is self-reported , such that patients specify whether they have a specific disease without diagnostic workup or laboratory evaluations . Methods The NHIS is a multistage probability sample survey . To ensure equal representation of minority populations , the NHIS oversamples minority groups . As a result , sampling weights must be employed to underweight the oversampled and overweight the undersampled . The survey is performed as follows : A subject is randomly assigned one of six different lists . The six lists are skin/muscle , impairments , digestive , miscellaneous , circulatory , and respiratory . Each list is presented to one-sixth of the population sampled . The exact wording in the survey is as follows : " During the last 12 months , did you have ( condition listed ) ? " Only the diseases on one of the six lists can develop an incidence estimate . This is done by weighting the sample with the basic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ As migraine headache is an identifiable disease listed within the miscellaneous category , an incidence estimate can be directly generated . If the subject suffers from a disease not on the standardized list , it still can be identified by the subject . When a disease results in a functional limitation , a follow-up interview with the patient allows for identification of the nonlisted disease , which is then tabulated . A functional limitation is defined as any limitation of activity , any requirement of the subject to seek medical care , or any loss of workdays secondary to illness or contact with the healthcare system . A directed interview then identifies the disease . Mnire syndrome , because it is not on any of the surveylists , requires a functional limitation to be present in order to be tabulated . Consequently , only an estimate of the incidence can be calculated . After the subjects were surveyed and interviewed , the data were tabulated and analyzed for this study . Although the survey is done annually , only the years 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , and 1994 were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ years which the analyzing author ( JA ) had sufficient time to format the massive amounts of data into the searchable format required by this study . Results For the combined NHIS years 1986 to 1988 and 1994 , a total of 423,400 subjects were interviewed in the survey . Of those , 69,736 subjects were given the list containing migraine as a selection . After the responses were obtained from the subjects , incidence estimates were calculated by the NHIS by first weighting the obtained sample to best approximate the noninstitutionalized population in the United States . Once the corrected sample was calculated , the incidences of Mnire syndrome and migraine headache were estimated . The results are tabulated in the table . Discussion Because Mnire syndrome was not a listed disease on any of the 6 disease categorylists presented to the subjects , the only way it could have been counted was if a respondent reported a functional limitation . As a result , only the sicker individuals with Mnire syndrome were counted because subjects with recurring Mnire syndrome who did not have a functional limitation or contact @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ interview were not included . Therefore , the incidence estimate of Mnire syndrome is likely to be somewhat biased toward underestimation of the disease and overestimation of the disease effect . However , it seems unlikely that patients with recurring Mnire syndrome would have been free of any functional limitation or would not have contacted the healthcare system given the substantial impact of the syndrome . Consequently , the bias from this technique would appear to be minimal . This study found an incidence of Mnire syndrome of 0.14% , which is comparable to other estimates reported in the literature . The incidence of Mnire syndrome has been estimated at 0.05% in Sweden and 0.1% in Britain. n7 Its incidence in Japan has been estimated at 0.05%. n8 The 3.8% incidence of migraine headache generated by this study is lower than that of most other large series . The prevalence of migraine headache from large population-based studies has ranged from 11 to 18% , n9 and the incidence of migraine headache in Western countries has been estimated at 10 to 12%. n10 Incidence is defined as the occurrence of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ year . Prevalence is defined as the occurrence of a disease over the entire life span of a patient . This study reports the incidence estimates for Mnire syndrome and migraine headache , whereas most studies published have reported prevalence data . Care must be made not to confuse these two parameters . It is important to note that the incidence estimates in this study were based on information reported by the subjects and not based on a physical examination or history taken by a physician at the time of the survey . Although the majority of patients reporting any specific illness have likely been diagnosed with the disease by a physician , subjects had the opportunity to select a disease even if they had never been seen by a doctor . As a result , the incidence of migraine headache is lower than in other reported series . The likely explanation for the low self-reported incidence of migraine headache in this survey when compared to other studies is that many patients are unaware that they are , in fact , having migraine headaches . In this review , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was 4.5% , quite close to the 3.8% incidence of migraine headache in the general population . Statistically , one can not calculate a p-value to compare the incidence of migraine headache in the general population with the incidence of migraine headache in Mnire syndrome . This is because the incidence of migraine headache in the general population is calculated directly , whereas the incidence of migraine in Mnire syndrome can only be estimated . However , it remains clear that no substantial increase in the incidence of migraine headaches in subjects with Mnire syndrome was seen in our study . Despite the passage of nearly 150 years since Mnire 's initial report , we still lack any laboratory or quantitative testing to definitively identify either Mnire syndrome or migraine headache . Until such testing is developed , the significant amount of overlap between the diagnostic criteria of both conditions will confound any analysis . Table . Incidence estimates for migraine headache and Mnire syndrome pre-formatted table References ( n1 . ) Mnire P. Pathologie auriculaire : Memoires sur une lesion de l'oreille interne donnant lieu des symptoms de congestion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n2 . ) Radtke A , Lempert T , Gresty MA , et al . Migraine and Mnire 's disease : Is there a link ? Neurology 2002 ; 59(11):1700-4. ( n3 . ) Parker W. Menire 's disease . Etiologic considerations . Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1995 ; 121(4):377-82. ( n4 . ) Kayan A , Hood JD . Neuro-otological manifestations of migraine . Brain 1984 ; 107 ( Pt 4 ) : 1123-42. ( n5 . ) Hinchcliffe R. Headache and Menire 's disease . Acta Otolaryngol 1967 ; 63(4):384-90. ( n6 . ) Rassekh CH , Harker LA . The prevalence of migraine in Menire 's disease . Laryngoscope 1992 ; 102:135-8. ( n7 . ) Harker LA , McCabe BF . Meniere 's disease and other peripheral labyrinthine disorders . In : Paparella MM , Shumrick DA ( eds ) . Otolaryngology. 2nd ed . Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders Co. ; 1980 : 1878-89. ( n8 . ) Watanabe 1 . Incidence of Meniere 's disease , including some other epidemiological data . In : Ooservald W. ( ed ) . Meniere 's Disease : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sons Ltd. ; 1983:16. ( n9 . ) Rasmussen BK , Jensen R , Schroll M , Olesen J. Epidemiology of headache in a general population -- a prevalence study . J Epidemiol 1991 ; 44(11):1147-57. ( n10 . ) Breslau N , Rasmussen BK . The impact of migraine : Epidemiology , risk factors , and co-morbidities . Neurology 2001 ; 56 ( 6 Suppl 1 ) : S4-12 . By Quinton Gopen , MD ; Erik Viirre , MD , PhD and John Anderson , PhD From the Division of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery ( Dr. Gopen and Dr. Viirre ) and the Department of Family and Preventative Medicine ( Dr. Anderson ) , University of California , San Diego School of Medicine , La Jolla , Calif . Corresponding author : Quinton Gopen , MD , Division of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery , University of California , San Diego School of Medicine , 9350 Campus Point Dr. , La Jolla , CA 92037 . E-mail : qgopen@gmail.com.

@@4080541 My wife sleeps late . Even without jet lag and the hard work of shuttling from city to city on a book tour in Italy , she enjoys what sleep she can bribe from Morpheus with offerings of Ambien . Last October , as she slumbered , I drove our rental car along the western shore of Lake Como to Ossuccio , a tiny hill town known for its Sacro Monte , or sacred mountain , where 14 pilgrimage buildings are inhabited by life-sized wood-and-plaster figures re -- creating events in Christ 's life . I had become interested in these Sacri Monti scattered throughout pre-Alpine Italy " after reading an essay by the 19th-century British novelist Samuel Butler , who championed them as a neglected alternative to the aft we think of as quintessentially Italian : that of Florence , Venice , Rome , The roads were less congested in early morning , but it was still a relief to leave the garish tourist excrescences near the lake and navigate the narrow switchbacks up and back into time . I parked the car near the base of the hill and hoofed it , like generations of pilgrims before @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to work for one 's salvation , not stroll down a garden path . Being oblivious , or American , I did it wrong . A tiny tractor pulling rocks pointed the way , and I set off up the cobbled path , deciding I would peek into the enclosed dioramas on the way back down . This meant I distorted the design , but not being Catholic , or even Christian , perhaps I was just feeling rebellious . Passing a church doubtless intended as the culmination of the pilgrimage , I kept going , and the climb became really steep , in places about a 40-degree slope . Try doing that , even in a tractor . I assumed that more small shrine buildings lay ahead deep in the beautiful forest . Sheepishly , I turned back only when I came across a cardboard sign reading Vendesi tacked to a tree , realizing anything " For Sale " could n't be that holy . But it was one of those mornings when everything was bathed in metaphor , so the idea of a child of the transcendentalists leaving @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ felt apt , as did that For Sale sign as my reward . On the way down I saw the shrines in reverse , ending up in the cradle rather than in resurrected glory . The weathered 17th-century figures , open to the air but guarded by metal grilles , were set against nearly ruined frescoes stacked on an almost inaccessible hill . Many of them were being restored . Their hands and heads were wrapped in plastic to protect them from the elements , and scaffolds held up angels born to fly . Perfect . Somehow , the repairs added to the figures ' poignancy and made what was already a grand cycle of installation art wonderfully accessible . To have adventures like these is why we leave our own shores . A student of mine , on hearing my description of another experience like it , said , " Not everyone gets to go to Europe . " True , and given the trajectory of the dollar , many may never get the privilege . This same student had been told by one of my colleagues that art @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ avoid Europe as the home of used-tip and irrelevant brown paintings . I have different ideas about Europe , especially Italy , although today Michelangelo would scarcely recognize his native Florence , infected by traffic and surrounded by rampant growth . I complained to a friend that the Assisi of 40 years ago had seemed like a ship in a sea of pasture land , whereas it now feels like a fort surrounded by a besieging army of tire stores . " Yon should have been there in 1956 , " he said . Eighteen fifty-six would have been even better . Or 1756 . That was when wealthy northern aristocrats all took the Grand Tour through Italy . Artists flocked there to study their patrimony ; some , like Nicolas Poussin in the 17th century , traveled to Rome and stayed . What can today 's young artists get from such a Grand Tour ? Can they see through Berlusconi 's Italy to that of the Medici ? What can they learn ( or steal ) from Italian art ? That visit to Assisi was on my first trip @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ girlfriend , fresh out of college , where I had majored in rioting , I was not sure what to do with my life . Historian ? Actor ? We visited a nameless church in Venice ( nameless to us -- it was San Zaccaria ) , put one of our few coins in the luminoso , and my life changed , or so it seems to me now . A sumptuous altarpiece flashed in front of me like a conversion experience , and when the light went out I would have robbed the mendicant at the church door of her coins to see Giovanni Bellini 's gorgeous visual feast again . The revelation led to graduate art school back in the States , then two years of teaching , as I , all the while , champed at the bit to get hack to Italy . Next time , I stayed for four bittersweet months , during which I saw things so profound that they made the Western tradition in art feel utterly daunting to a young artist . I had studied with artists immersed in the history of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ late 20th century . But what do you do in the face of Italy 's sheer , serf-evident , overpowering genius ? You cower and do your best . You study not the look of great works but their underlying metaphoric structure , how their sophisticated feel for form becomes their content . The Annunciation as an article of faith means little to me , but in a painting of it I observe two figures , structured as simply as AB : one earthbound , feminine , passive ; the other an alternate way of being , some embodiment of mystery . Where in the painting 's space are the figures , near or far , and what happens to the space in between ? Compositional inventions , pictorial intelligence , spatial subtlety : all become an autodidact 's treasure trove . In the hundreds of paintings of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise , who ca n't relate to the tragedy of their loss ? Again we can see an AB structure , with A as a dream of perfection and B as harsh reality . Representations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ figures , then crowds . Giotto and Masaccio introduce a world of gravity , of human responsibility and consequence . We do n't need to paint images of Christ to see a Fra Angelico , a Piero della Francesca , or a Caravaggio as an example of a quality we can aspire to , even knowing the odds are against us . We engage in a conversation with people whose visual thinking we can comprehend . On an ideal Grand Tour , we would set out to see Italian art in its temporal sequence . Start with Greek art , from the archaic to the Hellenistic , which served as the model for most art of the Roman Empire . Follow Roman art 's trajectory from sophistication to blocky simplification to bug-eyed crudity as the empire fell . See how Nicola and Giovanni Pisano in sculpture and Giotto and Duccio in painting resuscitate the tradition in the 1300s . Put yourself in their shoes . We tend to read art backward , as if the choices made at any given moment are determinist necessities , but , over the centuries @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ artists have had to cut some Gordian knot . Giovanni Pisano looked carefully at Roman sarcophagi . But what did Giotto look at ? Leaving aside the power of individual genius , we can simplify our options down to those of culture and nature . Dig up your ancestral precedents , sometimes quite literally : you can see what Michelangelo learned from the excavated Belvedere Torso , now in the Vatican Museum . Rethink the lessons of our inheritance , our culture . Turn to nature and look more carefully , finding orders previously neglected . Draw from life . The first art historian , Giorgio Vasari , felt that his hero Michelangelo had perfected art , outperformed the past , and conquered nature . This view prevailed for roughly half a century before artists began to question Vasari 's assumptions . We could benefit from a similar scrutiny of today 's art world 's beliefs . Continuing our Grand Tour , we would eventually come across the Carracci brothers and their cousin from Bologna . These three provincials believed the way out of art 's cul-desac involved searching their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ day , and in so doing , they helped reinvigorate Italian art . If their solution called for an immersion in culture , Caravaggio turned once again to the very careful study of nature . Such bursts of wonder seem inevitably bracketed by slumps : time and again , artists have found themselves in a barren field wondering how to revivify art . Moments of great fertility alternate with drought . Bursts of energy are followed by exhaustion . As our tour continues , the Baroque itself becomes conventionalized , and we wander disconsolate through acres of 18th- and 19th-century Italian art . Yes , little seeds can be found in the chaff , and " occasionally even full-blown glories like Tiepolo . But rather than considering the tradition monolithic , we might imagine it as composed of the work of talented individuals . Artists can add to this vast collection . Auguste Rodin cut his own Gordian knot , the moribund Beaux Arts naturalism of his time , by rethinking Michelangelo 's emotional distortions of form . A multinational generation followed with rebellions of their own , from Romania @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's sequence is carried in the serious artist 's head . Interested in figurative sculpture ? Go to Munich 's Glyptotech , Athens 's Acropolis museum , Rome 's Termini . Draw Bernini 's angels in Rome , study Giambologna 's spiral Sabine women in Florence , or spend time there in the Marino Marini museum . That 's essentially what Marini himself did , and if your ambition is to add to this vast corpus , consider doing the same , weak dollar or no . On our recent trip , my wife and I dropped friends off at Malpensa airport in Milan and rocketed north to Castiglione Olona , home to an intimate but fabulous room of frescoes painted by Masolino in 1435 . I had always wanted to see them , but by the time I screeched to a halt -- abandoning my longsuffering spouse and running uphill yet again -- the doors were closing for that day and the next . I begged breathlessly in broken Italian to be let in . I was , if only for a few minutes , which proved hardly sufficient @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ me from despair . Then it was time to find a hotel . The autostrada in the Po Valley seemed interchangeable with the New Jersey Turnpike west of New York City , and as we searched for accommodations , we grew more and more depressed by the drabness of the landscape . We ended up in Varese , where the next morning , as my wife slept , I decided to squeeze in another Sacro Monte . The path , 10 times wider than the one at Ossuccio , was built to accommodate the carriages of Italian nobility . The houses thinned as I drove on , once again gaining altitude and venturing back in time . On this trip I peered into the 14 chapels in order . Here I found sophisticated terra-cotta figures instead of gesso and wood , and well-preserved frescoes were integrated as backdrops , though the glass behind the iron grilles made them feel less immediate . This was a different , experience from Ossuccio , and my response was more thoughtful than emotional . What some have called the theatrical in visual art fell @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Clement Greenberg and Michael Fried called for self-sufficient , freestanding art objects , a variation on art for art 's sake . Viewed from their perspective , a good deal of world art became suspect , even such triumphantly emotional works as Bernini 's Saint Teresa in Rome 's Cornaro Chapel , where we watch the saint 's ecstasy along with marble observers , as if at a small theater . Italy 's Sacri Monti would have given Greenberg a coronary . They leak over into life rather than standing aloof as pure form . He believed that art should aspire to the purest distillation of its material nature , so that painting needed to assert its flatness and sculpture had to be self-contained , calling attention to its materials as , say , bronze , clay , or steel . The Sacri Monti installations would be , for Greenberg , a sentimental mishmash straining the very definition of art . I , too , am drawn to sculpture in the round that defines its own space , musically stating and varying its own internal rhythms . Michelangelo himself believed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ after being rolled down a hill . In the past , having unknowingly absorbed Greenberg 's prejudices , I might have disdained these Sacri Monti , but in Varese I was moved and intrigued . The sculptors were n't Michelangelo or Bernini ( who is ? ) , but they believed passionately in their local way of doing things . They wanted us to feel present at the Crucifixion , implicating us morally as we mingle with the crowd mocking or mourning Christ . The Sacri Monti embrace theatricality , purposely blurring the border between art and life , immersing us as participants in the work rather than treating us as appreciative spectators . They reject the kind of subtle homogenization that threatens today 's world art ( it seems to me that galleries and contemporary art museums everywhere are filled to bursting with sameness ) . The Sacri Monti remind us of difference , specificity , and contextual thinking . That may be , for me , the best reason to look for the needle in the haystack . In 1977 I was lucky enough to find such a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 15th-century Madonna del Parto in its original location in a tiny cemetery in Monterchi . I had to bribe the caretaker , who pulled aside the gates to reveal a reassuring image of maternal care melded with geometric certainty . I felt like a Quattrocento pilgrim having a private communion in a near state of nature , surrounded by the gravestones of other mendicants . On a subsequent visit , however , I was disappointed to learn that the Madonna had been moved and imprisoned in the white walls of a museum . It takes time and even work to glean the wheat from the chaff , but what else makes life rich ? At my age , depleted by the massive effort of travel , it makes me want to go home and create something I can believe in . Something that reminds me of the truly great , if sadly rare , things I have seen : things that become less physically accessible but live in my memory as a goal and an inspiration . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : A Sacro Monte chapel in Varese : art @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lincoln Perry Lincoln Perry is painting a large mural cycle for the University of Virginia in Charlottesville , where he and his wife , Ann Beattie , live for part of the year . He works in many media , from oils to terra-cotta sculpture , and has shown in New York , Los Angeles , Maine , Florida , and Virginia .

