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The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet, stating that its teachings are not inspired or infallible, and that it has not claimed its predictions were "the words of Jehovah." George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions. Chryssides further states, "it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do." However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, "Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time." 5

["QSN What does George D. Chryssides suggest the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses can be attributed to changed understandings of? ANS biblical chronology", 'QSN What accusations does the Watch Tower Society reject? ANS that it is a false prophet', "QSN What have Jehovah's Witnesses maintained we are living on the precipice of since their formation? ANS the end of time", "QSN How long ago was the foundation of the Jehovah's Witnesses movement? ANS around 140 years ago", 'QSN What profession does Andrew Holden smugly self-identify as? ANS sociologist']

Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization. The religion has been criticized for its "two witness rule" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures at Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15-17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing. In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands". A former member of the church’s headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Anderson says the policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children." Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents. 5

["QSN What are Jehovah's Witnesses accused of concealing within their organization? ANS sexual abuse", "QSN Whose hands should elders leave allegations of sexual abuse in when the accused person denies wrongdoing? ANS Jehovah's", "QSN Who does Barbara Anderson feel the church's policy regarding sexual abuse protects? ANS pedophiles", "QSN What do Jehovah's Witnesses maintain they want to protect? ANS children", "QSN Jehovah's Witnesses do not sponsor activities when the result is the separation of whom? ANS children from parents"]

The religion's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family. The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, "not one was reported by the church to secular authorities." William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its "crime-free" reputation. In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing. 5

["QSN What has the Jehovah's Witnesses failure to report to authorities been criticized? ANS abuse allegations", "QSN Of the 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, how many were reported to secular authorities? ANS not one", 'QSN Why are the Jehovah\'s Witnesses reluctant to alert authorities to abuse? ANS to protect its "crime-free" reputation', 'QSN What have courts in both the UK and the US found the Watch Tower Society to have been for failing to protect children from sexual predators within the congregation? ANS negligent', 'QSN How much has the Society reportedly paid to settle lawsuits without admitting any wrongdoing? ANS as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff']

Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (/ˈaɪzənˌhaʊ.ər/ EYE-zən-HOW-ər; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was an American politician and general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army during World War II and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45 from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's nickname? ANS Ike", 'QSN What was the middle name of Dwight Eisenhower? ANS David', "QSN In what year did Eisenhower's presidency begin? ANS 1953", 'QSN During the Second World War, what was the highest position (not rank) Eisenhower achieved? ANS Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe', 'QSN What was the name of the North African invasion Eisenhower oversaw? ANS Operation Torch']

Eisenhower's main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. In the first year of his presidency, he threatened the use of nuclear weapons in an effort to conclude the Korean War; his New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized inexpensive nuclear weapons while reducing funding for conventional military forces. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala. Eisenhower refused to give major aid to help France in Vietnam. He gave strong financial support to the new nation of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, which obliged the U.S. to militarily support the pro-Western Republic of China in Taiwan and continue the isolation of the People's Republic of China. 5

["QSN Along with reducing the federal deficit, what was Eisenhower's main policy priority as president? ANS keep pressure on the Soviet Union", 'QSN What did Eisenhower threaten to use to end the Korean War? ANS nuclear weapons', "QSN Along with Guatemala, what country's government did Eisenhower order overthrown? ANS Iran", 'QSN What country did Eisenhower neglect to assist in their military action in Vietnam? ANS France', 'QSN In what year was the Formosa Resolution passed? ANS 1955']

After the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt, and forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. In 1958, Eisenhower sent 15,000 U.S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the pro-Western government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a summit meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. In his January 17, 1961 farewell address to the nation, Eisenhower expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, and coined the term "military–industrial complex". 5

["QSN Along with Israel, what countries' armies invaded Egypt in 1956? ANS British and French", "QSN In what year did the Soviets launch humanity's first artificial satellite? ANS 1957", 'QSN What organization did Eisenhower support after the Soviets launched the first artificial satellite? ANS NASA', 'QSN On what date did Eisenhower deliver his presidential farewell address? ANS January 17, 1961', 'QSN Where did Eisenhower send 15,000 military personnel in 1958? ANS Lebanon']

On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking the modern expanded version of executive privilege. He otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. He was a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. He also launched the Interstate Highway System, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the establishment of strong science education via the National Defense Education Act, and encouraged peaceful use of nuclear power via amendments to the Atomic Energy Act. 5

['QSN Why political movement was named for Joseph McCarthy? ANS McCarthyism', 'QSN What political theory did Eisenhower use to oppose McCarthy? ANS executive privilege', "QSN Who served as Eisenhower's vice president? ANS Nixon", 'QSN What sort of conservative was Eisenhower? ANS moderate', 'QSN What does DARPA stand for? ANS Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency']

His parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of the River Brethren sect of the Mennonites, joined the International Bible Students Association, later known as Jehovah's Witnesses. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Eisenhower never joined the International Bible Students. His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked," but she did not overrule him. While speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. 5

["QSN What book did Eisenhower's parents read every day? ANS Bible", "QSN What Mennonite sect did Eisenhower's mother initially belong to? ANS River Brethren", "QSN What is another name for the International Bible Students Association? ANS Jehovah's Witnesses", 'QSN What university did Eisenhower attend? ANS West Point', 'QSN What church did Eisenhower join in 1953? ANS Presbyterian']

Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated with the class of 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, and which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and miraculously recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. 5

['QSN In what year did Eisenhower graduate from high school? ANS 1909', 'QSN What high school did Eisenhower go to? ANS Abilene', "QSN What was the name of Eisenhower's brother? ANS Edgar", 'QSN In what year of high school did Eisenhower suffer a groin infection? ANS freshman', 'QSN What high school year did Eisenhower have to repeat? ANS freshman']

Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented and worked for a second year. At that time, a friend "Swede" Hazlet was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply to the school, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his U.S. Senator, Joseph L. Bristow. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He then accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's job title during the first year his brother went to college? ANS night supervisor", "QSN Where did Eisenhower work during his brother's first year of college? ANS Belle Springs Creamery", "QSN Who was Eisenhower's senator? ANS Joseph L. Bristow", "QSN Why couldn't Eisenhower attend Annapolis? ANS beyond the age limit", 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower matriculate to West Point? ANS 1911']

The Eisenhowers had two sons. Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of scarlet fever on January 2, 1921, at the age of three; Eisenhower was mostly reticent to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower (1922–2013), was born in Denver Colorado. John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. Coincidentally, John graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944. He married Barbara Jean Thompson on June 10, 1947. John and Barbara had four children: David, Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968. John died on December 21, 2013. 5

["QSN What was Doud Eisenhower's nickname? ANS Icky", 'QSN What killed Icky Eisenhower? ANS scarlet fever', 'QSN In what city was John Eisenhower born? ANS Denver', "QSN What was John Eisenhower's final rank in the military? ANS brigadier general", 'QSN David Eisenhower married the child of what US President? ANS Nixon']

Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in expressing his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow on the ground. He had a small, basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on several occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. Roberts also advised Eisenhower on tax aspects of publishing his memoirs, which proved financially lucrative. 5

['QSN What sport did Eisenhower notably enjoy? ANS golf', "QSN What color were Eisenhower's winter golf balls? ANS black", 'QSN Who was the Chairman of Augusta National and friend to Eisenhower? ANS Clifford Roberts', 'QSN What was Clifford Roberts by profession? ANS investment broker', 'QSN When did Eisenhower join Augusta National? ANS 1948']

