Query: Climate projections also assume that planet Earth is not dynamic

Relevant passages:
Earth <=SEP=> Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets .   According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation .   Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics .   Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .

Future of Earth <=SEP=> The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes .   Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° .   During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth .   In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .

Climate <=SEP=> Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region .   A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .   The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .   Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .

Climate model <=SEP=> Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate .   All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature .   Models vary in complexity :  A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy  This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally  Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange .  Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins .  Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .

Coriolis force <=SEP=> In physics , the Coriolis force is an inertial force that acts on objects that are in motion relative to a rotating reference frame . In a reference frame with clockwise rotation , the force acts to the left of the motion of the object . In one with anticlockwise rotation , the force acts to the right . Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the Coriolis effect . Though recognized previously by others , the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis , in connection with the theory of water wheels . Early in the 20th century , the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology .   Newton 's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an inertial ( non-accelerating ) frame of reference . When Newton 's laws are transformed to a rotating frame of reference , the Coriolis force and centrifugal force appear . Both forces are proportional to the mass of the object . The Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate and the centrifugal force is proportional to its square . The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the object 's speed in the rotating frame ( more precisely , to the component of its velocity that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation ) . The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame . These additional forces are termed inertial forces , fictitious forces or pseudo forces . They allow the application of Newton 's laws to a rotating system . They are correction factors that do not exist in a non-accelerating or inertial reference frame .   In popular ( non-technical ) usage of the term `` Coriolis effect '' , the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth . Because the Earth spins , Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects . The Earth completes only one rotation per day , so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces ; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time , such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean . Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth , so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important . This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right ( with respect to the direction of travel ) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere . The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles , since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there , and decreases to zero at the equator . Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure , as they would in a non-rotating system , winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it . This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones ( see Coriolis effects in meteorology ) .   For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force , consider an object moving northward in the northern hemisphere . Viewed from outer space , the object does not appear to go due north , but has an eastward motion ( it rotates around toward the right along with the surface of the Earth ) . The further north you go , the smaller the `` horizontal diameter '' of the Earth , and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface . As the object moves north , to higher latitudes , it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with ( rather than slowing down to match the reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth 's surface ) , so it veers east ( i.e. to the right of its initial motion ) . Though not obvious from this example , which considers northward motion , the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving east or west ( or any other direction ) .