@@4080641 Considering the coping effect and health connections of diary-keeping behaviour , the purpose of the present study was to investigate diary-keeping in relation to happiness and gender among Turkish teacher trainees . A sample of 417 teacher trainees between the ages of 18 and 29 was surveyed . Happiness was considered as consisting of positive and negative affect and life satisfaction . The results revealed mostly dissatisfaction with life among Turkish teacher trainees . Females reported more negative affect than males do . Although no significant relationships were found between happiness and diary-keeping , gender differences in diary-keeping behaviour were found in favour of females . Key Words : teacher trainees ; diary-keeping ; happiness ; culture 1 . Introduction Improving the personal development of teacher trainees is as important as improving their content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge during their pre-service years . Considering the role of teachers in the intellectual , emotional , social , and spiritual development of their students , administrators , curriculum planners , instructors and counsellors working with teacher trainees are primarily expected to contribute to the personal development of teacher trainees before starting to serve as teachers and role models for their students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are interested in contributing to the personal development of teacher trainees face within the recent literature . Happy teacher trainees , those who are satisfied with their lives , experience frequent joy , and infrequent unpleasant emotions such as anger and sadness , are supposed to engage more in intellectual and personal activities , which in turn enhances their total development through their pre-service years . Moreover , happy teacher trainees are supposed to become happy teachers in the future . Considering the characteristics of happy people mentioned in the literature , investigating diary-keeping behaviour among teacher trainees seem crucial , since keeping a diary has the potential to contribute to self-discovery and personal development . Moreover , diary-keeping is a self-initiated coping behaviour ( Burt , 1994a , 1994b ) that may cause or affect happiness . 1.1 . Studies on happiness As a result of the positive paradigm in the field of psychology ( Seligman &; Csikszentmihalyi , 2000 ) , the investigation of happiness has attracted attention since the middle of the twentieth century . Happiness has been investigated especially by using the term subjective well-being ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ life satisfaction ( the cognitive aspect ) , the presence of positive affect , and the absence of negative affect ( the affective aspects ) ( Diener , 1984 ; Diener , Suh , &; Oishi , 1997 ; Myers &; Diener , 1995 ) . Over the years , several studies have examined the correlates of happiness , revealing weak relationships with demographic variables such as education , ethnic status , and age ( Campbell , Convers , &; Rodgers , 1976 ) but very strong positive relationships with some psychological characteristics such as self-esteem ( Ayyash-Abdo &; Alamuddin , 2007 ; Diener , et al. , 1995 ) , optimism ( Aspinwall &; Taylor , 1992 ; Lucas , Diener , &; Suh , 1996 ; Scheier &; Carver , 1992 ) , extraversion ( Diener , et al. , 1992 ) , personal control ( Larson , 1989 ) , and fulfilling one 's goals ( Emmons , 1996 ; Ryan et al. , 1996 ) . National and cultural differences in happiness were especially underlined in the literature ( Diener , Suh , Oishi , &; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oishi &; Diener , 2001 ) , indicating that , in economically developed wealthier countries where people possesses greater freedom and human rights , and where an emphasis on individualism exists , people reported a higher degree of subjective well-being . According to Diener and Suh ( 2003 ) , people in individualistic nations report higher degrees of self-fulfilment than people in collectivist nations , due to their freedom in following their own interests and desires , as occurs in individualistic cultures . Nevertheless , less social support during troubled periods increases the suicide and divorce rates in individualistic nations . Therefore , although more common in individualistic cultures , extreme levels of happiness are not prevalent among collectivists since they have a safer cultural structure . Moreover , as stated by Diener and Suh ( 2003 ) , some nations appeared to be more emotional than others . For instance , although the citizens of Turkey and Japan had about the same life satisfaction and hedonic balance scores , Turks reported much higher levels of pleasant and unpleasant affect . Hence , considering cultural differences is important in studies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in studies of happiness . Several studies reported inconsistent findings on gender differences in happiness . For instance , some studies revealed a trend toward women 's reporting greater experience and expression of positive moods than men ( Nolen-Hoeksema , &; Rusting , 2003 ; Wood , Rhodes , &; Whelan , 1989 ) , whereas some others stated that men have a slight tendency toward higher positive affection ( Haring , Stock , &; Okun , 1984 ) . A sample of Lebanese adolescents , Ayyash-Abdo ( 2003 ) reported higher negative emotion scores for female adolescents than for male adolescents . Gender differences have been explained using biological , personality , and social context factors ( Nolen-Hoeksema , &; Rusting , 2003 ; Perneger , Hudelson , &; Bovier , 2004 ) . In addition , Diener and friends ( 1991 ) reported that the effect of social desirability bias among females resulted in their " overstating " their level of happiness . Additionally , happiness was found to be related with the coping styles of individuals . While happy people tend to engage in effective ways of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from others , and seeing the bright side of events , unhappy people tend to use passive or inefficient styles such as engaging in fantasy , avoiding working on problems , and blaming others and themselves ( McCrae &; Costa , 1986 ) . Keeping a diary is a self-initiated coping behaviour ( Burt , 1994a , 1994b ) and hence may cause or affect happiness . Although the literature points to many physical and psychological benefits of written self-expression behaviour , the relationship between happiness and keeping a diary is still unknown . 1.2 . Studies on written disclosure People may express their thoughts and feelings in a meaningful and personal way through writing , and they may gain a sense of control due to the expression of those thoughts and feelings in a confidential manner ( Mazza , 2003 ) . They may learn about themselves through writing about the important things in their lives -- their goals , achievements , etc. -- in a diary . Additionally , some studies have indicated that writing about traumatic experiences brings about comparable changes to talking to psychotherapists among psychologically @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Lamnin , &; Carver , 1989 ) . The therapeutic value of writing about experiences have been widely emphasised in the literature , indicating significant mental and physical health improvements in different age groups after individuals write expressively about emotional experiences . For instance , several studies have found that participants who write down their deepest thoughts and emotions about significant events show increased general health and well-being ( Pennebaker , 1997 ) , reduced medical visits ( Pennebaker &; Beall , 1986 ) , fewer days absent from school , improved liver enzyme function ( Francis &; Pennebaker , 1992 ) , increased academic achievement ( Cameron &; Nicholls , 1998 ) , better immune function ( Esterling , et al. , 1994 ) , a decrease in upper respiratory symptoms , tension , or fatigue , a tendency to reunite with ex-partners after a breakup ( Lepore &; Greenberg , 2002 ) , and decreased sleep onset latency ( Harvey &; Farrel , 2003 ) . Stress and anxiety were also found to be reduced following written emotional expression ( Ireland , Malouf , &; Byrne , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Burt , 1994b ) . Nevertheless , the existing literature calls attention to the effect of gender on the benefits of writing , indicating more benefits for males after writing interventions ( Manier &; Olivares , 2005 ; Smyth , 1998 ) . These results are explained by gender differences in emotional expressiveness . The tendency among males toward not expressing emotions with words but rather with their behaviours ( e.g. , Bruch , 2002 ; Goldsmith &; Weller , 2000 ; Brody , 2000 ; Tylor et al. , 2000 ; Kring &; Gordon , 1998 ; Guttman &; Laporte , 2002 ) , and the self-confidence among females regarding verbal expressions of emotion ( Blier &; Blier-Wilson , 1989 ) , are well-known . Different from designed writing interventions , diary-keeping is a self-initiated behaviour people engage in , a writing activity without special encouragement by anyone ( such as a counsellor or other mental health professional ) . Hence , there might be as many different kinds of diaries as there are diarists ( Bolton , 1999 ) . Besides , keeping a diary appears in many @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . It is possible to keep a diary by using computer programs that are designed specifically for this purpose . People who may prefer the spoken word rather than the written word may keep audio diaries/journals . Also , through access to the internet , personal storytelling becomes possible via online journaling and blog writing . In any case , a diary is a very personal thing designed to be read only by the writers unless they decide otherwise , and which therefore can not be criticised as being right or wrong . Therefore , people could benefit from very different kinds of diaries . Although the many benefits of writing on mental and physical health mentioned below should be taken into consideration when one is investigating the effects of diary-keeping behaviours of teacher trainees , findings associated with previous research that focused specifically on diary-keeping behaviour have a special importance for the present study . The most striking findings regarding diary-keeping behaviours underlined the effects of gender and developmental stage . Gender was found to be related with the prevalence of diary-keeping behaviour . For instance , Burt ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Australian student sample ( N=52 ) , and 77.2% of the females ( N=145 ) , were diarists . In two other surveys conducted on university students , Burt ( 1994a ) replicated these findings . According to the results of his first survey , 32% of the males and 72.6% of the females reported keeping a diary at the time of the survey or having kept a diary in past . Similarly , in his second survey , 67.7% of males and 90.9% of female subjects reported keeping a diary at the time of the survey or having kept a diary in past . The motive for diary-keeping behaviour was also found to differ across gender groups . Males tend to keep a diary as an aid in recalling past and future events , while females use diaries for emotional expression . Hence , gender appears to be both a predictor and a motive for diary-keeping ( Burt , 1994a ) . In addition to gender differences , the existing literature also revealed the effects of developmental stage on the prevalence of diary-keeping behaviour . Associated with the necessity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ physiological changes , sexuality , and opposite-sex relationships during adolescence , diary-keeping seems particularly prevalent during this period of life ( Burt , 1994a ) . Moreover , studies on American introductory psychology students indicated that about half of the students reported they were diarists ( Rubin , 1982 , Thomson , 1982 ) . These findings were replicated in a more recent study on Australian university students ( Burt , 1994a ) . However , whether these findings remain valid in nonwestern countries is still a challenging topic . 1.3 . The present study Considering all the research findings mentioned above , an investigation of the happiness level of Turkish teacher trainees in relation to their diary-keeping behaviours is supposed to contribute to the interventions that cultivate the personal and professional development of this group . Although diary-keeping behaviour as a self-initiated coping strategy has the potential to contribute the happiness levels of teacher trainees , the relationship between happiness and diary-keeping is still a little-known area , since few studies have examined diary-keeping as a coping style . Moreover , whether western findings on happiness and diary-keeping will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a matter for question , since Turkey is an economically developing country in a transition period between protecting its basically collectivist nature and increasingly reflecting western individualistic characteristics ( Aydin-Mocan , 2007 ) . Therefore , with the aim of examining the happiness levels of Turkish teacher trainees in relation to self-initiated coping-style diary-keeping , and in the light of the existing happiness and diary-keeping literatures , the answers to the following questions were examined in the present study : What is the prevalence of DKB among Turkish teacher trainees ? If they prefer to express themselves by writing their emotions and ideas in personal diaries , who are these diarist teacher trainees ? Can we say that they are females more often than males ? Or can we say that they are significantly more or less happy than the non-diarists ? 2 . Methods 2.1 . Participants The sample included 457 teacher trainees , aged 18-29 with a mean of 20.41 , attending different departments of the faculty of education of Uludag University , at the time of the data collection in November 2007 . Uludag is a state @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is the most economically developed region , but it accepts students from all around the country . For the sample of the present study , freshmen were not included to av6id the possible effects of the transition period that takes place in the first year of undergraduate programs . 2.2 . Measures In the present study , happiness is considered as consisting of negative and positive affect and satisfaction with life . Hence , two measures were used for happiness : negative and positive affect measured by PANAS , and satisfaction with life measured by SWLS . Participants were also given a demographic questionnaire , which was designed to ask for basic demographic information and explore the diary-keeping behaviours ( DKB ) of participants . 2.3 . Measure of positive and negative affect The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule ( PANAS ) was developed by Watson , Clark , and Telegen ( 1988 ) as a measure of affective evaluation of life . The instrument includes 10 positive and 10 negative items , which are added together within each sub-scale to determine score for positive and negative affect . Positive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ person feels enthusiastic , active , and alert . High PA indicates a state of high energy , full concentration , and pleasurable engagement , whereas low PA is characterised by sadness and lethargy . In contrast , Negative Affect ( NA ) is a general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasurable engagement that subsumes a variety of aversive mood states , including anger , contempt , disgust , guilt , fear , and nervousness , with low NA being a state of calmness and serenity ( p.1063 ) . Different scores can be obtained from the scale according to different timeframes ( moment , today , past few days , year , or general ) . Both PA and NA subscales of PANAS , as well as a general timeframe , were used to measure the moods of the students in the present study . Participants were asked to indicate " how you feel in general " on a 5-point response scale from 1 ( very slightly ) to 5 ( extremely ) . PANAS has been reported to have good internal consistency , with positive and negative affect @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Watson et al . 1988 ) . The adaptation of the scale to Turkish was made by Genz ( 2000 ) . She reported that , consistent with the original study , the results of the factor analysis revealed two factors accounting for 44% of the total variance , and that internal consistencies for PA and NA were .83 and .86 , respectively . In the present study , the alpha coefficients for PA and NA were found to be .74 and .79 , respectively , indicating sufficient internal consistency . 2.4 . Measure of satisfaction with life The Satisfaction with Life Scale ( SWLS ; Deiner , et al , 1985 ) is a five-item scale that measures the cognitive evaluation of one 's life satisfaction . Each item is scored from 1 to 7 , " strongly disagree " to " strongly agree . " Item scores are added together to attain a total score , which ranges from 5 to 35 , with higher scores reflecting more satisfaction with life . The internal consistency of the scale was .87 , and the test-retest reliability for a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) . Smer ( 1996 ) translated the scale into Turkish and reported satisfactory internal consistency ( a = .89 ) . In the present study , the alpha coefficient was found to be .76. 2.5 . Demographic data form This was a 10-item demographic questionnaire that was developed by the researcher to gather information about basic demographics ( age , gender , department , class ) and DKB . In the present study , the word " diary " refers to the expression of personal information in a written format . Although in English sometimes the word " journal " is used for " diary " , a journal is differentiated from a diary with regard to the frequency of writing , since generally one writes daily in a diary but less frequently in a journal . In daily Turkish , the word " gnlk " is the equivalent to " diary " , and has been used both for daily and for less frequent writings . In terms of DKB , teacher trainees were asked to choose the best option to describe themselves among the three categories ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , is a diarist currently ) . Teacher trainees in two separate diary-keeping categories ( past diarists and current diarists ) were also asked the duration of their diary-keeping. 2.6 . Procedure Students completed anonymous , classroom-administered questionnaires on a selected day . The instructions written on the cover page of the scales were read to the entire class . Those who volunteered to participate were given relevant directions about the completion of the test , and they were asked to be honest when responding to the test items . The administration of the questionnaires took about 15 minutes . Anonymity was guaranteed . 3 . Results 3.1 . Description of sample Before conducting the analyses , the data was examined in terms of the duration of diary-keeping behavior , and 78 students were omitted from the data because of their very short-lived ( 2 months and below ) diary-keeping . Among the rest of the participants , since no one reported diary-keeping between 2 and 6 months , all the teacher trainees who are or were diarists reported at least 6 months ' diary-keeping behavior . In addition , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ taking into consideration Mahalonobis distance . Consequently , two students were removed from the data because they exceeded the critical value ( 16.27 for this study ) . Thus , the final sample consisted of 377 students . Their mean age was 20.43 years ( SD=1.56 , range : 18-29 ) . Descriptive analysis indicated that 69.2% of the students ( 261 ) were female , whereas 30.8% ( 116 ) were males . The proportion of students who reported " never having been a diarist " , " being a diarist in the past " or " being a diarist currently " was analysed . 159 students ( 42.2% ) reported keeping a diary in the past , 42 students ( 11.1% ) reported keeping a diary currently , and 176 students ( 46.7% ) had never kept a diary . Furthermore , the mean scores were found to be 48.74 ( SD= 7.12 ) , 32.83 ( SD= 6.94 ) , and 14.04 ( SD=.76 ) for the PA , NA , and SWLS scores , respectively . The means , standard deviations , and sample sizes across @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Table 1 . As seen in Table 1 , the PA scores for the total sample were higher than the NA scores . Both females and males reported higher PA scores than NA scores . Moreover , mean differences were detected , especially in the PA and NA scores of current female and male diarists . Current female diarists scored higher both on PA and on NA than current male diarists and the other two female DKB groups did , whereas current male diarists scored lower than the current female diarists and the other two male DKB groups . Finally , the mean of the SWLS scores of males who had never kept a diary is lower than the mean of the SWLS scores of all other male and female DKB groups . The SWLS scores of the trainees were below the neutral point ( 20 ) on this scale . As a result , whether these differences are statistically significant was examined through further analyses . 3.2 . Results regarding the relationships between happiness and DKB First , Pearson 's product moment correlation coefficients were calculated to examine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The results of the bivariate correlations among the variables are presented in Table 2 . As seen in Table 2 , low correlations were found among all the three dependent variables ( PA , NA , LS ) of the study . Additionally , no significant relationship was found between DKB and the dependent variables . Thereafter , chi-square analysis was conducted to compare gender groups with reference to the three categories ( never , in the past , currently ) of DKB . The analysis revealed a significant relationship between gender and DKB . Both among females ( 14.6% ) and among males ( 3.4% ) , DKB at the present time was rare . However , most of the males ( 78.4% ) reported no DKB during their lifetime , whereas this proportion was 32.6 percent among females . Similarly , only 18.1% of the males reported having kept a diary in the past , whereas 52.9% of the females reported diary-keeping in the past . In general , DKB occurred more commonly among females than among males . This information is summarised in Table 3. 3.3 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , NA , and LS A two-way multivariate analysis of variance ( MANOVA ) was performed to investigate the effects of diary-keeping behaviour and gender on the three dependent variables of the study . Preliminary assumption testing was conducted to check for normality , linearity , univariate and multivariate outliers , homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices , and multi-collinearity , with no serious violations noted . Results indicated a significant difference between males and females for the combined dependent variables F ( 3,369 ) = 2.63 , p=.05 . Considering the results for dependent variables separately , this difference was seen in the NA scores IF ( 1,371 ) =5.21 , p=.023 ) of the students . An inspection of the mean scores indicated that females reported slightly higher levels of negative affect than males . However , no significant DKB effect F ( 6,738 ) =.855 , p=.528 , and no significant DKB X gender interaction effect F ( 6,738 ) = 1.50 , p=.175 , was found . To reduce the chance of a Type 1 error , a Bonferroni adjustment was applied by dividing alpha level .05 by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , p.402 ) . Since there were 3 dependent variables in the present study , dividing .05 by 3 , it was decided to consider the results significant only if the probability value was less than .017 . Consequently , when the results for the dependent variables were considered separately using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .017 , no difference reached statistical significance . In other words , neither gender nor DKB has a significant effect on PA , NA , or SWLS . The dependent variables were also not affected by the interaction of gender and DKB. 4 . Discussion Considering the previously mentioned national and cultural differences in terms of happiness , and the lack of research on the diary-keeping behaviours of teacher trainees , the present study was the first to investigate happiness in relation to the self-initiated coping behaviour of diary-keeping and gender among Turkish teacher trainees . The results revealed meaningful insights regarding the satisfaction with life , emotions , and diary-keeping behaviours of Turkish teacher trainees . In terms of life satisfaction , Turkish teacher trainees were below the neutral point of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with their lives ( as consistent with the previous findings on national and cultural differences in happiness ) ( Diener , Suh , Oishi , &; Triandis , 1998 ; Pavot &; Diener , 1993 ; Oishi &; Diener , 2001 ) . In general , the lack of some factors previously emphasised in the literature as determinants of higher levels of happiness in life , such as wealth , economic development , greater freedom , and individualism , might be used as possible explanations for this dissatisfaction . However , the reasons for dissatisfaction deserve to become the focus of future research to provide detailed information for administrators , curriculum planners , instructors and counsellors working with Turkish teacher trainees . Additionally , the results revealed that Turkish teacher trainees experience relatively more positive affect than negative affect in their lives . This finding was expectedly consistent with the findings of earlier research using the same measures ( e.g. , Ayyash-Abdo &; Alamuddin , 2007 ; Diener , Suh , et al. , 1995 ; Lucas , Diener , &; Suh , 1996 ) , since positive feelings are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reported more negative affect , such as feeling anxious , hurt , or tense , than their male counterparts did , as consistent with the findings of Ayyash-Abdo ( 2003 ) on Lebanese adolescents . This finding gives rise to thoughts regarding socio-cultural effects on females . Turkish culture may affect females ' attitudes toward negative life experiences and emotional expressions via gender roles and stereotypes . Regarding diary-keeping , consistent with the literature on the generality of diary-keeping behaviour in the lives of young people ( Burt , 1994a ; Rubin , 1982 ; Thomson , 1982 ) , the findings revealed that over half of the students reported themselves as diarists . Among the diarists , the majority reported keeping a diary in the past , which extended through their adolescence years . Although diary-keeping decreases in the university years , diarists still seem to be considerable among teacher trainees . Therefore , in light of the findings of the present study , counsellors working with teacher trainees could take the familiarity of the trainees with diaries into consideration and take advantage of student diaries as a part @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in their everyday lives without being given a special encouragement by anyone ( such as a counsellor or another professional ) may assume to be disposed to use these diaries in the counselling process if necessary . Moreover , this does not just affect the counsellors who are providing services for teacher trainees ; knowing about diary-keeping behaviours might also shed light on outdoor and experiential educators . Nevertheless , the results of this study point to gender differences in diary-keeping behaviour . Although diary writing seems to be a common practice of female teacher trainees , diarists seem quite rare among male teacher trainees . A very limited amount of the males reported keeping a diary in the past , which extended to their adolescence years . This amount appeared to decrease even more for the university years . The obtained proportions of diary-keeping among male teacher trainees also seem very low compared to the proportions obtained from western male samples ( Burt , 1994a , 1994b ) . This finding attracts attention to the distance of male Turkish teacher trainees from written emotional expression . However , due @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not with words but rather through their behaviour ( c.f. Bruch , 2002 ; Goldsmith &; Weller , 2000 ; Brody , 2000 ; Tylor et al. , 2000 ; Kring &; Gordon , 1998 ; Guttman &; Laporte , 2002 ) , it was not surprising in the present study to see an enormous group of non-diarist males ; considering that teacher trainees constitute the higher intellectual class in this society , the proportions of non-diarists exceed expectations . Since keeping a diary is a way of expressing oneself through in written form , it was thought that boys who do n't prefer to express themselves through words also do n't prefer to express themselves by writing in a diary . However , using such an occasionally preferred activity in the personal development processes of teacher trainees might be beneficial , considering the findings indicating more benefits for males after writing interventions ( Manier &; Olivares , 2005 ; Smyth , 1998 ) . Since several studies in the literature revealed the physical and mental health benefits of writing on people ( e.g. , Burt , 1994b ; Cameron @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; Ireland , Malouf , &; Byrne , 2006 ; Pennebaker &; Beall , 1986 ) it was expected that we would find an effect of journal writing on the affect and life satisfaction of teacher trainees . Taking the mean scores into consideration , which reveal that current female diarists reported experiencing more positive and negative emotions than current male diarists and the other two female groups ( whereas current male diarists reported experiencing lesser positive and negative emotions than current female diarists and the other two male groups did ) , diary-keeping behaviours seems to increase emotionality among females while decreasing emotionality among males . Moreover , according to the descriptive statistics , nondiarist males scored lowest on life satisfaction , giving rise to the thought that the more they hesitate in terms of written expression , the less satisfied they become with life , or vice versa . However , the differences in mean scores did not reach a statistically significance in multivariate statistics . Therefore , the findings inhibit us from telling much about the relationships among diary-keeping behaviour , gender , and happiness . Nevertheless @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that males who have never kept a diary ( non-diarist males ) constituted the less satisfied group among all teacher trainees , the possible effects of diary-keeping behaviours on happiness in different gender groups require further investigation in future studies . Moreover , considering today 's many different forms of diaries , future research could explore the demographic and personal characteristics of diarist teacher trainees under the sway of the development in technology in the modern world . Finally , some limitations should be noted in the interpretation and the generalisation of the findings of the present study . First , the fact that the sample was recruited from faculty of education students at a Turkish state university might have been a limitation in terms of the ability to generalise the conclusions for all teacher trainees in Turkey . In order to reflect the characteristics of the general Turkish university students , further research may include teacher trainees from other universities in Turkey . As a second limitation of this study , the measurement of diary-keeping behaviour relied on two items . The students were asked to categorise themselves as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a diarist , diarist in the past , current diarist ) and then report the duration of diary-keeping behaviour for both past and present . Asking about the content of the diaries in detail could be recommended for further studies in order to attain a better understanding of the nature of teacher trainees ' diaries and whether the content causes or affects happiness . Just knowing about whether someone is a diarist or not seems not to be enough to mention regarding his/her happiness . However , knowing about whether one writes in order to work on problems or life goals , to blame oneself or others for problem situations , or just to organise life and for memory purposes might help to predict one 's level of happiness . Table 1 . Mean and Standard Deviation of the Variables across Gender and Diary-keeping Groups pre-formatted table References Aspinwall , L. G. , &; Taylor , S. E. ( 1992 ) . 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@@4081141 Neonatal suppurative parotitis is very rare . One review of the English-language literature spanning 35 years found only 32 cases . Most cases are managed conservatively with antibiotic therapy ; early antibiotic treatment reduces the need for surgery . The predominant organism is Staphylococcus aureus . We report a new case of neonatal suppurative parotitis in a 3-week-old boy . The patient was diagnosed on the basis of parotid swelling , a purulent exudate from a Stensen duct , and the growth of pathogenic bacteria in culture . He responded well to 9 days of intravenous antibiotic therapy . We also discuss the microbiologic and clinical patterns of this disease . Neonatal suppurative parotitis is an uncommon disease , with an incidence of 3.8/10,000 hospital admissions for neonates. n1 Spiegel et al reviewed the English-language literature spanning 35 years and found only 32 cases. n1 We describe a new case of neonatal suppurative parotitis , and we discuss its microbiologic and clinical patterns . Case report A 3-week-old , full-term boy with no perinatal complications presented with a 1-day history of restlessness , irritability , reduced feeding , and increased frequency of stool . His mother had also noticed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was tender to touch . The neonate was admitted to the hospital . His weight was 4.16 kg ( 9.17 lb ) , his fontanelles were normal , and his temperature was 37.2C ( 98.96F ) . Examination revealed a 2 x 3-cm erythematous swelling in. the left preauricular area ; the skin over the area was warm and tender . Intraorally , pus was seen exuding from the left Stensen duct . Findings on the reminder of the physical examination were unremarkable . A swab of the pus was taken for culture and sensitivity analysis . Laboratory tests revealed a hemoglobin level of 16.7 g/dl , an erythrocyte sedimentation rate of 20 mm/ hr , and a white blood cell count of 15.9 x 10 9 /L with a differential of 58% neutrophils , 28% lymphocytes , and 8% monocytes . Ultrasound examination of the swelling demonstrated an enlarged left parotid gland with multiple hypoechoic areas , findings that are consistent with parotitis . No evidence of abscess collection or significant adenopathy was detected . Based on the clinical presentation and ultrasound findings , the patient was diagnosed with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( not available in the U.S. ) at 200 mg/kg/ day and gentamicin at 5 mg/kg/day . After 48 hours , the erythema , edema , and other symptoms had resolved . His breast-feeding and sleep patterns returned to normal , and treatment was continued for 7 more days . A heavy growth of Staphylococcus aureus was seen on culture . Discussion Neonatal suppurative parotitis appears to affect normal healthy infants who become colonized by bacteria within the first few days of life . The skin and umbilicus are the first sites of contamination , which then spreads to the nose and nasopharynx . The oral cavity gradually becomes colonized with alpha-hemolytic streptococci in 90% of cases and staphylococci in 5 to 10%. n2 The most commonly reported causative organism in neonatal suppurative parotitis is S aureus . In 2002 , MacDorman et al reported that S aureus was the culprit in 55% of cases. n3 Less frequently isolated organisms were Streptococcus viridans , Streptococcus pyogenes , Peptostreptococcus spp , and coagulase-negative staphylococci ( a combined 22% of cases ) . Gram-negative bacilli ( 16% ) and anaerobic bacteria ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cases of neonatal suppurative parotitis were reported in the German literature , both in 2-week old patients. ( n4 , n5 ) In both cases , the infection was caused by S aureus . The parotid gland is purely serous and very susceptible to infection secondary to stasis and dehydration -- unlike the submandibular gland , which is a mixed serous and mucous gland with a mucus content that has bacteriostatic properties. n2 Premature neonates present special problems . It is not uncommon for a premature neonate to be dehydrated . Dehydration of the oral mucosa can predispose a neonate to ascending infection of the parotid . As is the case among neonates overall , the most common bacteria involved in premature neonates is S aureus. ( n3 , n6 ) The presence of purulent discharge expressed from a Stensen duct is considered pathognomonic of acute neonatal suppurative parotitis . Other typical signs and symptoms include parotid gland swelling , tenderness , erythema , and warmness . Characteristic laboratory findings include a positive culture for bacteria and an increased white blood cell count with a predominance of neutrophils. n7 In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ help guide the diagnosis. ( n2 , n8 , n9 ) Ultrasonography is helpful when making a specific diagnosis such as sialectasis . It can also help determine whether a parotid swelling has arisen secondary to enlargement of adjacent tissue or to the presence of an intraparotid mass , including an abscess. ( n9 , n10 ) Most cases of neonatal suppurative parotitis are managed conservatively with antibiotic therapy. ( n1 , n8 ) Early antibiotic treatment reduces the need for surgery. ( n4 , n11 ) The optimal duration of therapy is unknown , but our experience , and that of others , suggests 7 to 10 days or at least until the lesion has resolved . If prompt clinical improvement does not occur or if the swelling becomes fluctuant , incision and drainage should be performed. n8 Historically , the reported complications of neonatal suppurative parotitis include salivary fistula , facial palsy , deep neck space infections , mediastinitis , and extension of the infection into the external ear , all of which are associated with a poor prognosis . However , during the past 2 decades , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with the early use of parenteral antibiotics. ( n1 , n2 , n9 ) References ( n1 . ) Spiegel R , Miron D , Sakran W , Horovitz Y. Acute neonatal suppurative parotitis : Case reports and review . Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004 ; 23 ( 1 ) : 76-8. ( n2 . ) Leake D , Leake R. Neonatal suppurative parotitis . Pediatrics 1970 ; 46(2):202-7. ( n3 . ) MacDorman MF , Minino AM , Strobino DM , Guyer B. Annual summary of vital statistics -- 2001 . Pediatrics 2002 ; 110(6):1037-52. ( n4 . ) Mckel A , Nissler K , Wilhelm T , Handrick W. Neonatal suppurative parotitis in German . Klin Padiatr 2005 ; 217(2):86-8. ( n5. ) de Graaf M , van der Meer SB . An infant with a swelling of the cheek in German . Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2005 ; 149(38):2112. ( n6 . ) Chevalier J , Jadcherla SR . Parotid swelling in a premature neonate . Am J Perinatol 2002 ; 19(8):435-8. ( n7 . ) Chiu CH , Lin TY . Clinical and microbiological analysis of six @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 85(1):106-8. ( n8 . ) Sabatino G , Verrotti A , de Martino M , et al . Neonatal suppurative parotitis . A study of five cases . Eur J Pediatr 1999 ; 158(4):312-14. ( n9 . ) Seibert RW , Seibert JJ . High resolution ultrasonography of the parotid gland in children . Part II . Pediatr Radiol 1988 ; 19(1) : 13-18. ( n10 . ) Lowe LH , Stokes LS , Johnson JE , et al . Swelling at the angle of the mandible . Imaging of the pediatric parotid gland and periparotid region . Radiographics 2001 ; 21 ( 5 ) : 1211-27. ( n11 . ) Coban A , Ince Z , Usel R , et al . Neonatal suppurative parotitis : A vanishing disease ? Eur J Pediatr 1993 ; 152(12):1004-5 . By Sardar U. Khan , DLO , FCPS ; Peter G. O'Sullivan , BSc , MPhil and John McKiernan , FRCPI From the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery , South Infirmary-Victoria University Hospital , Cork , Ireland ( Mr. Khan and Mr. O'Sullivan ) , and the Department of Paediatrics and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Corresponding author : Mr. Sardar U. Khan , Registrar ENT , Sligo General Hospital , Sligo , Ireland . E-mail : sardarent@hotmail.com

@@4081241 The memories of Victoria Climbi had yet to fade when the storm broke over the case of Baby P in Haringey Council 's children 's services in 2008 . The national media were in a frenzy and the government was running scared . Morale among frontline social workers was rock bottom while the former director of children 's services , Sharon Shoesmith , was pursuing a judicial review of the decision to remove her from her post . Into this scene walked Peter Lewis -- the man appointed by children 's secretary Ed Balls , as the new director of Haringey 's children 's services , to steer the troubled department into calmer waters . " It 's certainly pressurised when the eyes of the world are upon you , " the 55-year-old says . " Particularly when you yourself want to do the best job you can . The pressure is internal and external . But the pressure is part of what helps one to get on and do things and maintain the pressure and momentum . " Lewis joined the council in January 2009 and immediately set about creating a three-year plan with clear deadlines and an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by Ofsted after the first year and " outstanding " by 2012 . Last week , the second Ofsted progress report during his reign pronounced that he was on his way to achieving these targets . It must have been a relief given that the first Ofsted report , after a visit in June 2009 , issued a damning verdict with children still not considered adequately safeguarded . However , the inspectors at the time said they had felt uncomfortable about investigating the council so soon after Lewis 's appointment . Balls agreed to wait for their second report before deciding if he would intervene any further . " You 'll have to ask the secretary of state , " Lewis replies evasively when asked if the progress report is good enough to avoid further government intervention . " But we 're pleased with this report because people have worked very hard to keep the momentum going so if it does n't get noticed and recorded it feels much harder to keep it up . " It must also be difficult when old cases keep cropping up to reignite headlines @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on Baby Y , published some months ago on the local children 's safeguarding board website , but seized on by the Daily Telegraph as evidence Haringey is trying to bury such reports . " Baby Y is the last of the serious case reviews of that era , " he says with evident relief . " They 're all dealt with now . What I ca n't predict is if problems in cases will arise in families where our involvement in them dates back to that era . I 'm not aware of any at the moment though . " It is clear that supporting his frontline social workers has been a major focus . Improvements to the Integrated Children 's System and more administration staff mean social workers are spending less time in front of computer screens , he claims . " We 've made a big effort to improve supervision . We 've brought in additional training and support , especially direct support to make sure that managers really understand the issues frontline workers are facing in safeguarding . " An innovative scheme where senior management staff @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ some of their child protection cases has , he believes , improved social worker morale . REFLECTIVE PRACTICE " The reality is that when bosses take a real interest in both you and the quality of the work you do , then you feel you can do the work . " Social work staff have also been sent on training courses at the Tavistock Centre to encourage reflective practice . " We 're now looking for another gear to change up into but it 's a fine balance between ensuring quality of social work practice remains high and increasing the pace of change . " He denies his political appointment has caused him problems in forging relationships with councillors and other agencies . Councillors have been incredibly supportive , he says . " By the time I arrived there was also a clear recognition by everyone around that partnership table that something had gone terribly wrong and it was the responsibility of all of us to get it right . " Partnership working with the police was particularly commended by Ofsted although it was noted that there was still a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . However , Lewis says it is unfair to say this means GPs are not on board with changes . " You ask any local authority how easy it is to engage with GPs and they will all say they have their own challenges . It 's not peculiar to Haringey . But I would say we have had much better engagement than in the past . We 've had 400 people from GP practices on child protection courses so far and that is a huge success rate . " When it comes to Ofsted he pointedly ignores the furore over the inspectorate 's original joint area review and whistleblower allegations that the rating was changed after the report was written . He says his experience of their inspections has been positive . " The team that was here was very strong and experienced . The lead inspector was the same as the one in June . From our perspective that continuity has been helpful and it 's been a professional process . I think people can be reasonably confident in the report . " For Lewis , Ofsted is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ he is keen to have as many as possible . All child protection cases are also independently audited regularly and there are external people tracking every change made to monitor effects on quality and improvement . NO COMPLACENCY Lewis is determined that no complacency creeps in as services improve " When the Climbi case happened the problems were n't just in Haringey but nationwide . When people had done what was needed , they felt they had finished the work , but this job will never be done . We 've got to forever keep up the pressure to drive improvements . " He is philosophical about being in the eye of the media 's gaze . " I think we children 's services occupy a very difficult place in the public mind , and the media is just a reflection of that mind . " We all have a reaction to some of the things that are done to children . It is our job to deal with our reaction in a measured way , to make sure the response is proportionate . " LEWIS CAREER HIGHLIGHTS * Spent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ special schools . * He was head of children 's services in Southampton before moving to take up the statutory DCS role at Enfield Council in 2004. * His contract at Haringey continues until 2011 . PHOTO ( COLOR ) : Lewis : Pressure to improve must be maintained By Judy Cooper EDITED BY Judy Cooper

@@4088341 AMERICANS have always believed that they have a new and unique wisdom to impart to the world , and while some would name Benjamin Franklin as the American breakthrough thinker , that distinction more justly belongs to Ralph Waldo Emerson ( 1803-1882 ) . Where Franklin counseled prudence and moral circumspection , not unlike an Old World uncle , Emerson proclaimed the ecstatic universe and intimated that the unloosed American self was especially well-placed to lead the celebration . While Americans have outgrown Franklin , or grown tired of him , with his reminders to be thrifty and temperate , chaste and well-scrubbed , we have grown into epigoni of Emerson , who urged his countrymen to follow their deepest impulses and to know the supreme joy of becoming truly themselves . But just how pleased should we be that we are living in Emerson 's America more than in Franklin 's ? </p> By nearly all accounts , Emerson was tender , affable , accepting , and a one-man band for cosmic enthusiasm . He wrote poems , orations , lectures , five volumes of essays , a travel book about England , and a journal that he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ whose homemade index ran to hundreds of pages. * Matthew Arnold , writing in 1883 , called Emerson 's Essays ( 1841 and 1844 ) the century 's most important work of prose ; the volumes included such pieces as " Self-Reliance , " " Heroism , " " The Over-Soul , " " The Poet , " " Experience , " and " Character . " </p> Known as the Sage of Concord , he was purveyor of wisdom to the classes and the masses alike , a Harvard graduate who lectured widely on the Lyceum circuit to working-class audiences hungry for self-improvement . He prophesied an America far surpassing in excellence the country he was living in , imagining a nation of free spirits indifferent to crass material concerns and liberated from constricting religious orthodoxies , proclaiming the epoch of the omnipotent self , which would shape a world at last congenial to genuine human needs and honor the divine in each of us in a way worthy of man and God alike . </p> To attempt to bring men to proper terms with the divine , in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ultimate calling . He became a Unitarian minister in Boston like his father before him but found pulpit decorum uncongenial to his questing and increasingly unorthodox mind ; he left the ministry in 1839 . The problem of evil ripped at him with unusual ferocity : " the enslaved , the sick , the disappointed , the poor , the unfortunate , the dying , the surviving cry out - evil is here . " </p> Life 's cruel vagaries brought that evil home so he could not miss it , as his first wife , brother after brother , and his cherished son all died young ; grief at the boy Waldo 's death in 1842 , from scarlet fever at the age of five , all but split Emerson wide open , so that he understood " nothing of this fact except its bitterness . " Seeking superior understanding , or at least some intellectual salve , that would reconcile him to such loss became a preoccupation , though generally a tacit one ; clarion praise of universal justice and goodness often drowned out those cries of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ remind his readers that the Greek word Kosmos originally meant " beauty , " suggesting that the meaning of the universe could be found in aesthetic bliss , readily available to all in gorgeous nature as well as in art . That line of thought in his hands was not always winning . His elegy for his son , " Threnody , " plunges into greeting-card bathos when he tries to be most rapturous : " Will thou not ope thy heart to know/What rainbows teach , and sunsets show ? " </p> Making one 's way through Emerson 's poetry requires a tolerance for saccharine effusion and tinkling rhyme , though there are several poems that stand up quite handsomely , such as " The Problem , " " Uriel , " and " The Snow-Storm . " Negotiating Emerson 's prose involves many a weary trudge between one golden passage and the next , or for that matter , one good line and the next . </p> His writing is not the most significant thing about Emerson , Matthew Arnold notwithstanding . Rather , it is as a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ now . What is there of lasting wisdom in his reflections on spiritual and intellectual excellence , the reality and the promise of egalitarianism , the decay of time-honored religion and the prospect of a new god or gods , or of no god at all , on the horizon ? These remain living matters , perennially unsettled ; how much can we learn from Emerson 's thinking on them ? </p> America and the other major democracies have grown leery of greatness , as though it were the sharpest grift there is . Equality and quality do not coexist on easy terms ; the former fears that the latter is out to defraud it of its birthright . A vindictive meanness pervades the land , as legions delight in bringing the remarkable low . It was not always so . In the early days of democracy , the best men - Goethe , Schiller , Mozart , Beethoven - sought to inspire their audience with the prospect of a new order of nobility appropriate to the dawning epoch , a nobility based not on the undeserved accident of birth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Saul Bellow called " the universal eligibility to be noble " opened vistas of achievement and fulfillment to multitudes who had previously spent their lives staring at a brick wall . </p> As it turned out , however , most men wanted something less than nobility . By the time Emerson was 17 , he already felt the insurmountable disparity between the few who sought excellence and the many who had no interest in or hope of attaining it . He started young in his loathing of the crowd and his adulation of the exceptional men who stand apart and above : " But there are on earth great men who disdainful alike of the multitude 's scorn &; the multitude 's applause elevate themselves by their own exertion to heights of human exaltation .... Every man of talents &; application has it in his power to be one of these . " </p> Emerson would meditate on greatness all his life . In his best book , Representative Men ( 1850 ) , he considers some of the most extraordinary figures mankind has ever produced : Plato , Swedenborg @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Of these he plainly regards Goethe , his particular hero since youth , as the most extraordinary : the man who cultivated every aspect of his superb nature : poet , playwright , novelist , autobiographer , statesman , scientist . All the world , all knowledge , was Goethe 's province , and the world suited him perfectly because it allowed his mind free play . " But this man was entirely at home and happy in his century and the world , " Emerson writes . " None was so fit to live , or more heartily enjoyed the game . " </p> There is nevertheless something lacking in Goethe , precisely because he lived so largely for himself : </p> pre-formatted table To Emerson 's mind , adherence to truth for the sake of truth is inseparable from moral sentiment ; this compound virtue is the touchstone for every representative man he writes of , and none really measures up . One suspects that the cardinal virtue they lack is one Emerson believes himself to possess , and he possesses it because he is an American and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ him to feel others ' suffering as his own and to perceive the divinity in all men . </p> Emerson embodied the dilemma of the intellectual in the democratic age , unable to choose between the devotion to his own development and the obligation to push the great mass along on its hopeful way to an uncertain destination . </p> In the opening essay of Representative Men , " Uses of Great Men , " Emerson insists that the earth gladly accommodates every man who has sprouted here . None is to be denied his share of the divine nature , he writes in a passage that reads like a highfalutin stump speech in which a politician goes for broke flattering his audience : </p> pre-formatted table But Emerson could also shudder at the sight of the rabble clambering into political power over the bodies of the astute and capable , as in this 1844 journal entry about the condition of the Whig Party : </p> pre-formatted table The essay " Politics " ( 1844 ) seethes with uncontrollable contempt for democratic politicians at the top , who have no @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to prove to themselves that they are not worthless : " Like one class of forest animals , they have nothing but a prehensile tail : climb they must , or crawl . " And he damns in thunder some of the most characteristic native folkways , as in a journal entry from 1836 : " When I spoke or speak of the democratic element I do not mean that ill thing vain &; loud which writes lying newspapers , spouts at caucuses , &; sells its lies for gold , but that spirit of love for the General good whose name this assumes . There is nothing of the true democratic element in what is called Democracy ; it must fall , being wholly commercial . " </p> Yet in " The Young American , " an 1844 lecture to the Mercantile Library Association of Boston , he wheeled about and proclaimed the propulsive national commercial energy to be a literal godsend : " The philosopher and lover of men have much harm to say of trade ; but the historian will see that trade was the principle of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that it makes peace and keeps peace , and it will abolish slavery . " When he was not in a denying mood , he was the cheerleader for the American experiment . </p> And more . Emerson earnestly undertakes to be the American arch-poet of true human diversity ; by that he intends the very opposite of the meaning given