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The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny. 5

['QSN during which period did mountains form in the western part of North America? ANS Eocene', 'QSN In the Eocene, in Europe, which sea ceased to be? ANS Tethys Sea', 'QSN The Mediterranean sea is a remaining part of which sea from the Eocene? ANS Tethys Sea', 'QSN What began to form in the flat basins in North America during the Eocene? ANS huge lakes', 'QSN Which oregeny was created when India collided with Asia? ANS the Himalayan orogeny']

Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent. 5

['QSN What permanent structure formed on Antarctica? ANS ice cap', 'QSN The lift of which mountain range in Europe was the result of the African plate moving north into the Eurasian? ANS the Alps', 'QSN During what period was there a land bridge joining Europe and North America? ANS Oligocene', 'QSN In the Oligocene period South America broke free from what other continent? ANS Antarctica', 'QSN Which current resulted in the cooling of Antarctica? ANS the Antarctic Circumpolar Current']

During the Miocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, the subduction zone along the Pacific Ocean margin of South America caused the rise of the Andes and the southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. India continued to collide with Asia. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish-Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma (ICS 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the Messinian salinity crisis near the end of the Miocene. 5

['QSN The formation of which mountain range was the result of of what zone along the Pacific Ocean side of South America? ANS the Andes', 'QSN Which continent was India colliding with in the Miocene? ANS Asia', 'QSN When Africa was colliding with Eurasia which seaway ceased to be during the Miocene? ANS The Tethys Seaway', 'QSN Between what period of time did the Tethys disappear? ANS 19 and 12 Ma', 'QSN Which crisis occured towards the end of the Miocene period? ANS Messinian salinity crisis']

South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years. 5

['QSN What is the link between North and South America called? ANS the Isthmus of Panama', 'QSN In which period did North and South America become linked? ANS Pliocene', 'QSN The Mediterranean was created by the collision of Europe and what? ANS Africa', 'QSN What period came after the Pliocene? ANS the Quaternary Period', 'QSN The Pliocene saw the end of what fauna in South America? ANS marsupial faunas']

The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries. 5

['QSN How long ago did the last glacial period end? ANS about 10,000 years ago', 'QSN During what period did sea levels rice 115 feet? ANS Holocene', 'QSN By what height did sea levels rise at the end of the last glacial period? ANS 35 metres (115 ft)', 'QSN Glaciars from what period depressed the height of northern lands by 591 feet? ANS Pleistocene', 'QSN What sea did the Hudson Bay used to be a part of? ANS Tyrrell Sea']

A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing. 3

['QSN What does the state want a police force to do? ANS enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder', 'QSN What are gendarmerie? ANS military units charged with civil policing', 'QSN What are police usually separate from? ANS military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors']

Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. 8

['QSN How are police usually paid? ANS through taxes', 'QSN When were police used to protect the class system? ANS late 18th and early 19th centuries', 'QSN What kind of service are police? ANS public sector', 'QSN What problem do many police forces have? ANS corruption', 'QSN How are police usually paid? ANS through taxes', 'QSN What kind of service are police? ANS public sector', 'QSN When were police used to protect the class system? ANS late 18th and early 19th centuries', 'QSN What problem do many police forces have? ANS corruption']

Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan. 5

['QSN Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement? ANS Chu and Jin', 'QSN What period was the Chu kingdom in? ANS Spring', 'QSN What period was the Jin kingdom in? ANS Autumn', "QSN Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China? ANS Korea and Japan", 'QSN What did ancient China call its police? ANS prefects']

As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835. 5

['QSN What war ended in 1479? ANS War of the Castilian Succession', "QSN Who formed Spain's first national police force? ANS Ferdinand and Isabella", "QSN What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish? ANS Santa Hermandad", 'QSN What does Santa Hermandad mean? ANS Holy Brotherhood', 'QSN When did Spain suppress local police units? ANS 1835']

In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. 10

['QSN Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties? ANS The Marshal of France and the Constable of France', 'QSN How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified? ANS Great Officers of the Crown of France', "QSN What was the Marshal's force called? ANS the Marshalcy", "QSN What was the Constable's force called, in English? ANS the Constabulary", "QSN What was the Constable's force called, in French? ANS Connétablie", 'QSN Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties? ANS The Marshal of France and the Constable of France', 'QSN How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified? ANS Great Officers of the Crown of France', "QSN What was the Marshal's force called? ANS the Marshalcy", "QSN What was the Constable's force called, in English? ANS the Constabulary", "QSN What was the Constable's force called, in French? ANS Connétablie"]

The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties". 5

['QSN In what year did Paris get a police force? ANS 1667', "QSN Who created Paris's police force? ANS King Louis XIV", 'QSN What was the largest European city in 1667? ANS Paris', "QSN What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English? ANS lieutenant general of police", "QSN What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French? ANS lieutenant général de police"]

This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns. 5

["QSN Who was Paris's first head of police? ANS Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie", 'QSN How many commissioners worked under Reynie? ANS 44', 'QSN How many policing districts was Paris divided into? ANS 16', "QSN When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France? ANS October 1699", "QSN When were police inspectors added to Paris's police? ANS 1709"]

The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798. 5

["QSN When did the French language adopt the word 'police'? ANS in the 18th century", "QSN Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'? ANS Britannica 1911", "QSN What language did French borrow the word 'police' from? ANS English", 'QSN When were the Marine Police created in the UK? ANS 1798', "QSN What was the first use of 'police' in the UK? ANS the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714"]

In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation. 5

['QSN Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police? ANS Patrick Colquhoun', 'QSN Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force? ANS docks', 'QSN When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force? ANS 1797', 'QSN How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year? ANS £500,000', 'QSN How did Colquhoun praise the French police? ANS "the greatest degree of perfection"']

With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney. 5

['QSN What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force? ANS 50', 'QSN How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing? ANS 33,000', 'QSN How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals? ANS 11,000', 'QSN When was the Thames River Police made a public service? ANS 28 July 180', 'QSN How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year? ANS £122,000']

Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later. 5

['QSN How did the Bow Street group pay their employees? ANS stipendiary system', 'QSN Who started the Bow Street detectives? ANS Henry and John Fielding', "QSN Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police? ANS Robert Peel", 'QSN How did the Thames River Police pay their employees? ANS full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees', 'QSN What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work? ANS full-time']

Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. 5

["QSN Which law established Glasgow's police? ANS Glasgow Police Act", "QSN When was Glasgow's police force established? ANS 1800", "QSN Which law established Ireland's police? ANS Irish Constabulary Act", "QSN When was Ireland's police force established? ANS 1822", "QSN What was Ireland's police force called? ANS Royal Irish Constabulary"]

Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public. 5

["QSN Who was the 'father of modern policing'? ANS Peel", 'QSN Whose philosophy influenced Peel? ANS Jeremy Bentham', 'QSN What political position did Bentham think police should have? ANS neutral', 'QSN How did Peel standardize police? ANS as an official paid profession', 'QSN How did Peel organize police? ANS in a civilian fashion']

The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state. 4

['QSN When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed? ANS 1829', 'QSN What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of? ANS the judicial system', "QSN Where was the 'Continental model' of police from? ANS France", 'QSN What part of the government did French police work under? ANS the authority of the monarch']

In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852. 5

['QSN When did Rio get its first police investigator? ANS 1566', 'QSN How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century? ANS most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions', 'QSN When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment? ANS July 9, 1775', 'QSN Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808? ANS Brazil', 'QSN Who invaded Portugal in 1808? ANS French']

In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 5

['QSN When did Canada get its first police? ANS 1729', "QSN What was Canada's first police force? ANS Royal Newfoundland Constabulary", 'QSN When was the Toronto police created? ANS 1834', 'QSN When was the Montreal police created? ANS 1838', 'QSN When were the first Mounties created? ANS 1873']

In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed] 4

["QSN What were the Old West's local police options? ANS poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses", "QSN Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police? ANS The Army", 'QSN Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height? ANS Army', 'QSN Which private contractor acted as police for businesses? ANS Pinkerton National Detective Agency']

Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850. 5

["QSN Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept? ANS German and French", "QSN When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published? ANS 1705", "QSN What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French? ANS Traité de la Police", "QSN Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'? ANS Nicolas Delamare", "QSN What was von Hornigk's career? ANS Political economist and civil servant"]

As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices. 4

['QSN Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police? ANS mercantilist theory', 'QSN How did Foucault describe the social duty of police? ANS procuring abundance', 'QSN Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft? ANS Foucault', 'QSN Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning? ANS because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.']

Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system. 5

["QSN Who wrote 'Preventive Police'? ANS Edwin Chadwick", "QSN When was 'Preventive Police' published? ANS 1829", "QSN Where was 'Preventive Police' published? ANS London Review", 'QSN What did Chadwick say police should be focused on? ANS prevention', 'QSN What was the alternative to prevention? ANS a deterrent of punishment']

Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed] 3

['QSN What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically? ANS patrol duties', 'QSN Where do some think the most important police work happens? ANS on patrol', 'QSN How do patrol officers affect crime? ANS prevent crime by their presence']

The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention. 3

['QSN When did Nadelmann write about global policing? ANS 1993', 'QSN When did Sheptycki write about global policing? ANS 1995', 'QSN What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country? ANS international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing']

Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000). 5

['QSN When did Deflem write about cross-border policing? ANS 2002', 'QSN What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century? ANS anarchist agitators and other political radicals', 'QSN Which police force monitored Karl Marx? ANS Prussian', 'QSN What international police agency was created before WW2? ANS Interpol', 'QSN In what era did cross-border policing increase? ANS post–Cold War']

Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996). 5

['QSN Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation? ANS the English Channel region', 'QSN When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation? ANS 2002', 'QSN When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing? ANS 1968', 'QSN When was the Schengen Treaty signed? ANS 1992', 'QSN What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing? ANS formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union']

Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity. 5

['QSN Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied? ANS outside of Europe', 'QSN Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices? ANS Alain', 'QSN What kind of policing has become common practice? ANS Intelligence-led', "QSN What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police? ANS make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic", 'QSN What paradox did Sheptycki point out? ANS the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity']

Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009). 5

['QSN Where has transnational policing become more important? ANS in United Nations peacekeeping', 'QSN Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007? ANS Goldsmith and Sheptycki', 'QSN What kind of countries get assistance with policing? ANS weak, failed or failing states', 'QSN What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances? ANS With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark', 'QSN What concern did Hills raise about police models? ANS there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions']

Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement. 4

['QSN Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007? ANS Lloyd, et al.', 'QSN Why is transnational policing so unaccountable? ANS this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement', 'QSN How accountable is Interpol? ANS 22%', 'QSN What is the least-accountable IGO? ANS Interpol']

They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries. 5

['QSN What should non-lethal weapons properly be called? ANS "less than lethal" or "less-lethal"', 'QSN What are common less-lethal weapons? ANS batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons', 'QSN What is supposed to be the last resort for police? ANS The use of firearms or deadly force', 'QSN What is South Africa\'s "shoot-to-kill" policy? ANS allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians', 'QSN Where can police shoot fleeing convicts? ANS Brazil']

Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations. 5

['QSN How do modern police often communicate? ANS radio', 'QSN Where do police have radios? ANS carried both on the person and installed in vehicles', 'QSN Why do police use radios? ANS to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly', 'QSN What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation? ANS criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds', "QSN What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting? ANS updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis"]

Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers. 4

['QSN When do police often use unmarked cars? ANS primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence', 'QSN What use of unmarked cars is controversial? ANS for traffic law enforcement', 'QSN Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops? ANS it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers', 'QSN When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops? ANS 1996']

Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot. 3

['QSN Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol? ANS they allow for more open interaction with the public', 'QSN How do bicycles help catch some suspects? ANS their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot', 'QSN What do police use to control motorcyclist events? ANS Motorcycles']