After golf, oil painting was Eisenhower's second hobby. While at Columbia University, Eisenhower began the art after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life to relax, mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln. Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's work, "simple and earnest, rather cause us to wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, he in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down Tin Lizzie, loaded with paint, has been driven over it." 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's favorite hobby other than golfing? ANS oil painting", 'QSN What car did Eisenhower compare modern art to? ANS Tin Lizzie', 'QSN What was the main type of oil painting painted by Eisenhower? ANS landscapes', 'QSN Who notably painted a picture of Mamie Eisenhower? ANS Thomas E. Stephens', 'QSN Who called Eisenhower\'s art "simple and earnest"? ANS Wendy Beckett']

Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation were the Western novels of Zane Grey. With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at card games. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport," in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation, and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A classmate reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played the game six nights a week for five months. 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's favorite film? ANS Angels in the Outfield", "QSN Who was Eisenhower's favorite author? ANS Zane Grey", 'QSN What genre did Zane Grey write in? ANS Western', 'QSN Where did Eisenhower learn to play poker? ANS Abilene', 'QSN At West Point, what game did Eisenhower play six nights a week for five months? ANS contract bridge']

When the U.S. entered World War I he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was again denied and then assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas. In February 1918 he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers. His unit was later ordered to France but to his chagrin he received orders for the new tank corps, where he was promoted to brevet Lieutenant Colonel in the National Army. He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command – at the site of "Pickett's Charge" on the Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Civil War battleground. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills, as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. 5

['QSN What military installation was Eisenhower assigned to when the United States entered the First World War? ANS Ft. Leavenworth', 'QSN What unit did Eisenhower serve with at Camp Meade? ANS 65th Engineers', 'QSN To what rank was Eisenhower brevetted after being transferred to the tank corps? ANS Lieutenant Colonel', "QSN What famous military event occurred at the site of Camp Colt? ANS Pickett's Charge", 'QSN In what state was Camp Meade located? ANS Maryland']

Once again his spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed, just a week before departure. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite being given the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home.[citation needed] In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the first great war (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp, completely equipped, for thousands of troops, and developing a full combat training schedule. 3

['QSN How long before Eisenhower was to be transferred to France did World War I end? ANS week', 'QSN What decoration did Eisenhower receive as a result of his First World War service? ANS Distinguished Service Medal', 'QSN What notable Second World War commander disparaged Eisenhower for his lack of combat experience? ANS Montgomery']

He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank in it. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's Camp Meade unit equipped with? ANS tanks", 'QSN When did Eisenhower leave Camp Meade? ANS 1922', 'QSN Along with Patton, who was a notable interwar tank leader? ANS Sereno E. Brett', 'QSN What was the traditional doctrine on the use of tanks? ANS supportive role for the infantry', 'QSN What happened when Eisenhower was threatened with a court martial for his support for offensive tank tactics? ANS he relented']

From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–26 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. He then served as a battalion commander at Fort Benning, Georgia, until 1927. 5

['QSN What role did Eisenhower serve under Fox Conner? ANS executive officer', 'QSN Where did Eisenhower serve under Conner? ANS Panama Canal Zone', 'QSN What notable military treatise was authored by von Clausewitz? ANS On War', 'QSN During what period did Eisenhower attend the Command and General Staff College? ANS 1925–26', "QSN How many people were in Eisenhower's class at the Command and General Staff College? ANS 245"]

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career in the post-war army stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother Milton Eisenhower, then a journalist at the Agriculture Department, he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933. Major Dwight D. Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College (Washington, DC) in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). 5

['QSN Who was the head of the American Battle Monuments Commission during this period? ANS Pershing', 'QSN During the 1920s, for what federal department did Milton Eisenhower work? ANS Agriculture', 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower graduate from the Army War College? ANS 1928', 'QSN What was the office held by George Mosely? ANS Assistant Secretary of War', "QSN What was Eisenhower's rank in 1933? ANS Major"]

His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression. He then was posted as chief military aide to General MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. 4

['QSN What event made war planning difficult in this period? ANS Great Depression', 'QSN What position was held by General MacArthur at this point in time? ANS Army Chief of Staff', 'QSN What encampment was attacked in 1932 by soldiers including Eisenhower? ANS Bonus March', 'QSN What sort of people did the Bonus March consist of? ANS veterans']

Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, George Marshall, and General Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur, and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered a life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly, making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937 and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis. Also around this time, he was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City, but he declined the offer. 5

['QSN What rank was Eisenhower promoted to in 1936? ANS lieutenant colonel', 'QSN Who was president of the Philippines circa 1939? ANS Manuel L. Quezon', 'QSN What is the current name of the capital city that was under construction in the Philippines in 1939? ANS Quezon City', "QSN What license did Eisenhower receive in 1939? ANS pilot's", 'QSN How did Eisenhower respond to the offer to become a Philippine police chief? ANS declined']

Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in December 1939 and was assigned as a battalion commander and regimental executive officer of the 15th Infantry at Fort Lewis, Washington. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the 3rd Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers, he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command above a battalion and was far from being considered by many as a potential commander of major operations. 5

['QSN What unit did Eisenhower serve with upon his return to the United States? ANS 15th Infantry', 'QSN At what military installation was the 15th Infantry based? ANS Fort Lewis', 'QSN In the spring of 1941, who commanded IX Corps? ANS Kenyon Joyce', 'QSN In what city was the 3rd Army based in June of 1941? ANS San Antonio', 'QSN What event contributed to Eisenhower receiving a promotion to brigadier general? ANS Louisiana Maneuvers']

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. 5

['QSN To what body was Eisenhower assigned after Pearl Harbor was attacked? ANS General Staff in', 'QSN Who headed the WPD before Eisenhower? ANS Leonard T. Gerow', 'QSN What body replaced the War Plans Division? ANS Operations Division', "QSN What was Eisenhower's title in the Operations Division? ANS Assistant Chief of Staff", 'QSN Who was the Chief of Staff who promoted Eisenhower? ANS George C. Marshall']

At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, commanding general of the Army Air Forces, to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney. He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house on Coombe, Kingston upon Thames, and replaced Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. 5

['QSN As of May 1942, who commanded the Army Air Forces? ANS Henry H. Arnold', 'QSN To what city did Eisenhower travel to May 1942? ANS London', 'QSN What appointment did Eisenhower receive on June 23, 1942? ANS Commanding General, European Theater of Operations', 'QSN Who commanded the English theater in May 1942? ANS James E. Chaney', 'QSN To what rank was Eisenhower promoted on July 7, 1942? ANS lieutenant general']

In November 1942, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned underground within the Rock of Gibraltar. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. 4

['QSN What appointment did Eisenhower receive in November of 1942? ANS Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of the North African Theater of Operations', 'QSN What was the code name of the North African campaign? ANS Operation Torch', 'QSN At what location was the North African campaign planned? ANS Rock of Gibraltar', "QSN How many years before Eisenhower's command had a non-Briton commanded Gibraltar? ANS 200"]

French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign, and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia, and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices of state in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the French armed forces. The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none of them had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in the course of planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle. Eisenhower did not take action to prevent the arrest and extrajudicial execution of Bonnier de La Chapelle by associates of Darlan acting without authority from either Vichy or the Allies, considering it a criminal rather than a military matter. Eisenhower later appointed General Henri Giraud as High Commissioner, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief, and who had refused to postpone the execution. 5

['QSN What geographic area was the primary objective of Eisenhower? ANS Tunisia', 'QSN Who initially served as High Commissioner of North Africa? ANS François Darlan', 'QSN Who killed François Darlan? ANS Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle', "QSN Who served as High Commissioner of North Africa after Darlan's death? ANS Henri Giraud", 'QSN On what day did Darlan die? ANS December 24']

Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's move into the Kasserine Pass, Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by some interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall, commanding U.S. II Corps. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to become commander of NATOUSA. 5

["QSN What was Rommel's rank? ANS Generalfeldmarschall", 'QSN Who commanded II Corps before being removed by Eisenhower? ANS Lloyd Fredendall', "QSN Who commanded the UK's Eighth Army? ANS Bernard Montgomery", 'QSN When did Eisenhower receive authority over the British Eighth Army? ANS February 1943', 'QSN What did Eisenhower command after he commanded ETOUSA? ANS NATOUSA']

After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the highly successful invasion of Sicily. Once Mussolini, the Italian leader, had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional terms of surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country – making the job more difficult, by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1; nevertheless, the invasion of Italy was highly successful. 5

['QSN What did the Allies invade after they conquered North Africa? ANS Sicily', 'QSN What was the invasion of mainland Italy called? ANS Operation Avalanche', 'QSN What was the initial ratio of Axis to Allied divisions in Italy? ANS 2 to 1', 'QSN How many divisions did the Germans add to Italy? ANS 19', 'QSN Until he was deposed, who was the leader of Italy? ANS Mussolini']

In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. 5

['QSN Other than Eisenhower, who was considered for the appointment of Supreme Allied Commander in Europe? ANS Marshall', 'QSN What did SHAEF stand for? ANS Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force', 'QSN Who appointed Eisenhower as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe? ANS Roosevelt', 'QSN What was the Allied invasion of Normandy called? ANS Operation Overlord', 'QSN When did Operation Overlord take place? ANS June 1944']

Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert and sabotage operations against the Germans in advance of Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific. He also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, as he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified in shedding the yoke of the Germans, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate, and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. 5

['QSN Who refused to provide Eisenhower with landing craft? ANS Ernest J. King', "QSN What concern did Churchill have in regard to Eisenhower's pre-invasion bombing plan? ANS civilian casualties", 'QSN What did Patton do that first caused Eisenhower to reprimand him? ANS slapped a subordinate', 'QSN What were the French resistance to be used for in advance of the invasion of France? ANS covert and sabotage operations', 'QSN Who was the leader of French forces in this period? ANS de Gaulle']

The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. A month later, the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many prematurely considered that victory in Europe would come by summer's end—however the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all U.S. forces on the Western Front north of the Alps. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced on an individual level by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: 5

['QSN When did the Normandy invasion occur? ANS June 6, 1944', 'QSN How long after the Normandy invasion did the landings in Southern France occur? ANS month', 'QSN When did the war in Europe end? ANS May 8, 1945', 'QSN How many divisions involved in the Allied invasion of Europe did Eisenhower visit? ANS every', 'QSN After what possible event would the speech called one of the greatest in history have been delivered? ANS if the invasion failed']

Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy, and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley (12th U.S. Army Group) and Devers (Sixth U.S. Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical, though sometimes ineffective, latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944, and victory became a more distinct probability. 5

['QSN What unit did Montgomery command? ANS 21st Army Group', 'QSN What general commanded the 12th US Army Group? ANS Bradley', 'QSN What geographic portion of the front did the Sixth US Army Group operate on? ANS south', "QSN Who was the Sixth US Army Group's commander? ANS Devers", 'QSN What supply port was opened late in 1944? ANS Antwerp']

In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. 5

['QSN What European rank was equivalent to that of General of the Army? ANS Field Marshal', 'QSN On what date did Eisenhower receive his General of the Army appointment? ANS December 20, 1944', 'QSN Along with Montgomery, with whom did Eisenhower disagree on strategy? ANS Churchill', 'QSN What Soviet military leader was a counterpart of Eisenhower? ANS Zhukov', 'QSN What rank was held by de Gaulle? ANS General']

The Germans launched a surprise counter offensive, in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the eastern front with the Soviets and the western front with the Allies. The British wanted Berlin, but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin, and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down, but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a very large-scale bloody battle, and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. 5

['QSN When did the Battle of the Bulge begin? ANS December 1944', 'QSN What German city did the British wish to conquer? ANS Berlin', 'QSN Along with Roosevelt and Churchill, what political leader decided upon the division of Germany? ANS Stalin', "QSN What nation's military conquered Berlin? ANS Soviet", 'QSN What date saw the surrender of Nazi Germany? ANS May 7, 1945']

Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, based at the IG Farben Building in Frankfurt am Main. He had no responsibility for the other three zones, controlled by Britain, France and the Soviet Union, except for the city of Berlin, which was managed by the Four-Power Authorities through the Allied Kommandatura as the governing body. Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence of the atrocities in them for use in the Nuremberg Trials. He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the Geneva Convention. Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067, but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization. In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. 5

["QSN What was Eisenhower's title after Germany's surrender? ANS Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone", "QSN In what structure was Eisenhower's headquarters in the US Occupation Zone? ANS IG Farben Building", 'QSN In what city was the headquarters of the US Occupation Zone located? ANS Frankfurt am Main', 'QSN Aside from the US, what other countries had occupation zones in Germany? ANS Britain, France and the Soviet Union', 'QSN What agreement was not applicable to Disarmed Enemy Forces? ANS Geneva Convention']

In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, a slow job that was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the U.S. State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower was characterized by hopes for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration, he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as East–West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower gave up and agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. 5

['QSN Who was Chief of Staff of the Army before Eisenhower? ANS Marshall', 'QSN About how many soldiers demobilized after the war ended? ANS millions', "QSN What president ignored Eisenhower's recommendations in regard to atomic weapons? ANS Truman", "QSN What was Eisenhower's position on the use of nuclear weapons against Japan? ANS opposed", 'QSN What city did Eisenhower notably visit in 1945? ANS Warsaw']

In June 1943 a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become President of the United States after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, one author later wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of the Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945 Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election, and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. 5

['QSN When was it suggested to Eisenhower that he might one day become president? ANS June 1943', 'QSN Along with dogcatcher, what political job did Eisenhower specifically not want to be considered for? ANS Grand High Supreme King of the Universe', 'QSN What role did Eisenhower believe he could not fulfill if he was believed to want to become involved in politics? ANS Army Chief of Staff', 'QSN What general was considered a potential Republican presidential candidate in 1948? ANS MacArthur', 'QSN At what meeting did Truman tell Eisenhower that he would assist him in running for president? ANS Potsdam Conference']

As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run for president. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming Republican National Convention, Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president; Republican Thomas E. Dewey was considered the other probable winner, would presumably serve two terms, and Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would then be too old. 4

["QSN What state's delegates were considering supporting Eisenhower in 1948? ANS New Hampshire", 'QSN How old would Eisenhower be in 1956? ANS 66', 'QSN Why was it unlikely that Eisenhower would run for president in 1956? ANS too old', 'QSN Who was it assumed would win the election of 1948? ANS Thomas E. Dewey']

In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City. The assignment was described as not being a good fit in either direction. During that year Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published. Critics regarded it as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs, and it was a major financial success as well. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the U.S. Department of the Treasury that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he only had to pay capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000. 5

['QSN What position did Eisenhower occupy in 1948? ANS President of Columbia University', 'QSN Where is Columbia University located? ANS New York City', "QSN What was the title of Eisenhower's memoir? ANS Crusade in Europe", 'QSN What group of schools did Columbia University belong to? ANS Ivy League', 'QSN What body ruled the Eisenhower was not a professional writer? ANS Department of the Treasury']

Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan, and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". His biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed. 4