diversity by today 's identity-group politics , which prescribes appropriate thought and behavior for representatives of a particular race or gender or sexual affiliation or social class . Any sort of group-think eats into the individual integrity that is the heart of Emerson 's ideal democracy . </p> For Emerson , the plague of ordinary life is the compulsion to be like everyone else . What he called " the conventional devil " goads most American men to think continually of money and most women to compare your carpet , saltcellar , and cook with the standard-issue items in town . That every person might live as his or her genuine nature directs - such would be the fulfillment of America 's promise . </p> About Brook Farm , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to Emerson 's taste and which he declined to join , he enthuses nevertheless , for it represents a new human possibility : " Why should we have only two or three ways of life &; not thousands &; millions ? " Wisdom born of the moral sentiment will permit each man his singularity : " Can not we let people be themselves , &; enjoy life in their own way ? You are trying to make that man another you . One 's enough . " </p> Among the impedimenta blocking access to the true self was that old-time religion - specifically , Christianity , whose original spirit had been deformed by its outworn institutions . In the essay " Worship , " Emerson declares that the old faith is dead for modern men and no new religion has appeared to replace it : " By the irresistible maturing of the general mind , the Christian traditions have lost their hold . " The age is refulgent with spiritual promise , even though that promise is threatened by consumerism . For the religious impulse is not extinguished , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ world as it really is : they can " see that , against all appearances , the nature of things works for truth and right forever . " </p> Emerson believed he had peered deep into the nature of things , indeed into its most secret parts , and had beheld there the mystery it was his anointed duty to announce to the world . On June 3 , 1836 , a single line in his journal blazes : " Shall I not treat all men as gods ? " This is democracy apotheosized in a quintessential Emersonism . You ca n't talk up the common man any louder than that . But what sort of democrat does that make Emerson really ? </p> The philosopher , poet , and novelist George Santayana was no democrat , but in his essay on Dickens in Soliloquies in England ( 1922 ) , one of the finest pieces of criticism in the English language , he honors Dickens as the celebrant of " a golden mediocrity " who embodies the moral sentiment in the democratic soul . Dickens had , Santayana writes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an open-eyed reverence and religion without words . " Santayana evokes the richness of the Dickensian world with a loving energy of his own , summoning up " the charm of humble things , the nobleness of humble people , the horror of crime , the ghastliness of vice , the deft hand and shining face of virtue passing through the midst of it all . " Here Santayana , like Dickens , delights in the existence of ordinary humanity as Emerson never quite manages to do . </p> For Emerson loves common men only insofar as they promise something uncommon or as they reflect his own extraordinary soulful perspicacity in appreciating their divinity , hidden from most eyes . Men who take pleasure in their own littleness do not suit Emerson at all ; he has to pump them up to an acceptable grandeur . </p> Rather than " treat them as gods , " why not treat them as they come - as men , with an abundance of peculiarities , infirmities , deficiencies , and deformities , just the way their Creator made them , and as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with the soaring dogma of the new hyper-egalitarian theology Emerson proclaims . Emerson 's relish for diversity and individuality extends only as far as his preference for spiritual titanism will allow . Goethe and Shakespeare and Plato he could love , with reservations . Dickens he pretty well despised and dismissed . " There are no common men , " Emerson boomed , and Dickens 's novels reminded him too much of humanity as it actually is , prolific and irrepressible and common as toadstools . </p> And Dickens 's world remains essentially under the Christian dispensation , so that good and evil are clearly defined , while Emerson 's godlike selves interpret the moral sentiment as they see fit and are really bound to no Law but their own will . There is an undeniable sweetness to such freedom , as we 21st-century Americans know , but we also see around us today the cost to be paid for realizing Emerson 's vision of the democratic self rampant . </p> It is no failure for a thinker to be most at home among the great . It is a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ democratic seer to trumpet his love and awe for men so many of whom he has no use for . There is too much trumpery to Emerson , who professes to embrace all while he recoils from so many . In the end , the " Sage of Concord " was a learned but confused man with a severe case of spiritual bloat . </p> *The Library of America has published Emerson 's Selected Journals 1820-1842 , 910 pages , and Selected Journals 1841-1877 , 1,021 pages . </p> His writing is not the most significant thing about Emerson , Matthew Arnold notwithstanding . Rather , it is as a case study in democratic intellect that Emerson appears most meaningful now . </p> Emerson embodied the dilemma of the intellectual in a democratic age , unable to choose between the devotion to his own development and the obligation to push the great mass along on its way . </p> By Algis Valiunas </p> ALGIS VALIUNAS , a longtime contributor , last wrote for us about Hugh Hefner ( May ) and Arthur Koestler ( February ) . </p>

@@4088441 Street-level and rooftop ( three-story building ) concentrations of particulate matter ? 2.5 m in diameter ( PMsub2.5 ) were measured in downtown Trujillo , Peru , in July and August 2003 to determine the PMsub2.5 concentration reduction on days with normal traffic conditions ( 32 days ) versus a day when motor vehicles were temporarily banned from the downtown district ( 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. , July 15 ) known as El Dia Sin Autos ( " The Day Without Cars " ) . The mean 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. street-level PMsub2.5 concentration during the motor vehicle ban ( 21.4 ug/m ; one day ) was 49% lower than when vehicles were not impeded ( 42.2 7.8 g/m - mean 1 standard deviation ; 20 days ) . The rooftop monitoring station indicated a 20% decrease in PMsub2.5 concentrations ( 24.82.6 g/m vs. 19.9 6.0 g/m ) when motor vehicles were not present within historic downtown Trujillo . Temperature , relative humidity , and wind speed during the motor vehicle ban and during normal traffic were not significantly different ( p &gt; .05 ) . </p> Introduction The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ outdoor air pollution above the maximum recommended limits ( World Health Organization WHO , 1999 ) . Air pollution , a variety of particles and gases produced either directly or indirectly from fossil fuel combustion , is a major environmental health problem present within an array of urban and rural settings in both developed and developing nations . Although industrial , commercial , agricultural , and residential sectors have been identified as contributors of ambient air pollution in developing countries ( Reinhardt , Ottmar , &; Castilla , 2001 ; Shendall &; Naeher , 2002 ; Smith , 1993 ; Xianglu et al. , 2005 ; Xianglu &; Naeher , 2006 ) , multiple studies have shown that the transportation sector is a major if not the primary source of certain air pollutants within urban areas , particularly within Latin American cities ( Instituto Nacional de Estadstica Geogragica , &; Lopez-Salinas , 2005 ) . Multiple emission inventories have suggested that motor vehicles are the principal contributor of fine particulate matter or PMsub25 ( particles with an aerodynamic diameter ? 2.5 m ) to the atmosphere in urban areas ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for Transport , 2002 ; Economopoulou &; Economopoulous , 2002 ; Schauer et al , 1996 ) , which is positively correlated with morbidity and mortality , particularly among people with respiratory or cardiovascular diseases ( Dockery et al. , 1993 ; Health Effects Institute , 2001 ; WHO , 2000 ) . Increased health risks are associated with decreasing distances to traffic motorways ( Brunekreef et al. , 1997 ; Van Vliet et al. , 1997 ) , and particulates generated from combustion processes , especially diesel exhaust particulates , are more toxic and often result in more exacerbated health effects than those from noncombustion processes ( Bernstein et al. , 2004 ; Brunekreef et al. , 1997 ; Van Vliet et al , 1997 ) . Furthermore , studies have also shown improved respiratory health in children when ambient air pollution levels decline ( Bayer-Oglesby et al. , 2005 ) . </p> While many air pollution source-identification studies derive their results from either particulate matter speciation or modeling to determine the amount attributable to motor vehicles , current research shows a data gap in natural experiments measuring air @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ removed from the urban environment . The objective of our study was to measure street-level and rooftop-level PMsub2.5 concentrations in historic downtown Trujillo , Peru , in order to determine the difference in PMsub2.5 corresponding to a period where motor vehicles were temporarily banned from the historic downtown area and also during normal traffic conditions . The temporary ban on all types of motor vehicles within historic downtown Trujillo known as El Dia Sin Autos or " The Day Without Cars " was an attempt by the local municipal government to expose the general population to a motor vehicle exhaust-free zone and to promote a decreased reliance on motor vehicles in the hopes of gaining support for the local government 's clean air agenda . </p> Methods Study Location Trujillo , Peru , is an arid , coastal city of 732,000 people located just west of the foothills of the Andes Mountains . Trujillo 's historic downtown is located in the center of downtown Trujillo and encompasses all of the area inside Avenida Espaa , an oval-shaped road 1,350 m long and 850 m wide . Historic downtown Trujillo is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nacional de Trujillo , 2003 ) regularly resulting in pedestrian and motor vehicle congestion during the local rush hours ( 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. ; 7:00 p.m. to 9 p.m . ) . An established local ordinance prohibits the entry of any bus or public transportation van ( primarily diesel-fueled ) within the Avenida Espaa perimeter resulting in a downtown primarily populated by taxis . Over 6,900 taxis ( mean age =11 years ) were registered within Trujillo in 2003 , 62% of which use gasoline and 38% of which use diesel fuel ( Trujillo City Hall , 2003 ) . In 2000 most of Trujillo 's registered motor vehicle fleet of 53,614 units were not equipped with any emission control system and the average public transportation vehicle age was 19 years old ( Trujillo City Hall , 2003 ; Trujillo Public Transportation Union , 2003 ) . </p> Air Monitoring Locations On July 15 , 2003 , from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. , no motor vehicles were allowed in the Avenida Espaa perimeter surrounding historic downtown Trujillo for the inaugural El Dia Sin Autos ( " The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ selected as the central monitoring location due to its location within historic downtown Trujillo and its security . Trujillo City Hall is located as close as 430 m to Avenida Espaa to the south and far as 850 m away to the northeast . A real-time PMsub2.5 aerosol monitor was positioned at street level outside of a City Hall window 2 m from the closest traffic lane starting on " The Day Without Cars " ( July 15 , 2003 ) and it continued monitoring for the subsequent 20 days when traffic flow was not banned . Two monitoring stations containing both real-time and gravimetric PMsub25 instruments were previously established on July 3 and continuously ran until August 4 capturing days of unimpeded traffic before and after " The Day Without Cars . " One station was located on the roof of the three-story City Hall building directly above the street-level monitor . The second station was located in a rural area 9 km west of downtown at the Trujillo airport ( Cassidy Naeher , Villalobos , Ryan , &; Bayer , 2004 ) . The airport monitoring station was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which was the source of meteorological data utilized in our study . Hourly weather data was collected daily by airport employees from 6:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m . </p> Pollutants Measured and Equipment Description Real-time PMsub25 levels were measured using DustTrak aerosol monitors . At the end of the sampling period all of the aerosol monitors utilized in the study were run in parallel for 12 hours atop Trujillo City Hall to establish a concentration coefficient to adjust for inter-instrumentation variation . Previous studies have shown that DustTrak aerosol monitors ' concentration readings differ depending on the type of PM being sampled ( Macintosh , Williams , &; Yanosky 2002 ; Volckens , Boundy Leith , &; Hands , 1999 ) . Assuming that gravimetric PMsub25 measurements are more representative to the actual PMsub25 concentration , the real-time PMsub25 concentrations were adjusted according to 24-hour average gravimetric concentrations measured beside the DustTrak atop City Hall from July 3 to August 4 to increase comparability between the two sampling methods . </p> Twenty-four-hour time-integrated PMsub25 samples were collected using 37 mm Teflon filters , KTL PMsub25 cyclones , and SKC universal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ below 0C during storage and shipment . Filters were allowed to equilibrate for a 48 hour period at 20.61.4C , 56.19% relative humidity in a filter chamber prior to the weighing of the filters . Each filter was weighed at least twice before and twice after sampling using a Cahn C-35 microbalance to ensure the measured weights were within 5 g . All measurements were performed as outlined in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's ( U.S. EPA 's ) Quality Assurance Guidance Document ( U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S. EPA , 1998 ) . Air densities during weighing sessions , nominal densities of calibration masses , and control filters were used to adjust the balance readings for the buoyancy effect of air ( Koistinen , Kousa , Virpi , Hanninen , &; Jantunen , 1999 ) . </p> Results The mean 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. street-level PMsub25 concentrations with and without motor vehicles present were , respectively , 42.2 7.8 g/m ( mean 1 standard deviation , n = 20 days ) and 21.4 g/m ( n = 1 day ) . Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test indicated a normal distribution @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ present ( p = .0201 ) . T-tests measuring the difference of means between the samples with and without cars were not possible due to the single sample collected without motor vehicles . Knowing that the 20 samples with motor vehicles present were normally distributed , however , one could use the empirical rule to estimate the sample distribution . The 21.4 g/m mean concentration without motor vehicles was 2.83 standard deviations from the mean PMsub25 concentration with motor vehicles ( 42.2 7.8 g/m ) . According to the empirical rule , 2.83 standard deviations from the mean PMsub25 concentration with motor vehicles present would include 99.5% of all samples in a normally distributed sample . Although unable to statistically test a difference of means due to the low sample size , this distribution indicates a potentially strong PMsub25 concentration difference among the samples with and without motor vehicles . </p> Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the real-time PMsub2.5 concentrations at street level and atop the City Hall roof , respectively , during the samples with and without motor vehicles . When motor vehicles were not present between 8:00 a.m. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were 49% lower ( 21.4 g/m vs. 42.2 7.8 g/m ) and were 18% lower at the rooftop ( 19.9 g/m vs. 24.4 1.9 g/m ) . </p> The difference between the 24-hour mean street-level and rooftop-level PMsub25 concentrations during the motor vehicle ban was less than 2 g/m . The 24-hour mean PMsub25 concentrations were 47% higher at street level ( 44.0 6.6 g/m ) than on the rooftop ( 29.8 2.7 g/m ) , however , throughout the 20 day sampling period . Both street-level and rooftop PMsub25 concentrations followed a diurnal pattern where PMsub25 concentrations were lowest during the afternoon ( average high temperature of 21C ) when most pollution sources were active and were consistently higher during the night ( average low temperature of 14C ) when pollution sources were more scarce . This trend suggests a potential nocturnal inversion effect . </p> The mean 24-hour gravimetric PMsub25 concentrations measured on the roof of City Hall throughout the entire sampling period had an average of 36.19.2 g/m ( n = 32 days ) while the mean 24-hour period containing " The Day Without Cars " had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ banned for only 10 of the 24 hours of sampling , however , therefore weakening this comparison . </p> Discussion Since sunlight is a driving force in the creation of ocean breezes , daytime temperatures were highly correlated with wind speed ( r = .978 ; p = .000 ) . Since both temperature and wind increase atmospheric mixing and pollution dilution in either a horizontal or vertical direction PMsub25 concentrations were inversely related to both wind speed ( r = -.837 ; p = .000 ) and temperature ( r = -.763 ; p = .001 ) . This indicates that the particle dilution rate increased as the ocean breezes and temperatures became more intense during the afternoon and decreased as the wind speeds and temperature declined at night , resulting in less atmospheric mixing and increased pollution concentrations . The high correlation between temperature and wind speed may result in a confounding effect , however , in which the significant association between PMsub25 concentrations and weather phenomena may not be as attributable as stated . </p> In order to determine if the decrease in PMsub25 concentrations on " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ weather phenomenon , meteorological data collected at the airport and downtown monitoring stations were analyzed to determine if a significant change occurred in the weather during the " Day Without Cars " compared to the remainder of the sampling period . The meteorological data collected at the downtown monitoring station ( temperature ) and 9 km away at the airport ( temperature , barometric pressure , and wind speed ) did not significantly differ among the two data sets . </p> The " Day Without Cars " natural experiment presented multiple variables for which we could not prepare or control due to time and personnel constraints . First , the motor vehicle densities on and outside of Avenida Espaa were not recorded during the " Day Without Cars . " Therefore , it is not possible to determine if the nearby motor vehicle density outside of historic downtown Trujillo was similar on days with and without the motor vehicle ban . The traffic ban within historic downtown Trujillo may have potentially increased the motor vehicle density on and just outside Avenida Espaa due to rerouted traffic resulting in a higher @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Second , we were unaware of " The Day Without Cars " until just prior to the event . Therefore , ground-level PMsub25 data was not collected prior to " The Day Without Cars . " The use of concentrations prior to and after July 15 would have been useful in determining if an increasing or decreasing trend occurred in pollution concentrations over time . The measurements on top of the City Hall building , however , which included 12 days before and 20 days after " The Day Without Cars , " indicated that the pollution concentrations were relatively constant . Finally , the main limitation of this study was the short period without motor vehicles present , limiting the amount of data that could be collected in the 10-hour motor vehicle ban . </p> Conclusion Since multiple variables could not be controlled in the analysis , it is impossible to state with absolute confidence the percent difference in PMsub2.5 concentration due to the absence of motor vehicles within historic downtown Trujillo . The data do suggest that the removal of motor vehicles from historic downtown Trujillo results in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reduction of PMsub25 concentration at roof level . The greater reduction in PMsub25 concentrations at street-level opposed to that on the City Hall rooftop is potentially due to the proximity of the equipment to motor vehicles as well as the fact that a larger portion of the rooftop 's pollutants derive from sources outside of Avenida Espaa , which were less affected by the motor vehicle ban . The decreased PMsub25 concentrations measured when motor vehicles were banned from historic downtown Trujillo suggests that motor vehicles are a major source of particulate pollution within the area . The Trujillo local government has been informed of the study results , and Trujillo has observed a " Day Without Cars " in the historic downtown area every year since 2003 . </p> Acknowlegements : This study was funded in part by the International Society for Exposure Analysis/American Chemistry Council Early Career Award ; UGA , Biomedical Health Sciences Institute and Office of International Agriculture ; Asociacion del Aire Ambiental , Lima , Peru ; Trujillo City Hall . Special thanks go to Trujillo Mayor Jos Murgia Zannier ; Agustin Asmad Vergara , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Trujillo City Hall ; and John Allen of UGA . </p> Although most of the information presented in the Journal refers to situations within the United States , environmental health and protection know no boundaries . The Journal periodically runs International Perspectives to ensure that issues relevant to our international constituency , representing over 60 countries worldwide , are addressed . Our goal is to raise diverse issues of interest to all our readers , irrespective of origin . </p> GRAPH : FIGURE 1 : Mean ( 1 SD ) 15-Minute Street-Level PMsub25 Concentrations Outside Trujillo City Hall </p> GRAPH : FIGURE 2 : Mean 15-Minute Real-Time PMsub25 Concentrations ( 1 SD ) on Top of Trujillo City Hall </p> References Afroz , R. , Hassan , M.N. , &; Ibrahim , NA. ( 2003 ) . Review of air pollution and health impacts in Malaysia . Environmental Research , 92(2) , 71-77 . </p> Bayer-Oglesby L. , Grize , L. , Gassner , M. , Takken-Sahli , K. , Sennhauser , F.H. , Neu , U. , Schindler , C , &; Braun-Fahrlander , C. ( 2005 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Swiss children . Environmental Health Perspectives , 113(11) , 1632-1637 . </p> Bernstein , J.A. , Alexis , N. , Barnes , C , Bernstein , I.L. , Bernstien , J.A. , Nel , A. , Peden , D. , Diaz-Sanchez , D. , Tarlo , S.M. , &; Williams , PB. ( 2004 ) . Health effects of air pollution . 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Atmospheric Environment , 36(1) , 107-113 . </p> Reinhardt , T.E. , Ottmar , R.D. , &; Castilla , C. ( 2001 ) . Smoke impacts from agricultural burning in a rural Brazilian town.Journal of Air and Waste Management Association , 51(3) , 443-450 . </p> Schauer , J.J. , Rogge , W.F , Hildemann , L.M. , Mazurek , M.A. , Cass , G.R. , &; Simoneit , B.R.T ( 1996 ) . Source apportionment of airborne particulate matter using organic compounds as tracers . Atmospheric Environment , 30(22) , 3837-3855 . </p> Schifter , I. , Daz , L. , Mugica , V , &; Lopez-Salinas , E. ( 2005 ) . Fuel-based motor vehicle emission inventory for the metropolitan area of Mexico City . Atmospheric Environment , 39(5) , 931-940 . </p> Shendall , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ A pilot study to assess ground-level ambient air concentrations of fine particles and carbon monoxide in urban Guatemala . Environment International , 28(5) , 375-382 . </p> Smith , K.R. ( 1993 ) . Fuel combustion , air pollution exposure , and health : The situation in developing countries . Annual Review of Energy and the Environment , 18 , 529-566 . </p> Trujillo City Hall , Transportation Division . ( 2003 ) . Unpublished records . </p> Trujillo Public Transportation Union . ( 2003 ) . Unpublished records . </p> Universidad Nacional de Trujillo . School of Statistics and Information . ( 2003 ) . Unpublished records . </p> U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . ( 1998 ) . Quality assurance guidance document , method compendium , field standard operating procedures for the PM2.5 performance evaluation program . Research Triangle Park , NC : Author . </p> Van Vliet , P. , Knape M. , de Hartog , J. , Janssen , N. , Harssema , H. , &; Brunekreef , B. ( 1997 ) . Motor vehicle exhaust and chronic respiratory symptoms in children living near freeways . Environmental @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Boundy M. , Leith , D. , &; Hands , D. ( 1999 ) . Oil mist concentration : A comparison of sampling methods . American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal , 60(5) , 684-689 . </p> World Health Organization . ( 1999 ) . Health : Creating healthy cities in the21st century ( pp. 137-172 ) . London : Earthscan Publications . </p> World Health Organization . ( 2000 ) . Air quality guidelines for Europe ( 2nd ed . ) . Copenhagen : WHO Regional Office for Europe . </p> Xianglu , H. , Aguilar-Villalobos , M. , Allen , J. , Carlton , C.S. , Robinson , R. , Bayer , C , &; Naeher , L.P. ( 2005 ) . Traffic-related occupational exposures to PM2.5 , CO , and VOCs in Trujillo , Peru . International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health , 11(3) , 276-288 . </p> Xianglu , H. , &; Naeher , L.P. ( 2006 ) . A review of traffic-related air pollution exposure assessment studies in the developing world . Environment International , 32(1) , 106-120 . </p> By Brandon E. Cassidy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Ryan , PhD and Luke P. Naeher , PhD </p> Corresponding Author : Luke P. Naeher , Associate Professor , The University of Georgia , College of Public Health , Department of Environmental Health Science , EHS Building , Athens , GA 30602-2102 . E-mail : LNaeher@ uga.edu . </p>