In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention. 5

['QSN Who was O.W. Wilson a student of? ANS August Vollmer', 'QSN Who introduced education requirements for US police? ANS August Vollmer', 'QSN Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities? ANS to reduce their vulnerability to corruption', 'QSN Where did Wilson reduce police corruption? ANS Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department', 'QSN How did Wilson recruit more qualified police? ANS an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries']

In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination" 3

['QSN What does Miranda provide? ANS safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest', 'QSN What does the 5th Amendment protect against? ANS self-incrimination', 'QSN Which amendment prevents self-incrimination? ANS Fifth']

In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only. 3

['QSN When was the Terry v. Ohio case? ANS 1968', 'QSN Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into? ANS investigatory stop and arrest', "QSN What is an investigatory stop's search limited to? ANS what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed"]

All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent. 4

['QSN What is the legal status of UK police officers? ANS constables', "QSN What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do? ANS authorize a search of a suspect's house", "QSN What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do? ANS authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours", "QSN What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's? ANS arrest"]

In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table. 3

['QSN Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders? ANS To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law', 'QSN What could be impeded without police interference? ANS the realization of the private right', "QSN How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen? ANS establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper"]

Punjab (Urdu, Punjabi: پنجاب, panj-āb, "five waters": listen (help·info)), also spelled Panjab, is the most populous of the four provinces of Pakistan. It has an area of 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles) and a population of 91.379.615 in 2011, approximately 56% of the country's total population. Its provincial capital and largest city is Lahore. Punjab is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir to the northeast and Punjab and Rajasthan to the east. In Pakistan it is bordered by Sindh to the south, Balochistān and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and Islamabad and Azad Kashmir to the north. 5

['QSN What does Punjab mean? ANS five waters', 'QSN How many provinces does Pakistan have? ANS four', 'QSN How large is Punjab? ANS 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles)', "QSN What is Punjab's population? ANS 91.379.615", "QSN What is Punjab's biggest city? ANS Lahore"]

Punjab's geography mostly consists of the alluvial plain of the Indus River and its four major tributaries in Pakistan, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers. There are several mountainous regions, including the Sulaiman Mountains in the southwest part of the province, and Margalla Hills, Salt Range, and Pothohar Plateau in the north. Agriculture is the chief source of income and employment in Punjab; wheat and cotton are the principal crops. Since independence, Punjab has become the seat of political and economic power; it remains the most industrialised province of Pakistan. It counts for 39.2% of large scale manufacturing and 70% of small scale manufacturing in the country. Its capital Lahore is a major regional cultural, historical, and economic centre. 5

['QSN What plain is Punjab in? ANS the alluvial plain of the Indus River', "QSN What are the Indus River's tributaries? ANS the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers", "QSN How much of Pakistan's large-scale manufacturing is in Punjab? ANS 39.2%", "QSN How much of Pakistan's small-scale manufacturing is in Punjab? ANS 70%", 'QSN What crops does Punjab grow? ANS wheat and cotton']

Punjab is Pakistan's second largest province in terms of land area at 205,344 km2 (79,284 sq mi), after Balochistan, and is located at the north western edge of the geologic Indian plate in South Asia. The province is bordered by Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, India) to the northeast, the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east, the Pakistani province of Sindh to the south, the province of Balochistan to the southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and the Islamabad Capital Territory to the north. 5

['QSN How large is Punjab compared to the other three provinces? ANS second largest', "QSN What is Pakistan's largest province? ANS Balochistan", 'QSN How many square miles is Punjab? ANS 79,284', 'QSN What Indian states are on the east side of Punjab, Pakistan? ANS Punjab and Rajasthan', 'QSN What Pakistani province is south of Punjab? ANS Sindh']

The capital and largest city is Lahore which was the historical capital of the wider Punjab region. Other important cities include Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Sargodha, Multan, Sialkot, Bahawalpur, Gujrat, Sheikhupura, Jhelum and Sahiwal. Undivided Punjab is home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistani Punjab. From west to east, these are: the Indus, Jhelum, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Nearly 60% of Pakistan's population lives in the Punjab. It is the nation's only province that touches every other province; it also surrounds the federal enclave of the national capital city at Islamabad. In the acronym P-A-K-I-S-T-A-N, the P is for Punjab. 5

['QSN Which province in Pakistan borders the other 3 provinces? ANS Punjab', "QSN What is Pakistan's capital? ANS Islamabad", 'QSN How many rivers are in Punjab, Pakistan? ANS five', 'QSN What is the easternmost river in Punjab? ANS Sutlej', "QSN How much of Pakistan's population lives in Punjab? ANS Nearly 60%"]

There are 48 departments in Punjab government. Each Department is headed by a Provincial Minister (Politician) and a Provincial Secretary (A civil servant of usually BPS-20 or BPS-21). All Ministers report to the Chief Minister, who is the Chief Executive. All Secretaries report to the Chief Secretary of Punjab, who is usually a BPS-22 Civil Servant. The Chief Secretary in turn reports to the Chief Minister. In addition to these departments, there are several Autonomous Bodies and Attached Departments that report directly to either the Secretaries or the Chief Secretary. 5

['QSN How many departments does the Punjab administration have? ANS 48', 'QSN Who heads each government department? ANS a Provincial Minister (Politician) and a Provincial Secretary', 'QSN Who do the Provincial Ministers report to? ANS the Chief Minister', 'QSN Who do the Provincial Secretaries report to? ANS the Chief Secretary of Punjab', 'QSN What rank is the Chief Secretary? ANS usually a BPS-22 Civil Servant']

Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 4000 years ago. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilisation. The Vedic civilisation flourished along the length of the Indus River. This civilisation shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas, and Hindu Shahi. It also comprised the Gujar empire for a period of time, otherwise known as the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan and Lahore) grew in wealth. 5

['QSN What was Punjab formerly known as? ANS Panchanada', 'QSN What ancient civilization lived in Punjab? ANS the Indus Valley Civilization', 'QSN When was Punjab part of the Indus Valley Civilization? ANS more than 4000 years ago', 'QSN What was the major Indus city in Punjab? ANS Harrapa', 'QSN What were bricks taken from Harrapa for the construction of? ANS the Lahore-Multan railroad']

Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attacks and influence from the west and witnessed centuries of foreign invasions by the Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans. The city of Taxila, founded by son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world,[citation needed] Takshashila University. One of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site, valued for its archaeological and religious history. 5

['QSN Who has invaded Punjab? ANS Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans', 'QSN Who founded Taxila? ANS son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram', "QSN What is said to be the world's oldest university? ANS Takshashila University", 'QSN Who was Chanakya? ANS great Vedic thinker and politician', 'QSN What empire was Taxila a center of learning of? ANS the Maurya Empire']

The northwestern part of the South Asia, including Punjab, was repeatedly invaded or conquered by various foreign empires, such as those of Tamerlane, Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. Having conquered Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan in ten days, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and was thus fully informed of the magnificence of the country and its riches in gold, gems and pearls. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains. Having taken a northeasterly direction, he marched against the Aspii (mountaineers), who offered vigorous resistance, but were subdued.[citation needed] Alexander then marched through Ghazni, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira. Turning to the northeast, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa (at the site of modern-day Mong) was situated. A coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skilful in war. Alexander invested many troops, eventually killing seventeen thousand Cathians in this battle, and the city of Sagala (present-day Sialkot) was razed to the ground. Alexander left Punjab in 326 B.C. and took his army to the heartlands of his empire.[citation needed] 5

['QSN Where did Alexander the Great conquer in 10 days? ANS Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan', 'QSN From which direction did Alexander enter Punjab? ANS northeasterly', 'QSN What wealth did Alexander hope to find? ANS riches in gold, gems and pearls', 'QSN Who were the Aspii? ANS mountaineers', 'QSN Who were the Cathians? ANS the people of Multan']

The Punjabis followed a diverse plethora of faiths, mainly comprising Hinduism[citation needed] , when the Muslim Umayyad army led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Southern Punjab in 712, by defeating Raja Dahir. The Umayyad Caliphate was the second Islamic caliphate established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Although the Umayyad family originally came from the city of Mecca, their capital was Damascus. Muhammad bin Qasim was the first to bring message of Islam to the population of Punjab.[citation needed] Punjab was part of different Muslim Empires consisting of Afghans and Turkic peoples in co-operation with local Punjabi tribes and others.[citation needed] In the 11th century, during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni, the province became an important centre with Lahore as its second capital[citation needed] of the Ghaznavid Empire based out of Afghanistan. The Punjab region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region. 5

['QSN What religion did Punjab become? ANS Muslim', 'QSN What did missionary Muslims build in Punjab? ANS dargahs', 'QSN Who led the Umayyad army? ANS Muhammad bin Qasim', 'QSN Where did the Umayyads conquer? ANS Sindh and Southern Punjab', 'QSN Who did the Umayyads defeat? ANS Raja Dahir']

In 1758, the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire, Raghunath Rao conquered Lahore and Attock. Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali, was driven out of Punjab. Lahore, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Kashmir and other subahs on the south and eastern side of Peshawar were under the Maratha rule for the most part. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas were now major players. The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the Maratha territory of Punjab and captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and re-consolidated control over them. 5

['QSN Who was Raghunath Rao? ANS the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire', 'QSN Who did Rao conquer in 1758? ANS Lahore and Attock', 'QSN When was the Third Battle of Panipat? ANS 1761', 'QSN Who ruled most of the eastern part of Peshawar? ANS Maratha', 'QSN Who captured part of the Maratha Empire in 1761? ANS Ahmad Shah Abdali']

In the mid-fifteenth century, the religion of Sikhism was born. During the Mughal empire, many Hindus increasingly adopted Sikhism. These became a formidable military force against the Mughals and later against the Afghan Empire. After fighting Ahmad Shah Durrani in the later eighteenth century, the Sikhs took control of Punjab and managed to establish the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, which lasted from 1799 to 1849. The capital of Ranjit Singh's empire was Lahore, and the empire also extended into Afghanistan and Kashmir. Bhangi Misl was the fist Sikh band to conquer Lahore and other towns of Punjab. Syed Ahmad Barelvi a Muslim, waged jihad and attempted to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of Islamic law. Syed Ahmad Barelvi in 1821 with many supporters and spent two years organising popular and material support for his Punjab campaign. He carefully developed a network of people through the length and breadth of India to collect funds and encourage volunteers, travelling widely throughout India attracting a following among pious Muslims. In December 1826 Sayyid Ahmad and his followers clashed with Sikh troops at Akora Khattak, but with no decisive result. In a major battle near the town of Balakot in 1831, Sayyid Ahmad and Shah Ismail Shaheed with volunteer Muslims were defeated by the professional Sikh Army. 5

['QSN When did Sikhism begin? ANS mid-fifteenth century', 'QSN In which empire did many Hindus become Sikhs? ANS Mughal empire', 'QSN When did Ahmad fight at Akora Khattak? ANS December 1826', 'QSN When did Ahmad fight at Balakot? ANS 1831', 'QSN Who won at Balakot? ANS the professional Sikh Army']

Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death in the summer of 1839 brought political chaos and the subsequent battles of succession and the bloody infighting between the factions at court weakened the state. Relationships with neighbouring British territories then broke down, starting the First Anglo-Sikh War; this led to a British official being resident in Lahore and the annexation in 1849 of territory south of the Satluj to British India. After the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the Sikh Empire became the last territory to be merged into British India. In Jhelum 35 British soldiers of HM XXIV regiment were killed by the local resistance during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[citation needed] 5

['QSN When did Ranjit Singh die? ANS summer of 1839', "QSN What did Ranjit Singh's death cause? ANS political chaos", 'QSN When was part of Punjab annexed into British India? ANS 1849', 'QSN When was the Second Anglo-Sikh War? ANS 1849', 'QSN What was the last territory added to British India? ANS the Sikh Empire']

Punjab witnessed major battles between the armies of India and Pakistan in the wars of 1965 and 1971. Since the 1990s Punjab hosted several key sites of Pakistan's nuclear program such as Kahuta. It also hosts major military bases such as at Sargodha and Rawalpindi. The peace process between India and Pakistan, which began in earnest in 2004, has helped pacify the situation. Trade and people-to-people contacts through the Wagah border are now starting to become common. Indian Sikh pilgrims visit holy sites such as Nankana Sahib. 5