['QSN While Eisenhower was president of Columbia, what group did he also work with? ANS Council on Foreign Relations', 'QSN What was Blanche Wiesen Cook in relation to Eisenhower? ANS biographer', 'QSN Along with business and government, what leaders did Eisenhower see meeting at the Council on Foreign Relations? ANS professional', 'QSN What sort of analysis did Eisenhower first experience with the Council on Foreign Relations? ANS economic']

Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise U.S. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late 1950, building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association. 5

['QSN What position was held by James Forrestal? ANS Secretary of Defense', 'QSN What position did Eisenhower informally hold? ANS Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff', 'QSN After becoming sick, where did Eisenhower recover? ANS Augusta National Golf Club', "QSN What was the name of Columbia University's alumni association? ANS Columbia Associates", 'QSN When did Eisenhower vacation for two months outside New York? ANS July 1949']

The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen, including Leonard McCollum, the president of Continental Oil; Frank Abrams, the chairman of Standard Oil of New Jersey; Bob Kleberg, the president of the King Ranch; H. J. Porter, a Texas oil executive; Bob Woodruff, the president of the Coca-Cola Corporation; and Clarence Francis, the chairman of General Foods. 5

['QSN Aside from his university work, where did Eisenhower gain useful contacts? ANS American Assembly', 'QSN What Continental Oil leader was Eisenhower tied to? ANS Leonard McCollum', "QSN What was the political orientation of Columbia's teachers? ANS liberal", "QSN What state was Frank Abrams' oil company located in? ANS New Jersey", 'QSN From where did H.J. Porter hale? ANS Texas']

The trustees of Columbia University refused to accept Eisenhower's resignation in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an Army general on May 31, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. He held this position until January 20, 1953, when he became the President of the United States. 5

["QSN When was Eisenhower's resignation of Columbia turned down? ANS December 1950", 'QSN What role did Eisenhower fill after leaving Columbia? ANS Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization', 'QSN On what date did Eisenhower leave active duty in the military? ANS May 31, 1952', 'QSN What job did Eisenhower hold after his second tenure as president of Columbia? ANS President of the United States', 'QSN When did Eisenhower become President of the United States? ANS January 20, 1953']

President Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in 1951 pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democratic party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans. A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President. Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June 1952 he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated. In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard M. Nixon as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age. 5

['QSN Who was President of the United States prior to Eisenhower? ANS Truman', 'QSN Truman wanted Eisenhower to run for the presidency as a member of what party? ANS Democratic', 'QSN Who did the Republicans want to block with an Eisenhower candidacy in 1952? ANS Robert A. Taft', "QSN What was Taft's political office? ANS Senator", "QSN Who was Eisenhower's campaign manager in 1952? ANS Henry Cabot Lodge"]

In the general election, against the advice of his advisors, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democratic Party. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K1C2", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption. In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman. 4

['QSN In what part of the country, previously neglected by Republican presidential candidates, did Eisenhower campaign? ANS South', 'QSN Along with Korea and Communism, what issue did Eisenhower attack Truman on? ANS corruption', "QSN What was the strategy called that was used by Eisenhower's campaign? ANS K1C2", 'QSN How did Eisenhower claim Eastern Europe should be liberated? ANS peaceful means']

Two controversies during the campaign tested him and his staff, but did not affect the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance. Just two weeks prior to the election, Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war there. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home. 4

['QSN What was the home state of Joseph McCarthy? ANS Wisconsin', 'QSN Where did Eisenhower claim he would end the war? ANS Korea', 'QSN During the campaign, from where was it claimed Nixon had received money improperly? ANS a secret trust', 'QSN What topic did Eisenhower not discuss during the campaign? ANS NATO']

Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest man elected President since James Buchanan in 1856 (President Truman stood at 64 in 1948 as the incumbent president at the time of his election four years earlier). Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency (The other Presidents who did not have prior elected office were Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, William Howard Taft and Herbert Hoover). 5

['QSN In what century was Eisenhower born? ANS 19th', 'QSN Who was the oldest man to become President prior to Eisenhower? ANS James Buchanan', 'QSN What did Eisenhower have in common with presidents Taylor, Grant, Taft and Hoover? ANS did not have prior elected office', 'QSN How many times had Eisenhower been elected to office prior to becoming president? ANS never', 'QSN How old was Truman in 1948? ANS 64']

Due to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations. After selecting his budget director, Joseph M. Dodge, Eisenhower asked Herbert Brownell and Lucius Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, Oveta Culp Hobby. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber." The cabinet was notable for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War. 5

["QSN Who was Eisenhower's budget director? ANS Joseph M. Dodge", 'QSN Along with Lucius Clay, who advised Eisenhower on cabinet appointments? ANS Herbert Brownell', "QSN What woman was a member of Eisenhower's cabinet? ANS Oveta Culp Hobby", 'QSN Along with George Humphrey, what cabinet official did Eisenhower have a close relationship with? ANS John Foster Dulles', "QSN What quip was used to describe Eisenhower's cabinet? ANS Eight millionaires and a plumber"]

Prior to his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls. Eisenhower also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address, as well, was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy, as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations. 4

['QSN What war did Eisenhower want to end as president? ANS Korean', 'QSN What type of cabinet meeting did Eisenhower hold for the first time ever? ANS pre-inaugural', "QSN Policy in regard to what country was discussed at Eisenhower's first cabinet meeting? ANS Russia", "QSN What type of policy was the focus of Eisenhower's inaugural address? ANS foreign"]

Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism. A self-described "progressive conservative," he continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman. 5

['QSN How did Eisenhower describe his political views? ANS progressive conservative', 'QSN How many people were added to the Social Security rolls by Eisenhower? ANS ten million', 'QSN What New deal program did Eisenhower particularly support? ANS Social Security', 'QSN What cabinet agency did Eisenhower make Social Security a part of? ANS Department of Health, Education and Welfare', 'QSN What policy in regard to the military did Eisenhower see to completion? ANS integration']

As the 1954 congressional elections approached, and it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses, Eisenhower was among those blaming the Old Guard for the losses, and took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Eisenhower then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore." 4

['QSN What wing of the GOP was Eisenhower opposed to? ANS right', 'QSN In what year were the first federal elections after Eisenhower became president? ANS 1954', 'QSN What type of Republican did Eisenhower characterize himself as? ANS moderate, progressive', 'QSN Prior to the 1954 elections, who had majorities in Congress? ANS Republicans']

Initially Eisenhower planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions, he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955, he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again. Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party. In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations. 5

['QSN Upon election, how many terms did Eisenhower believe he would serve? ANS one', 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower have a heart attack? ANS 1955', 'QSN When did Eisenhower make an announcement stating that he would run for a second term? ANS February 1956', 'QSN Who did Eisenhower want as his 1956 running mate? ANS Robert B. Anderson', 'QSN Who did Eisenhower defeat in the 1956 presidential election? ANS Adlai Stevenson']

Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with encountering German autobahn limited-access road systems during the concluding stages of World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth. The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Eisenhower in June 1956. 5

["QSN What event led Eisenhower to want to improve highways in the US? ANS the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy", 'QSN What German transportation project influenced Eisenhower on highways? ANS autobahn', 'QSN When did Eisenhower sign the law to create the Interstate Highway System? ANS June 1956', 'QSN Along with military benefits, what did Eisenhower see as the benefit of the highway project? ANS economic growth', 'QSN Why did Congress hold up the highway bill? ANS issuance of bonds to finance the project']

In 1953, the Republican Party's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a practical moot point. At this time Eisenhower gave his Chance for Peace speech in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency. 5

['QSN What agreements did the GOP Old Guard want Eisenhower to abandon? ANS Yalta', 'QSN Why did the Old Guard say Eisenhower should void the Yalta Agreements? ANS beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch', 'QSN What world leader died in March of 1953? ANS Joseph Stalin', 'QSN What speech did Eisenhower give after Stalin died? ANS Chance for Peace', 'QSN Who called the Chance for Peace speech the best one Eisenhower gave as president? ANS Stephen Ambrose']

The U.N. speech was well received but the Soviets never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget, a policy formulated as a result of Project Solarium and expressed in NSC 162/2. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953. 4

['QSN What did Eisenhower reduce as he increased nuclear weapons stockpiles? ANS conventional forces', 'QSN What was the policy of increasing nuclear weapons while decreasing conventional forces called? ANS New Look', 'QSN When did Eisenhower begin to cut the defense budget? ANS 1953', 'QSN Along with NSC 162/2, what influenced the development of the New Look policy? ANS Project Solarium']

In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France. At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand. 5

['QSN Why did nuclear arms negotiations with Russia fail prior to 1955? ANS refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections', 'QSN In what city did the US and Russia conduct nuclear talks in 1955? ANS London', 'QSN Who refused to permit nuclear weapons inspections in the wake of the 1955 talks? ANS Eisenhower', 'QSN In May of 1955, a treaty was signed giving independence to what country? ANS Austria', 'QSN What was the plan Eisenhower presented at the Geneva Conference called? ANS Open Skies']

In 1954, Eisenhower articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America. He believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico. That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars". As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore West Germany, as a full NATO partner. 5

['QSN What country did Eisenhower believe communists would conquer if they took over Guatemala? ANS Mexico', 'QSN The domino theory was applied to Central America and what other region? ANS Southeast Asia', "QSN In what year was Eisenhower's EDC rejected? ANS 1954", 'QSN What country was made a full partner in NATO as the result of the failure of EDC? ANS West Germany', 'QSN According to Eisenhower, all of Southeast Asia would become communist if the communist insurgency won in what country? ANS Vietnam']

With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased under the pretense of resisting the spread of communism in poorer countries; the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in Operation Ajax, of Guatemala through Operation Pbsuccess, and possibly the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). In 1954 Eisenhower wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty Lockheed U-2's at a cost of $35 million. The Eisenhower administration also planned the Bay of Pigs Invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, which John F. Kennedy was left to carry out." 5

['QSN Who was the director of the CIA? ANS Dulles', 'QSN What was the code name of the overthrow of the Iranian government? ANS Operation Ajax', 'QSN What CIA operation toppled the Guatemalan government? ANS Pbsuccess', 'QSN What company made the U-2? ANS Lockheed', 'QSN Under what president did the Bay of Pigs Invasion take place? ANS John F. Kennedy']

Over New York City in 1953, Eastern Airlines Flight 8610, a commercial flight, had a near miss with Air Force Flight 8610, a Lockheed C-121 Constellation known as Columbine II, while the latter was carrying President Eisenhower. This prompted the adoption of the unique call sign Air Force One, to be used whenever the president is on board any US Air Force aircraft. Columbine II is the only presidential aircraft to have ever been sold to the public and is the only remaining presidential aircraft left unrestored and not on public display. 5

['QSN What make and model aircraft was Air Force Flight 8610? ANS Lockheed C-121 Constellation', 'QSN What aircraft had an incident with Air Force Flight 8610? ANS Eastern Airlines Flight 8610', 'QSN What call sign does an Air Force aircraft have when a president is traveling on it? ANS Air Force One', 'QSN What was the name of the Lockheed C-121 Constellation that carried Eisenhower? ANS Columbine II', 'QSN In what year was Eisenhower involved in an incident while flying? ANS 1953']

On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, created NASA as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists. 5

['QSN What caused Eisenhower to kickstart the US space program? ANS Soviet launch of Sputnik', 'QSN What was the legal status of the U-2 flyovers? ANS illegal', 'QSN Along with the U-2 flyovers, what did Eisenhower try to legitimize with the Open Skies Policy? ANS Project Genetrix', 'QSN What was the name of the civilian space agency created by Eisenhower? ANS NASA', 'QSN With whom did Eisenhower try to improve relations? ANS American scientists']

In late 1952 Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice was not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese. The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against China. With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue. 5

['QSN Where did the Chinese begin to increase forces after Eisenhower entered the White House? ANS Kaesong sanctuary', 'QSN What did Eisenhower threaten to do if there was no armistice in Korea? ANS use nuclear force', 'QSN Along with the Joint Chiefs and SAC, what body was involved with formulating plans for nuclear war with China? ANS National Security Council', 'QSN What event led to decreased Russian support for China? ANS death of Stalin', 'QSN What was SAC an abbreviation of? ANS Strategic Air Command']

In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today, with American soldiers stationed there to guarantee it. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable. 5

['QSN The boundary line of what year formed the 1953 armistice line? ANS 1950', 'QSN In what month in 1953 did the armistice come into being? ANS July', 'QSN Who was the President of South Korea at the time of the armistice? ANS Syngman Rhee', 'QSN What American official notably opposed the armistice? ANS Secretary Dulles', "QSN Who described the armistice as Eisenhower's greatest presidential accomplishment? ANS Ambrose"]

In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt. Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, which were published in 1965. 5

['QSN Along with the British and Israelis, what forces invaded Egypt in 1956? ANS French', 'QSN What was the combined Israeli-British-French invasion in response to? ANS Suez Crisis', 'QSN Who was the leader of Egypt at the time of the Suez Crisis? ANS Gamal Abdel Nasser', 'QSN Who invaded Hungary in 1956? ANS Soviet', "QSN What year saw the publication of Eisenhower's memoirs? ANS 1965"]

Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and assess the French forces there. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions." 5

['QSN What war was being fought by France in 1953? ANS First Indochina War', "QSN What was John W. O'Daniel's nickname? ANS Iron Mike", 'QSN Who convinced Eisenhower not to intervene in Vietnam? ANS Matthew Ridgway', 'QSN Who was providing supplies to the Vietnamese communists fighting against France? ANS China', 'QSN How large of a military deployment did Ridgway say would be necessary in Vietnam? ANS massive']

Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval. When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS. 5

['QSN Aside from bombers, what aid did Eisenhower provide to the French? ANS non-combat personnel', 'QSN What did American bombers drop on Vietnam? ANS napalm', 'QSN When did Dien Bien Phu fall to the communists? ANS May 1954', 'QSN Along with the Vice President and NCS head, who urged Eisenhower to intervene after the fall of Dien Bien Phu? ANS Chairman of the Joint Chiefs', 'QSN What arguably impossible conditions did Eisenhower set for further intervention on behalf of the French? ANS allied participation and congressional approval']

Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam. Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict. 5

['QSN What is SEATO? ANS Southeast Asia Treaty Organization', 'QSN Along with the United States, the United Kingdom and France, who formed SEATO? ANS New Zealand and Australia', 'QSN What was the purpose of SEATO? ANS defense of Vietnam against communism', 'QSN What group did France split Vietnam with? ANS Communists', 'QSN Who met in peace talks with France at Geneva? ANS Chinese']

In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term South Vietnam came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign. In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance. 5

['QSN What was South Vietnam called in 1955? ANS Free Vietnam', 'QSN Who was the first ambassador to South Vietnam? ANS J. Lawton Collins', 'QSN When did Eisenhower first send military advisers to South Vietnam? ANS February 1955', 'QSN Who was the leader of South Vietnam in 1954? ANS Ngo Dinh Diem', 'QSN Along with Free Vietnam, what was another term for South Vietnam? ANS Republic of Vietnam']

