Query: There are fundamental faults in the statistical and scientific analyses used to justify the need for early and comprehensive mitigatory action by governments.

Relevant passages:
Sociology <=SEP=> Sociology is the study of social behavior or society , including its origins , development , organization , networks , and institutions . It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order , disorder , and change . Many sociologists aim to conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare , while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes . Subject matter ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure .   The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification , social class , social mobility , religion , secularization , law , sexuality and deviance . As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency , sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects , such as health , medical , military and penal institutions , the Internet , education , social capital and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge .   The range of social scientific methods has also expanded . Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques . The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative , hermeneutic , and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society . Conversely , the end of the 1990s and the beginning of 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically , mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques , such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis .   Social research informs politicians and policy makers , educators , planners , legislators , administrators , developers , business magnates , managers , social workers , non-governmental organizations , non-profit organizations , and people interested in resolving social issues in general . There is often a great deal of crossover between social research , market research , and other statistical fields .

Meta-analysis <=SEP=> A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies .   The basic tenet behind meta-analyses is that there is a common truth behind all conceptually similar scientific studies , but which has been measured with a certain error within individual studies . The aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived . In essence , all existing methods yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies and what differs is the manner in which these weights are allocated and also the manner in which the uncertainty is computed around the point estimate thus generated . In addition to providing an estimate of the unknown common truth , meta-analysis has the capacity to contrast results from different studies and identify patterns among study results , sources of disagreement among those results , or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple studies .   A key benefit of this approach is the aggregation of information leading to a higher statistical power and more robust point estimate than is possible from the measure derived from any individual study . However , in performing a meta-analysis , an investigator must make choices which can affect the results , including deciding how to search for studies , selecting studies based on a set of objective criteria , dealing with incomplete data , analyzing the data , and accounting for or choosing not to account for publication bias .   Meta-analyses are often , but not always , important components of a systematic review procedure . For instance , a meta-analysis may be conducted on several clinical trials of a medical treatment , in an effort to obtain a better understanding of how well the treatment works . Here it is convenient to follow the terminology used by the Cochrane Collaboration , and use `` meta-analysis '' to refer to statistical methods of combining evidence , leaving other aspects of ` research synthesis ' or ` evidence synthesis ' , such as combining information from qualitative studies , for the more general context of systematic reviews .

Reliability engineering <=SEP=> Reliability engineering is engineering that emphasizes dependability in the lifecycle management of a product . Dependability , or reliability , describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time . Reliability may also describe the ability to function at a specified moment or interval of time ( Availability ) . Reliability engineering represents a sub-discipline within systems engineering . Reliability is theoretically defined as the probability of success , as the frequency of failures ; or in terms of availability , as a probability derived from reliability , testability and maintainability . Testability , Maintainability and maintenance are often defined as a part of `` reliability engineering '' in Reliability Programs . Reliability plays a key role in the cost-effectiveness of systems .   Reliability engineering deals with the estimation , prevention and management of high levels of `` lifetime '' engineering uncertainty and risks of failure . Although stochastic parameters define and affect reliability , according to some expert authors on reliability engineering ( e.g. P. O'Conner , J. Moubray and A. Barnard ) , reliability is not ( solely ) achieved by mathematics and statistics . You can not really find a root cause ( needed to effectively prevent failures ) by only looking at statistics . `` Nearly all teaching and literature on the subject emphasize these aspects , and ignore the reality that the ranges of uncertainty involved largely invalidate quantitative methods for prediction and measurement . ''   Reliability engineering relates closely to safety engineering and to system safety , in that they use common methods for their analysis and may require input from each other . Reliability engineering focuses on costs of failure caused by system downtime , cost of spares , repair equipment , personnel , and cost of warranty claims . Safety engineering normally emphasizes not cost , but preserving life and nature , and therefore deals only with particular dangerous system-failure modes . High reliability ( safety factor ) levels also result from good engineering and from attention to detail , and almost never from only reactive failure management ( reliability accounting / statistics ) .

Hydrology <=SEP=> Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement , distribution , and quality of water on Earth and other planets , including the water cycle , water resources and environmental watershed sustainability . A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist , working within the fields of earth or environmental science , physical geography , geology or civil and environmental engineering . Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques , they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation , natural disasters , and water management .   Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology , groundwater hydrology ( hydrogeology ) , and marine hydrology . Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology , surface hydrology , hydrogeology , drainage-basin management and water quality , where water plays the central role .   Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields .   Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering , policy and planning .   The term hydrology comes from Greek : ὕδωρ , hýdōr , `` water '' ; and λόγος , lógos , `` study '' .