['QSN When did India and Pakistan fight in Punjab? ANS 1965 and 1971', "QSN What is Kahuta an important location for? ANS Pakistan's nuclear program", 'QSN Where does Punjab have major military bases? ANS Sargodha and Rawalpindi', 'QSN When did India and Pakistan begin serious peace talks? ANS 2004', 'QSN Who visits Nankana Sahib? ANS Sikh pilgrims']

The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the early 1970s the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over the area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46 °C, newspaper sources claim that it reaches 51 °C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have risen to 54 °C. In August the oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as barsat, which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler weather does not come until late October. 5

['QSN When do monsoons traditionally happen in Punjab? ANS by May', "QSN When did Punjab's weather pattern become unpredictable? ANS since the early 1970s", 'QSN How hot do newspapers say it has gotten in Punjab? ANS 51 °C', 'QSN What was the record heat spike in Multan? ANS 54 °C', 'QSN When was the record heat spike in Multan? ANS June 1993']

The major and native language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi (which is written in a Shahmukhi script in Pakistan) and Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in country. Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab. There is not a single district in the province where Punjabi language is mother-tongue of less than 89% of population. The language is not given any official recognition in the Constitution of Pakistan at the national level. Punjabis themselves are a heterogeneous group comprising different tribes, clans (Urdu: برادری‎) and communities. In Pakistani Punjab these tribes have more to do with traditional occupations such as blacksmiths or artisans as opposed to rigid social stratifications. Punjabi dialects spoken in the province include Majhi (Standard), Saraiki and Hindko. Saraiki is mostly spoken in south Punjab, and Pashto, spoken in some parts of north west Punjab, especially in Attock District and Mianwali District. 5

["QSN What is Punjab's major language? ANS Punjabi", 'QSN How is Punjabi written? ANS in a Shahmukhi script', 'QSN What is the largest ethnic group in Pakistan? ANS Punjabis', 'QSN What minimum percent of each Punjab district speaks Punjabi natively? ANS 89%', 'QSN Where is Saraiki usually spoken? ANS south Punjab']

The Government of Punjab is a provincial government in the federal structure of Pakistan, is based in Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province. The Chief Minister of Punjab (CM) is elected by the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab to serve as the head of the provincial government in Punjab, Pakistan. The current Chief Minister is Shahbaz Sharif, who became the Chief Minister of Punjab as being restored after Governor's rule starting from 25 February 2009 to 30 March 2009. Thereafter got re-elected as a result of 11 May 2013 elections. The Provincial Assembly of the Punjab is a unicameral legislature of elected representatives of the province of Punjab, which is located in Lahore in eastern Pakistan. The Assembly was established under Article 106 of the Constitution of Pakistan as having a total of 371 seats, with 66 seats reserved for women and eight reserved for non-Muslims. 5

['QSN Who elects the Chief Minister? ANS the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab', 'QSN In what year did Sharif become CM? ANS 2009', 'QSN When was Sharif re-elected CM? ANS 11 May 2013', 'QSN What kind of legislature is the Provincial Assembly? ANS unicameral', 'QSN How many seats are in the Provincial Assembly? ANS 371']

Punjab has the largest economy in Pakistan, contributing most to the national GDP. The province's economy has quadrupled since 1972. Its share of Pakistan's GDP was 54.7% in 2000 and 59% as of 2010. It is especially dominant in the service and agriculture sectors of Pakistan's economy. With its contribution ranging from 52.1% to 64.5% in the Service Sector and 56.1% to 61.5% in the agriculture sector. It is also major manpower contributor because it has largest pool of professionals and highly skilled (technically trained) manpower in Pakistan. It is also dominant in the manufacturing sector, though the dominance is not as huge, with historical contributions raging from a low of 44% to a high of 52.6%. In 2007, Punjab achieved a growth rate of 7.8% and during the period 2002–03 to 2007–08, its economy grew at a rate of between 7% to 8% per year. and during 2008–09 grew at 6% against the total GDP growth of Pakistan at 4%. 5

["QSN How much has Punjab's economy grown since 1972? ANS quadrupled", "QSN How much of Pakistan's GDP came from Punjab in 2000? ANS 54.7%", "QSN How much of Pakistan's GDP came from Punjab in 2010? ANS 59%", 'QSN What manpower does Punjab provide? ANS largest pool of professionals and highly skilled (technically trained) manpower in Pakistan', "QSN How much did Punjab's economy grow in 2008-09? ANS 6%"]

Despite the lack of a coastline, Punjab is the most industrialised province of Pakistan; its manufacturing industries produce textiles, sports goods, heavy machinery, electrical appliances, surgical instruments, vehicles, auto parts, metals, sugar mill plants, aircraft, cement, agricultural machinery, bicycles and rickshaws, floor coverings, and processed foods. In 2003, the province manufactured 90% of the paper and paper boards, 71% of the fertilizers, 69% of the sugar and 40% of the cement of Pakistan. 5

['QSN What geographic feature does Punjab not have? ANS coastline', 'QSN What medical product does Punjab manufacture? ANS surgical instruments', 'QSN What transportation products does Punjab manufacture? ANS bicycles and rickshaws', "QSN How much of Pakistan's paper products does Punjab manufacture? ANS 90%", "QSN How much of Pakistan's sugar does Punjab manufacture? ANS 69%"]

Despite its tropical wet and dry climate, extensive irrigation makes it a rich agricultural region. Its canal-irrigation system established by the British is the largest in the world. Wheat and cotton are the largest crops. Other crops include rice, sugarcane, millet, corn, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, and fruits such as kinoo. Livestock and poultry production are also important. Despite past animosities, the rural masses in Punjab's farms continue to use the Hindu calendar for planting and harvesting. 5