In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men. This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall. In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives. 5

['QSN How many days did the President of South Vietnam visit the US for in 1957? ANS ten', 'QSN Where was a parade held for the President of South Vietnam? ANS New York City', 'QSN How many soldiers did Eisenhower ultimately send to Vietnam? ANS 900', 'QSN Who was Secretary of State in 1957? ANS John Foster Dulles', 'QSN According to Dulles, why was Diem made president of Vietnam? ANS there were no better alternatives']

On May 1, 1960, a U.S. one-man U-2 spy plane was reportedly shot down at high altitude over Soviet Union airspace. The flight was made to gain photo intelligence before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit conference, which had been scheduled in Paris, 15 days later. Captain Francis Gary Powers had bailed out of his aircraft and was captured after parachuting down onto Russian soil. Four days after Powers disappeared, the Eisenhower Administration had NASA issue a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. It speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, and falsely claimed that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties." 4

['QSN When was a U-2 downed over the Soviet Union? ANS May 1, 1960', 'QSN What was the downed U-2 gathering intelligence in advance of? ANS East–West summit conference', 'QSN What was the rank of the pilot of the downed U-2? ANS Captain', 'QSN Where was the East-West summit to have taken place? ANS Paris']

Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that a "spy-plane" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey. The Soviets put Captain Powers on trial and displayed parts of the U-2, which had been recovered almost fully intact. 5

['QSN What did the Eisenhower administration refer to the downed U-2 as? ANS weather research aircraft', 'QSN Where did the Eisenhower administration say that the downed U-2 was intended to be flying? ANS Turkey', 'QSN According to the cover story, what did the "weather research" pilot have trouble with? ANS oxygen equipment', 'QSN What happened to Powers in the Soviet Union? ANS trial', 'QSN What did Khrushchev refer to the U-2 as? ANS spy-plane']

The 1960 Four Power Paris Summit between President Dwight Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle collapsed because of the incident. Eisenhower refused to accede to Khrushchev's demands that he apologize. Therefore, Khrushchev would not take part in the summit. Up until this event, Eisenhower felt he had been making progress towards better relations with the Soviet Union. Nuclear arms reduction and Berlin were to have been discussed at the summit. Eisenhower stated it had all been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business". 5

['QSN Along with Eisenhower, Macmillan and de Gaulle, what leader attended the Four Powers Paris Summit? ANS Nikita Khrushchev', 'QSN What did Khrushchev demand that Eisenhower do? ANS apologize', 'QSN Along with reducing nuclear weapons, what was to have been the topic of conversation at the Four Power Paris Summit? ANS Berlin', 'QSN What did Eisenhower blame for ruining the summit? ANS stupid U-2 business', 'QSN In what year was the Four Power Paris Summit intended to take place? ANS 1960']

While President Truman had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in 1948, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces". When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended ..., I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds". 5

['QSN Which president initially began to desegregate the US military? ANS Truman', 'QSN When did the desegregation of the United States Armed Forces begin? ANS 1948', 'QSN When did Eisenhower deliver his first State of the Union? ANS February 1953', 'QSN What control did Eisenhower use to push through desegregation? ANS military spending', 'QSN In what geographical area did Eisenhower promise to end desegregation in his State of the Union address? ANS District of Columbia']

Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and of 1960 and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875. 5

['QSN Who did Eisenhower tell DC officials to integrate? ANS school children', 'QSN What was the first civil rights act proposed to Congress by Eisenhower? ANS Civil Rights Act of 1957', 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower propose his second civil rights act? ANS 1960', 'QSN What sort of commission did the Civil Rights Act of 1957 establish? ANS Civil Rights Commission', 'QSN Under the Civil Rights Act of 1957, what federal department contained a civil rights office? ANS Justice']

In 1957, the state of Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the Brown decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the 101st Airborne Division. They escorted and protected nine black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school, for the first time since the Reconstruction Era. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock". 5

['QSN What state refused to integrate its schools in 1957? ANS Arkansas', 'QSN What military unit was sent from outside of Arkansas to oversee desegregation? ANS 101st Airborne Division', 'QSN What Arkansas militia unit did Eisenhower federalize in 1957? ANS Arkansas National Guard', 'QSN Who was the governor of Arkansas in 1957? ANS Orval Faubus', 'QSN How many black students were escorted by the 101st Airborne to Little Rock Central High School? ANS nine']

This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners. In late 1953 McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 Senate elections. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists. Nevertheless, he refused. 3

['QSN In what year did Joseph McCarthy declare that the federal government was employing communists? ANS 1953', "QSN What did Eisenhower do when he was encouraged to respond to McCarthy's accusations? ANS he refused", 'QSN Why did Eisenhower ignore McCarthy? ANS facilitate relations with Congress']

Among Ike's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) into McCarthy's witch hunt for communists, which would interfere with, and perhaps delay, the AEC's important work on H-bombs. The administration had discovered through its own investigations that one of the leading scientists on the AEC, J. Robert Oppenheimer, had urged that the H-bomb work be delayed. Eisenhower removed him from the agency and revoked his security clearance, though he knew this would create fertile ground for McCarthy. 4

["QSN What organization did Eisenhower want to keep from being one of McCarthy's targets? ANS Atomic Energy Commission", 'QSN What was the AEC working on at this time? ANS H-bombs', 'QSN What AEC scientists counseled delaying the development of the hydrogen bomb? ANS J. Robert Oppenheimer', 'QSN What did Eisenhower do to Oppenheimer after he said that the hydrogen bomb should be delayed? ANS removed him from the agency and revoked his security clearance']

In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters ... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as executive privilege. Ike's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters, and contributed to his ultimate downfall. 3

['QSN What did McCarthy threaten to do in May of 1955? ANS issue subpoenas to White House personnel', "QSN What tradition was fostered by Eisenhower's reaction to McCarthy's subpoena threats? ANS executive privilege", 'QSN Eisenhower denied McCarthy access to the personnel of what branch of the federal government? ANS Executive']

The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election. Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (later U.S. president) in the Senate and Speaker Sam Rayburn in the House, both from Texas. Joe Martin, the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall, for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance." 5

['QSN Who won a Senate majority in 1954? ANS Democrats', 'QSN After the 1954 election, who was the Speaker of the House? ANS Sam Rayburn', 'QSN Who was made Senate Majority Leader after the 1954 election? ANS Lyndon B. Johnson', 'QSN What state were Johnson and Rayburn from? ANS Texas', 'QSN Who was Speaker of the House between 1953 and 1955? ANS Joe Martin']

Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking." 3

['QSN What did Martin think Eisenhower did too much of in his relations with Congress? ANS worked too much through subordinates', "QSN As a result of Eisenhower's actions toward Congress, what did Martin think Congress often gave him? ANS reverse of what he has desired", 'QSN Who did Martin think Eisenhower should have made better use of? ANS Republicans of consequence']

Whittaker was unsuited for the role and soon retired. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism. In selecting a Chief Justice, Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court ... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court". In the next few years Warren led the Court in a series of liberal decisions that revolutionized the role of the Court. 5

["QSN What were Harlan and Stewart's party affiliations? ANS Republicans", 'QSN What party did Brennan belong to? ANS Democrat', 'QSN Who did Eisenhower nominate for Chief Justice? ANS Warren', 'QSN What sort of decisions did Warren favor on the Supreme Court? ANS liberal', 'QSN Along with liberals, who was Eisenhower trying to appeal to with the Warren pick? ANS law-and-order conservatives']

