Query: ‘This study goes beyond statistical correlations and explores a specific process that can plausibly explain how enhanced high-latitude warming trends may trigger remote weather impacts,’ he said.

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Climate of Mars <=SEP=> The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope .   Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades .   Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena .   The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter .   This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .

Granger causality <=SEP=> The Granger causality test is a statistical hypothesis test for determining whether one time series is useful in forecasting another , first proposed in 1969 . Ordinarily , regressions reflect `` mere '' correlations , but Clive Granger argued that causality in economics could be tested for by measuring the ability to predict the future values of a time series using prior values of another time series . Since the question of `` true causality '' is deeply philosophical , and because of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy of assuming that one thing preceding another can be used as a proof of causation , econometricians assert that the Granger test finds only `` predictive causality '' .   A time series X is said to Granger-cause Y if it can be shown , usually through a series of t-tests and F-tests on lagged values of X ( and with lagged values of Y also included ) , that those X values provide statistically significant information about future values of Y.   Granger also stressed that some studies using `` Granger causality '' testing in areas outside economics reached `` ridiculous '' conclusions . `` Of course , many ridiculous papers appeared '' , he said in his Nobel lecture . However , it remains a popular method for causality analysis in time series due to its computational simplicity . The original definition of Granger causality does not account for latent confounding effects and does not capture instantaneous and non-linear causal relationships , though several extensions have been proposed to address these issues .

Psychology <=SEP=> Psychology is the science of behavior and mind , embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought . It is an academic discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases .   In this field , a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social , behavioral , or cognitive scientist . Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior , while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors .   Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes , including perception , cognition , attention , emotion ( affect ) , intelligence , phenomenology , motivation ( conation ) , brain functioning , and personality . This extends to interaction between people , such as interpersonal relationships , including psychological resilience , family resilience , and other areas . Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind . Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables . In addition , or in opposition , to employing empirical and deductive methods , some -- especially clinical and counseling psychologists -- at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques . Psychology has been described as a `` hub science '' , with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences , natural sciences , medicine , humanities , and philosophy .   While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems , it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity . By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society . The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role , practicing in clinical , counseling , or school settings . Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior , and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings ( e.g. , medical schools , hospitals ) . Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings , or in other areas such as human development and aging , sports , health , and the media , as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law .

Arctic sea ice decline <=SEP=> Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .