Query: Woodrow Wilson did not live during World War I.

Relevant passages:
First Red Scare <=SEP=> The First Red Scare was a period during the early 20th-century history of the United States marked by a widespread fear of Bolshevism and anarchism , due to real and imagined events ; real events included those such as the Russian Revolution and anarchist bombings . At its height in 1919 -- 1920 , concerns over the effects of radical political agitation in American society and the alleged spread of communism and anarchism in the American labor movement fueled a general sense of concern if not paranoia .   The Scare had its origins in the hyper-nationalism of World War I as well as the Russian Revolution . At the war 's end , following the October Revolution , American authorities saw the threat of Communist revolution in the actions of organized labor , including such disparate cases as the Seattle General Strike and the Boston Police Strike and then in the bombing campaign directed by anarchist groups at political and business leaders . Fueled by labor unrest and the anarchist bombings , and then spurred on by United States Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer 's attempt to suppress radical organizations , it was characterized by exaggerated rhetoric , illegal search and seizures , unwarranted arrests and detentions , and the deportation of several hundred suspected radicals and anarchists . In addition , the growing anti-immigration nativism movement among Americans viewed increasing immigration from Southern Europe and Eastern Europe as a threat to American political and social stability .   Bolshevism and the threat of a Communist-inspired revolution in the U.S. became the overriding explanation for challenges to the social order , even such largely unrelated events as incidents of interracial violence . Fear of radicalism was used to explain the suppression of freedom of expression in form of display of certain flags and banners . The First Red Scare effectively ended in mid-1920 , after Attorney General Palmer forecast a massive radical uprising on May Day and the day passed without incident .

Food and Fuel Control Act <=SEP=> The Food and Fuel Control Act , , also called the Lever Act or the Lever Food Act was a World War I era US law that among other things created the United States Food Administration and the Federal Fuel Administration .

John J. Pershing <=SEP=> General of the Armies John Joseph `` Black Jack '' Pershing ( September 13 , 1860 -- July 15 , 1948 ) was a senior United States Army officer , most famous as the commander of the American Expeditionary Force ( AEF ) on the Western Front in World War I , 1917 -- 18 . He rejected British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies , and insisted that the AEF would operate as a single unit under his command , although some American divisions fought under British command , and he also allowed all-black units to be integrated with the French army .   American forces first saw serious battle at Cantigny , Chateau-Thierry , Belleau Wood , and Soissons . To speed up the arrival of the doughboys , they embarked for France leaving the heavy equipment behind , and used British and French tanks , artillery , airplanes and other munitions . In September 1918 at St. Mihiel , the First Army was directly under Pershing 's command ; it overwhelmed the salient -- the encroachment into Allied territory -- that the German Army had held for three years . For the Meuse-Argonne Offensive , Pershing shifted roughly 600,000 American soldiers to the heavily defended forests of the Argonne , keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days , alongside the French . The Allied Hundred Days Offensive , which the Argonne fighting was part of , contributed to Germany calling for an armistice . Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all of Germany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism .   Pershing is the only American to be promoted in his own lifetime to General of the Armies , the highest possible rank in the United States Army ; an act was passed in 1976 retroactively promoting George Washington to the same rank but with higher seniority , ensuring that he would always be considered the senior ranking officer in the United States Army . Allowed to select his own insignia , Pershing chose to use four gold stars to distinguish himself from those officers who held the rank of General . After the creation of the five-star General of the Army rank during World War II , his rank of General of the Armies could unofficially be considered that of a six-star general , but he died before the proposed insignia could be considered and acted on by Congress .   Some of his tactics have been criticized both by other commanders at the time and by modern historians . His reliance on costly frontal assaults , long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics , has been blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties . In addition to leading the A.E.F. to victory in World War I , Pershing notably served as a mentor to many in the generation of generals who led the United States Army during World War II , including George Marshall , Dwight D. Eisenhower , Omar Bradley , George S. Patton , and Douglas MacArthur .

Espionage Act of 1917 <=SEP=> The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law passed on June 15 , 1917 , shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I . It has been amended numerous times over the years . It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code ( War ) but is now found under Title 18 , Crime . Specifically , it is ( et seq. . )   It was intended to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment , to prevent insubordination in the military , and to prevent the support of United States enemies during wartime . In 1919 , the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled through Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions . The constitutionality of the law , its relationship to free speech , and the meaning of its language have been contested in court ever since .   Among those charged with offences under the Act are German-American socialist congressman and newspaper editor Victor L. Berger , labor leader and four time Socialist Party of America candidate , Eugene V. Debs , anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman , former Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society president Joseph Franklin Rutherford , communists Julius and Ethel Rosenberg , Pentagon Papers whistleblower Daniel Ellsberg , Cablegate whistleblower Chelsea Manning , and National Security Agency ( NSA ) contractor and whistleblower Edward Snowden . Rutherford 's conviction was overturned on appeal . Although the most controversial sections of the Act , a set of amendments commonly called the Sedition Act of 1918 , were repealed on March 3 , 1921 , the original Espionage Act was left intact .

German Empire <=SEP=> The German Empire ( Deutsches Kaiserreich , officially Deutsches Reich ) was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918 , when Germany became a federal republic .   The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories , with most being ruled by royal families . This included four kingdoms , six grand duchies , five duchies ( six before 1876 ) , seven principalities , three free Hanseatic cities , and one imperial territory . Although Prussia became one of several kingdoms in the new realm , it contained most of its population and territory , thus remaining a powerhouse with a major say in imperial affairs . Its influence also helped define modern German culture .   After 1850 , the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized , with particular strengths in coal , iron ( and later steel ) , chemicals , and railways . In 1871 , it had a population of 41 million people , and by 1913 , this had increased to 68 million . A heavily rural collection of states in 1815 , now united Germany became predominantly urban . During its 47 years of existence , the German Empire operated as an industrial , technological , and scientific giant , gaining more Nobel Prizes in science than any other country .   Germany became a great power , boasting a rapidly growing rail network , the world 's strongest army , and a fast-growing industrial base . In less than a decade , its navy became second only to Britain 's Royal Navy . After the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II , the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I . When the great crisis of 1914 arrived , the German Empire had two allies , Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire ; Italy , however , left the alliance once the First World War started in August 1914 .   In the First World War , German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed , and the war on the Western Front became a stalemate . The Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food . Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts . However , Germany had great success on the Eastern Front ; it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British ; it failed , because of the use of a trans-Atlantic convoy system . But the declaration -- along with the Zimmermann Telegram -- did bring the United States into the war . Meanwhile , German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution .   The high command under Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff increasingly controlled the country , as they gambled on one last offensive in spring 1918 before the Americans could arrive in force , using large numbers of troops , aeroplanes and artillery withdrawn from the Eastern Front . This failed , and by October the armies were in retreat , Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed , Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system . After at first attempting to retain control , causing massive uprisings , the Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution with the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicating . This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace .

Woodrow Wilson <=SEP=> Thomas Woodrow Wilson ( December 28 , 1856 -- February 3 , 1924 ) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921 . A member of the Democratic Party , Wilson served as the President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910 and as Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913 . Wilson 's victory in the 1912 presidential election made him the first Southerner elected to the presidency since Zachary Taylor in 1848 , and Wilson became a leading force in the Progressive Movement . He also led the United States during World War I , establishing an activist foreign policy known as `` Wilsonianism . '' He was a major leader at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 , where he championed the proposed League of Nations . However , he was unable to obtain Senate approval for U.S. membership . He suffered debilitating strokes in September 1919 ; after that his wife and staff handled most of his presidential duties .   Born in Staunton , Virginia , he spent his early years in Augusta , Georgia and Columbia , South Carolina . His father was a leading Presbyterian in the Confederacy during the Civil War , and Wilson was always a devout Presbyterian and a proud Southerner . He took a law degree and then one of the first PhDs in political science awarded by Johns Hopkins University . He served as a professor and scholar at various institutions before being selected as President of Princeton University , a position he held from 1902 to 1910 . Wilson became a notable academic , arguing for the superiority of the parliamentary system . He was associated with Grover Cleveland and the conservative Bourbon Democrats until 1910 , when he moved left . With the help of state Democratic bosses , Wilson won the 1910 Democratic nomination for governor of New Jersey , and was elected as a fresh reformer , holding office from 1911 to 1913 . He overthrew the same bosses and gained a national reputation . He won the 1912 Democratic presidential nomination after forty-six rounds of balloting , with support from William Jennings Bryan . Former President Theodore Roosevelt 's third party candidacy split the Republican Party , which re-nominated incumbent President William Howard Taft . Wilson won the 1912 election with a plurality of the popular vote and a large majority in the electoral college .   Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands , he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933 . The Federal Reserve Act , Federal Trade Commission Act , the Clayton Antitrust Act , and the Federal Farm Loan Act were some of these new policies . Having taken office one month after ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment , Wilson called a special session of Congress , whose work culminated in the Revenue Act of 1913 , introducing an income tax and lowering tariffs . Through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads , he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis . Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality , while pursuing a more aggressive policy in dealing with Mexico 's civil war . Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury , Navy and other Federal offices . In the presidential election of 1916 , Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes . By a narrow margin , he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms .   In April 1917 , when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram , Wilson asked Congress to declare war in order to make `` the world safe for democracy . '' The United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies , although without a formal alliance . During the war , Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations , leaving military strategy to the generals , especially General John J. Pershing . Through the Selective Service Act , conscription sent 10,000 freshly trained soldiers to France per day by the summer of 1918 . On the home front , he raised income taxes , borrowing billions of dollars through the public 's purchase of Liberty Bonds . He set up the War Industries Board , promoted labor union cooperation , regulated agriculture and food production through the Lever Act , and took direct control of the nation 's railroad system . Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 , suppressing anti-draft activists . The crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919 -- 1920 . Early in 1918 , Wilson issued his principles for an end to the war , the Fourteen Points , and in 1919 , following an armistice , he traveled to Paris , promoting the formation of a League of Nations and concluding the Treaty of Versailles . Following his return from Europe , Wilson embarked on a nationwide tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty , but suffered a severe stroke . The treaty was met with serious concern by Senate Republicans , and the Senate ultimately rejected the treaty . Due to his stroke , Wilson secluded himself in the White House , disability having diminished his power and influence , and he failed in his bid to win re-nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention . Wilson retired at the end of his presidency , and he died in 1924 .

