sonny-dev/inters-qdu huggingface dataset:
Query: The most interesting thing here is that the albedo forcings, in watts/sq meter seem to be fairly large.

Relevant passages:
Radiative forcing <=SEP=> Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .

Earth's energy budget <=SEP=> Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things .   Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate .   Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable .   Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .
Query: Europe and Asia  emit most of the soot from burning coal, wood, dung, and diesel in open  fires or without particulate filters in stoves, chimneys, smokestacks,  and exhaust pipes.

Relevant passages:
Soot <=SEP=> Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars .   Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .

Air pollution <=SEP=> Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution .   Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .

Diesel exhaust <=SEP=> Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine , plus any contained particulates . Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption , or speed of engine operation ( e.g. , idling or at speed or under load ) , and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle , farm vehicle , locomotive , marine vessel , or stationary generator or other application .   Diesel exhaust is a Group 1 carcinogen , which causes lung cancer and has a positive association with bladder cancer . It contains several substances that are also listed individually as human carcinogens by the IARC .   Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and particulate matter ( PM ) in the exhaust .

Diesel particulate filter <=SEP=> A diesel particulate filter ( or DPF ) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine .
Query: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

Relevant passages:
Clean Air Act (United States) <=SEP=> The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws , and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state , local , and tribal governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C , Parts 50-97 .   The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U.S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution ; it also provided funds for federal government research of air pollution . The first federal legislation to actually pertain to `` controlling '' air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution . In 1967 , the Air Quality Act enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport , and , for the first time , to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections . The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories , ambient monitoring techniques , and control techniques .   Major amendments to the law , requiring regulatory controls for air pollution , passed in 1970 , 1977 and 1990 .   The 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate , requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary ( industrial ) pollution sources and mobile sources . It also significantly expanded federal enforcement . Also , the Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2 , 1970 for the purpose of consolidating pertinent federal research , monitoring , standard-setting and enforcement activities into one agency that ensures environmental protection .   The 1990 amendments addressed acid rain , ozone depletion , and toxic air pollution , established a national permits program for stationary sources , and increased enforcement authority . The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements , set Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline , and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states .   Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush , William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment .   The Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits . Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation , either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs .
Query: Hansen's 1988 results are evidence that the actual climate sensitivity is about 3°C for a doubling of atmospheric CO2.

Relevant passages:
James Hansen <=SEP=> James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''

Climate sensitivity <=SEP=> Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .
Query: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Relevant passages:
James Hansen <=SEP=> James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''
Query: At that time, Hansen also produced a model of the future behavior of the globe’s temperature, which he had turned into a video movie that was heavily shopped in Congress.

Relevant passages:
James Hansen <=SEP=> James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''
Query: Had he used the currently accepted value of approximately 3°C warming for a doubling of atmospheric CO2, Hansen would have correctly projected the ensuing global warming.

Relevant passages:
James Hansen <=SEP=> James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''

Greenhouse effect <=SEP=> The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere .   If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains .   On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect .   Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming .   The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .
Query: In fact, the authors go on to estimate climate sensitivity from their findings, calculate a value between 2.3 to 4.1°C.

Relevant passages:
Climate sensitivity <=SEP=> Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .
Query: The fact that so many studies on climate change don't bother to endorse the consensus position is significant because scientists have largely moved from what's causing global warming onto discussing details of the problem (eg - how fast, how soon, impacts, etc).

Relevant passages:
Climate change (general concept) <=SEP=> Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

Scientific consensus on climate change <=SEP=> There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.
Query: Klaus-Martin Schulte examined all papers published from 2004 to February 2007.

Relevant passages:
February 8 <=SEP=> 

Hitler Diaries <=SEP=> The Hitler Diaries ( Hitler-Tagebücher ) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly by Adolf Hitler , but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983 . The diaries were purchased in 1983 for 9.3 million Deutsche Marks ( $ 4.7 million ) by the West German news magazine Stern , which sold serialisation rights to several news organisations . One of the publications involved was The Sunday Times , who asked their independent director , the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper , to authenticate the diaries ; he did so , pronouncing them genuine . At the press conference to announce the forthcoming publication , Trevor-Roper announced that on reflection he had changed his mind , and other historians also raised questions concerning their validity . Rigorous forensic analysis , which had not been performed previously , quickly confirmed that the diaries were fakes .   Kujau , born and brought up in East Germany , had a history of petty crime and deception . In the mid-1970s he began selling Nazi memorabilia which he was smuggling from the East , but soon found he could raise the prices by forging additional authentication details which linked ordinary souvenirs to the Nazi leaders . He began forging paintings by Hitler and an increasing number of notes , poems and letters , until he produced his first diary in the mid - to late 1970s . The West German journalist with Stern who `` discovered '' the diaries and was involved in their purchase was Gerd Heidemann , who had an obsession with the Nazis . When Stern started buying the diaries , Heidemann stole a significant proportion of the money provided .   Kujau and Heidemann both spent time in prison for their parts in the fraud , and several newspaper editors lost their jobs . The story of the scandal has been the basis of various films : Selling Hitler ( 1991 ) for the British ITV channel , Schtonk ! ( 1992 ) for German cinema , and History 's Greatest Hoaxes : The Hitler Diaries . ( 2016 ) a documentary produced by Like a Shot Entertainment Ltd. in association with UKTV and Yesterday .