@@4088541 Spectrum research on teaching has been conducted since 1970s . The purpose of this study was to identify , categorize , and analyze research in this area . Fifty three Spectrum studies conducted between 1970 and 2008 were included in this study . Each paper was coded for ( a ) decade the study was published , ( b ) publication outlet/dissertation research , ( c ) country of origin , ( d ) teaching styles used , ( e ) population , ( f ) focus , ( g ) general methodology employed , ( h ) type of class , ( i ) observation used , and ( j ) aptitude treatment interaction effects . The results showed that Spectrum research has increased in number over the years , focused mainly on the psychomotor domain , used teaching styles from the Reproduction cluster most frequently , and was quantitative . Although there were methodological flaws , some of the reviewed studies met the minimum demands of good research in the area . </p> Physical education ( PE ) research focuses on three areas : teaching , teacher education , and curriculum ( Silverman , 1991 ; Silverman @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ development of preservice and inservice teachers while research on teaching looks at what teachers and students do and how this affects and relates to learning and social dynamics ( Silverman , 1991 ) . </p> A conceptual framework which has been used in research on teaching and teacher education is the Spectrum of Teaching Styles ( Mosston &; Ashworth , 2002 ) . The Spectrum consists of 11 landmark teaching styles . Each style has its own decision-making amalgamation , a specific name , as well as a corresponding letter of the alphabet : namely , the Command Style ( A ) , the Practice style ( B ) , the Reciprocal style ( C ) , the Self-Check style ( D ) , the Inclusion style ( E ) , the Guided Discovery style ( F ) , the Convergent Discovery style ( G ) , the Divergent Production style ( H ) , the Individual Program ( I ) , the Learner-Initiated style ( J ) , and the Self-Teaching style ( K ) . </p> A governing principle of Spectrum theory is that decisions are the unifying @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ identifying specific sets of decisions to be made by the teacher and the learner , significantly different learning conditions are produced . According to Spectrum theory , the 11 styles can be clustered into either Reproduction ( styles A-E ) or Production ( styles F-K ) teaching styles ( Mosston &; Ashworth , 2002 ) . </p> The Reproduction cluster is more akin to direct , didactic , or teacher-centered instruction ( Goldberger , 1983 ; Goldberger , 1984 ) . When Styles A-E are used the purpose of the instruction is the replication of specific known skills and knowledge . The teacher specifies the subject matter of the lessons , indicates the learning conditions by identifying the teaching style , and defines the criteria for correct task completion . The class climate is one of performing the model , repetition , and reduction of errors . Feedback is specific , often corrective , and there is an acceptable way to perform the selected task . </p> The Production cluster of styles F-K invites the discovery of new information by the student . In some styles within this cluster the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . In styles F-K students are engaged in cognitive operations such as problem solving , inventing , comparing , contrasting , and synthesizing . The class climate favours patience and tolerance and individual cognitive and emotional differences . Feedback refers to the production of new ideas . </p> It has been stressed that Spectrum research has grown and prospered over the past three decades ( Byra , 2000 ; Goldberger , 1995 ) . According to Silverman and Skonie ( 1997 ) , one way to understand the prosperity and growth of research in an area is to analyze its research . Research analysis refers to identification of research and its categorization on a variety of factors such as research focus , design , population , method , and variables used . This type of analysis allows for getting information and drawing conclusions about those factors ( Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ) . </p> So far one review study on Spectrum research has been published ( Byra , 2000 ) . However , reviewing the literature is something different from analyzing research in that the former focuses on synthesizing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PE pedagogy four studies have analyzed published or dissertation research on teaching in physical education . Silverman ( 1987 ) found that most dissertation research on teaching was quantitative , focused on comparisons between teaching methods , occurred in school settings , and did not utilize systematic observation . Silverman and Manson 's ( 2003 ) study provided 15 years of follow-up to Silverman study ( 1987 ) and found similar results . When published research was analyzed ( Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ) the results were interesting : most studies focused on motor skill acquisition , used an observation instrument to collect data and employed intact classes . Byra and Goc Karp ( 2000 ) found that there was an increase in qualitative methods used in pedagogy research between 1988 and 1997 . However , no study has focused on analyzing Spectrum research . </p> Analysis of Spectrum research can provide anyone , who is interested in conducting such research , with insights into research trends and directions for planning Spectrum research . Also , it shows the progress of the field and serves as a resource for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of this study was to identify , categorize , and analyze Spectrum Research on Teaching ( SRT ) conducted since 1970 . Thus , the study provides a basis for reporting changes and capturing trends in SRT over a period of 38 years . In addition , given that the " Spectrum can help identify areas of omission in the body of research on teaching in physical education literature " ( Goldberger , 1991 , p. 372 ) , this paper comes to complement Silverman &; Skonie 's ( 1997 ) and Silverman &; Manson 's ( 2003 ) analyses . </p> Method The focus of this paper was on SRT . SRT includes studies which use Spectrum theory to focus on the effects of one or more teaching styles on learning outcomes . Spectrum research related to teacher education and curriculum was not included in the analysis . Furthermore , Spectrum research where the focus was on teachers ' use of or attitudes towards teaching styles was excluded . The review was delimited in order to provide an in-depth analysis of SRT over a number of years . </p> @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ utilizing electronic databases ( ERIC , Sport Discus , Dissertation Abstracts International , ISI Web of Science , Google ) . The search used specific keywords ( e.g. , the Spectrum of Teaching Styles ) to identify all data-based SRT completed from 1970 to December 2008 , inclusive . Dissertation abstracts and research papers in books , journals , or conference proceedings were investigated . In the first place paper titles or abstracts were reviewed to decide which studies met the criteria of focusing on SRT . Then , those studies which met the criteria were examined in greater depth . In cases where the original article was not available , the investigation was based on the abstract . In cases where journals were an outlet for the doctoral dissertations , only the dissertations were considered for inclusion in the analysis . </p> The investigation resulted in 53 studies which met the criteria of SRT . To determine reliability of the papers the author and an assistant re-reviewed them . Interobserver agreement for the two sets of decisions was 92% . It should be noted that five studies ( two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or retrieved and , therefore , they were not included in the analysis . </p> Categorizing Research </p> Categories were developed based on previous research analyses in PE ( Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ; Silverman &; Manson , 2003 ) . The draft with the initial categories was piloted coded on 20 randomly selected papers to make sure that the instrument was usable . As a result , some coding categories were not used at all , others were modified , new ones were added and the instrument was finalized . </p> The final draft included the following categories : ( a ) Decade the study was published , ( b ) publication outlet/dissertation research , ( c ) country of origin , ( d ) teaching styles used , ( e ) population , ( f ) focus , ( g ) general methodology employed , ( h ) type of class , ( i ) whether observation was used , and ( j ) whether Aptitude Treatment Interaction ( ATI ) effects were examined . The reader should bear in mind that an ATI occurs when one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ initial ability ) and one treatment variable ( e.g. , teaching style ) interact to affect at least one dependent variable ( e.g. , achievement ) ( Snow , 1987 ) . </p> Each study was categorized on each of the above dimensions . All categories and subcategories are listed in Figure 1 . In some few cases , papers did not provide sufficient information to code all the above variables . Prior to actual coding , coding reliability was determined by randomly selecting 20 papers and recoding them . The percentage of agreement for each category and for all categories combined was around 90% and 85% , respectively . </p> Data Analysis </p> All studies were analyzed for each category to provide summary information . In particular , statistical analysis provided frequencies and percentages for each category . Two-way frequencies were tabulated for the year and the publication outlet/dissertation research categories . The SPSS ( version 16.0 ) was used for all calculations . </p> Results Trends by Decade of Publication Outlet/Dissertation Research </p> The number of SRT studies has grown over the years and great variability can be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Table 1 , only six research projects were identified in the 1970s , whereas 21 papers were published in the 2000s which seems to be a prosperous period for Spectrum research . In each decade the majority of research was published in journals while little research could be found in proceedings . Also , it was found that one out of five dissertations completed in the 1970s was submitted for publication . Another three out of five dissertations completed in the 1980s were submitted for publication and one dissertation completed in the 1990s and in the 2000s was submitted for publication . All 15 dissertations were completed in North American universities . A complete breakdown of publication trends/dissertation research per decade is provided on Table 1 . </p> Table 1 Trends by decade of publication outlet/dissertation research </p> Decade Journal Dissertation Proceeding Book Total 1970-1979 1(1.89) 5(9.43) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 6(11.32) 1980-1989 2(3.77) 5(9.43) 1(1.89) 2(3.77) 10(18.87) 1990-1999 10(18.87) 3(5.17) 3(5.17) 0(0.0) 16(30.18) 2000 2008a 13(24.53) 2(3.77) 6(11.32) 0(0.0) 21(39.62) Total 26(49.05) 15(28.30) 10(18.87) 2(3.77) 53(100.0) Note . Values enclosed in parentheses represent percentages . a 2008 data is included for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of publication outlet/dissertation research </p> Country of Origin </p> SRT that has been located has been primarily conducted in the USA ( n=32 ) . Then , followed by Greece ( n=11 ) , UK ( n=3 ) , Jordan ( n=3 ) , Estonia ( n=1 ) , South Africa ( n=1 ) , Bahrain ( n=1 ) , and Malaysia ( n=1 ) . </p> Teaching Styles Used </p> Teaching styles from the Reproduction cluster have been used in many studies except for the Self-check style ( n=5 ) . In particular , the </p> Reciprocal style has been researched in 28 studies followed by the Practice style ( n=26 ) . On the contrary , teaching styles from the Production cluster have not been researched to a great extent . For example , the Divergent Discovery style and the Convergent Discovery style have been studied in four and one studies respectively . Table 2 presents the teaching styles used in full detail . </p> Table 2 Teaching styles used </p> Teaching style Number of studies Percentage of total Reproduction cluster Command style 20 37.73 Practice style 26 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ style 20 37.73 Production cluster Guided Discovery style 7 13.21 Convergent Discovery style 1 1.89 Divergent Production style 4 7.55 Individual Program 0 0.0 Learner-Initiated style 0 0.0 Self-Teaching ; style 0 0.0 Note . Each of the 53 studies investigated more than one teaching style . Therefore , they have been tallied more than once on the above table . </p> TABLE : Teaching styles used </p> Population </p> Twenty eight studies were conducted with elementary school-aged children . No research occurred in preschool education settings . College/university students were included in 10 studies . It was not possible to ascertain which age group was used in two studies . The population is presented in Table 3 . </p> Table 3 Population of study participants </p> Population of study participants Number of studies Percentage of total School-aged children 43 81.13 Preschool 0 0.0 Elementary 28 52.83 Middle school 4 7.55 High school 11 20.75 College/university 10 18.87 Total 53 100.0 </p> TABLE : Population of study participants </p> Focus </p> Twelve studies exclusively focused on the affective domain with another 11 studies focusing exclusively on the psychomotor domain . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and moral domains represent a small proportion of SRT ( n=5 , n=1 , and n=1 , respectively ) . Research focusing on multiple domains is very well represented ( n=23 ) ( see Table 4 ) . It should be noted that all 23 studies focused on motor skill acquisition and another domain ( i.e. , affective or cognitive ) . </p> Table 4 Focus </p> Domains Number of studies Percentage of total Psychomotor 11 20.75 Affective 12 22.64 Cognitive 5 9.43 Social 1 1.89 Moral 1 1.89 Multiple domains 23 43.39 Total 53 100.0 </p> TABLE : Focus </p> General Methodology </p> Thirty five studies used quantitative research methods to collect data . Qualitative research methods were used in 14 studies and both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in four studies . </p> Type of Class </p> Slightly over half of the reviewed studies used intact classes ( n=28 ) , as opposed to randomly assigning students to treatments ( n=25 ) . In addition , 25 studies used control group and about the same number of studies did not ( n=28 ) . </p> Observation Used @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 26 studies . In 10 studies it was not used at all whereas in 17 studies it could not be ascertained whether observation techniques were used or not because this information was not given . </p> ATI Effects </p> Around one third of the studies considered ATIs ( n=21 ) . Students ' initial ability was studied by 11 studies , followed by gender ( n=6 ) , socioeconomic status ( n=2 ) , companionship ( n=1 ) , and teaching experience ( n=1 ) . Table 5 shows students ' aptitudes in detail . </p> Table 5 ATI interactions </p> Aptitudes Number of studies Percentage of Total Initial ability 11 20.75 Gender 6 11.32 Socioeconomic status 2 3.77 Companionship 1 1.89 Teaching experience 1 1.89 Total ( studies with ATIs ) 21 35.85 Total ( studies without ATIs ) 32 64.15 </p> TABLE : ATI interactions </p> Discussion It is apparent from Table 1 that the number of studies has gradually increased since 1970S . This growing trend in SRT reveals that the influence and benefit of the Spectrum theory continues to contribute to the classroom learning process @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that the Spectrum of Teaching Styles is a concrete model for conducting research in PE ( Goldberger , 1992 ; Graber , 2001 ; Sicilia-Camacho &; Brown , 2008 ) . </p> It is noteworthy that the majority of SRT studies was published in journals which is consistent with a previous analysis ( Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ) . This is may be due to the fact that publishing in refereed journals is a prerequisite for taking a position or a promotion in research-oriented higher education institutions . Publication of research in a refereed journal suggests a more unbiased , professional investigation and presentation and allows the individual to become academically recognized as contributor to scientific knowledge . </p> Another interesting thing is that of the 15 dissertations located , only six were submitted to a journal for publication . It is difficult to say whether the remainder were submitted for publication and not accepted in a journal . Considering that many students who complete dissertation research on teaching in physical education are not interested in academic jobs ( Silverman &; Manson , 2003 ) , the above information @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ world is important in reaching conclusions about the spread of Spectrum knowledge globally . The present analysis revealed that a. few countries have conducted SRT ( i.e. , USA , Greece , UK , Jordan , Estonia , South Africa , Bahrain , and Malaysia ) . It is obvious that although SRT started in the USA , other countries have incorporated the Spectrum framework in their teaching and research . The premise that the Spectrum is a universal theory is reinforced by the fact that so many countries have adopted and investigated this framework . This worldwide adaptability is encouraging and promising for the future of the Spectrum theory . </p> It should be noted , however , that Spectrum colleagues from other countries such as Finland , Portugal , Czech Republic , Israel , South Korea , Japan , and Australia have also conducted SRT . This research has been published but is perhaps not easily accessible or conveniently retrievable ( S. Ashworth , personal communication , December 23 , 2007 ) . Unfortunately , it was impossible to retrieve evidence of this SRT on any commonly searched @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ available to others , they need to publish their work on internationally renowned journals and on the official Spectrum web site ( http : **34;11536;TOOLONG ) . </p> Research investigating different aspects of the various Reproduction styles has been and continues to be the primary focus of most SRT ( see Table 2 ) . Currently some researchers are beginning to cross the discovery threshold and investigate teaching styles from the Production cluster by asking questions related to the Production teaching styles . The predominant research focus on the Reproduction styles is probably due to two reasons : ( a ) It is much easier and requires less time to design research examining issues related to the Reproduction rather than the Production teaching styles , and ( b ) the Reproduction teaching styles are more familiar to and more frequently used by PE teachers ( Curtner-Smith , Todorovich , McCaughtry , &; Lacon , 2001 ; Kulinna &; Cothran , 2003 ) . </p> Although , teaching styles were examined with learners of different age groups ( see Table 3 ) , in 39 out of 53 studies the participants @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on teaching in physical education yielded similar results ( Silverman , 1987 ; Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ; Silverman &; Manson , 2003 ) . Given that SRT addresses issues relating to teaching style effectiveness the above information makes sense . It can be argued that research conducted with school-aged children is encouraging in that it can offer answers related to physical education teaching practices and issues ( Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ) . </p> Like other analyses of research on teaching in physical education ( Silverman , 1987 ; Silverman &; Skonie , 1997 ; Silverman &; Manson , 2003 ) , the overwhelming majority of SRT focused on the psychomotor domain ( motor skill acquisition or fitness ) . This is probably because it is possible to design Spectrum short-term studies in an area that is considered a primary objective in physical education . These studies are regarded as traditional research in physical education teaching . Research focusing on multiple domains represented almost half of the sample . The focus of these studies indicates that Spectrum researchers are interested in investigating students ' feelings and cognition @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ This research has enhanced our understanding about the comprehensive , complex , and integrative nature of human development- the whole child . In other words , SRT has addressed diverse and varied questions concerning multiple human dimensions and domains of learner 's development . Unfortunately , few SRT studies have examined the social and moral domains . Considering that Spectrum theory has implications on these two domains , it is necessary to answer questions regarding these domains . </p> On a negative note only one quarter of the studies used qualitative methods as opposed to quantitative methods . Similarly , Silverman ( 1987 ) , Silverman &; Skonie ( 1997 ) , Byra and Goc Karp ( 2000 ) , and Silverman and Manson ( 2003 ) found that only a small percentage of research on teaching in physical education employed qualitative methods to collect data . The attention of Spectrum researchers on quantitative methods may be due to their being more appropriate for answering questions related to the effectiveness of instruction ( Shulman , 1986 ) . In addition , Rink ( 1993 ) has argued that qualitative research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is required to gather useful data for the investigator . However , qualitative methods can be very useful in answering questions related to the meaning of events to teachers and students . Although the quantitative paradigm is the dominant mode of inquiry in the analysis of teaching , other paradigms should be used as well to move research on teaching in physical education further on ( Schempp , 1987 ) . </p> Almost half of the reviewed studies did not use an equivalent control group design . In many of these instances Spectrum researchers were not concerned about the extent to which their study establishes that the teaching styles in use have actually caused the effect that is found ( internal validity ) . An equivalent control group design is considered a very valid scientific approach to the investigation of research problems and its big advantage is the tight control it exercises on the threats to the internal validity ( Gall , Borg , &; Gall , 1996 ; Robson , 1996 ) . </p> Like Silverman and Skonie 's ( 1997 ) research , in most studies the treatment @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which did not use observation tools suffer from a weak treatment effect which biases the results of the research . Silverman ( 1985 ) holds that a major drawback of studies , which do not use some kind of systematic observation , is that the treatment is not verified . Thus , there is no way of knowing whether or not it was implemented accurately . The employment of systematic observation necessitates the development of valid and reliable observation tools that comply with Spectrum theory . Without this development , SRT will be idiosyncratic and unreliable . </p> The minority of Spectrum studies represented ATI research . Teacher behaviour accounts for less than 20% of variance in student achievement ( Snow , 1987 ) and teaching/learning is fraught with interactions ( Griffey , 1981 ) . Given this , the studies which did not use ATIs failed to explain the remaining 80% of the variance , thus , giving inconclusive results . " If we are to come to a finer understanding of the instruction process , we must conduct research on how student aptitudes mediate the spectrum of teaching @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . ATIs , where individuals high in some aptitude profit most from an instructional method whereas individuals low in the same aptitude profit from another instructional method , seem to be a fertile area for investigation ( Chatoupis , 2000 ) . This calls for focusing on which instructional approaches work best for subgroup of students with different characteristics within the classes . </p> Although Mosston 's theory is open to criticism ( e.g. , Hurwitz , 1985 ; Metzler , 1983 ; Sicilia-Camacho &; Brown , 2008 ; Williams , 1996 ) , the field of SRT has increasingly expanded since the 1970s . SRT has addressed many different questions concerning multiple domains of learner 's development . Additionally , teaching styles are examined with learners of different age groups . Furthermore , researchers have begun to cross the discovery threshold and investigate teaching styles from the Production cluster . Unfortunately , current SRT is still being conducted that has methodological deficiencies ( i.e. , absence of equivalent control group design and systematic observation ) making it difficult to accept Byra 's ( 2000 ) position that investigators conducted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the 1970s . </p> Despite the considerable number of publications on SRT , research on the effects and influence of the Spectrum to teaching and learning is far from being exhausted ( Byra , 2000 ) . The results of this study represent some critical considerations in the design of SRT as well as showing areas of omission of SRT on which Spectrum colleagues should concentrate when they design future research . </p> Figure 1 . Coding categories for SRT studies . pre-formatted table REFERENCES Byra , M. ( 2000 ) . A Review of Spectrum Research : The contributions of two eras . Quest , 52 , 229-245 . </p> Byra , M. , &; Goc Karp , G. ( 2000 ) . Data collection techniques employed in qualitative research in physical education teacher education . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 19 , 246-266 . </p> Chatoupis , C. ( 2000 ) . The effects of two teaching styles on physical fitness and perceived athletic competence of fifth grade students . Unpublished doctoral dissertation , University of Manchester , Manchester . </p> Curtner-Smith , M. D. , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ &; Lacon , S. A. ( 2001 ) . Urban teachers ' use of productive and reproductive teaching styles within the confines of the National Curriculum for Physical Education . European Physical Education Review , 7 , 177-190 . </p> Gall , M. D. , Borg , W. R. , &; Gall , J. P. ( 1996 ) . Educational research : An introduction ( 6th ed . ) . New York : Longman . </p> Goldberger , M. ( 1983 ) . Direct styles of teaching and psychomotor performance . In T. J. Templin , &; J. K. Olson ( Eds . ) , Teaching in Physical Education ( pp. 211-223 ) . Champaign IL : Human Kinetics . </p> Goldberger , M. ( 1984 ) . Effective learning through a Spectrum of Teaching Styles . Journal of Physical Education , Recreation , and Dance , 55(8) , 17-21 . </p> Goldberger , M. ( 1991 ) . Research on teaching physical education : A commentary on Silverman 's review . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 52(4) , 369-373 . </p> Goldberger , M. ( 1992 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ research on teaching physical education . Journal of Physical Education , Recreation , and Dance , 63(1) , 42-46 . </p> Goldberger , M. ( 1995 ) . Research on the Spectrum of teaching styles . In R. Lidor , E. Eldar , &; I. Harari ( Eds . ) , Windows to the future : Bridging the gaps between disciplines curriculum and instruction ( pp. 429-435 ) . AIESEP , World Congress Conference , the Wingate institute , Israel . </p> Graber , K. C. ( 2001 ) . Research on teaching in physical education . In V. Richardson ( Ed . ) , Fourth Handbook of research on teaching ( pp. 491-519 ) , Washington , DC : American Educational Research Association . </p> Griffey , D. C. ( 1981 ) . What is the best way to teach ? Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 1 , 18-24 . </p> Griffey , D. C. ( 1983 ) . Hunting the elusive ATI : How pupil aptitudes mediate instruction in the gymnasium . In T. J. Templin &; J. K. Olson ( Eds . ) , Teaching @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : Human Kinetics . </p> Hurwitz , D. ( 1985 ) . A model for the structure of instructional strategies . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 4 , 190-201 . </p> Kulinna , P. H. , &; Cothran , D. ( 2003 ) . Physical education teachers ' self-reported use and perceptions of various teaching styles . Learning and Instruction , 13 , 597-609 . </p> Metzler , M. ( 1983 ) . On styles . Quest , 35 , 145-154 . </p> Mosston , M. , &; Ashworth , S. ( 2002 ) . Teaching physical education ( 5th ed . ) . San Francisco : Benjamin Cummings . </p> Rink , J. E. ( 1993 ) . Teaching physical education for learning . St. Louis , MO : Mosby . </p> Robson , C. ( 1996 ) . Real world research . Oxford : Blackwell publishers . </p> Schempp , P. G. ( 1987 ) . Research on teaching in Physical Education : Beyond the limits of natural science . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 6 , 111-121 . </p> Shulman , L. S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study of teaching . In M. C. Wittrock ( Ed . ) , Handbook of research on teaching ( pp. 3-36 ) . New York : Macmillan . </p> Sicilia-Camacho , A. , &; Brown , D. ( 2008 ) . Revisiting the paradigm shift from the versus to the non-versus notion of Mosston 's Spectrum of teaching styles in physical education pedagogy : a critical pedagogical perspective . Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy , 13(1) , 85-108 . </p> Silverman , S. ( 1985 ) . Critical considerations in the design and analysis of teacher effectiveness research in physical education . International Journal of Physical Education , 22(4) , 17-24 . </p> Silverman , S. ( 1987 ) . Trends and analysis of research on teaching in doctoral programs . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 7 , 61-70 . </p> Silverman , S. ( 1991 ) . Research on teaching in Physical Education . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 62(4) , 352-364 . </p> Silverman , S. ( 1996 ) . How and why we do research . In S. J. Silverman &; C. D. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instruction ( pp. 35-51 ) , Champaign IL : Human Kinetics . </p> Silverman , S. , &; Manson , M. ( 2003 ) . Research on teaching in physical education doctoral dissertations : a detailed investigation of focus , method , and analysis . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 22 , 280-297 . </p> Silverman , S. , &; Skonie , R. ( 1997 ) . Research on teaching in Physical Education : An analysis of published research . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 16 , 300-311 . </p> Snow , R. E. ( 1987 ) . Aptitude-treatment interaction models . In M. J. Dunkin ( Ed . ) , The international encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education ( pp. 28-32 ) . Oxford : Pergamon Press . </p> Williams , A. ( 1996 ) . Teaching physical education . A guide for mentors and students . London : David Fulton publishers . </p> By Constantine Chatoupis </p> Dr. Constantine Chatoupis is a research assistant at the University of Athens ( Department of Physical Education and Sport Science ) , Greece . </p>