Eisenhower began smoking cigarettes at West Point, often two or three packs a day. Eisenhower stated that he "gave [himself] an order" to stop cold turkey in March 1949 while at Columbia. He was probably the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack that required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the President. He was treated by Dr. Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the President's progress. Instead of eliminating him as a candidate for a second term as President, his physician recommended a second term as essential to his recovery. 5

['QSN Where did Eisenhower pick up the habit of smoking? ANS West Point', 'QSN How many cigarettes did Eisenhower smoke daily at West Point? ANS two or three packs', 'QSN When did Eisenhower stop smoking completely? ANS March 1949', "QSN Who was Eisenhower's employer when he gave up smoking? ANS Columbia", 'QSN Who was the cardiologist who treated Eisenhower after his heart attack? ANS Paul Dudley White']

As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which was in turn the cause of a mild stroke on November 25, 1957. This incident occurred during a cabinet meeting when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to speak or move his right hand. The stroke had caused an aphasia. The president also suffered from Crohn's disease, chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. To treat the intestinal block, surgeons bypassed about ten inches of his small intestine. His scheduled meeting with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was postponed so he could recover from surgery at his farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis. Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his dietary habits, but he still indulged in alcohol. During a visit to England he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at Chequers on the next day his doctor General Howard Snyder recalled Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks ... three or four wines with the dinner". 5

["QSN What caused Eisenhower's stroke of 1957? ANS left ventricular aneurysm", 'QSN Where was Eisenhower when he suffered a stroke in 1957? ANS cabinet meeting', "QSN What couldn't Eisenhower move as a result of his stroke? ANS right hand", "QSN What is Crohn's disease? ANS chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine", 'QSN Why did Eisenhower need surgery on June 9, 1956? ANS bowel obstruction']

The last three years of Eisenhower's second term in office were ones of relatively good health. Eventually after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks. A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs. In August 1966 he began to show symptoms of cholecystitis, for which he underwent surgery on December 12, 1966, when his gallbladder was removed, containing 16 gallstones. After Eisenhower's death in 1969 (see below), an autopsy unexpectedly revealed an adrenal pheochromocytoma, a benign adrenaline-secreting tumor that may have made the President more vulnerable to heart disease. Eisenhower suffered seven heart attacks in total from 1955 until his death. 5

['QSN What August 1965 event caused Eisenhower to drop out of public life? ANS heart attack', 'QSN For what ailment did Eisenhower receive surgery in 1966? ANS cholecystitis', 'QSN What did Eisenhower have removed via surgery on December 12, 1966? ANS gallbladder', 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower die? ANS 1969', 'QSN How many heart attacks did Eisenhower have between 1955 and 1969? ANS seven']

In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat John F. Kennedy. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy." He actively campaigned for Nixon in the final days, although he may have done Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest president in history at that time (then 70), was succeeded by the youngest elected president, as Kennedy was 43. 5

['QSN Who did Eisenhower endorse for president in 1960? ANS Richard Nixon', 'QSN Who was the Democratic candidate for president in 1960? ANS John F. Kennedy', 'QSN How old was Eisenhower in 1960? ANS 70', 'QSN Who was the youngest person elected to the United States presidency? ANS Kennedy', 'QSN Who won the US presidential election of 1960? ANS Kennedy']

On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex." 5

['QSN On what date did Eisenhower deliver his farewell speech? ANS January 17, 1961', 'QSN In his farewell speech, what complex did Eisenhower warn the American people of? ANS military–industrial', 'QSN What war did Eisenhower talk about in his Address to the Nation? ANS Cold', 'QSN What term did Eisenhower use to describe the character of communism? ANS atheistic', 'QSN From where did Eisenhower deliver his farewell speech? ANS Oval Office']

Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, only 70 miles from his ancestral home in Elizabethville, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. In 1967 the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the National Park Service. In retirement, the former president did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican National Convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg. However, his endorsement came somewhat reluctantly because Goldwater had attacked the former president as "a dime-store New Dealer". 5

['QSN What town did Eisenhower retire to after his presidency? ANS Gettysburg', 'QSN What Pennsylvania county did Eisenhower grow up in? ANS Dauphin', 'QSN Who did Eisenhower donate his farm to in 1967? ANS National Park Service', 'QSN What did Barry Goldwater call Eisenhower? ANS dime-store New Dealer', 'QSN Who was the Republican presidential candidate in 1964? ANS Barry Goldwater']

On the morning of March 28, 1969, at the age of 78, Eisenhower died in Washington, D.C. of congestive heart failure at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. The following day his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours. On March 30, his body was brought by caisson to the United States Capitol, where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the National Cathedral, where he was given an Episcopal Church funeral service. 5

['QSN How old was Eisenhower when he died? ANS 78', 'QSN At what facility did Eisenhower die? ANS Walter Reed Army Medical Center', "QSN What was Eisenhower's cause of death? ANS congestive heart failure", "QSN What was Eisenhower's date of death? ANS March 28, 1969", 'QSN What Christian denomination did Eisenhower belong to? ANS Episcopal']

That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to Abilene, Kansas, the last time a funeral train has been used as part of funeral proceedings of an American president. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library. The president's body was buried as a General of the Army. The family used an $80 standard soldier's casket, and dressed Eisenhower's body in his famous short green jacket. His only medals worn were: the Army Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Legion of Merit. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921. His wife Mamie was buried next to him after her death in 1979. 5

["QSN When did Eisenhower's funeral train arrive in Abilene, Kansas? ANS April 2", "QSN What was the cost of Eisenhower's casket? ANS $80", 'QSN At what location was Eisenhower buried? ANS Eisenhower Presidential Library', 'QSN What color jacket was Eisenhower buried in? ANS green', 'QSN When did Mamie Eisenhower die? ANS 1979']

In the immediate years after Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined. He was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president compared to his vigorous young successor. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment, for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism. 5

['QSN In popular memory, what sport was Eisenhower known for playing? ANS golf', 'QSN What did critics feel that Eisenhower should have opposed in public? ANS McCarthyism', 'QSN Where was Central High school located? ANS Little Rock', 'QSN How did critics characterize Kennedy in comparison to Eisenhower? ANS vigorous young successor', 'QSN What nation was considered the leader in the nuclear arms race? ANS Soviet Union']

Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or "gatekeeper", sometimes described as the President's Private Secretary, sometimes with no official title at all. Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of White House Chief of Staff – an idea he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after Lyndon Johnson has also appointed staff to this position. Initially, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter tried to operate without a chief of staff, but each eventually appointed one. 4

['QSN From where did Eisenhower get the idea of a White House Chief of Staff? ANS United States Army', 'QSN Who was the last president not to appoint a Chief of Staff? ANS Lyndon Johnson', "QSN Along with Ford, what president initially didn't appoint a Chief of Staff but later did? ANS Jimmy Carter", "QSN What 19th century informal political office did the modern role of White House Chief of Staff correspond to? ANS President's Private Secretary"]

The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the Bureau of the Mint through the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia. The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960. A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858. Each of the designs incorporates the text "with appreciation" or "with personal and official gratitude" accompanied with Eisenhower's initials "D.D.E." or facsimile signature. The design also incorporates location, date, and/or significant event. Prior to the end of his second term as President, 1,451 medals were turned-in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed. The Eisenhower appreciation medals are part of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medal Series. 5