League of Nations <=SEP=> The League of Nations ( abbreviated as LN in English , La Société des Nations -LSB- la sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃ -RSB- abbreviated as SDN or SdN in French ) was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War . It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace . Its primary goals , as stated in its Covenant , included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration . Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions , just treatment of native inhabitants , human and drug trafficking , the arms trade , global health , prisoners of war , and protection of minorities in Europe . At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935 , it had 58 members .   The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years . The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions , keep to its economic sanctions , or provide an army when needed . However , the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so . Sanctions could hurt League members , so they were reluctant to comply with them . During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents , Benito Mussolini responded that `` the League is very well when sparrows shout , but no good at all when eagles fall out . ''   After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s , the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s . Germany withdrew from the League , as did Japan , Italy , Spain , and others . The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose , which was to prevent any future world war . The League lasted for 26 years ; the United Nations ( UN ) replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League .

United States presidential election, 1916 <=SEP=> The United States presidential election of 1916 was the 33rd quadrennial presidential election , held on Tuesday , November 7 , 1916 . Incumbent President Woodrow Wilson , the Democratic candidate , was pitted against Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes , the Republican candidate . After a hard-fought contest , Wilson defeated Hughes by nearly 600,000 votes in the popular vote and secured a narrow majority in the Electoral College by winning several swing states with razor-thin margins . Wilson 's re-election marked the first time that a Democratic Party candidate had won two consecutive Presidential elections since Andrew Jackson won re-election in the 1832 election . This was the last election before the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which granted women the right to vote .   The election took place during the time of the Mexican Revolution and Europe 's involvement in World War I. Although officially neutral in the European conflict , public opinion in the United States leaned towards the Allied forces headed by Great Britain and France against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary , due in large measure to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army in Belgium and northern France and the militaristic character of the German and Austrian monarchies . But in spite of their sympathy with the Allied forces , most American voters wanted to avoid involvement in the war and preferred to continue a policy of neutrality . Wilson 's campaign used the popular slogans `` He kept us out of war '' and `` America First '' to appeal to those voters who wanted to avoid a war in Europe or with Mexico . The progressive Hughes criticized Wilson for not taking the `` necessary preparations '' to face a conflict , which only served to strengthen Wilson 's image as an anti-war candidate . America entered the war in April 1917 , one month after Wilson 's inauguration as president .   Despite the narrow margin of his win , the 1916 election saw an increase in Wilson 's popular vote from his election in 1912 , when he won a landslide in the Electoral College . Wilson accomplished this as a result of a split in the Republican vote in 1912 between the incumbent President William Howard Taft , a conservative , and former President Theodore Roosevelt , who ran as a Progressive . In 1916 , conservative and progressive Republicans were largely united under the moderate Hughes in their bid to oust Wilson . Nonetheless , Wilson attracted many voters who had earlier supported Roosevelt .   The election of 1916 is one of only three elections in which a candidate was elected president without the support of his state of residence ( in this case , New Jersey ) . The other two were the election of 1844 , in which James K. Polk failed to carry Tennessee and the election of 2016 , in which Donald Trump failed to carry New York . Wilson , however , did win his state of birth ( Virginia ) .

Armistice of 11 November 1918 <=SEP=> The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was an armistice during the First World War between the Allies and Germany -- also known as the Armistice of Compiègne after the location in which it was signed -- and the agreement that ended the fighting on the Western Front . It went into effect at 11 a.m. Paris time on 11 November 1918 ( `` the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month '' ) , and marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany , although not formally a surrender . The Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918 . The actual terms , largely written by French Marshal and Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies Ferdinand Foch , included the cessation of hostilities , the withdrawal of German troops to behind their own borders , the preservation of infrastructure , the exchange of prisoners , a promise of reparations , the disposition of German warships and submarines , and conditions for prolonging or terminating the armistice . Although the armistice ended the actual fighting , it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty , the Treaty of Versailles .

Liberty bond <=SEP=> A Liberty bond ( or liberty loan ) was a war bond that was sold in the United States to support the allied cause in World War I. Subscribing to the bonds became a symbol of patriotic duty in the United States and introduced the idea of financial securities to many citizens for the first time . The Act of Congress which authorized the Liberty Bonds is still used today as the authority under which all U.S. Treasury bonds are issued .   Securities , also known as Liberty Bonds , were issued in the aftermath of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks to finance the rebuilding of the areas affected .