['QSN What kind of climate does Punjab have? ANS tropical wet and dry', "QSN Who built Punjab's irrigation system? ANS the British", "QSN What are Punjab's largest crops? ANS Wheat and cotton", "QSN What are Punjab's secondary crops? ANS rice, sugarcane, millet, corn, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, and fruits such as kinoo", "QSN What calendar do Punjab's farmers use? ANS the Hindu calendar"]

As of June 2012[update], Pakistan's electricity problems were so severe that violent riots were taking place across Punjab. According to protesters, load shedding was depriving the cities of electricity 20–22 hours a day, causing businesses to go bust and making living extremely hard. Gujranwala, Toba Tek Singh, Faisalabad, Sialkot, Bahawalnagar and communities across Khanewal District saw widespread rioting and violence on Sunday 17 June 2012, with the houses of several members of parliament being attacked as well as the offices of regional energy suppliers Fesco, Gepco and Mepco being ransacked or attacked. 4

['QSN What kind of problem caused riots in June 2012? ANS electricity', 'QSN How long were cities without electricity in June 2012? ANS 20–22 hours a day', 'QSN Where were there riots in June 2012? ANS Gujranwala, Toba Tek Singh, Faisalabad, Sialkot, Bahawalnagar and communities across Khanewal District', "QSN Which energy companies' offices were attacked by rioters? ANS Fesco, Gepco and Mepco"]

The structure of a mosque is simple and it expresses openness. Calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran decorate mosques and mausoleums in Punjab. The inscriptions on bricks and tiles of the mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (1320 AD) at Multan are outstanding specimens of architectural calligraphy. The earliest existing building in South Asia with enamelled tile-work is the tomb of Shah Yusuf Gardezi (1150 AD) at Multan. A specimen of the sixteenth century tile-work at Lahore is the tomb of Sheikh Musa Ahangar, with its brilliant blue dome. The tile-work of Emperor Shah Jahan is of a richer and more elaborate nature. The pictured wall of Lahore Fort is the last line in the tile-work in the entire world. 5

["QSN What kind of inscriptions decorate Punjab's burial places? ANS Calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran", 'QSN When did Rukn-e-Alam die? ANS 1320 AD', 'QSN When did Gardezi die? ANS 1150 AD', "QSN When was Ahangar's tomb built? ANS sixteenth century", "QSN What color tile was used in Ahangar's tomb? ANS blue"]

The fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints are called urs. They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint. On these occasions devotees assemble in large numbers and pay homage to the memory of the saint. Soul inspiring music is played and devotees dance in ecstasy. The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing. It forms a part of the folk music through mystic messages. The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore. 5

['QSN What are urs? ANS fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints', 'QSN When are urs held? ANS the death anniversary of the saint', 'QSN What genre of music is played at urs? ANS folk', "QSN Where is Buksh's shrine? ANS Lahore", "QSN Where is Zakria's shrine? ANS Multan"]

Exhibitions and annual horse shows in all districts and a national horse and cattle show at Lahore are held with the official patronage. The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held. It not only encourages and patronises agricultural products and livestock through the exhibitions of agricultural products and cattle but is also a colourful documentary on the rich cultural heritage of the province with its strong rural roots. 3

["QSN What is Punjab's biggest festival? ANS The national horse and cattle show", 'QSN Where is the national horse and cattle show held? ANS Lahore', 'QSN What happens at the national horse and cattle show? ANS sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions']

The province is home to several historical sites, including the Shalimar Gardens, the Lahore Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Rohtas Fort and the ruins of the ancient city of Harrapa. The Anarkali Market and Jahangir's Tomb are prominent in the city of Lahore as is the Lahore Museum, while the ancient city of Taxila in the northwest was once a major centre of Buddhist and Hindu influence. Several important Sikh shrines are in the province, including the birthplace of the first Guru, Guru Nanak. (born at Nankana Sahib). There are a few famous hill stations, including Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro. 5

["QSN What famous tomb is in Lahore? ANS Jahangir's Tomb", 'QSN Where was Nanak born? ANS Nankana Sahib', 'QSN Who was the first Sikh Guru? ANS Guru Nanak', 'QSN What famous hill stations are in Punjab? ANS Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro', 'QSN What famous mosque is in Punjab? ANS Badshahi Mosque']

Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known. In the composition of classical ragas, there are such masters as Malika-i-Mauseequi (Queen of Music) Roshan Ara Begum, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan, Salamat Ali Khan and Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. Alam Lohar has made significant contributions to folklore and Punjabi literature, by being a very influential Punjabi folk singer from 1930 until 1979. 4

['QSN Who are some well-known Punjab poets? ANS Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah', "QSN What is Allah Ditta Lona Wala's career? ANS folk singers", "QSN Who is the 'Queen of Music'? ANS Malika-i-Mauseequi", 'QSN When was Alam Lohar an important Punjabi folk singer? ANS from 1930 until 1979']

For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known. Folk songs and dances of the Punjab reflect a wide range of moods: the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons. Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi depict the joy of living. Love legends of Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahenwal and Saiful Mulk are sung in different styles. 5

['QSN What kind of music does Malika Pukhraj perform? ANS Ghazals and folk songs', 'QSN What do Punjab folk songs often reflect? ANS the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons', 'QSN Who sings about the joy of living? ANS Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi', 'QSN What does Heer Ranjha sing about? ANS Love', 'QSN What kind of music does Roshen Ara Begum perform? ANS Ghazals and folk songs']

Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens: 5

['QSN Of the huge amount of microorganisms, how many cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals? ANS relatively few', 'QSN Interplay between pathogens and defenses of hosts results in what? ANS Infectious disease', 'QSN What does the severity of a disease resulting from a pathogen depend on? ANS ability of that pathogen to damage the host', "QSN What can a host's immune system do to a host? ANS cause damage", 'QSN What do clinicians classify infectious microorganisms according to the status of? ANS host defenses']

One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic). 5

["QSN What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious? ANS satisfy Koch's postulates", "QSN What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates? ANS patients and not in healthy controls", "QSN What is Koch's second postulate? ANS patients who contract the agent also develop the disease", "QSN Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases? ANS because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual", 'QSN What is the causative spirochete of syphilis? ANS Treponema pallidum']

Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. 5

['QSN When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases? ANS when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person', 'QSN What is a contagious disease a subset of? ANS infectious disease', 'QSN What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease? ANS especially infective or easily transmitted', "QSN Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation? ANS medical", 'QSN What is not always respected in popular use? ANS specialized connotation of the word "contagious"']

Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. 5

['QSN When does infection begin? ANS when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies.', 'QSN What group is not easily infected? ANS humans', 'QSN What group of humans have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections? ANS weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic', 'QSN What individuals are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections? ANS Individuals who have a suppressed immune system', 'QSN What is it called when a pathogen grows within the host cells? ANS intracellular']

Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing. 5

['QSN What does wound colonization refer to? ANS nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound', 'QSN What type of organisms exist and injure tissue in infected wounds? ANS replicating', 'QSN What are all multcellular organisms colonized to some degree by? ANS extrinsic organisms', "QSN What's the difference between an infection and a colonization? ANS only a matter of circumstance", 'QSN What species colonizes the mammalian colon? ANS anaerobic bacteria']

Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds are infected. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11-20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64-0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64-0.88). 4

['QSN Why is it difficult to now which chronic wounds are infected? ANS Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization', 'QSN What is there limited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice? ANS symptoms and signs', 'QSN What is increased pain an indicator of? ANS infection', 'QSN What does not rule out infection? ANS absence of pain']

Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected. 5

['QSN Disease can arise when an organism inflicts what on the host? ANS damage', 'QSN What can a microorganism cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of? ANS toxins', 'QSN What does the of toxin Clostridium tetani releases do? ANS paralyzes muscles', 'QSN What releases toxins which product shock and sepsis? ANS staphylococcus', 'QSN What percentage of people infected with polio develop disease? ANS less than 5%']

Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise. 5

['QSN Why do persistent infections occur? ANS body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection', 'QSN What are persistent infections characterized by the continual presence of? ANS the infectious organism', 'QSN How can some viruses main a persistent infection? ANS by infecting different cells of the body', 'QSN What never leave the body when acquired? ANS Some viruses', 'QSN Where does the herpes virus hide? ANS in nerves']

Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign. 5

['QSN What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying? ANS an infectious agent either directly or indirectly', 'QSN Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation? ANS clinical', 'QSN How are minor infectious diseases treated? ANS without knowledge of the specific causative agent', 'QSN What can be identified given sufficient effort? ANS all known infectious agents', 'QSN Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent? ANS greatly outweighed by the cost']

Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion. 5

['QSN How is diagnosis of infectious disease almost always initiated? ANS by medical history and physical examination', 'QSN What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient allow? ANS detailed identification', 'QSN What features of an infectious organism does a culture allow examining? ANS microscopic features', 'QSN What can organisms be directly identified by? ANS its genotype', 'QSN What technique can be used to produce images of internal abnormalities? ANS X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR']

Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses: the medium in this case being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent. 5

['QSN What type of culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease? ANS Microbiological', 'QSN What type of medium is provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture? ANS growth', 'QSN What are most pathogenic bacteria easily grown on? ANS nutrient agar', 'QSN What is it called when a visible mound forms on the surface of a plate? ANS a colony', 'QSN What is a region of dead cells resulting from viral growth called? ANS a "plaque"']

In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi, an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut. 5

['QSN What are live animals required by? ANS some microbes', 'QSN What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum be grown in? ANS animals', 'QSN What type of eggs may some viruses be grown in? ANS embryonated', 'QSN What is Xenodiagnosis? ANS use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent', 'QSN What is it difficult to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease? ANS the causative agent']

Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly. 5

['QSN What is microscopy used for? ANS diagnosis of infectious disease', 'QSN What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point? ANS microscopic examination', 'QSN What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under? ANS light microscope', 'QSN When is microscopy exquisitely specific? ANS when used in combination with antibody based techniques.', 'QSN What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do? ANS bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen']

Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinobacterial genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia. 5

['QSN What do almost all cells readily stain with? ANS a number of basic dyes', 'QSN Why do cells easily stain with dyes? ANS electrostatic attraction', 'QSN What electronic charge do cellular molecules have? ANS negatively charged', 'QSN What is Geimsa stain? ANS a dye', 'QSN How many methods comprise standard approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease? ANS Two']

The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function. 4

['QSN What needs to be isolated from infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease? ANS enzymes', "QSN What enzyme's presence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections? ANS RNA replicases", 'QSN What does the protein hemagglutinin bind together? ANS red blood cells', 'QSN Why are the presence of certain enymzes a tell tale sign of a virus? ANS humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase']

Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive. 5

['QSN What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms? ANS Serological', 'QSN What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do? ANS bind specifically to an antigen', 'QSN What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually? ANS a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent', 'QSN What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways? ANS a chain of events', 'QSN What is the causative agent of "strep throat"? ANS S. pyogenes']

Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus. 4

['QSN What are immunoassays? ANS Complex serological techniques', 'QSN What type of signal do immunoassays produce? ANS electro - magnetic or particle radiation', 'QSN What allows quantitation of the target antigen? ANS unknowns can be compared to that of standards', 'QSN Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins? ANS generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent']

Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already. 5

['QSN What does the acronym PCR expand to? ANS polymerase chain reaction', 'QSN What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future? ANS PCR', 'QSN What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of? ANS virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified', 'QSN What must an infectious agent do to cause disease? ANS grow within the human body', 'QSN What are primers derived from the genomes of? ANS infectious agents']

Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. 4

['QSN What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available? ANS ability to detect any infectious agent', 'QSN What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis? ANS cost and application', "QSN What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods? ANS clostridial diseases", "QSN PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur? ANS significant proliferation of the infectious agent"]

There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. 5

['QSN What is used in the treatment of AIDS? ANS AZT', 'QSN How was the course of AIDS followed? ANS monitoring the composition of patient blood samples', 'QSN What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted? ANS resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk', 'QSN What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable? ANS geographical origins of the virus', 'QSN What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes? ANS Molecular diagnostics']

Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important. 5

['QSN What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent? ANS infections from being passed from one person to another', 'QSN What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms? ANS Frequent hand washing', 'QSN Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what? ANS prevention', 'QSN Why is it important to cook foods well? ANS prevention', 'QSN What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time? ANS avoiding']

One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic. 5

['QSN Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what? ANS prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases', 'QSN What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated? ANS virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness', "QSN What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them? ANS Ebola", 'QSN Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious? ANS victims experience only internal hemorrhaging', 'QSN What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do? ANS travel long distances']

Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001. 5

['QSN Recognizing the effects of small-world networks allows one to decrease what? ANS transmission rate of infectious diseases', 'QSN What type of interactions happen within groups of infected individuals in epidemics? ANS extensive interactions', 'QSN What is a way of drastically reducing infection rates? ANS focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps', 'QSN What is an example of a success implementation of preventing transmission jumps? ANS needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users', 'QSN When was vaccination used to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus? ANS 2001']

Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens. There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections. 5

['QSN What is resistance to infection known technically as? ANS immunity', 'QSN When may immunity be acquired? ANS following a disease', 'QSN What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for? ANS primary pathogens', 'QSN What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity? ANS a measure of protection', 'QSN Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired? ANS immunity']

The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus. 3

['QSN What can the clearance of pathogens be influenced by in an individual? ANS genetic variants', 'QSN What is the brand name Pegasys for? ANS Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b', 'QSN What are patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene more likely to achieve? ANS sustained virological response']

When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (antibiotic; including antitubercular), antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically. Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is resistance to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides, quinolones and tetracyclines.[citation needed] 5

['QSN What type of drugs can suppress an infection when it attacks the body? ANS anti-infective', 'QSN How many broad types of anti-infective drugs exist? ANS Several', 'QSN What depends on the method an antibiotic is given? ANS severity and the type of infection', 'QSN How are severe infections of the brain usually treated? ANS with intravenous antibiotics', 'QSN How do antibiotics work? ANS slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria']

The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world. 5

['QSN What are the top three killer diseases? ANS HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria', 'QSN How much have deaths due to HIV/AIDS increased? ANS fourfold', 'QSN What are some popular childhood diseases? ANS pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus', 'QSN Who makes up a large percentage of diarrheal deaths? ANS Children', 'QSN What is the number 4 leading cause of death in the world? ANS lower respiratory infections']

The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists. 5

['QSN What medical field does the treatment of infectious diseases fall into? ANS field of Infectious Disease', 'QSN Disease propagation can fall under the purview of what field of study? ANS Epidemiology', 'QSN Who tends to initially diagnose an infection? ANS primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists', 'QSN What is the non-medical mumbo jumbo term for pulmonologist? ANS lung physician', 'QSN Who works with both patients and general practitioners to identify a disease? ANS infectious diseases specialist']

A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development. 5

['QSN What have a number of studies found a correlation between? ANS pathogen load in an area and human behavior', 'QSN What is higher pathogen load associated with? ANS decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area', 'QSN What does avoidance of other groups reduce? ANS pathogen transmission', 'QSN What does more restricted sexual behavior result in? ANS Higher pathogen load', 'QSN What may poor socioeconomic factors ultimately in part be due to? ANS high pathogen load preventing economic development.']

Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were afflicted by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another Herrerasaurus. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include Acrocanthosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and a tyrannosaur from the Kirtland Formation. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen. 5

['QSN What profession finds evidence of infection in fossil remains to be interesting? ANS paleopathologists', 'QSN What do paleopathologists study? ANS occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms', 'QSN What has been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs? ANS Signs of infection', "QSN What dinosaur's skull had pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone? ANS Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis", 'QSN How did tyrannosaurs become infected? ANS being bitten during a fight']

Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade. In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds. 15

['QSN What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal? ANS Hunting', 'QSN Why do humans most commonly hunt wildlife? ANS food', 'QSN What is there a distinction between lawful hunting and? ANS poaching', 'QSN What is poaching? ANS illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species', 'QSN What is the species which is hunted referred to as? ANS prey', 'QSN What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal called? ANS Hunting', 'QSN When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching? ANS 2010s', 'QSN Illegally killing, capturing or trapping an hunted species is called what? ANS poaching', 'QSN Hunted species are usually referred to as what? ANS game or prey', 'QSN What animals are usually hunted? ANS mammals and birds', 'QSN What is it called to kill or trap an animal? ANS Hunting', 'QSN What species are usually hunted? ANS mammals and birds', 'QSN Why do humans hunt? ANS food, recreation, to remove predators', 'QSN When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching? ANS 2010s', 'QSN Species hunted are referred to as what? ANS game or prey']

Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought. However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. 8

['QSN What does evidence suggest hunting may have been a factor in the extinction of? ANS holocene megafauna', 'QSN What was the North American megafauna extinction coincidental with? ANS Younger Dryas impact event', 'QSN What are humans thought to have played a significant role in, in Australia? ANS extinction of the Australian megafauna', "QSN When was Australian's megafauna widespread? ANS prior to human occupation", 'QSN What along with multiple environmental factors led to the extinction of the holocene megafauna? ANS hunting', 'QSN What replaced the holocene megafauna? ANS smaller herbivores', 'QSN What event was coincidental with the North American megafauna extinction? ANS Younger Dryas impact event', 'QSN What is thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna? ANS humans']

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice. 8

['QSN What is undisputed about early humans? ANS were hunters', 'QSN Hunting was important for the emergence of the Homo genus from what? ANS earlier Australopithecines', 'QSN Production of stone tools and control of fire were also pushed forward by what? ANS hunting', 'QSN What became a theme of stories and myths? ANS hunting', 'QSN Hunting allowed what type of rituals? ANS dance and animal sacrifice', 'QSN What is undisputed about earlier humans? ANS humans were hunters', 'QSN What did hunting become a theme of? ANS stories and myths', 'QSN Stone tools and control of fire are emphasised in what hypothesis? ANS hunting hypothesis']