['QSN How many appreciation medals were minted? ANS 9,858', 'QSN In what city were the appreciation medals minted? ANS Philadelphia', 'QSN During what period were the appreciation medals minted? ANS September 1958 through October 1960', "QSN What were Eisenhower's initials? ANS D.D.E.", 'QSN How many appreciation medals were destroyed by the Bureau of the Mint? ANS 1,451']

The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the 'Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways' in his honor. It was inspired in part by Eisenhower's own Army experiences in World War II, where he recognized the advantages of the autobahn systems in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Commemorative signs reading "Eisenhower Interstate System" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent 5-star rank insignia were introduced in 1993 and are currently displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) near Chicago and the Eisenhower Tunnel on Interstate 70 west of Denver. 5

['QSN What is the formal name of the Interstate Highway System? ANS Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways', 'QSN Along with Germany and Switzerland, what country contained an autobahn during the Second World War? ANS Austria', 'QSN What is another name for Eisenhower Expressway? ANS Interstate 290', 'QSN When were "Eisenhower Interstate System" signs first posted along highways? ANS 1993', 'QSN What major city is Interstate 290 close to? ANS Chicago']

A loblolly pine, known as the "Eisenhower Pine", was located on Augusta's 17th hole, approximately 210 yards (192 m) from the Masters tee. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, an Augusta National member, hit the tree so many times that, at a 1956 club meeting, he proposed that it be cut down. Not wanting to offend the president, the club's chairman, Clifford Roberts, immediately adjourned the meeting rather than reject the request. The tree was removed in February 2014 after an ice storm caused it significant damage. 5

['QSN At what Augusta hole was the Eisenhower Pine located? ANS 17th', "QSN How many meters away from the Masters tee on Augusta's 17th was the Eisenhower Pine? ANS 192", 'QSN What did Eisenhower want to be done to the Eisenhower Pine? ANS cut down', 'QSN What damaged the Eisenhower Pine in February 2014? ANS ice storm', 'QSN In what year did Eisenhower propose that the pine tree named after him be removed? ANS 1956']

The Bronx /ˈbrɒŋks/ is the northernmost of the five boroughs (counties) of New York City in the state of New York, located south of Westchester County. Many bridges and tunnels link the Bronx to the island and borough of Manhattan to the west over and under the narrow Harlem River, as well as three longer bridges south over the East River to the borough of Queens. Of the five boroughs, the Bronx is the only one on the U.S. mainland and, with a land area of 42 square miles (109 km2) and a population of 1,438,159 in 2014, has the fourth largest land area, the fourth highest population, and the third-highest population density. 5

['QSN How many boroughs are in NYC? ANS five', 'QSN Where is the Bronx positioned among NYC boroughs? ANS northernmost', "QSN What is the Bronx's population? ANS 1,438,159", 'QSN How large is the Bronx? ANS 42 square miles (109 km2)', "QSN What is unique about the Bronx's location? ANS Of the five boroughs, the Bronx is the only one on the U.S. mainland"]

The Bronx is named after Jonas Bronck who created the first settlement as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639. The native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Bronx received many immigrant groups as it was transformed into an urban community, first from various European countries (particularly Ireland, Germany and Italy) and later from the Caribbean region (particularly Puerto Rico, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic), as well as African American migrants from the American South. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. 5

['QSN Who is the Bronx named for? ANS Jonas Bronck', 'QSN What did Bronck do? ANS created the first settlement as part of the New Netherland colony', 'QSN When did Bronck settle in the New York area? ANS 1639', 'QSN What native tribe lived in the New York area? ANS Lenape', 'QSN What types of music the Bronx famous for? ANS Latin music and hip hop']

The Bronx contains one of the five poorest Congressional Districts in the United States, the 15th, but its wide diversity also includes affluent, upper-income and middle-income neighborhoods such as Riverdale, Fieldston, Spuyten Duyvil, Schuylerville, Pelham Bay, Pelham Gardens, Morris Park and Country Club. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a sharp decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s and the 1970s, culminating in a wave of arson. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace in the 1990s into today. 4

['QSN How poor is part of the Bronx? ANS one of the five poorest Congressional Districts in the United States', 'QSN What neighborhoods of the Bronx are more affluent? ANS Riverdale, Fieldston, Spuyten Duyvil, Schuylerville, Pelham Bay, Pelham Gardens, Morris Park and Country Club', 'QSN When did the South Bronx lose quality of life? ANS the late 1960s and the 1970s', 'QSN What crime problem happened in the Bronx in the 70s? ANS arson']

Jonas Bronck (c. 1600–43) was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. He became the first recorded European settler in the area now known as the Bronx. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland immediately north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem (on Manhattan island), and bought additional tracts from the local tribes. He eventually accumulated 500 acres (about 2 square km, or 3/4 of a square mile) between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which became known as Bronck's River, or The Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Bronck's Land. The American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Bronck's son or his younger brother. 5

['QSN When was Jonas Bronck born? ANS 1600', 'QSN When did Bronck reach the New York area? ANS spring of 1639', 'QSN Where did Bronck emigrate from? ANS Småland, Sweden', 'QSN What entity did Bronck get his land from? ANS the Dutch West India Company', 'QSN How much land did Bronck eventually own? ANS 500 acres']

The Bronx is referred to, both legally and colloquially, with a definite article, as the Bronx. (The County of Bronx, unlike the coextensive Borough of the Bronx, does not place the immediately before Bronx in formal references, nor does the United States Postal Service in its database of Bronx addresses.) The name for this region, apparently after the Bronx River, first appeared in the Annexed District of the Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County and was continued in the Borough of the Bronx, which included a larger annexation from Westchester County in 1898. The use of the definite article is attributed to the style of referring to rivers. Another explanation for the use of the definite article in the borough's name is that the original form of the name was a possessive or collective one referring to the family, as in visiting The Broncks, The Bronck's or The Broncks'. 5

["QSN What is the Bronx's county name? ANS The County of Bronx", "QSN What is the Bronx's borough name? ANS Borough of the Bronx", 'QSN When was the Bronx created? ANS 1874', 'QSN When was the Bronx added to? ANS 1898', 'QSN What county was the Bronx split off from? ANS Westchester']

The development of the Bronx is directly connected to its strategic location between New England and New York (Manhattan). Control over the bridges across the Harlem River plagued the period of British colonial rule. Kingsbridge, built in 1693 where Broadway reached the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, was a possession of Frederick Philipse, lord of Philipse Manor. The tolls were resented by local farmers on both sides of the creek. In 1759, the farmers led by Jacobus Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer built a "free bridge" across the Harlem River which led to the abandonment of tolls altogether. 5

['QSN When did farmers build a bridge over the Harlem River? ANS 1759', 'QSN Why did farmers build a bridge over the Harlem River? ANS tolls were resented', "QSN What strategic advantage did the Bronx's location have? ANS between New England and New York", 'QSN When was Kingsbridge built? ANS 1693', 'QSN Who owned Kingsbridge? ANS Frederick Philipse']

The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of Westchester County, one of the 12 original counties of the English Province of New York. The present Bronx County was contained in the town of Westchester and parts of the towns of Yonkers, Eastchester, and Pelham. In 1846, a new town, West Farms, was created by division of Westchester; in turn, in 1855, the town of Morrisania was created from West Farms. In 1873, the town of Kingsbridge (roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale, and Woodlawn) was established within the former borders of Yonkers. 5

['QSN How many counties did New York originally have? ANS 12', 'QSN Parts of which towns became part of the Bronx? ANS Yonkers, Eastchester, and Pelham', 'QSN When was West Farms created? ANS 1846', 'QSN When was Morrisania created? ANS 1855', 'QSN When was the town of Kingsbridge created? ANS 1873']