@@4088741 In May 1919 a number of British and American historians found themselves in Paris , in and around the foreign ministry at the Quai d'Orsay , with long stretches of time on their hands . Harold Temperley and James Butler from Cambridge , Alfred Zimmern and Arnold Toynbee from Oxford , Charles Webster from Liverpool and their counterparts from Harvard or Columbia had been recruited by their governments to advise on shaping the post-First World War world . In the vast and complex peace conference , they concerned themselves with disputed frontiers , the future of ethnic minorities and distant colonies and the Covenant , or rule book , of the emerging League of Nations . </p> While they waited for British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and US President Woodrow Wilson to conclude the critical deals , the historians and an influential group of British and American delegates met at the Hotel Majestic , where the British delegation was staying . The meeting resolved to establish an Anglo-American institute of international affairs to promote public understanding of global problems and thus , it was hoped , contribute to a more peaceful world . </p> The initiative created the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also known as Chatham House following its move in 1925 to the former home of the Earl of Chatham in St James 's Square , London . This year the institute celebrates its 90th birthday . </p> Chatham House is known as a meeting place for foreign policy specialists , with discussions held under the ' Chatham House Rule ' : that journalists and others may use things they hear there , but must not reveal where or by whom they were said . Less well known is the fact that , from its foundation , Chatham House also devoted some of its resources to promoting the writing of contemporary history with a policy-related purpose . ( The institute is financed by members ' subscriptions , donations and research grants . ) </p> At the meeting of 1919 , those present had decided to produce a major and unprecedented work of contemporary history . This was to become a six-volume history of the peace conference in which the delegates were still engaged ; just as they hoped the conference would bring a peaceful and stable new world , they also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ peace settlement would help the League of Nations and its member-governments to ensure continued peace and cooperation . </p> The work which appeared between 1920 and 1924 as A History of the Peace Conference of Paris , containing contributions by 50 authors and amounting to well over a million words , was planned at speed during that Paris summer of 1919 . The editor was Harold Temperley , who had been an editor of the Cambridge Modern History . As he argued in the foreword to the first volume , it was essential that the contributors should have first-hand knowledge of their respective topics : </p> Articles written at the time by persons present at the Conference , or with an intimate knowledge of the events they describe , must reproduce much of the spirit and atmosphere in which the Conference met . Most of the authors were American or British , but they were urged to ' regard the Conference not from Washington or from London , but from Geneva , where for the first time in world history a permanent world organisation will be established ' . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to maintain the peace settlement was underlined by the editorial decision that ' the text of the treaties and other documents that may be required for future reference should be appended ' . </p> One difficulty relating to source material had to be overcome in a historical account which was meant to be ' authoritative but not official ' . Most of the contributors were to write about issues they had handled officially , but their governments forbade them to quote documentary material they knew directly from their official duties . There were ways around this . On the Versailles Treaty 's provisions for reparations , for instance , fully documented details of the negotiations were published in polemical exchanges between two famous participants , the British economist and Treasury adviser John Maynard Keynes and the US statesman John Foster Dulles , which made this important material available for the History . Looking back after his task was completed , Temperley was able to claim : ' I edited an authoritative history - which did reveal some diplomatic secrets ' It also offered an account -useful to future negotiators - @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ more successful than others . </p> From the first meeting , the assumption had been that the account of the peace conference would be the first instalment of an annual series of ' registers ' of world affairs , each volume recording the events of the preceding year . In July 1920 , at the inaugural meeting of the British Institute of International Affairs , the policy-related case for this ongoing coverage of contemporary history was put by Earl Grey of Falloden ( formerly , as Sir Edward Grey , the British foreign secretary ) . An annual survey , he said , ' will not interfere with policy , but provide materials from which politicians , statesmen and journalists can form sound opinions in regard to policy ' . </p> The new institute 's founding members included a number of historians who agreed with Grey that it should promote the writing of contemporary history . The original discussions in Paris had crucially linked the idea of creating an institute with that of writing history . As well as the historians already mentioned , those involved included London University 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sumner and C.A. Macartney , the former Edinburgh professor George Prothero , the Cambridge historian Kenneth Pickthorn ( later to be a Conservative MP and minister ) and the arch-Zionist Lewis Namier . In its early years the institute was housed in rooms in Bloomsbury belonging to London University 's Institute of Historical Research . </p> But who was actually to write the sequence of annual histories ? Fortunately , Arnold Toynbee was available . For 30 years Chatham House 's Survey of International Affairs was either written , edited , or inspired by him , as the institute 's Director of Studies . Toynbee ( 1889-1975 ) , who before 1914 had taught ancient history as a Fellow of Balliol College , Oxford , had become involved in contemporary affairs during his wartime and postwar service in the Foreign Office 's Political Intelligence Department . He took up the task of writing history for the institute in 1924 . He produced first two volumes bridging the gap between the peace conference and the end of the year 1923 and then published , annually up to the eve of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Press , Chatham House 's publisher , brought out in the year after the one each described . </p> Toynbee was able to keep up this considerable output ( and produce each volume in less than 12 months ) by developing techniques much more more familiar today than they were in the 1920s , when the idea of writing contemporary history was new . He scrutinised the texts of international agreements , governmental statements and other public documents ; he made great use of interviews with both British and foreign decision-makers ( including , in 1936 , Adolf Hitler ) ; and he commissioned sections of many of the Survey volumes - for instance on economic trends or particular regions - from outside experts . </p> Toynbee also consulted extensively ; he maintained close contact with the Foreign Office 's historical adviser , Sir James Headlam-Morley , and some sections of the Survey were read in draft by Foreign Office officials . Another adviser was the diplomatic historian Charles Webster , who had moved from his chair in history at the University of Liverpool to promote the fledgling academic discipline @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as the Woodrow Wilson Professor of International Politics at Aberystwyth , teaching and writing about the League of Nations and continuing to work with Chatham House . During and after the Second World War , Webster - by now at the London School of Economics - worked on the Charter of the United Nations Organisation and then co-authored the official history of the strategic bombing of Germany . </p> Perhaps Toynbee 's biggest contribution to the methodology of contemporary history was his systematic and meticulous use of the international press as a documentary source . Chatham House 's press library , an invaluable resource for later historians , originated with the small team of specialist assistants who scanned , clipped and cross-indexed articles from the world 's leading newspapers for the use of the polyglot Toynbee and his co-authors . </p> The Survey ( and its accompanying volumes of Documents on World Affairs ) provided a comprehensive and , on the whole , reliable account of recent events . At a time when fewer books on contemporary issues were published than is the case today , Toynbee 's output was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the 1930s , when the threat of war began to loom large , Toynbee 's uninhibited criticism of world leaders ' actions became controversial ; his denunciation of the British and French foreign ministers , Samuel Hoare and Pierre Laval , for appeasing Mussolini as he overran Ethiopia in 1935 was disputed by many . In particular , it was ridiculed by another eminent member of Chatham House , E.H . Carr , a former career diplomat who in 1936 became a successor to Webster as the Wilson Professor in Aberystwyth . In his scintillating analysis of recent history , The Twenty Years ' Crisis ( 1939 ) , Carr wrote that for Toynbee to accuse Britain and France of ' negative , weak-willed , cowardly egotism ' ( Toynbee 's words ) was moralistic and unhistorical and that Toynbee 's view of Britain 's position was ' compounded of platitude and falsehood in about equal parts ' . But such criticism , like Elie Kedourie 's onslaught on Toynbee 's coverage of the Middle East in The Chatham House Version , published in 1970 , was relatively rare . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ serious criticism by undertaking a vastly more ambitious project than the Survey of International Affairs . He was by now spending part of each year , after completing work on the annual Survey , in composing a gigantic study which claimed to interpret the entire course of human history . Its central theme was the rise and fall of humanity 's 21 historic ' civilisations ' ( the proper unit of study for historians , he argued ) , which could be clearly identified and systematically compared . The first three large volumes of A Study of History appeared in 1934 , another three in 1939 and the concluding four in 1954 . Toynbee 's work encouraged historians to look beyond their Anglophone or Eurocentric horizons towards what was later called ' world history ' , but his grandiose scheme attracted criticism both in its detail and in its overall interpretation of the nature and destiny of ' civilisations ' and is now taken more seriously by sociologists than by historians . </p> The Second World War naturally interrupted both Toynbee 's writing and the other activities of Chatham House @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Foreign Office 's new Research Department , of which Toynbee was the director until 1946 . He then spent nearly another decade at Chatham House completing A Study of History , directing a series of extended Survey volumes covering the war years and supervising the writing of new annual volumes on the prewar model by younger authors . The most productive of these was the wartime codebreaker , historian and publisher Peter Calvocoressi ( 1912-2010 ) , who produced five volumes in five years covering the late 1940s and early 1950s . After the departure of Toynbee and Calvocoressi , the last editors and authors of the Survey were successively Geoffrey Barraclough and Donald Cameron Watt , the latter of whom produced the volumes on the years 1961 to 1963 . </p> The decision taken by the institute in the 1970s to close down the Survey was due to financial constraints ( and to a priority given to more directly policy-related studies ) , rather than to any lack of interest in contemporary history . The members of the institute 's Research Committee at the time included the historians @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ House continued to produce a number of historical works . Although by now these shared the market with comparable publications from the numerous international studies or contemporary history centres in the university world , the fact remained that , historically , Chatham House had been the principal pioneer of this field of research . </p> Chatham House 's mission of helping policy-makers to heed the insights of history and thus avoid repeating the mistakes of yesterday has been taken up by a number of enterprising historians in the History and Policy group ( www.historyandpolicy.org ) . Founded in 2002 , the group , which seeks to explain the relevance of history to contemporary policy making , is a collaboration between Cambridge University , London University 's Institute of Historical Research and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . The question of whether the History and Policy group , in tandem with Chatham House , is achieving its somewhat elusive aims is a matter for future debate . </p> For more articles on this subject visit **35;614;TOOLONG </p> The original discussions in Paris had crucially linked the Idea of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : A gathering of the study group for the Committee on ( postwar ) Reconstruction in the Common Room at Chatham House , c.1940 . </p> PHOTO ( BLACK &; WHITE ) : Arnold Toynbee in his office at Chatham House during the late 1940s . </p> By Roger Morgan </p> Roger Morgan has taught at the University of Sussex and the European University Institute , Florence . He was a director of research at Chatham House and edited The Study of International Affairs ( Oxford University Press , 1972 ) . </p>

@@4088841 Alcohol use was studied in 158 adolescents with visual impairments and 537 sighted adolescents in Germany . The students with visual impairments reported lower levels of alcohol use and drunkenness , and between-group differences increased across adolescence . The lower alcohol use by students with visual impairments was explained , in part , by the lower peer group integration of these adolescents . </p> The prevalence of alcohol use increases sharply during adolescence , and at the end of adolescence , most persons in Western countries have consumed alcoholic beverages ( O'Malley , Johnston , &; Bachman , 1998 ) . For example , according to a study by the Federal Center for Health Education ( 2007 ) , German 12-17 year olds consumed , on average , 50.4 grams ( 1.8 ounces ) of alcohol per week . Whereas those aged 12-15 consumed , on average , 21.1 grams ( 0.7 ounces ) per week , those aged 16-17 consumed , on average , 104.6 grams ( 3.7 ounces ) per week . </p> Getting drunk and binge drinking are risky drinking behaviors that may impair adolescents ' health . According to the Federal Center for Health Education @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of drunkenness , on average , at about 15.5 years . Binge drinking is usually defined as the consumption of at least four ( for girls ) or five ( for boys ) standard units of alcohol ( Midanik , 1999 ) , often with the intention of getting drunk . In a study by the Federal Center of Health Education ( 2007 ) , about 26% of German 12-17 year olds reported episodes of binge drinking during the previous month . Again , the percentage of binge drinkers increased from 12% among the 12-15 year olds to 51% among the 16-17 year olds . Hibell et al . ( 2004 ) reported that 57% of German 15-16 year olds had a binge-drinking episode during the previous month . In that cross-national survey , the percentages of young binge drinkers varied from 15% in Turkey to 60% in Denmark . An early age of first drunkenness and episodes of binge drinking are known to be associated with an increased risk of a number of problems , including alcohol poisoning , alcohol dependence , road accidents , unwanted ( teenage ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Heeren , Winter , &; Wechsler , 2003 ; Stolle , Sack , &; Thomasius , 2009 ) . </p> It is estimated that 1.4 million children aged 15 and younger worldwide have been blind for many years and that more than 12 million children aged 5-15 are visually impaired because of uncorrected refractive errors ( World Health Organization , 2010 ) . Whereas numerous studies have assessed the use of alcohol in general adolescent populations ( see , for example , O'Malley et al. , 1998 ) , no research has investigated whether the pattern of alcohol use may differ between adolescents with visual impairments and sighted adolescents . </p> Some authors have suggested that visual impairment may lead to higher levels of substance use . For example , alcohol may be used to cope with the frustrations with the disability and low self-esteem and to gain social acceptance among peers ( Koch , Nelipovich , &; Sneed , 2002 ) . Thus , Nelipovich , Vergin , and Kossick ( 1998 ) suggested that 20% to 30% of individuals with visual impairments may need treatment for problems related @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 1989 ) reported that 40% to 50% of adults with low vision or blindness may abuse alcohol . Nonetheless , Kooner , Albdoor , Cho , &; Adams-Huet ( 2008 ) found no differences in the risk for alcohol abuse between adults who were blind and those who were sighted with primary open angle glaucoma , and Jones , Rovner , Crews , and Danielson ( 2009 ) showed that older adults with visual impairments ( aged 65 and older ) were less likely to report that they were current drinkers than were older sighted adults . Because Kooner et al . and Jones et al . assessed middle-aged or older adults , their results can not be generalized to adolescents with visual impairments . </p> In contrast to the assumption that alcohol use may be more common among individuals with visual impairments , there are two arguments for lower levels of alcohol use in this group . First , adolescents often consume alcohol in a peer context , such as at a party or while dating ( Power , Stewart , Hughes , &; Arbona , 2005 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ predictor of adolescents ' alcohol use and binge drinking ( Crawford &; Novak , 2002 ) . Since several studies ( for example , Lifshitz , Hen , &; Weisse , 2007 ; Sacks &; Wolffe , 1998 ) found that adolescents with visual impairments spend less time with peers and more time alone than do sighted adolescents , they may have fewer opportunities to consume alcohol . Second , in Germany , for example , the legal age for drinking and buying beer is 16 years , and buying and consuming spirits are prohibited before age 18 . Thus , younger adolescents with visual impairments may have more problems gaining access to alcohol because they may not have many older friends who could buy alcohol for them . </p> Research questions Given the lack of comparative studies on alcohol use by sighted and visually impaired adolescents , the first research question focused on differences in alcohol use between these groups . We expected that adolescents with visual impairments would report a later age at first drunkenness , fewer episodes of drunkenness and binge drinking , and lower average amounts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the differences between adolescents with visual impairments and sighted adolescents in the use of alcohol would vary by age . Since alcohol consumption increases across adolescence , we expected that the differences between the two groups in the frequency of drunkenness , binge drinking , and the amount of alcohol consumed would increase across adolescence . The third research question focused on the role of integration into a peer group in explaining differences in alcohol consumption between sighted students and those with visual impairments . Because adolescents with visual impairments , on average , report having more peer problems and most adolescents are likely to drink alcohol in the peer context , we expected that the lower level of alcohol use of adolescents with visual impairments would be explained , in part , by these adolescents ' lower peer group integration . </p> Methods SAMPLE In the longitudinal ongoing Marburg Study on Vision Loss ( MARVIL ) , adolescents with visual impairments were recruited from two German special schools for students who are blind or have low vision . Because most German adolescents who are visually impaired attend special schools @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ schools . MARVIL addresses the psychological development of German adolescents with and without visual impairments . A broad range of outcome variables is measured , such as success with solving age-associated developmental tasks ( like building friendships and intimate relationships ) , the experience of discrimination , and internalizing and externalizing problem behavior . </p> The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the German Psychological Society . After we obtained permission from the schools and informed consent from the parents and adolescents , 6th to 11th graders answered our questions in their classes . The assessment instruments were administered orally by the assessor , and the students typed their answers into their laptop computers . From 184 potentially available students , 161 participated in the study ( participation rate 87.5% ) . Three participants were excluded from the analysis because they were older than age 20 . Fifty-nine participants were blind a visual acuity of less than 20/400 ( 6/ 120 ) or a corresponding visual field loss of less than 10 degrees in the better eye with the best possible correction and the others had low vision @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , or a corresponding visual field loss of less than 20 degrees in the better eye with the best possible correction ) according to the International Stastical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems , 10th revision ( ICD-10 ; World Health Organization , 2007 ) . About 13% of the students with visual impairments also had a second disability , such as a hearing impairment ( n = 4 ) or mobility impairment ( n = 2 ) . The sample included day students ( 87% ) and residential students ( 13% ) . </p> Sighted 6th to 11th graders were recruited from schools in the surrounding areas of the schools for students with visual impairments . After we obtained the permission of the schools and the parents , the students filled out a questionnaire in their classes . About 5% of the students did not participate in the study because of their lack of interest or absence on the day of data collection . Furthermore , 32 students were excluded because of missing values on alcohol use . In total , data from 537 sighted students were included @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were more likely to be male than were the sighted students F ( 1,725 ) = 5.99 , p &lt; .05 , ? = .008 , we controlled for this variable in the analyses . </p> Because we plan to collect longitudinal data , we collected only data from students from the highest school track ( gymnasium ) , since they can be contacted in their schools for another four years . The participants were , on average , 15 years old ( SD = 1.9 ; range 12-19 years ) , and 52% of them were female . </p> MEASURES Visual impairment A dummy variable was constructed comprising the information on school membership ( visual impairment = 1 , no visual impairment = 0 ) . We also asked the sighted participants whether they had trouble seeing that could not be corrected with eyeglasses ( 0 = no ; 1 = yes ) , and no student answered this question affirmatively . In addition , we asked the participants who were blind or had low vision about their level of visual impairment according to their certificate of disability . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the respondents are blind according to the ICD-10 criteria . </p> Drunkenness With a single-item indicator , the participants were asked whether they had already experienced drunkenness ( 1 = yes , 0 = no ) . If they said yes , they were then asked about their age at first drunkenness and about the frequency of experiences of drunkenness during the previous 12 months . </p> Alcohol use First , the participants were asked about the number of days they drank beer , wine , alcopops ( beverages containing alcohol and added ingredients , such as fruit juices or other flavorings ) , and distilled spirits during the previous month . Second , we assessed the average number of consumed glasses of alcohol per occasion of drinking . We computed the total amount of alcohol consumed by multiplying the number of days they consumed alcohol , the average number of glasses of alcohol they consumed , and the number of grams of alcohol per glass taken from standard tables , and summed the amounts across the assessed types of beverages ( Federal Center for Health Education , 2007 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ number of glasses of alcohol consumed on one occasion during the previous month , we classified adolescents as binge drinkers if male adolescents consumed five glasses or more on an occasion and if female adolescents consumed four glasses and more ( following Midanik , 1999 ; 1 = yes , 0 = no ) . </p> Peer group integration With single-item indicators , we asked whether the participants ever belonged to a peer group ( 1 = yes , 0 = no ) and how successful they were in becoming a member of a peer group ( 3 = have finished this task , 2 = in the process of building a peer group , 1 = not yet started this task ) . </p> Results About 32% of the students with visual impairments and 49% of the sighted students reported that they had been drunk . We used the Cox regression analysis ( Cox , 1972 ) to analyze whether vision status and gender would predict the age-at-first-drunkenness score . Cox regression has the advantage over logistic regression in that it takes into account the age of the participants @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so-called censored cases ) . Vision status and gender were entered as independent variables . We found significant effects of vision status ( B = -1.06 , Exp(B) = .35 , p &lt; .001 ) and female gender ( B = -.38 , Exp(B) = .69 , p , .001 ) . As Figure 1 shows , the participants who were visually impaired had a later age-at-first-drunkenness score . The median age at first drunkenness was 15 years for the sighted students and 18 years for the students with visual impairments . Similarly , all the female participants were less likely to have experienced drunkenness ( 41% ) than were their male peers ( 49% ) and were estimated to experience their first episode of drunkenness at age 16 , compared to 15 years for the male adolescents . </p> In the next step , we analyzed predictors of the frequency of reported episodes of drunkenness during the previous 12 months . The participants reported , on average , 4.5 ( SD = 10.7 ) episodes of drunkenness . An analysis of covariance was computed with the frequency of reported @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as independent variables , and gender as a covariate . Because relatively fewer 18-year-old ( n = 55 ) and 19-year-old ( n = 12 ) students were available than were 12- to 18-year-old students ( n = 94-126 ) , we combined two successive age groups into four joint categories ( 12-13year olds , 14-15 year olds , 16-17 year olds , and 18-19 year olds ) to get more robust results . We found significant main effects of vision status , age , and gender and a significant interaction effect of vision status and age . Vision status explained 6.3% of the variance in the dependent variable , and the interaction effect of vision status and age explained another 4.1% ( see Table 1 ) . The participants with visual impairments reported , on average , fewer episodes of drunkenness ( M = 1.4 , SD = 3.7 ) than did those who were sighted ( M = 5.5 ; SD = 12.0 ) . As Figure 2 indicates , the participants with visual impairments started at a lower level and showed a lower increase in the frequency @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the female participants reported , on average , fewer episodes of drunkenness ( M = 3.7 , SD = 8.8 ) than did the male participants ( M = 5.5 , SD = 12.4 ) . </p> Overall , about 36% of the participants reported at least one episode of binge drinking during the previous month ; 39.7% of the sighted participants and 15.5% of those who were visually impaired answered the question affirmatively . With an analysis of covariance ( ANCOVA ) , we found significant effects of vision status and age and an interaction effect of vision status and age . However , we found no significant gender differences in binge drinking ( see Table 1 ) . The vision status x age interaction effect indicates that differences between the sighted students and the students with visual impairments increased over time . For example , 5% and 8% of the 12-13 year olds with and without visual impairment , respectively , reported binge drinking during the previous month . However , among the 18-19 year olds , the sighted binge drinkers ( 74.1% ) clearly outnumbered the binge @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the next step , we analyzed the amount of alcohol consumed during the previous week . The participants reported consuming , on average , 50.5 grams ( 1.8 ounces ) of alcohol during that time ( SD = 95.64 ) . An ANCOVA was computed with the amount of alcohol as the dependent variable , vision status and age group as independent variables , and gender as a covariate . We found significant statistical main effects of vision status , age , and gender and a significant interaction effect of age and vision status ( see Table 1 ) . In line with our expectation , the participants with visual impairments consumed , on average , lower amounts of alcohol ( M = 20.5 grams 0.7 ounces per week ) than did the sighted prticipants ( M = 58.9 grams 2.0 ounces per week ) . In addition , the main effect of age indicates that alcohol consumption increased with age ( from 4.7 grams 0.2 ounces per week among the 12-13 year olds to 82.9 grams 2.9 ounces per week among the 18-19 year olds ) . Furthermore , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( M = 59.9 grams 2.1 ounces per week ) than did the female participants ( M = 41.5 grams 1.5 ounces per week ) . Finally , the interaction effect of age and vision status indicates that the size of the differences between the participants with visual impairments and the sighted participants increased across adolescence ( see Figure 3 ) . </p> We also tested whether the level of alcohol use differed between the participants who were blind and those with low vision . Although the participants who were legally blind had slightly lower scores on all measures than did those with low vision , the differences did not reach statistical significance : drunkenness : F ( 1,156 ) = .67 , n.s. ; binge drinking : F ( 1,156 ) = .37 , n.s. ; grams of alcohol per week : F ( 1,156 ) = .05 , n.s . </p> A higher proportion of students with visual impairments ( 26% ) than of sighted students ( 10% ) reported that they had never belonged to a peer group : F ( 1,720 ) = 29.69 , p @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reported lower success in belonging to a peer group at present : M = 2.45 versus M = 2.64 ; F ( 1,725 ) = 11.01 , p &lt; .001 . With regard to the final research question , we analyzed whether the observed effects of vision status would be explained , at least in part , by the lower peer group integration of students with visual impairments . We reran the ANCOVAS and included the two indicators of peer group integration ( ever belonged to a peer group and peer group membership at present ) as additional covariates . We observed that the amount of variance explained by vision status dropped from 6.3% to 4.9% ( drunkenness ) , from 7.1% to 5.6% ( binge drinking ) , and from 5.9% to 4.7% ( grams of alcohol during the last week ) . Thus , the proportion of variance explained by vision status was reduced by 20% to 22% . However , the effect of vision status remained statistically significant in all the analyses . </p> Discussion This study was the first to show that adolescents with visual impairments @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of drunkenness and binge drinking , and experience their first episode of drunkenness at a later age than do their sighted peers . The reported alcohol use of the sighted participants was similar to reports of representative studies on German adolescents ( Federal Center for Health Education , 2004 , 2007 ; Hibell et al. , 2004 ) , thus supporting the validity of the measures we used in our study . </p> Although several authors suggested that individuals with visual impairments drink more alcohol , for example , to cope with their disability and associated stressors ( Buss &; Cramer , 1989 ; Koch et al. , 2002 ; Nelipovich et al. , 1998 ) , our results indicate that they drink less , at least in adolescence . The lower alcohol consumption of the participants with visual impairments was explained , in part , by their lower peer group integration , which is associated with less access to alcohol and fewer opportunities to drink . We may even have underestimated the effect of peer group integration , since we used only two global questions and did not ask @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nonetheless , because our measures of peer group integration explained only slightly more than 20% of the effect of vision status , other factors have to be considered that may explain the relatively low levels of alcohol use in students with visual impairments . Since a recent meta-analysis found lower levels of psychological distress in children and adolescents with visual impairment than in adults with visual impairments ( Pinquart &; Pfeiffer , in press ) , our findings suggest that adolescents with visual impairments may be less likely than adults with visual impairments to require alcohol to cope with their disability and associated stressors , perhaps because of additional support provided by schools for students with visual impairments . In addition , since a study on older adults with visual impairments also found lower levels of alcohol use than in sighted older adults ( Jones et al. , 2009 ) , one may also speculate that visual impairment sensitizes individuals to health risks and may promote positive health behaviors . </p> Limitations and conclusions This study had some limitations . Similarly to other studies , we had to rely on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ studies have shown that adolescents give reliable and valid responses to these questions ( see , for example , Williams , Toomey , McGovern , Wagenaar , &; Perry , 1995 ) . Although it would have been possible to collect additional information on adolescents ' alcohol use from parents or teachers , we do not believe that these persons would have sufficient knowledge to provide valid answers . We also had no reason to believe that sighted students and students with visual impairments would differ in their willingness to report alcohol use . In addition , we focused on students from the highest school track . Students from lower school tracks are expected to show higher substance use ( Federal Center for Health Education , 2007 ) , but this higher use would probably be found in both those who are sighted and those with visual impairments . Thus , the selection of students from the highest school track is unlikely to have affected the observed differences between the two groups of students or the observed age differences . Furthermore , drinking habits in the United States and other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , research is needed on whether similar results would be found in other countries . Finally , because age differences may be confounded with differences among cohorts , we plan to collect follow-up data on changes in alcohol use over time . </p> Despite these limitations , we conclude that although the prevention of alcohol misuse may be a less relevant goal for students with visual impairments than for sighted students , there are a minority of binge drinkers and those who experience drunkenness who may benefit from prevention efforts . In addition , several authors have highlighted the need to promote the peer group integration of students with visual impairments ( see , for example , Sacks &; Gaylord-Ross , 1989 ) . When following this requirement , practitioners should keep in mind that these measures may be at the expense of a health hazard , since the increase in peer group integration is likely to be associated with an increase in alcohol use , binge drinking , and drunkenness . Thus , those who help adolescents to develop general social competence for building and maintaining social relationships should @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ carry on a conversation with people at a party or to promote peer relations in general ( Wenzel , Weichold , &; Silbereisen , 2009 ) . </p> Since this was the first study on alcohol use by adolescents with visual impairments , we recommend that more comparative research on drinking habits from different countries should be conducted . Second , research is needed on the social contexts of alcohol use of adolescents with visual impairments . For example , how do the observed lower levels of alcohol use of students with visual impairments relate to differences in patterns of leisure activities , such as partying or attending discotheques ? Do students with visual impairments from integrated schools have more access to alcohol than adolescents from special schools for students who are visually impaired ? Third , because it has been suggested that alcohol may be used to cope with visual impairment , research is needed on the motives for using alcohol of adolescents with visual impairments . Finally , from a lifespan perspective , more research is needed that compares the drinking habits of individuals with and without visual @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Grant Pi291/9-1 from the German Research Council . </p> Table 1 Associations of vision status , age , and gender with drunkenness and the amount of alcohol consumption . pre-formatted table GRAPH : Figure 1 . Age at first drunkenness of sighted adolescents and students with visual impairments . </p> GRAPH : Figure 2 . Age differences in the number of episodes of drunkenness during the previous 12 months of sighted adolescents and adolescents with visual impairments . </p> GRAPH : Figure 3 . Age differences in the use of alcohol by sighted adolescents and adolescents with visual impairments . </p> References Buss , A. , &; Cramer , C. ( 1989 ) . Incidence of alcohol use by people with disabilities . Madison , WI : Office of Persons with Disabilities . </p> Cox , D. ( 1972 ) . Regression models and life tables . Journal of the Royal Statistical Society , 34 , 187-220 . </p> Crawford , L. A. , &; Novak , K. B. ( 2002 ) . Parental and peer influences on adolescent drinking : The relative impact of attachment and opportunity . Journal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . </p> Federal Center for Health Education . ( 2004 ) . Die Drogenaffinitt Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2004 Drug affinity of adolescents in the Federal Republic of Germany 2004 . Kln , Germany : Author . </p> Federal Center for Health Education . ( 2007 ) . Alkoholkonsum der Jugendlichen in Deutschland 2004 bis 2007 Alcohol consumption of adolescents in Germany 2004 to 2007 . Kln , Germany : Author . Retrieved from http : //www.bzga.de/pdf.php ? **35;2738;TOOLONG </p> Hibell , B. , Andersson , B. , Bjarnason , T. , Ahlstrm , S. , Balakireva , O. , Kokkevi , A. , &; Morgan , M. ( 2004 ) . The ESPAD report 2003 : Alcohol and other drug use among students in 35 European Countries . Stockholm : Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs . </p> Hingson , R. , Heeren , R. , Winter , M. R. , &; Wechsler , H. ( 2003 ) . Early age of first drunkenness as a factor in college students ' unplanned and unprotected sex attributable to drinking . Pediatrics , 111 , 34-41 . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Crews , J. E. , &; Danielson , M. L. ( 2009 ) . Effects of depressive symptoms on health behavior practices among older adults with vision loss . Rehabilitation Psychology , 54 , 164-172 . </p> Koch , D. S. , Nelipovich , M. , &; Sneed , Z. ( 2002 ) . Alcohol and other drug abuse as coexisting disabilities : Considerations for counselors serving individuals who are blind or visually impaired . RE:view , 33 , 151-159 . </p> Kooner , K. S. , Albdoor , M. , Cho , B. J. , &; Adams-Huet , B. ( 2008 ) . Risk factors for progression to blindness in high tension primary open angle glaucoma : Comparison of blind and nonblind subjects . Clinical Ophthalmology , 2 , 756-762 . </p> Lifshitz , H. , Hen , I. , &; Weisse , I. ( 2007 ) . Self-concept , self-esteem , personality traits and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents with and without visual impairment . Journal of Visual Impairment &; Blindness , 101 , 96-107 . </p> Midanik , L. T. ( 1999 ) . Drunkenness , feeling @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 887-97 . </p> Nelipovich , M. , Vergin , C. , &; Kossick , R. ( 1998 ) . The Marco model : Making substance abuse services accessible to people who are visually impaired . Journal of Visual Impairment &; Blindness , 92 , 567-570 . </p> O'Malley , P. M. , Johnston , L. D. , &; Bachman , J. D. ( 1998 ) . Alcohol use among adolescents . Alcohol Health and Research World , 22 , 85-93 . </p> Pinquart , M. , &; Pfeiffer , J. P. ( in press ) . Psychological well-being in visually impaired and unimpaired individuals : A meta-analysis . British Journal of Visual Impairment . </p> Power , T. G. , Stewart , C. D. , Hughes , S. O. , &; Arbona , C. ( 2005 ) . Predicting patterns of adolescent alcohol use : A longitudinal study . Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 66 , 74-81 . </p> Sacks , S. Z. , &; Gaylord-Ross , R. ( 1989 ) . Peer-mediated and teacher-directed social skills training for visually impaired students . Behavior Therapy , 20 , 619-640 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ K. E. ( 1998 ) . Lifestyles of adolescents with visual impairments : An ethnographic analysis . Journal of Visual Impairment &; Blindness , 92 , 7-17 . </p> Stolle , M. , Sack , P. , &; Thomasius , R. ( 2009 ) . Binge drinking in childhood and adolescence : Epidemiology , consequences , and interventions . Deutsches rzteblatt International , 106 , 323-328 . </p> Wenzel , V. , Weichold , K. , &; Silbereisen , R. K. ( 2009 ) . The life skills program IPSY : Positive influences on school bonding and prevention of substance misuse . Journal of Adolescence , 32 , 1391-1401 . </p> Williams , C. L. , Toomey , T. L. , McGovern , P. , Wagenaar , A. C. , &; Perry , C. L. ( 1995 ) . Development , reliability , and validity of self-report alcohol-use measures with young adolescents . Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse , 4 , 17-40 . </p> World Heath Organization . ( 2007 ) . International statistical classification of disease and related health problems ( 10th rev. , 2007 version ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ </p> World Health Organization . ( 2010 ) . Visual impairment and blindness . WHO Fact Sheet , 282 . Geneva : Author . Retrieved from http : **56;2823;TOOLONG </p> By Martin Pinquart and Jens P. Pfeiffer </p> Martin Pinquart , Dr.Habil. , professor , Department of Psychology , Philipps University , Gutenbergstrasse 18 , D-35032 Marburg , Germany ; email : **37;2881;TOOLONG . </p> Jens P. Pfeiffer , Dipl.Psych. , assistant professor , Department of Psychology , Philipps University , Germany ; e-mail : **41;2920;TOOLONG . </p>

@@4088941 IN THE NARRATIVE crafted by Michael Bloomberg 's public-relations team throughout the first nine years of his mayoralty , he was the fabulously successful businessman who saved New York 's economy after the 9/11 attacks and then went on to master urban governance without breaking a sweat . Along the way , we have been told relentlessly , Bloomberg became the nation 's leading education reformer , responsible for reducing by half the black-white achievement gap , while also launching lifesaving public-health and environmental initiatives . </p> And through it all , so the narrative went , he remained above the ugly partisan fray . A lifelong Democrat who turned Republican to run for mayor on the cusp of his 60s , he quickly transcended both parties and established himself as a true independent . And so , his consultants hinted , the nation 's emblematic " no labels " politician might be available for the highest office in the land so that he could help repair the politically fractured nation as he has repaired New York City . </p> But all that was before the Christmas 2010 snowstorm , when this protean genius of 21st-century politics somehow forgot @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mayor must make sure the streets are cleared before he sets upon saving the world . As a powerful blizzard bore down on the city , Bloomberg , as was his weekend custom , was relaxing at his sunny Bermuda hideaway . Steven Goldsmith , a new recruit as deputy mayor for operations owing to his efforts at " reinventing government " during his own innovative mayoralty in Indianapolis in the early 1990s , was in D.C. for the weekend and declined to return . Howard Wolfson , another deputy mayor , was vacationing in London . Bloomberg 's principal deputy , Patricia Harris , was also out of town at an undisclosed location . </p> The handful of agency heads left in charge of the city 's storm response neglected to declare a snow emergency , which would have allowed them to use measures like towing cars off busy streets to prepare for the disruptions . By the time Bloomberg flew back to the city on his private plane the next day , a disaster was unfolding on the streets . He then added insult to injury by urging @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their own blocks in the outer boroughs -- to shrug it off and take in a Broadway show . When reporters asked Bloomberg to account for his whereabouts as the storm began , he replied that this was his " private time " and thus no one 's business . </p> The outrage surging up in the city 's neighborhoods was so palpable that even Bloomberg 's most reliable boosters began making fun of the great manager 's performance . When yet another two inches of snow hit the city a week later , the New York Post ran a mock " Memo to Mayor Mike " on its front page , reminding Bloomberg that it was " going to snow today . " After that second snow , the front page of the Daily News proclaimed : " GREAT JOB MIKE ! Mayor triumphs over storm ! ( All 2 inches of it ! ) " The mayor 's approval rating plummeted to 34 percent , according to the Marist poll . The rumors planted in the media about his running for president finally , and mercifully , ceased @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reversal of fortune in his third term in office -- a term he secured by muscling through a change in the city 's term-limits law before spending $150 million to win only 50.7 percent of the vote -- with hubris metaphors drawn from classical tragedy . But this assumes there was glory before the fall . In reality , there never was greatness . There have been no lasting fiscal or education reforms . </p> The story of Bloomberg 's mayoralty is this : there is no there there . </p> It is now abundantly clear that the myth of Bloomberg 's accomplishments was the result of two forces : his own immense wealth and the city tax dollars generated by the stock-market surge of the 2000s . Both sources of revenue , private and public , were used to co-opt and silence his opposition and thereby allow the glamorized portrait of an indispensable manager and the guardian of the public purse to be drawn without countervailing criticism . </p> An objective accounting of Bloomberg 's tenure reveals the many ways that Bloomberg 's standing as New York 's richest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the city 's fiscal health and essential infrastructure deteriorated . </p> How It Began to Go Wrong WHILE running for office in 2001 and after being sworn in as mayor in 2002 , Bloomberg pledged to be the quintessential managerial mayor . He promised to resolve the city 's budget difficulties without raising taxes and insisted there would be no city support for any new stadiums until the economy-suffering through a recession owing to the post-9/11 aftershock -- had recovered . He also said he would negotiate new union work rules for a more efficient New York . And he insisted that he would lead the way in rebuilding Ground Zero . </p> Bloomberg reversed himself on each of those commitments . He ceded responsibility for the Ground Zero rebuilding to then-Governor George Pataki and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , and then stayed out of it while they spectacularly mishandled every aspect of the reconstruction . Later he announced his support for a new stadium for the New York Jets on the Far West Side of Manhattan . </p> Because of the city 's damaged @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on his promise and instead proposed a 25 percent property-tax hike while signing public-sector union contracts that boosted wages well above inflation without receiving work-rule changes in return . This was fitting , he believed , for a metropolis that , he said in 2003 , " is n't Wal-Mart . It is n't trying to be the lowest-priced product in the market . It 's a high-end product , maybe even a luxury product . " You want to live in and around a luxury product ? You have to pay more . </p> Bloomberg maintained the policing achievements that had changed the city so dramatically for the better during the tenure of his predecessor , Rudy Giuliani . And he had some modest successes of his own in the early years . He imported from Chicago a 311 system for quicker access to city services and handled a brief blackout in 2003 well . New York recovered from 9/11 more quickly than expected . By the second quarter of 2003 , Wall Street profits were beginning to rebound , and the city was emerging from the worst of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ line on spending and allowing the city 's coffers to recover properly , Bloomberg simply reversed course and kept spending while keeping tax rates high . Even so , he chose to borrow $1.5 billion to help cover the city 's operating expenses . Not since the catastrophic near-bankruptcy of the 1970s had the city borrowed to cover day-to-day costs . </p> The aftermath of 9/11 was an extraordinary lost opportunity for the city . It could have been a moment when , in the name of shared responsibility for bringing the city back to life , spiraling labor costs could have been addressed . Public-sector employees working for the city labored but 35 hours a week and contributed nothing to their own health-insurance premiums . Rather than take up the matter , Bloomberg simply retained the status quo when it came to negotiating with the city 's most important voting bloc . A routine was established : Bloomberg would start out by talking tough about how new contracts could be paid for only with increased productivity , and in response unions would reply in a patented and choreographed " @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by a renewal of the old contracts and their counterproductive work rules with a few cosmetic improvements . Thus the need for new borrowing . </p> Bloomberg was , at times , rescued from his own destructive policies by events beyond his control . In 2004 , he became obsessed with plans for a new football stadium , or a " multi-use " facility in Manhattan , as part of a quixotic bid for the 2012 Olympics . It was unclear , given the checkered financial fallout from cities that had previously hosted the Games , just what New York stood to benefit from securing such a questionable honor . New York was already the most visited tourist destination in the United States and fourth or fifth ( depending on whom you ask ) worldwide . Nonetheless , as the centerpiece of the Olympic bid , Bloomberg proposed to bequeath the Jets ' ownership a billion-dollar parcel for a fifth of that price . The unpopular push for a West Side stadium left Bloomberg , whose poll numbers had fallen to as low as 31 percent , with a hard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Bloomberg 's political neck when , despite his best efforts , it was blocked by the Democrats in the state assembly . Meanwhile , thanks in part to the Bush tax cuts , Wall Street had come roaring back , not only softening the blow of Bloomberg 's foolish fiscal policies but also refilling the city coffers . </p> To cap off this sudden positive turn in Bloomberg 's political fortunes just as he was about to run for a second term , Bloomberg was handed a dream opponent for the 2005 general election , Bronx Borough President Freddie Ferrer . Together with his ally , the rabble-rouser and riot-inciter Al Sharpton , Ferrer had effectively delivered the 2001 election to the political neophyte Bloomberg by undermining Bloomberg 's Democratic rival , Mark Green , to whom Ferrer had lost a primary runoff . In the general election , Ferrer worked with Sharpton to undermine Bloomberg 's opponent by suggesting that Green , a veteran New York City left-winger , was a covert racist . The contrived brouhaha suppressed Green 's minority vote and , almost by accident , Bloomberg @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a much different role . He undercut Ferrer , who had counted on a black-Latino alliance to carry the day , even as Ferrer repelled moderate white voters with his talk of returning to the glory days of pre-Giuliani New York . And despite a liberal campaign-spending law intended to level the playing field , Ferrer was buried beneath an avalanche of Bloomberg 's money . The mayor 's spending on political consultants alone was greater than the cost of Ferrer 's entire hapless campaign . It ended up being a no-contest election for which Bloomberg effectively paid more than $100 per vote . But his 20-point margin of victory pumped air into the mayor 's trial balloons about running for national office , which have been repeatedly floated ever since . </p> The Second Term and the Schools Fiasco BLOOMBERG 'S second term was strewn with grotesque management failures . His administration 's one major responsibility , after handing off most of the 9/11 rebuilding , was safely dismantling the remains of the Deutsche Bank building , a toxic ruin on the edge of Ground Zero . His staff @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ previously blocked from doing business with the city . Two firemen died horrible deaths as a result of the failure of the fire department to inspect the mismanaged site . The mayor talked incessantly about the " accountability " he was bringing to city government , but he never held his fire commissioner to account for the avoidable disaster at the Deutsche Bank site . </p> But nothing illuminates the vacancy of Bloomberg 's mayoralty more than the false narrative that depicted him as America 's " education mayor . " At the time he took office , a complex set of rules gave the mayor relatively little control over public education in the five boroughs and disseminated authority to such an extent that no one could be held responsible for the parlous condition of the schools . For years , Rudy Giuliani had pressed for mayoral control but was denied it . As a candidate for mayor in 2001 , though , Bloomberg offered hardly a hint that he regarded education as a critical issue or even that he believed New York 's mayor could do much about the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in at City Hall , Bloomberg looked across the river to downtown Brooklyn and saw a big , fat inviting target . It was 110 Livingston Street , the Board of Education 's central headquarters , notorious for its bureaucratic paralysis and recurring corruption scandals . Bloomberg stepped into the breach and made the city the same offer Giuliani had : Give me full authority over the school system and then judge me by the results . Lacking Giuliani 's baggage on the matter , Bloomberg had a leg up . He waged an effective political and public-relations campaign to convince the state legislature to eliminate the Board of Education and write a new school-governance law for the city . Education became a mayoral agency . </p> At the signing ceremony for the mayoral-control bill in June 2002 , Bloomberg heralded a new era of accountability . He promised the taxpayers that he would now deliver a bigger education bang for their bucks . He cleared thousands of bureaucrats out of 110 Livingston Street , sold off the musty old building , and installed a few hundred essential central-office officials @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ yards from City Hall . </p> He then hired Joel Klein , the former head of the Justice Department 's antitrust division in the Clinton administration , as the new schools chancellor . After a six-month review of what was working in the schools and what was n't , the mayor announced his reform program ( called Children First ) at his Martin Luther King Day speech in Harlem on February 20 , 2003 . Bloomberg hit all the right notes , combining a commitment to fiscal restraint with what seemed like an empirically grounded approach to curriculum and classroom instruction . </p> Bloomberg said that the $12 billion the city was then spending on the schools should be enough to provide a decent education for all children because he and Klein were now going to " make sure we get the most value for the school system 's dollar . " Bloomberg also seemed to be rejecting the progressive-education approach to curricular issues and classroom pedagogy and casting his lot with education traditionalists . Thus he announced that there would now be a standardized curriculum for all schools dictated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ phonics " in the early grades . </p> But soon it became clear that , in this area as in others , it was necessary to pay attention to what this mayor did rather than what he said . Almost immediately , on the issue of classroom instruction , Bloomberg and Klein chose to defer to the progressive old guard within the school system . Lucy Calkins of Columbia Teachers College , one of the country 's leading progressive educators and a fierce opponent of the phonics approach to reading , was given a leading role in designing reading and writing instruction for most schools ( to a tune of more than $10 million in consultant contracts ) . </p> Bloomberg also began dipping deeper into the city treasury for more and more tax dollars for the schools . From fiscal 2003 to 2011 , the education budget grew from $12.7 billion to $23 billion annually -- almost a 70 percent increase in inflation-adjusted dollars . Most of the money was paid out in 43 percent across-the-board teacher-salary increases in just the first six years of Bloomberg 's tenure . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , reaching 80,000 -- one teacher for every 13 students in the system . But the mayor who prided himself on his business acumen in managing the city 's workforce obtained almost nothing in return from the United Federation of Teachers ( UFT ) for this unprecedented bonanza . </p> Indeed , the purpose of the extra spending could not have been to improve student performance , since he said very plainly that he did n't believe there was any connection between the two . Rather it was to shore up his political prospects and help make his reputation as the nation 's " education mayor . " Instead of insisting on changes in teacher-compensation packages that might have reduced the city 's long-term pension and healthcare costs , Bloomberg cashed in his chips in the coin of either direct political support from the United Federation of Teachers or its calculated neutrality . </p> For the last half of the decade , Bloomberg and Klein dominated the national education-reform debate . They toured the country touting their signature reforms , including assigning letter grades to schools and bonuses to teachers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The indisputable evidence , they claimed , was in the spectacular gains by city students on the state 's annual reading and math tests in grades 3 through 8 . For example , in just two years the percentage of students passing the math tests went from 54 percent to over 82 percent ( an unheard-of gain in the annals of education ) . </p> From 2005 to 2009 , Bloomberg called press conferences to celebrate the ever-more-spectacular test-score increases . At those events , the union president , Randi Weingarten , stood next to the mayor nodding in approval , even though she would confide to associates that the scores were likely inflated . Bloomberg and Weingarten each had their own reasons to hype the test scores : Bloomberg to boost his national profile and Weingarten to lay down a marker for yet another series of teacher pay increases . </p> The extraordinary teacher-salary increases bought Bloomberg the union 's blessing for extending the mayoral-control law in the state legislature in the summer of 2009 . The union also gave Bloomberg a pass when he brazenly succeeded in overturning @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's charter so he could run for a third term ( the move also overturned term limits for the city council that voted in favor of repeal ) . Later that year , the UFT remained neutral as Bloomberg faced off for re-election against Democrat William Thompson . Bloomberg won with a bare majority ; a shift of 50,000 votes would have tipped the race to Thompson . The 43 percent salary increases did little for student achievement , but it turned out to be a shrewd political investment for the mayor . </p> In 2009 , during that third bid for office , the Bloomberg education department gave more than 90 percent of the schools A 's or B 's on their progress reports . The test-score increases , Bloomberg argued , proved that his administration had found the silver bullet of reform that could lift achievement for all American students . And in testimony before a congressional committee , Bloomberg claimed that the black-white academic-achievement gap -- a conundrum that had stumped education reformers for decades -- had been halved in New York City in just five years @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Bloomberg education bubble burst . State Board of Regents chancellor Merryl Tisch and education commissioner David Steiner acknowledged that over the past several years , the test scores had been grossly inflated . Under previous education commissioner Richard Mills , the two officials said , the questions on the tests had become more and more predictable , so that teachers were able to help their students " game " the tests . For good measure , the previous Albany education administration had also set the " cut scores " for determining the different levels of student proficiency too low . When the results of the readjusted 2010 tests were announced , practically all the gains students had made since 2007 were erased . In 2009 , 82 percent of students in grades 3 to 8 had supposedly performed at grade level on the math tests ; but on the 2010 tests , that number fell to 54 percent . In reading , the one-year drop was from 69 percent at grade level to 42 percent . </p> Like the snowstorm that damaged Bloomberg politically at the end of the year @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fortune for the mayor . They raised the question of how much of a bang the city had gained for the billions of dollars in extra education spending by the administration . Certainly there were modest improvements in student learning during the Bloomberg years , but there was also modest improvement in the last few years of the old Board of Education ( though this is rarely discussed ) . It seems that Bloomberg had had it right in his first education speech when he noted that there was no correlation between the amount of money spent on schools and higher student achievement . </p> Bloomberg 's administration tried to put the best face on the news . It was true , Joel Klein conceded , that the extent of student gains in recent years had been much exaggerated , but it was still true that New York had done better than the state 's other big-city districts . After boosting the city 's annual education budget by $11 billion , the Bloomberg administration was effectively saying , " We 're better than Buffalo . " That is n't much @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had put his education accomplishments at the top of his political resume . </p> The Money Problem WHEN Bloomberg fought and won control of the schools , he said repeatedly that if people did n't like his education policies , they could vote to fire him in the 2005 election and pick a new education CEO . </p> When asked how New Yorkers who did n't like what he was doing in the schools might express their concerns after Election Day , Bloomberg quipped , " They can boo me at parades . " </p> Not a bad quip . But it exposes what , aside from the policy failures , is the most discomfiting aspect of the Bloomberg mayoralty : the mayor 's use of his own personal resources to buy himself not only political power but also political peace . In a manner unparalleled in American history , Bloomberg in total spent in excess of $300 million to secure office three times from an electorate that numbers fewer than 4 million people ( and of which only a third actually participate ) . </p> That is one issue @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spent tens of millions of dollars annually between elections to make sure that not too many influential New Yorkers would risk criticizing him . Mayor Bloomberg 's predecessors , from Ed Koch to Rudy Giuliani , had also been tempted , and had at times given into the temptation , to use the power of incumbency and control of taxpayer funds to reward allies and punish enemies . The difference is that Bloomberg was able to channel his private philanthropic giving each year to hundreds of the city 's arts and social-service groups with the reasonable expectation that the gratitude these groups felt to their patron would extend to their patron 's political causes . At the very least , it would make the groups and their influential boards of trustees think twice before criticizing the mayor 's policies . </p> The vehicle for Bloomberg 's gifts was the Carnegie Corporation . During the 2005 election year alone , Bloomberg donated $20 million to Carnegie , which in turn distributed the mayor 's largesse to 400 arts and social-service groups in gifts of $10,000 to $100,000 . Officially , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but as New York Times reporter Sam Roberts pointed out , all the groups were aware that the generous benefactor also had a day job at City Hall . " That Mr. Bloomberg is the source of the Carnegie contributions has long been an open secret and can not help but benefit the mayor politically , " Roberts wrote . </p> There has never been a wall of separation between Bloomberg 's private patronage and his political machine . Bloomberg 's first deputy mayor , Patricia Harris , now also serves as head of his private foundation and monitors the hub , or network , for this intersection of business , politics , and arts groups . The city 's Conflicts of Interests Board , nevertheless , did n't regard this dual role by the deputy mayor as troubling . </p> The breadth of the mayor 's philanthropy proved to be a brilliant political strategy . When there was some slight pushback in April 2007 to one of Bloomberg 's new education-accountability policies , 100 " prominent community leaders " suddenly mobilized on the steps of the education headquarters to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ represented arts or social-service groups that were also getting private charitable contributions from the mayor . </p> Other groups that benefited from Bloomberg 's private largesse sent dozens of their employees to testify in favor of killing term limits at City Council hearings . On the other hand , when a widely respected organization like the Center for Arts Education publicly objected to how arts funds were distributed to the schools , the group found out that its annual Carnegie Corporation grants were cut by 75 percent . </p> One of the most dramatic examples of how Bloomberg 's wealth changed the city 's political life was in the transformation of the Reverend Al Sharpton from racial arsonist during the previous 15 years to statesman in the Bloomberg era . It would be nice to think that Sharpton 's new civility and cooperation with several Bloomberg projects took place because Sharpton finally came to appreciate the genius of American democracy . But as Sharpton joined the mayor 's network of friends , a trail of money suddenly appeared going either directly to Sharp-ton from Bloomberg 's charity , or from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's political arm , the National Action Network , received a grant of $110,000 from another Bloomberg-funded group , the Education Equality Project . And the Daily News 's Juan Gonzalez revealed that Sharpton 's group received another $500,000 gift just as he faced a $1 million lien for unpaid back taxes . </p> Bloomberg 's ability to buy off potential critics partially explains why the illusion of his managerial competence and reputation as the " education mayor " lasted for so long . All the mayor 's billions , however , could n't protect him from the consequences of last year 's crash of the city 's test scores or his malfeasance during the Christmas weekend snowstorm . Thus the question of the mayor 's legacy is now finally open for serious debate . </p> Thanks to his concentration of wealth and power , Bloomberg was able , with the aid of a sometimes supine press , to present his personal policy obsessions as having been endowed with the force of historical necessity . Thus , when he set his sights on a West Side football stadium that would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the congestion that would have resulted was n't considered an issue . When he moved onto the national stage , a hastily conceived plan to tax cars for entering Manhattan was patched together to rebrand his mayoralty as green . But this newfound environmental consciousness had no binding claim on him ; indeed , when he wanted to misdirect public monies to subvent the construction of a basketball arena on Brooklyn 's main and often impassible thoroughfare , Flatbush Avenue , the administration again dismissed problems of congestion with a wave of the hand . </p> Due to the structure of the city charter , the mayor has almost complete control of the streets . And Bloomberg has proved himself determined to create a new streetscape -- closing down half of Times Square to vehicle traffic with plans to do the same for the shopping corridor along 34th Street in Midtown Manhattan . And then there are the bicycle lanes , the pet crusade of his second transportation commissioner , a former business consultant named Janette Sadik-Khan . </p> In Manhattan and Brooklyn , Bloomberg decreed the installation of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ commercial avenues . Little-used and aesthetically unsightly , the Manhattan bike lanes are so important to the mayor 's vision for the city that they were shoveled clean even as the streets of the outer boroughs were buried in the Christmas storm . Throughout the city , the lanes have made it more difficult to park , made the streets more congested , and made life miserable for truck drivers and delivery services that had to double park 20 feet from the curb to complete their rounds . </p> These undeniable realities do not seem to matter to a mayor who seems to enjoy imposing change on the city whether it is warranted or not . He has banned the use of trans fats in food sold in the city , expanded smoking bans as far as he possibly could , and crusaded against the use of salt . And he has broken new ground in expanding the already long list of activities for which Gothamites could be fined . Cars trapped in snowstorms were ticketed ; greengrocers have been fined for " excessive lettering , " meaning that they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were hit for taking up two seats even when no one wanted the seat next to them , and nature lovers were targeted for feeding pigeons in the park . If people did n't want to be fined , said Bloomberg , they should obey the law . It was only public outrage that prevented him from placing tolls on the East River bridges , which have been free to motorists for a century or more . </p> The connecting tissue of Bloomberg 's policies is Bloomberg 's own whims and ambitions . After the snow-removal failure , Bloomberg insisted that John Doherty was " the best sanitation commissioner the city has ever had . " The New York Post columnist Michael Goodwin wrote : " In his bubble , that 's self-evident . If the sanitation man was n't the best , the self-declared best mayor would not have appointed him . " </p> When Michael Bloomberg leaves office in 2014 -- assuming he leaves office in 2014 -- the city will be saddled long into the future with the massive borrowing and school spending he required to maintain @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ role in how Mayor Bloomberg is judged . Already the master of an expanding media empire , he is now setting up his personal charitable foundation , which may rival the Gates Foundation in financial assets . That foundation will no doubt have the resources to place the Bloomberg legacy of debt , boondoggles , and bicycle lanes in the best possible light . </p> FRED SIEGEL is scholar in residence at Saint Francis College and is a contributing editor to City Journal , as is SOL STERN . </p> Public-sector employees labored but 35 hours a week and contributed nothing to their own health insurance . Rather than take up the matter , Bloomberg simply retained the status quo when it came to negotiating with the city 's most important voting bloc . </p> The mayor who prided himself on his business acumen in managing the city 's workforce obtained almost nothing in return from the United Federation of Teachers for its unprecedented job and salary bonanza . </p> When there was some slight pushback in April 2007 to one of Bloomberg 's policies , 100 " prominent community @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ represented groups that were getting private charitable contributions from the mayor . </p> By FRED SIEGEL , Scholar in residence at Saint Francis College and SOL STERN </p>

@@4089141 Last academic year , I was excited to begin studying for my Master of Fine Arts in nonfiction writing at Big Name School . I had gotten my first MFA from Middle Name School at too early an age , and I , now more mature and exploding with ideas , was ready to start what I considered my " adult MFA . " I bought notebooks , brought my clip file up to date , and envisioned all the networking opportunities my would-be professors were sure to provide . Only one obstacle stood in my path : the big , fat rejection letter I received . </p> Rather than sulk ( OK , I might have made mudslides and watched Beaches the night the letter arrived ) , I decided to spin my situation . I did n't need a fancy school -- or any school , for that matter . I could design my own makeshift MFA program geared toward exactly what I wanted to accomplish . And , best of all , I could enroll myself on the spot -- no application fee required . Turns out I 'd have a use for those notebooks after @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ filled them with the draft of my first book . </p> There are any number of reasons why someone who wants to pursue an MFA does n't make it to the classroom : monetary concerns , time constraints , familial commitments , geographic location , and say-it-ain't-so rejection are but a handful . Whatever the circumstances , designing a self-guided program can , in many cases , bring the same end results : a marketable thesis and an iPhone full of contacts . Here are five steps eager writers can take to navigate their way : </p> 1 Define your goal . Ask yourself why an MFA program interests you . Most likely , you want to produce a book-length manuscript , so let 's take that as a given . Identifying what else you want to gain will enable you to work toward an end result that meets your personal needs . " Do you want to go into advertising or marketing ? Journalism ? " asks Brian McMillan , a journalist and 2009 graduate of Northern Michigan University 's MFA program . " The answers to those questions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Such advice holds true for do-it-yourself MFAs as well . </p> Though such a task might seem overwhelming , an easy way to fine-tune your thinking is to create a list . Jot the top five benefits that come to mind on a sheet of paper . Mull them over . Look at them from different angles . Decide which appeals to you most . And do n't hesitate to select more than one objective if a couple strike your fancy . </p> 2 Research existing MFA programs . Take advantage of the legwork other institutions put into planning their programs by adapting elements that scream " I 'm appealing ! Consider me ! " Look at traditional and low-residency programs , as well as different genres -- even those outside your focus . Your bible will be The AWP Official Guide to Writing Programs ( http : //guide.awpwriter.org ) , which offers a comprehensive database of national and international undergraduate and graduate writing programs . </p> As you research , take note of what interests you -- craft courses , literature courses , workshops -- as well as what @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the University of Arizona 's creative-writing MFA program , thought writing was more important to her development than literature study and chose her program accordingly . " Some MFA programs are overly academic , " Wangsness explains , " and as someone who wanted to focus exclusively on craft , these programs were not the right fit . " Understanding her interests before delving into a program helped guide her successful experience . </p> 3 Outline your semesters . Creating your own program allows you to focus on your growth as a writer ; the key is finding a workable approach . Generally , any training and literature activities should take place in the first part of your studies with heavy writing bringing up the rear . ( While you can and should discipline yourself to write from day one , absorbing lessons early on will only strengthen that writing . ) Consider how-to guides-such as The Portable MFA in Creative Writing from the New York Writers Workshop or Anne Lamott 's Bird by Bird , both of which offer instruction and advice -- in addition to works you think @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ limitless . " You might try something like Stephen King suggests in his excellent On Writing " McMillan recommends . " He says to read and write for four to six hours per day .... That sounds impossible for someone with a job and a family , to squeeze six hours per day into their schedules . But the closer you can get to that , the better . " Though King talks specifically about novelists , the approach translates to any genre . </p> Evart , Mich. , resident Axie Barclay chose a more structured technique . As an alternative to an MFA , which she considered too costly and time-consuming , the dairy worker and freelance writer embarked on " ambitious projects of reading and writing , consuming copious amounts of literature , and trying to write a poem or flash-fiction piece daily . " As a motivated , self-taught student , she noted that " making my own curriculum , so to speak , was fairly easy . " </p> Whatever your approach , I recommend a two-semester syllabus , like I used , to create measured @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not suit everyone -- and that 's OK . Make your program bend and shape around you . </p> 4 Humanize your program . Students in traditional MFA programs have a built-in audience for readings , brainstorming sessions , and general industry chatter . With a little imagination , do-it-yourselfers can create similar opportunities for themselves -- or , according to Matt Stewart , author of the novel The French Revolution , perhaps even better ones . Stewart , who was already disciplined enough to write every day before getting rejected from 11 MFA programs , takes advantage of his surroundings . " I 'm fortunate to live in San Francisco , " he says , " which is overflowing with terrific literary events -- it can be very distracting , actually-and a sincere , supportive community that rolls out the red carpet for newbie writers . I ca n't imagine how an MFA program could improve on this . " </p> Freelance writer Lisa Sinicki , who decided against the MFA route because of time and finances , has found similar success in engaging with like-minded peers . The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ summer conferences , taken an in-person local class as well as online courses , and joined a writing group . " I 've tried to seek out the best teachers I can , and have selected programs based on what I feel is the next thing I need to improve my writing , " she says , noting that her commitment has paid off in the form of published work . She asks other writers for recommendations and , when she finds a teacher she likes , extends the relationship via private coaching . </p> Additionally , many schools hold public lectures , panels and talks that are free or low-cost . Audience members are frequently able to ask questions and mingle with speakers at these events . Come with a notebook and inquiries . </p> 5 Market your thesis . So you 've finished your program and have a nice , shiny manuscript . Congratulations ! But what 's that -- the publishing world is n't exactly reaching out to grab what you know is the next New York Times bestseller , namely your book ? Bummer . While @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ path , an attention-grabbing approach might be more advantageous in today 's climate . ( To those who think " gimmicky " diminishes the value of the work , I ask : Would you rather be the published author who used a gimmick or the unpublished author who did n't ? ) </p> Stewart knows this firsthand . He looked at popular culture for inspiration to sell The French Revolution and began sharing snippets of his work via Twitter , a practice that gained traction and got him a deal with Soft Skull Press . " As a nobody , it was critical for me to build some literary street cred by getting into bookstores and landing reviews , " he notes . " Alas , it 's still really hard to pull that off without a traditional publisher . I think that 'll change , but until it does , I 'd encourage writers to find new ways to attract agents and publishers -- whether that 's through technology or building a platform through easy-to-hit channels ( church , veterans groups , professional societies ) or something nobody 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't let rejection slow you down . </p> Getting a traditional MFA is not without its merits ( hello , diploma as wall art ! ) , but it also is n't a guaranteed gateway to fame and fortune . To some , it even borders on extravagant . " An MFA degree is not something I would ever recommend someone go into debt for , because in the end , it 's a luxury , " says John Temple , a journalism teacher at West Virginia University who polished Deadhouse : Life in a Coroner 's Office while studying for his MFA at the University of Pittsburgh . " There are other ways to learn to write . " </p> Indeed , there are . Published authors come from myriad training backgrounds , but they share a mixture of skills and commitment . Writers do n't need an MFA to be good at their craft , nor will an MFA -- traditional or self-guided -- fix discipline problems . But if they want it badly , they 'll make it happen . " There 's nothing like balancing a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ life , and writing to get a lot more efficient at everything , " Stewart muses . </p> When writers are ready to make a commitment to their craft , developing their own program allows them to eschew a predetermined agenda and keep their own best interests in mind . Now if only a thick skin came standard . </p> By Rachel Eddey </p> Rachel Eddey , whose credits include The New York limes and Newsday , is a writer and researcher at the Big Name School that denied her MFA candidacy . Her agent , Lisa Leshne at LJK Literary Management , is currently shopping her first book . </p>